Reference Only

Management of the European Eel

Edited by

CHRISTOPHER MORIARTy1 AND WILLEM DEKKER2

'Marine Institute, Fisheries Research Centre, Dublin 15, Ireland

2 RIV O-DLO, PO Box 68, 1970 AB IJmuiden, The Netherlands

~n<~ll"yJt'"

Second report of

EC Concerted Action AIR A94-1939

Enhancement of the European eel fishery and conservation of the species

 CONTENTS

o. Executive summary 1

1. Introduction 5

2. European overview of the country reports 7

3. Future management 17

4. Monitoring and research 28

5. Management plan 35

References 40

Annex 1. Country reports 45

Sweden 46

Denmark 53

Germany 57

Ireland (Northern Ireland) 60

Ireland (Repuhlic) 64

Great Britain 69

Netherlands 73

France 77

Portngal 84

Spain 87

Italy 91

Annex 2. Habitat, stock and yield (actual and potential) and estimated Escapement of exploited silver eel 101

Annex 3. Population parameters in the literature 104

Annex 4. Observations on the glass eel fishery in 1997 108

Annex 5. Names and addresses of participants 110

'::,'.':::v" '" mT;piY

C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

O. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

0.1 Goal
The goal of AIR Concerted Action A94-1939 Enhancement of the European eel fishery and conservation of the
species is to develop a framework for the management of the European eel recognising its status as an international
marine species with significant stocks in inland waters. The elements of the framework are:

• Assessment of current stocks

Protection, rational exploitation and conservation of these stocks and
Establislunent of a permanent monitoring system.

0.2 Background
Concern expressed by fishermen, fish culturists and scientists alike on the decline in recruitment and fishery yields of
the eel led to the establislunent of a working group, EC Concerted Action AIR A94-1939, to pursue a project entitled
Enhancement of the European eel fishery and conservation of the species. Scientists from ten countries have
contributed to the current report and its predecessor, published in 1996. The reports present an account of the eel
fishery tougher with scientific data of significance in control of the stocks and make recommendations for future
management.

The European eel, Anguilla anguilla, is found and exploited in fresh, brackish and coastal waters in almost all of
Europe (as well as in northern and western Africa). It reproduces in the open Atlantic Ocean. Therefore, it qualifies as
a highly migratory marine species. The life cycle has still not heen completely resolved, but all current evidence
supports the view that recruiting eel to continental waters originate from a single spawning stock in the Atlantic
Ocean, far outside the reaches of management responsibilities of the governments on the European continent.

On the continent, eel are

distributed over virtually all ..,""
water bodies, including rivers,
still waters, estuaries and
coastal areas. The continental
distribution area is estimated
at ca. 90,000 km' and the
total production amounts to
30,000 t at 180 M ECU (Plus
360 M ECU added value). An
estimated 25,000 people in
rural areas receive an income
from eel fishing.

Fisheries for eel are found

throughout the entire
distribution area including
large parts of Easteru Europe
where young eel have heen
stocked. The target of the
fisheries varies from glass eel
freshly recruited from the
ocean to female silver eel of
20 years old or more on their way back to the ocean. Nowhere is the eel fishing industry made up of units of a size
appreciable at conventional international management levels. The fisheries are generally small-sized and scattered
throughout Europe and must be largely considered artisanal.

I
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C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997

The processing and trade industries are organised in companies of larger size and operate on international scales,
Processing occurs both on local and centralised, regional scale, but trade is mostly confined to the continent, An
exception is the newly recruited glass eel, which in recent years has been dispatched to eastern Asia to an extent which
has given rise to serious concern as to the future viability of the eel industry as a whole within Europe.
Aquaculture takes place in southern and western Europe and ranges from extensive outdoor culture (Italy) to
technically highly sophisticated indoor culture systems (mostly central and northern Europe). Total production
amounts to 7,600 t. Whatever the system used, all aquaculture is dependent on wild-caught young eel, because
attempts to induce artificial reproduction have failed at the young larval stage. The intensive aquaculture industry in
eastern Asia (150,000 t production) is also based on wild-caught eel. Because of the shortage of young Japanese eel,
substantial quantities of European glass eel are being purchased on the European market at excessive prices.
Increasingly, the European users of the glass eel are out-competed.
Management, monitoring and fundamental research have been carried out at the national level, almost without co-
ordination between the individual countries, as if we are dealing with local stocks. This is demonstrably not true and
the need for international management has recently become apparent from continent-wide declines in recruitment,
falling catches in large parts of the continent and shortage of seed material for stocking.
0.3 Comparison of eel with other fish species
There are fundamental differences in biology and our knowledge base between the eel and almost all other fish species
to which international management systems are applied.
The most significant of these differences is that the full life cycle of the European eel has not yet been elucidated. In
particular, little is known of what happens between maturing (silver) eel emigrating from freshwater and the
subsequent return of glass eel to the coast. The location of the spawning grounds is only surmised from the appearance
of larvae (leptocephali) in the plankton, and the spawning biology in the wild is completely unknown. Available
genetic evidence supports the established view that there is a single spawning stock which breeds in the ocean, but this
has never been observed.
Currently, full life cycle international management approaches are applied to other highly migratory fish species such
as salmon. These comprise estimation of spawning stock, spawning stock to recruitment relationships, and post
recruitment growth back to spawning stock. These cannot yet be used in any reliable way for eel, and are unlikely to be
possible on the basis of existing knowledge.
However, better infonnation is available on the freshwater growing phases, their habitat requirements and capability of
sustaining exploitation. On the continent of Europe, eel distribution is widespread and, as a starting point from which
0.4.3 Distribution of stocking material
The Concerted Action has shown that sufficient glass eel are currently captured to provide the stocking material
required not only to take the precautionary measure of increasing the spawning escapement but also to prevent further
decline of the capture fishery and to restore or enhance it. Following the completion of the baseline survey advocated
in 5.7.2, an international group, similar to the Concerted Action, should be convened to fonnulate a much more
detailed series of recommendations for the rational use of the available stocking material.
0.4.4 Financial and employment implications
The Concerted Action calculated that the wild eel are produced from an area of ca. 90,000 km 2 and that only 3% of
the habitat has been rendered inaccessible to eel by man-made barriers. Natural recruitment is equivalent to 67 t a· 1 of
glass eel; there is additional stocking of 33 t a· 1• The area is estimated to be understocked by 644 t a,l of glass eel. If
stocking were to be carried out at this rate, an additional yield of 60,000 t could be attained. Capture of this quantity
would provide part-time employment for 40,000 people. As the Far Eastern eel culture production is 150,000 t and
grows at a rate of more than 10% per annum, it is clear that demand continues to be extremely high and the prospects
for sale of an increased yield of wild eel appear to be excellent.
The annual cost of the glass eel required for stocking at current prices is 80 M ECU; the value of the yield to be
expected from stocking is 360 M ECU.
0.5 Political implications
The Concerted Action has shown that sufficient stocking material exists to enable major development of the European
eel fishery while ensuring the conservation of the species. Progress will be slow, involving a time lapse of 5 to 10 years
before the effects of co-ordinated management will appear. Consideration of this matter is urgent because the fishery
is at present in an alarming state of decline.
The life cycle of the European eel
The ~ ""'~ = "".,,<ed
I!lass eel

r':
to work toward a stock-wide approach in future, management of this scattered resource will benefit from international
co-ordination, and integration of national practices into an international framework.

0.4 Proposed management action

continent
0.4.1 Market control of glass eel
The development of a major export demand and consequent high prices for glass eel threaten the very existence of <:l:t:::: < ~
stocking programmes already in progress. Unless addressed as a matter of urgency, these factors are likely to prohibit
any significant moves towards realising the full potential of European waters as a source of eel and could lead to an
velloweel

~•
increasingly rapid decline of the capture fisheries for yellow and silver eel. Consideration at Commission level of ways
and means of maintaining an adequate supply of glass eel for Europe should be given the highest priority.
Soawninl! : /

~
0.4.2 Baseline survey and monitoring programme
The Concerted Action has compiled all available infonnation of relevance on fisheries and biology and has concluded
that this is far too fragmentary and incomplete for the requirements of fully effective management of the stocks.
Implementation of one-off national surveys and of monitoring programmes co-ordinated on a pan-European basis are
urgently required to infonn management processes.

2 3
C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Past working parties and research

Current international consideration of the European eel began at the 5th Session of the European Inland Fisheries
Commission (ElFAC) held in Rome in 1968. ElFAC organised a Consultation on Eel Fishing Gear in Hamburg in
1970 and in 1976 ElFAC. jointly with the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), held a
symposium on eel in Helsinki. This clearly established the unique status of the eel as a target of important commercial
fisheries, mostly located within national boundaries but dependent on a spawning stock in international waters.

The Helsinki conference led to the establishment of a Working Party on Eel which has remained in existence ever
since, meeting in alternate years and stimulating dissemination of knowledge of the species. While recognising the
need for co-operative research, the Working Parties were unable to pressurise member governments into providing the
necessary support. In spite of these limitations, they published definitive international studies on tagging and on age
detennination.

The Working Parties also established a monitoring regime for recruitment and charted the dramatic decline of supply
following a peak of abundance in the 1970s. A meeting of the ICES Working Group in 1991 concluded that, for
biological reasons as well as lack of manpower, it was not possible to make an assessment of the eel stocks of Europe.
Two years later, in 1993, the ElFAC Working Party prepared a statement on the future of the eel and its fisheries and
compiled a list of research and monitoring requirements, with particular reference to the observed decline in
recruitment.

In the following year, 1994, members of the Working Party decided that it was desirable and would now be possible to
prepare a stock-wide management plan, based on existing knowledge. Such a plan would be based on available data on
the fisheries and on management-related biology. It would be a preliminary document, in view of the sparsity of
infonnation, and would incorporate an outline of the research and monitoring work required to prepare a definitive
strategy for the enhancement of the fishery and conservation of the species.

A proposal for a Concerted Action to collate the existing data and fonnulate the management plan was accepted by
DG XIV of the European Union. Work within the Concerted Action began in February 1995.

1.2 First Am report

The first report of the Concerted Action, published in 1996 (Report 1), confirmed that reliable data on eel fisheries are
extremely scarce. Wide discrepancies were found between official fishery infonnation and estimates arising from the
many sources identified by group members.

Important conclusions were:

1.2.1 Quantity and value

The commercial yield from European eel fisheries is in the region of 22-30,000 t per year, with an estimated catch
value to fishennen of about 180 M ECU to which a notional value of 360 M ECU must be added in view of the labour-
intensive trading and processing element.

1.2.2 Manpower involved

Whilst relatively few people are engaged full time in eel fishing, considerable numbers are employed in highly
specialised marketing and processing and not less than 25,000 part-time and casual fishennen gain a valuable
supplementary income. In addition to the fonner group for whom the eel is a target species, Report 1 identified coastal
mUlti-species fisheries which could not be sustained in the absence of eel. The eel therefore makes a socio-economic
contribution out of all proportion to the numbers of full-time eel fish ennen, supplementing income from other fishing
activities and from low-paid work, especially in communities where unemployment is high.

5
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

1.2.3 Decline of recruitment

Recruitment and catch of glass, yellow and silver eel have declined considerably since the late 1970s. This causes
obvious financial problems for fishermen but, in addition, is reducing the supply of seedstock for restocking and
aquaculture and the supply of the raw material to the lucrative processing industry.
1.2.4. Current management practice
Report 1 cites cases in which management practices have allowed maintenance or increase in catch in spite of the
reduced natural recruitment.
The report confirmed the view that management techniques such as stocking, the use of passes and the exercise of
controls on fisheries can be used to maintain or enhance sustainable yields, whilst helping to support the overall
European stock. Further information was needed to clarify key issues to inform future cost-effective management
options. Particularly important are data on natural stocks and yield in relation to fishery exploitation levels and other
influences, such as loss or impairment of habitat utilisation due to barriers and pollution.
2. EUROPEAN OVERVIEW OF THE COUNTRY REPORTS
The unique life cycle and biology of the eel, its ecological adaptability to a wide range of envirorunental conditions,
and its consequent distribution over a wide range of different habitats has led to analytical research on an extensive
range of topics in most countries. Research has tended, however, to be fragmentary and uncoordinated, making it
difficult to draw useful indications for management, and the task of summarising information aimed at a common line
of management seems particularly difficult. To obviate this, within the second phase of the Concerted Action,
participants prepared a review of the information for each country as available from the literature, following standard
headings useful for management. In this chapter, the relevant information has been integrated in order to obtain a
continent-wide picture of the present status of eel stocks. Despite the scarcity of information on some aspects, a global
overview of the distribution area and of habitat availability and quality has been obtained, as well as an overall picture
of present levels of exploitation for the different life stages (glass eel, yellow eel and silver eel) and of the different
management strategies carried out in Europe. Information has been obtained and estimates made, to provide
guidelines for future management.

1.3 Review of biological data 2.1 Habitat

Having prepared an assessment of the fishery in Report 1, the second phase of the Concerted Action sought to review In order to assess the eel stock and its present level of exploitation, an evaluation of total versus available surface area
all available biological data relevant to the formulation of management plans. Each of the participants was requested has been made for each country, and hence for the whole of Europe (Table 2.1). All habitats have been examined, both
to prepare a review of the literature for their country under a standard set of headings. These reviews, revised in the marine and inland, taking into account both their extent and their accessibility. Referring to the latter, a series of
light of discussion at the meeting of the group in Rennes in February 1997, are presented as Annex 1 of this report. general considerations can be drawn not only regarding their physical accessibility, but also their suitability for eel
with regard to envirorunental quality, which will be discussed further in Chapter 3. All habitats where eel can be found
The exercise, while demonstrating with unwelcome clarity the paucity of such material, fulfilled two essential have been considered as potentially accessible to eel, without directly implying that all available surface is at present
requirements for the Concerted Action. Firstly, it collated a wide range of information which may be extrapolated from suitable for eel colonisation and for sustaining local stocks.
isolated observations to form a continent-wide picture of the population biology of the eel. Secondly, it revealed the
most important gaps in knowledge which may be filled by national or by international co-operative research in the Table 2.1 Surface area (km') of eel habitats (summary of data from Annex 2)
future.
Accessible Inaccessible Total
artificial natural
1.4 Overview of the report
Fresh still 56 4 40 53,821
Chapter 2 of this report provides a European overview of the material in the country reports. Based on this, Chapter 3 Fresh running 62 25 J3 4,364
considers the potential for conservation and development and describes the management options. Chapter 4 presents Saline closed 100 17,466
the research and monitoring requirements for developing the management plan and determining its effectiveness. The Saline open 100 21,046
final chapter summarises the management options and research requirements and puts forward recommendations for Baltic 60 40 27,100
immediate and medium-term action.
Total 87,335 3,211 33,252 123,798
This report draws heavily upon the information presented in the first report of the Concerted Action, as well as upon
the country reports presented in Annex I. Although only the combined chapters, together with the first report, provide
a full, coherent view on the enhancement of the European eel fishery and conservation of the species, all individual
2.1.1 Coastal waters, lagoons and estuaries
chapters have been written as stand-alone texts. This objective necessitated some repetition in the text to which cross-
references are given. With regard to coastal waters, the Baltic Sea is the most significant portion of marine habitat supporting eel stocks,
even if it has been compared to an estuary owing to its peculiar morphology. The total surface of the Baltic suitable as
The Country Reports were prepared in the course of 1996 and early 1997. The Concerted Action held its second a marine habitat for eel is estimated as 16,135 km 2
plenary meeting in Rennes, by courtesy of the Director of the Laboratoire Halieutique of ENSAR. At this, the Country
Reports were studied and the first drafts of the overview chapters were prepared and agreed. Sweden accounts for the largest portion of coastal waters available for eel, with 34,100 km' of surface. Of these,
8,600 km' lie on the Swedish west coast, with depths of less than 20 m and in which eel are abundant, and 25,500 km'
Chapters and sections were edited by individual participants to the Concerted Action, namely: Eleonora Ciccotti constituting the northern part of the Baltic. Of the latter, only 14,600 km' are considered available, as eel fishing takes
(Chapter 2, Section 3.1), Willem Dekker (Section 2.4, Section 3.4, Chapter 4, Annex 2), Brian Knights (Section 2.5, place there, even if with a decreasing population. The northern limit for eel distribution, or at least of eel fishery, in
Chapter 3), Christopher Moriarty (Chapter 0, Chapter 1, Chapter 5), Robert Rosell (Section 0.3, Section 2.5, the Baltic nowadays is 60'. In Derunark the area of coastal waters supporting eel stocks is of the order of 10,000 km',
Annex 3). In addition to those named above, Eric Feunteun and Julian Reynolds took part in the final editorial embracing all the Danish coasts. Eel fishing also takes place along the entire Baltic coast of Germany (900 km').
meeting of the Concerted Action held in Dublin in April 1997. To them and to the colleagues listed in Annex 5, the
Editors offer most hearty thanks for their enthusiasm and willing help.

6 7

Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Eel are also exploited in the North Sea, where the German portion amounts to 1,800 Ian', and in Dutch coastal waters,
of which about 5,000 lan' are available as eel habitat, fished as a by-catch of shrimp fishery. Eel stocks are also
exploited in the southern North Sea; they are caught in the coastal waters of Great Britain as far as the English
Channel. Eel are reported in by-catches on the Atlantic side of Great Britain, but no significant marine eel stocks have
been located for Ireland. On the Atlantic coast of France, only a small part of the trawl fisheries is directed to eel.
Sporadic occurrences have been reported in Atlantic coastal areas of Portugal and Spain, but mostly in sites subject to
freshwater influence, while no marme-dwelling eel have been reported from the Mediterranean coasts of France
S~m~ , passes. On the other hand weirs, sluices and other water regulation devices inhibit migration and recruitment, and
With regard to brackish coastal habitats, a distinction must be made between estuaries and habitats such as fjords,
lagoons or brackish environments like the Waddensea. On the whole all these environments support relatively large
eel stocks compared to open coastal waters. No true estuaries of any significance can be said to exist in Sweden, but
there is an abundance of eel in open coastal waters. In Denmark, brackish environments, fjords, estuaries and lagoons
cover 3,000 Ian', while Dutch brackish areas, corresponding to the terminal stretches of the rivers Rhine, Meuse and
Schelde that flow through, the Netherlands in an intertwining network of branchings towards the North Sea, amount at
present to about 500 Ian , haVIng been greatly reduced because of land reclamation. To these, 1.450 Ian' of the
Waddensea must be added, whose waters are brackish owing to the flow of the Rhine to the North Sea through Lake
IJsselmeer. Large brackish areas are present in Germany: the Elbe and Oste estuaries, Wyk!Fohr lagoon, Helgoland
along the North Sea coast and Oder estuary, Oder lagoon and Coventer See lagoon along the Baltic coast.
About 2,800 lan' of reclaimed marshes are present on the western Atlantic French coast and include 240 lan' of water
surface; there are about 50 lan' of coastal lagoons on the Portuguese coast. The region richest in coastal lagoons is in
the Mediterranean, with 350 Ian' of coastal lagoons in France, 171 lan' in Spain and 1,500 Ian' in Italy. All these
support large eel stocks, exploited by local fisheries. The potential production of these environments is very high
(ranging between 20 and 40 kg ha"), but in most cases habitat quality has progressively deteriorated owing to human
impacts (eutrophication following pollution, water and land management, etc.).
It is difficult to make an exact estimate of the extent of true estuarine areas, defined as lower river stretches under tidal
influence, for all countries. A surface of 21 Ian' is repmted for Bann and Foyle estuaries, the only significant ones in
Northern Ireland; about 600 lan2 of estuarine surface can be estimated for the Irish Republic (the mouths of 237 rivers
of which 16 are > I lan2 in extent) and about 5,000 lan' in Great Britain (where 162 main rivers are present). All of
these estuaries are believed to support eel stocks, but only a small number of them support known eel fisheries, more
than 85% of the total being unexploited. Even in Atlantic estuaries (most of the 1,000 lan' of French estuaries, the
325 lan' of Portuguese coasts, most of the 60 Spanish rivers) and in the Mediterranean (Ebro, Jucar and Securo are the
principal Spanish rivers discharging in the Mediterranean; about 36 estuaries along the Italian coasts) eel are probably
present at all stages, but fishing for yellow and silver eel is confined to a very low number of them as, in most,
glass eel fishing is practised preferentially.
In total, open saline habitats suitable for eel include the 16,135 Ian' of the Baltic plus over 21,000 lan' inclusive of
fjords, coastal waters and estuaries, while closed saline habitats (coastal lagoons, etc.) amount to over 17,460 Ian'.
2.1.2 Freshwaters
The coun~y with the largest surface of still freshwater habitat is Sweden, with 39,639 lan' of lakes, of which
19,019 Ian , 48% of the total, are considered available for eel production. At the moment, about 11,074 lan' are
estimated to support eel stocks, but developed eel fisheries are carried out in only about 4,921 Ian'. Rivers amount to
about 792 Ian' in Sweden, supporting eel in most cases, but there are no directed fisheries at present except at artisanal
fixed traps, whose catches are assumed to come from connected lakes. On the whole, the constraints that render 52%
of still freshwater habitats and about 65% of running fresh waters inaccessible or unsuitable to eel are natural, mainly
due to low temperatures and high altitude in northern Sweden. This is reflected in both low productivity and reduced
recruitment. Man-made constraints such as physical obstacles to migrations are in most cases compensated for by eel
passes or upstream transportation, even if in some areas these have fallen into disuse recently following lack of
recruitment.
Danish lakes and reservoirs amount to 440 Ian', and there are 150 lan' of river surface: all can support eel, although
10% of the Danish streams are contaminated by ochre and local stocks have been reduced. In the Netherlands most
freshwater habitats (3,400 lan' of rivers, canals, polders and lakes including the IJsselmeer) are accessible to eel.
8 9
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C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
In Germany about 25% of the habitat is inaccessible, owing mainly to man-made physical obstructions: 3,000 lan' of
inland waters are considered suitable for eel, while 1,820 lan' of lakes and 480 Ian' of rivers are exploited by
commercial fisheries. Ireland has 2,071 Ian' of lakes (1,445 in the Republic of Ireland, 626 in Nmthern Ireland) and
73 Ian' lan' of rivers (53 Ian' and 20 lan', respectively, in the Republic and Northern Ireland): all are considered
suitable for eel, and inaccessible areas are limited to not more than 5%. The same can be said fm Great Britain
(1,924 lan' of lakes and reservoirs and about 500 Ian' ofrivers), where impassable obstructions are few and chemical
obstructions absent. Major hydrodams are absent from England and Wales, and large tidal barriers are provided with
restrict access to reservoirs.
In France still fresh waters, natural lakes, hydrodams, reservoirs and man-made ponds, amount to 1,696 Ian', plus
840 lan' of rivers and canals. Most of this surface is suitable for eel, but man-made or natural obstacles account for
50% reduction of accessibility to lakes and 10% for riverine areas. Access by eel is seriously curtailed in many river
systems by multipurpose dams, while in some rivers tidal barriers interfere with eel colonisation close to the mouths of
estuaries, despite the presence of fish passes in some regions.
The highest rate of inaccessibility for freshwater habitats occurs in Portugal: the 266 lan' of still freshwaters are
almost entirely reservoir areas (natural lakes being limited to some small high altitude lakes), and of this surface 99%
is considered inaccessible. Of the 60 Ian' of river surface, 70% is inaccessible because of dams. In most cases passes,
where present, are ineffective.
A similar situation is found in Spain, where most natural lakes (total area 10 Ian') are at high altitude in the Asturias
region, and therefore not suitable for eel. Rivers cover about 720 Ian', but most of the hydrographic system (93%) is
considered inaccessible because of chemical pollution and physical obstructions. .
In Italy, lakes and man-made basins total about 2,360 lan' with about 108 Ian' of rivers and canals. Most of these can
be considered suitable fm eel, but colonisation is hampered by physical obstructions, dams reducing access both to
upper stretches of at least 50 rivers and to about 60% of lakes.
2.2 Glass eel fishing and monitoring
In Sweden fishing for glass eel is allowed only for restocking or transfer within single river systems, and traps are
used. In many cases. recruits consist also of elver and larger eel (15 cm and mme). Catch data for six river systems
provide histmic data series for monitoring recruitment to Swedish coasts dating back as far as 1900. All data series
indicate fluctuating patterns even in the past (before 1950), and a steady decline from several tonnes per year to a
few kg in recent years. Total recruitment to the Swedish west coast has been estimated to be 5 million to 25 million of
0+ recruits. Recently a total of 50 million elver on both coasts of the Sound has been estimated.
In Denmark, glass eel fisheries took place till 1990 on the west coast of Jutland (Vidll sluice), and catch records are
available for the period 1968-1990, the highest having been recorded in 1968 and lowest in 1989 and 1990. Fishing
has therefore ceased completely in Denmark, and recruitment failure is made up for by restockings performed with
cultured eel 2-5 g (between 1 and 9 million stocked annually since 1987).
In the Netherlands. capture or possession of glass eel is fmbidden, but glass eel fisheries on behalf of the Organisation
for Improvement of Inland Fisheries (OVB) are allowed for restocking, amounting up to the 1980s to 3 t at one
entrance to Lake IJsselmeer. Since then, owing to the recruitment decline, the actual catches fell below this quota,
resulting in an extension of the fishery to catch 3 t at six sites along the coast (500 kg each), including a second inlet
to the Hsselmeer. From 1995, a total catch of 5% of the total recruitment to the IJsselmeer has been allowed, since a
fixed quota would have implied a greater impact on the declined recruitment. Problems have arisen in estimating the
total immigration (158 t according to fishermen and 5 t according to the national fishery research institute, RIVO,
corresponding to quota of 8 and 0.2 t, respectively).
Glass eel capture in Germany requires special permission, but glass eel and bootlace eel from fisheries are used for
restocking. At present there is still one site where a glass eel fishery is carried out, on the River Ems at Hebrum. Data
confirm a decline from> 4 t in 1974 to> 3 tin 1980, falling sharply to about 10 kg from 1983. Reduced recruitment
has been ameliorated with stockings of imported glass eel from France and, since 1989, with pregrown elver.
---------------------------- -----------

Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

In Northern Ireland a glass eel fishery takes place only at the tidal limit of the Bann, where ladder traps collect
ascending elver to be transported to Lough Neagh, Thus, stocking data to Lough Neagh provide a monitoring series of
recruitment, showing higher catches between 1965 and 1978 (average 6,1 t) and falling to an average of 2,1 t per
season from 1979 to 1995.
In the Republic of Ireland capture or possession of glass eel for sale or consumption is forbidden. Glass eel fisheries in
the Shannon, Erne and four other rivers supply material for intra-catchment stockings. On the Shannon, high catches
were recorded, from 2 to 7 t, between 1979 and 1982, while in the following years annual catch has never been higher
than 1.6 t. The trend observed on the Erne is not so definite, neither showing large catches in the 1970s nor declines
since then, highest catches (4 t) having been recorded in 1982 and 1994.
In Great Britain, commercial glass eel fisheries began in the Severn in the 1940s, and extended in the 1970s to other
rivers following increase in demand from aquaculture and for restocking. No regular monitoring seems to be carried
out, and catch-retam data are of poor quality, but export figures provide indications of diminished recruitment from
the 1970s to 1980s (about 40-50 t) to recent years (20 t), while increase in demand has led to increased fishing
pressure, encouraging fisheries in other rivers.
France is without doubt the leading country with regard to glass eel exploitation, organised commercial fisheries being
present in most estuaries of the Atlantic coast, while glass eel fishing is prohibited on the Mediterranean. The major
glass eel fisheries are in the Loire, Vilaine, Gironde and Adour, with a total of over 28 exploited estuaries. Fishing
activity began to develop consistently from the 1960s in connection with the increase in demand from the Spanish
direct consumption market. Since the 1980s, professional fishermen have progressively organised a regulation system,
to increase efficiencies and to prevent overexploitation. The official statistics do not seem reliable at national level,
although a scheme based on a logbook system filled in by the fishermen and conveyed to a national database has been
set up. Many surveys have been conducted at regional scale, integrated with scientific work, providing useful indexes
that allow quantification of recruitment trends in estuaries such as the Vilaine, Loire and Gironde.
In all French estuaries a decline in recruitment has been observed from the 1980s. Official statistics confirm the fall in
glass eel runs, total production having reduced from the 1,345 t estimated in 1970 (fishermen having been estimated
as 648 marine and 2,424 riverine professional fishermen) to 500 t (850 marine fishermen and about 4,000 riverine, the
latter including land-based professional and amateur fishermen) in 1986. About 578 t of glass eel were caught in 1995
according to the French maritime authority. The general trend is a marked decrease in fishery yields despite an
increasing fishing effort.
In Portugal glass eel catches are permitted only in areas under tidal influence. The main fishery is on the estuary of the
River Minho, where hamen nets are used, while in other Portuguese estuaries only dip nets from river banks are
allOWed. Data from commercial catches on the Minho provide for monitoring of recruitment to Portuguese coasts,
mdicatmg a fall from more than 20 t in the period 1976-1984 to 14 t in 1986 to 8 t in 1988, and to 5 t in recent years.
Official statistics seem to be underestimates, and a certain number of non-professional fishermen are present.
In Italy, glass eel exploitation dates back as far as the 17th century, natural recruitment representing the basis of the
vallicultura of Northern Adriatic lagoons. Glass eel fishing has been performed on a professional basis since the 1960s
and 1970s, following the increased demand from the aquaculture sector and in consequence of the reduced
spontaneous ascent in coastal lagoons owing to modifications of the ecological conditions of these environments.
Besides the northern Adriatic (Po Delta), the glass eel fishery is carried out mainly in the Tyrrhenian regions (coast of
Tuscany, Latium and Campania). Glass eel fishing is forbidden except for those fishermen who have obtained special
permission. Official statistics appear unreliable, and do not allow exact quantification of the total yield, which can be
roughly estimated as ranging between 4 and 6 t per year. A marked decrease in recrnitment has certainly taken place,
indicated by the decrease in authorisation request, as the glass eel fishery is no longer profitable despite the increase in
prices. Monitoring is carried out on a regular basis only in the Tiber estuary, where historical data are available.
Besides a fluctuating trend in yields, an overall decreasing trend has been recorded, catches falling from > 6 t per
season in the period 1975-1980 to about 4 t per season in the following years to a minimum of less than 200 kg in
1995-1996.
Throughout Europe, glass eel fisheries are carried out in more than 90 estuaries, but their characteristics can be said to
differ greatly within and between countries, ranging from the ladder- and trap-based fisheries of countries such as
Sweden or Ireland, aimed at stocking river systems, to the intensive fishery carried out on the French Atlantic coasts.
Some of the sites mentioned above are included in a monitoring network of recruitment at the European scale, carried
out within the Joint EIFAC-ICES Working Party on Eel. Despite the differences in survey methods (catch data based
on different fishing techniques, glass eel numbers recorded at ascending ladders, experimental fishing), all point to a
strong reduction in eel recruitment to European coasts.
2.3 Yellow and silver eel stocks
Information from the Country reports indicates an extremely variable situation in some qualitative aspects of eel stocks
such as growth and population dynamics, as well as to parasitism, contamination and pathology. With reference to the
latter group, information is scarce and scattered, routine monitoring being limited to a few examples. The former
features are strongly related to local habitat conditions, including latitude/temperature, productivity and exploitation
levels. Southern countries report decreases in size of yellow eel, attributed to growth overfishing and decline in
silver eel catch has been observed in Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland. Shifts in sex ratios have been observed in
environments such as Mediterranean coastal lagoons.
Examples of eel yields are given in Table 2.2. Report 1 had indicated the inconsistency of national catches as quoted
by official statistics, but further research by country representatives shows declines in yellow and silver catches from
all countries in which fishing for these stages takes place, and some fisheries have collapsed. The only exceptions are
local popUlations, sustained by restocking.
Eel fisheries statistics relating to the Swedish part of the Baltic show that catches in the 26 year period 1940-1965
amounted to 1,731 t but these have fallen to 631.6 ± 126.5 t in the 14 year period 1980-1993.

Spain has up to now been the main glass eel consumer in Europe. Glass eel fisheries are therefore well developed, Table 2.2 Examples of data showing major changes in stocks and fisheries
carned out both on the AtlantIC coast (at least 12 estuaries in Asturias, all estuaries of northern coasts from Galicia to
Basque region and Guadalquivir estuary in the South) and on the Mediterranean (Ebro Delta and inlet channels to Habitat Category Period Unit Quantity
lagoons). On the whole, estimates indicate production averaging 150 t for the Atlantic coasts and 50 t for the Sweden Baltic Commercial catch 1940-65 1980-93 1.731 632
Denmark Limfjord Commercial catch 1900s 1994 t 800 10
Mediterranean. Reliable catch data are available for the Nalon in Asturias, dating back to 1952. Catches from 1952 to
Limfjord Bottom trawl 1980 1994 CPUE 14 1
1972 were between 10 and 20 t, increasing noticeably in the 1970s and reaching 60 t in 1977. Since then, in the 1980s River Rhine 1920, 1990,
Netherlands Fishing effort no. boats 500 10
they retamed to previous levels, falling in the 1990s to a minimum of 6 t in 1995-1996. I1sselmeer Eel yield 19405 1990s kg/ha >5
N. Ireland Lough Neagh Silver eel catch 1965 1995 330 138
Lough Neagh Yellow eel catch 1965 1995 236 659
Italy Cornacchia I. Eel yield 1974-76 1990, kg/ha > 19 <5
Sardinian lagoon Eel yield 1957-64 1970s kg/h. 120 40
Coastal lagoons Total production 1986 1995 2.000 700
Lakes / reservoirs Total production 1989 1993 376 308
France Brittany rivers Average biomass 1990 1996 kg/ha 70 40
Atlantic N orrnandy rivers Average biomass 1990 1996 kg/ha 120 60
Mediterranean lagoons Total production 1991 1994 1,264 251
Mediterranean B. Sigean lagoon Eel yield 1991 1994 kg/ha 99 45

10 11
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
In Derunark all available data show a decreasing yield. In the Limfjord, eel fishing is traditionally very important, but
catches have decreased considerably. At the beginning of the 20th century catches averaged 800-900 t but began to
decline in the mid-1950s and in 1994 amounted to only 10 t. A bottom trawl survey in the Limfjord showed a decrease
from 14 eel per unit effort (30 min trawl) in 1980 to only I eel during 1986-1990. In Ringk¢bing Fjord catches are
said to have been reduced by 90% from the 1960s to the 1990s and the official catch for the whole country showed a
reduction of about one-third over the same period.
In the Netherlands, catches have declined over several decades. Following the recruitment failure in the 1980s, yield
has fallen rapidly and only the last remnants of former fisheries exist. In historic times, more than 500 boats
(schokkers) fished for eel on the river Rhine between Basel and the North Sea. Nowadays, the numbers have been
reduced to less than 10 within the Netherlands, and none in Germany. Catches are not centrally recorded, but certainly
do not exceed a few tonnes per boat.
Professionalisation of the fishery sector in the Netherlands since the Second World War resulted in about 400 mostly
full-time fishermen in polders, canals and smaller lakes. In the decade 1985-1995 the number fell to below 300, with
an average annual catch of I or 2 t per crew.
The long-term decline in the Dutch fishery has been caused mainly by reductions in the accessible area, through land
reclamation, better drainage systems preventing upstream migration, eutrophication and pollution, but also by the
profitability of fishery declining relative to rising average incomes, and recently through shortage of elver supply. In
the I1sselmeer, the yield of silver eel has consequently decreased from 20% to less than 5% of the yellow eel catch,
while the annual catch of yellow eel itself has dropped from over 5 to 1 kg h a". Data on natural recruitment from the
Waddensea and stock surveys on the lake itself, where no man-made stockings are carried out, correlate well over the
years, both showing a sharp decline since the 1980s.
For Germany, CPUE data are available from the River Elbe over a 20 year period. Since 1980 a sharp decrease in the
number of small eel has been observed. Similar results are reported for the River Weser. CPUE data for Lake
Constance over a very long series of years showed an extremely low yield at the end the 19th century (in 1880 it
amounted to about 0.001 h a"). This was noticeably increased by means of restocking with glass eel, begun in the
1950s with about 1.3 glass eel h a", rising to 3.2 in the 1960s and to 13.1 in the 1970s. Yield increased to 5 kg h a"
during 1980-1982.
No information is available for Great Britain, apart from a general impression of a decrease in the number of fisheries.
Records of the numbers of silver eel traps in the Thames prior to 1086 and up to 1900 suggest that stocks in the upper
waters of the catchment were very much greater than today.
In the Republic of Ireland a substantial increase in silver eel catch in the River Shannon began to be observed in 1979,
20 years after the initiation of a stocking progranune, and the numbers of eel per unit effort in experimental fyke nets
increased between 1969 and 1981, following which the sampling results suggested that a steady-state population had
been attained. The mean annual silver eel catch at Killaloe, the principal fishery, from 1979 to 1988 was 27 t, against
18 t for the previous decade.
In Northern Ireland, mean annual declared catch of all eel from 1986 to 1995 was 730 t, range 650 t to 830 t. From
1962 to 1996, the Lough Neagh data, which account for 95% of the total, showed a declining trend with a shift from
silver to yellow eel harvest as the bulk of the total output.
No data are available for Portugal nor for Spain, though for the latter there is a general impression that eel has become
less plentiful in most rivers owing to dam construction and to pollution.
In Italy eel production is believed to have strongly declined, both in inland waters and in coastal lagoons. In rivers, eel
populations have been reduced owing to the presence of numerous dams, most of which have inadequate fishways or
none at all and are therefore impassable. Recruitment to most lakes has been considerably reduced by the construction
of dams along the effluent rivers. However, eel yields have increased owing to increases in restocking in lakes such as
L. Garda and Bracciano, carried out both to enhance stocks and to sustain local fisheries.
12
C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
No extensive data are available for Italian fisheries in riverine envirorunents, except for the River Tiber in the Latium
region. Historical data series of glass eel catches have shown an overall decreasing trend, with catches dropping from
over 6 t per season in the period 1975-1980 to less than 200 kg in the season 1995-1996. In spite of this, the total
yield of yellow and silver did not show a dramatic decline: average production was of the order of 10-15 t per season,
reasonably constant from year to year. This was, however, related to increasing fishing effort, from 200-300 fyke nets
per day to over 600 in the 1990s.
Eel production in the coastal lagoons in Italy has strongly declined between 1975 and 1995. A typical case is that of
the Valli di Comacchio, a complex of coastal lagoons in the Northern Adriatic, where traditional fishery management,
vallicultura, has been carried out for centuries. Official data of fish production have been available since 1781. The
trend in those 2 centuries has always been characterised by fluctuations ranging from 6 to > 30 kg h a", attributable to
such envirorunental problems as hypersalinity and freezing of the valli. The average annual yield of eel per hectare
was 14.3 kg , about 78% of the total fish production. Higher yields were obtained after 1964, coinCiding with
restocking and seeding practices while, from the late 1970s, production has been considerably lower (5-7 kg h a"),
attributed to falling recruitment in the Comacchio lagoons.
Similar falls in eel production in coastal lagoons took place between the 1970s and 1980s in the whole north Adriatic
area and also in other regions. For example, in the Tortoli lagoon, in Sardinia, eel represented about 30% of total
catches with a yield of 120-130 kg h a" in the period 1957-1964, but dropped to an average of about 40 kg h a' from
1965.
Similar declines have been observed in French Mediterranean coastal lagoons, such as Palavas (Languedoc) and Bages
Sigean (Roussillon) lagoons. Yields and CPUE have decreased by about 40% since 1985, from 99 to 45 kg h a". Total
yields, estimated by the Maritime Statistics System, indicate a fall in yield from 1,264 t in 1991 to 251 t in 1994.
Yields from reclaimed marshes on the Atlantic coast have also declined dramatically, from 37 kg h a" in the 1980s to
the present figure of 10 kg ha·'.
Data from inland waters in France are limited but a catch of 320 t, of which 120 t were silver eel, was reported for
1989. Total yield ranged between 75 and 100 t in the Loire, with 450 fishermen and between 10 t and 20 t in Vilaine,
with fewer than 20 fishermen. Calculated biomasses fell from 70 to 40 kg ha" in Brittany and from 120 to 60 in
Normandy.
2.4 Spawning stock and silver eel fisheries
In this section, the relationship between the silver eel fisheries and the spawning process is described.
2.4.1 Life stages
The continental eel stocks are made up of several, quite distinct life stages. It is essential to note that these stages taken
together represent only the juvenile life stage of the species: larval stages and maturing/spawning stages are only to be
found in the ocean. Silver eel, emigrating towards the ocean, have only just begun to mature. Although the
morphological, physiological and behavioural changes are distinct, silver eel should still be qualified as pre-mature
fish. Thus, unlike fisheries on most other exploited species, eel fisheries represent pre-recruit fisheries. Although
spawning has not been observed in the wild, it is highly unlikely that eel survive after having spawned.
2.4.2 Silver eel fisheries
Silver eel fisheries are found throughout the distribution area of the species. Although statistical data seldom
discriminate between yellow and silver eel landings and although the fishing industry often uses the same catching
devices for both yellow and silver eel, the emergent picture is undoubtedly that silver eel relatively dominate the catch
in northerly countries, while yellow eel dominate in southerly countries (see also Report 1).
The fisheries specific to silver eel all take place during their migratory season. Without exception, passive gears are set
across the migratory route. In most cases, these gears are set in the opening of inland water systems towards the sea, or
higher up in streams leading towards the sea. The speed of migration has not been quantified, but it appears that
escaping silver eel reach the sea from the place where fishing takes place within a few days. Although fisheries exist in
estuaries and the open sea (trawling), catches of silver eel beyond the river mouths are quite rare.
13
 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997

2.5 Current management practices

The Baltic fisheries are a notable and large-scale exception to this general view: silver eel are caught in rivers, on their
migration towards the ocean but escaping animals are caught all along the coast and in the pound net fisheries in the This section summarises standard management and regulation options available to eel fishery managers, marking
entrances to the Baltic. Mark-recapture studies (Ask and Erichsen, 1976; Sers et al., 1993) have shown that hIgh those used or legislated for in the countries contributing to this report. Regional variations in approaches and tradition
percentages of animals released at the coastal fishery sites enter the fishery again on th~ir outward migration. Up to are marked, leading to corresponding selection of different sets of options due to the differing perceived importance of
70% of marked eel were recaptured, implying that 30% escape the fishery. From thIS percentage, a quantitative fisheries for the various stages of the life cycle.
estimate of the amount of silver eel escaping the Baltic area was derived (Section 2.4.3, Annex 2).
2.5.1 Regional variation in management practice
In the Mediterranean, silver eel, derived from wild popUlations, are caught in coastal areas. The extensive aquaCUlture
The use of various options to manage glass, yellow and silver eel fisheries by participant countries is summarised in
systems in Italy (North Adriatic valli and other lagoon fisheries) probably have a very high efficiency in exploiting
Table 2.4. There are strong regional differences in the way eel fishing and consumption traditions have led to current
their silver eel production. However, quantitative data are absent.
management practice, between the northern countries (including Sweden, Denmark, Gennany, Great Britain and
Ireland), with traditions of fishing for and consuming only yellow and silver eel, and southern countries (Spain and
2.4.3 Spawner escapement Portugal) with limited traditional interest in yellow and silver eel but strong traditions of direct consumption of
The efficiency of silver eel catching devices has been quantified in only a few cases. Mark recap~e studies in the glass eel as a lUXury food. France and Italy fall between these two groups, with interests in yellow, silver, and glass eel
Baltic have been described in the previous paragraph. Additional evidence of the low effiCIency of silver eel fishenes fishing (the latter for aquaculture and stocking in both countries and in addition for consumption in France).
come from sites where separate fisheries are operating in series down a river system. For instance at Toomebridge on
the river Bann (N. Ireland), catches in the lower of two weirs can fonn up to 40% of the total, implying an efficiency 2.5.2 Measures to protect growing phases
of less than 60% (R. Rosell, pers. comm.).
Those countries without direct consumption of glass eel have tended to adopt management controls based on
maximiSing recruitment to the growing stages, including measures such as banning glass eel fishing or pennitting this
Mortalities of silver eel caused by passage through hydroelectric power stations have been quantified at several sites in
only under licence for restocking purposes, provision, in some cases by legislative requirement, of elver passes or
Europe. However, there is currently insufficient basis for a quantitative assessment of the impact of these local
ladders on weirs or dams, and mesh size restrictions on gear such as fyke nets. The latter measure is sometimes
mortalities on the contribution to the continent-wide spawner escapement. The approach taken ill thIS report IS to build
reinforced by a corresponding minimum takeable size matching the likely escapement through a particular minimum
upon the quantities of silver eel known to have passed all such obstacles and which have a free way out to the ocean.
mesh size (e.g. Ireland, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and Italy).
In Table 2.3, the calculation of the minimal quantity of silver eel escaping from fisheries is presented. It is assumed,
that all silver eel fisheries have a minimal escape rate of at least 10%. On the basis of reported quantities of silver eel
caught, the accompanying amount of escapees was computed. The total escapement in Europe is estimated at 595 t
Table 2.4 Conservation measures
minimum, equivalent to an order of magnitude of a million escapees.
Glass eel and elver fisheries Yellow and silver eel fisheries
The behaviour of silver eel in the Baltic and on the continental shelf has been studied by means of ultrasonic and radio
transmitter tags. Amongst details on diurnal activity patterns and swimming depths, the main results indic~te a rapid Ban on Use of Gw C1o~ Fishing! Mesh Other C1o~ fishing! so. Free gaps Quotas
OO~· elver control seasons ,o. seasons in weirs
migration towards deeper waters. The tagging studies in the Baltic by Westin (19.90) have hinted at the pOSSIbility that ercial passes
dealing
licences control
g<M
control
dealing
licences """"
fishing
silver eel developed from glass eel transported from long distances may have difficulties ill finding therr way to the
ocean. No tracking has been successfully operated beyond the continental shelf. Sweden , , , , , ,
Denmark , , , , , , ,
, ,
Table 2.3 Minimal estimate of silver eel escaping Gennany
Ireland (N) ,* , , , *
, ,
Ireland(R) , , , , , ,* ,
, , , , , *
Great Britain
Surface area Yield Escapement Netherlands
, , , , , ,* ,
km' t % of yield France , *,
, , , , ,
Fresh still 29,971 301 12 Portugal , , , ,
Fresh roruring 2,717 250 10 Spain , , , , ,
Saline closed 17.466 300 12 Italy , , , , *
Saline open 21,046 10
Baltic 16,135 1,078 30

Total 87.335 1,929 595 2.5.3 Specificity of certain regulations to eel fishing
A number of countries adopt legal close seasons for yellow and silver eel fishing, but in some cases (e.g. Ireland) this
simply reflects the traditional or practicable fishing seasons and may not be a true stock conservation measure, or is
2.4.4 Maturation derived from a requirement to allow the urthindered migration of salmonids (e.g. Denmark, Northern Ireland,
Maturing eel have never been observed in the wild. Experimental maturation has succeeded in producing eggs and Republic of Ireland). Similarly, the legislative provision for free gaps in rivers exploited for yellow and silver eel in
larvae, but survival time of the larvae has been restricted to a couple of weeks. The relevance of the knowledge these countries is in essence a salmonid fish protection measure, which also serves to protect escapement of migrating
acquired from these experiments to the management of the wild stocks is only limited. Artificial propagation of eel for eel. True season restrictions aimed at eel fisheries do exist, for example in Portugal, where the R. Minho stow net
use in aquaculture or outdoor stocking is not a viable option in the foreseeable future. fishing is only pennitted from November to April, with only hand dip net fishing for the remainder of the year. Also in
Portugal, the use of fyke nets is only pennitted in September and October, with only long line fishing pennitted year
2.4.5 Conclusion round.
In conclusion, silver eel represent a pre-mature life stage, but it is the last one which has been observed within its
natural setting, known only from cross-sectional observations of rapidly migrating animals. Silver eel fishenes
predominate in northerly countries, but capture efficiencies are generally low.
15
14
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

25,4 Licensing
All countries require both yellow, silver and glass eel fishennen to take out a licence to fish commercially, and some
countries or regions add a requirement for compulsory catch returns for each licence, No country gives complete
freedom on methods of fishing, and all restrict gear used in some way, restrictions often reflecting traditional local
designs, In Italy, the grant of fishing licences by administrations can require a quota of catch for restocking purposes,
255 Countries concentrating on glass eel fishing
In France, Portugal and Spain and in the Bristol Channel/Severn Estuary in England, where there are extensive
glass eel fisheries, the type of gear allowed is regulated in almost all cases, reflecting the way the local fisheries have
developed different gear types, Examples include the standard elver net diameters of 1,2 m enforced in some French
estuarine fisheries, and standardised stow nets in the R Minho, In Italy, there is a complete prohibition on catching
glass eel for direct human consumption, despite some local traditions of direct consumption,
3. FUTURE MANAGEMENT
Having reviewed the current distributions of stocks in different types of habitat throughout Europe, especially in
relation to recruitment and accessibility, this chapter will discuss the implications of the data. Relationships to
potential production, declines in recruitment and population dynamics are particularly important. These aspects are
discussed in the context of management and the means of achieving such aims, and the needs for research and
management (Chapter 4), leading to management planning (Chapter 5).
3.1 Habitat and potential eel productions
The European overview shows that eel can be found in all possible habitats, ranging from coastal marine waters to
upper stretches of rivers, exceptions being mostly attributable to high latitude or altitude and to impassable barriers.

25.6 Stocking of growing phase eel fisheries Constraints to the further extension of eel stocks seem to lie mainly in accessibility, at least if short-tenn effects are to
Currently, stocking is carried out in some countries where the fishery emphasis is on exploitation of the growing phase be considered. Habitat quality (eutrophication, pollution, etc.) seems less influential, even if it may have a long-tenn
or of silver eel, even though this practice is restricted, currently more than ever before, by the high price of glass eel effect through food quality and availability, diseases, genotoxic effects, etc. on stocks, affecting growth rates, survival
and elver. In Ireland, glass eel harvested at tidal limits or obstructions in a number of river systems are moved and hence reproductive success. Comparison of current yields of yellow and silver eel fisheries with potential yields of
upstream to support inland yellow and, subsequent, silver eel fisheries. In Sweden stocking, including some cases with outdoor waters, averaged for each habitat on the basis of infonnation reported from each country, pennits evaluation of
relatively large growing eel, is carried out where stocks are available to restore, support and enhance fisheries, but in the present level of underexploitation, and some theoretical figures of potential eel production in Europe (Table 3.1).
recent years limited supply and high cost have been problems. Derunark has a countrywide stocking prograrrune using In these calculations, only the presently accessible surface for each habitat in the represented countries has been
elver, to restore the fisheries. Glass eel stocking is also carried in the Netherlands, this being the only reason for some considered. Figures on current yield in Table 3.1 do not include glass eel catches and aquaculture production of yellow
licensed glass eel fishing. Italian wild fisheries and vallicultura operations have traditionally been extensively stocked and silver eel (in contrast to the reported figures in Reportl) and cover only the EU countries.
with both glass and bootlace eel, by public and private operators, to enhance stocks and to sustain fisheries. These
operations continue where stocks are available, but the practice of stocking coastal lagoons is becoming less common Table 3.1 Potential and current yield in yellow and silver eel fisheries (summary of data from Annex 2)
due to envirorunental quality problems.
Surl'ace area Potential yield Known yield Under-exploitation
(Ian') kg ha- 1 t t t
25.7 Conclusions Fresh still 29,971 10 29,104 3,340 25,764
Fresh running 2,717 11 2,867 715 2,152
This section has summarised standard management and regulation. Regional variations in approaches and tradition Saline closed 17.466 14 23,962 3,002 20,960
are marked, leading to the corresponding selection of different sets of options due to the differing perceived Saline open 21.046 2 4,293 862 3,431
importance of fisheries for the various stages of the life cycle. Other than official licences being required of almost all Baltic 16,135 5 8,068 1,325 6,743
fishennen, there is little consistency in management practice, enforcement and controls across Europe as a whole,
measures adopted by different countries having evolved to match their own particular fishery traditions. Total 87,335 782 68,294 9,244 59,050

Marine or brackish habitats are accessible to eel and in most of them eel are present; this means that over 54,000 km 2
of habitat are available to eel. Most of the present yield comes from northern countries, in particular from the Baltic
Sea and from fjords and brackish areas of Denmark, the Netherlands and Gennany. These habitats are exploited to a
high level at present. In some of them, for example in Denmark, eel production is sustained by stocking. On the other
hand, fisheries for yellow and silver eel are present only in a few estuarine areas.

Overall, if an average potential yield of 2 kg ha- l is assumed for coastal marine environments, and of 5 kg ha- l for the
Baltic, only 20% of the potential yield is obtained at present.

Mediterranean coastal lagoons fonn a special case, with high natural productivity but with yields falling in recent
years to minimum levels. Environmental problems are often present in transitional environments such as lagoons and
estuaries, mainly pollution and eutrophication, and these can affect both potential yields and escapement rates.
Integrated management strategies are at present sought for most lagoons, for example in Italy, integrating aquaculture
and fisheries with land restoration, tourism, etc.

The enhancement of potential eel yield in open coastal habitats would have the effect of contributing further to
broodstock escapement. About 462 t can be estimated to escape from the Baltic, if an escape rate of 30% is assumed.
By extrapolation, it appears that silver eel escapement from open marine habitat, most of which is unexploited, fonns a
considerable proportion of the total. In the major portions of open habitats, i.e. coastal waters and estuaries, the escape
rate can be assumed to be high compared to that of closed saline systems where management strategies and fishing
pressure reduce it considerably (to <10%).

16 17
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Freshwater habitats amount to more than 32,600 kIn' accessible to eel, because at present about 40% of the total
freshwater resource is either not accessible or not suitable, partly because of natural constraints such as high altitude,
but chiefly because of man-made causes, mainly relating to physical obstructions,
Many rivers, mainly in Portugal, Spain and Italy but also in France, have mUltipurpose dams lacking or with
inadequate fish passes, No countries report serious chemical obstructions, pollution having evident effects mostly at
the level of reduced food availability for the eel (because of the reduction of invertebrate communities) rather than
showing impacts on the stocks such as impedance of migrations, mortalities or chronic effects,
Riverine habitats amount to about ca. 2,700 kIn'. In most rivers eel density falls consistently with distance from the
sea, even when passes are present. Riverine eel fisheries are usually small local operations (as can be found in Ireland
or Great Britain), sometimes sustained by means of within-catchment stockings of glass eel. On the whole, even if
marked differences in trophic levels, and hence in environment carrying capacities, can be found, an average
production of 10 kg ha'! can be roughly estimated. This means that enhancement of local riverine fisheries could bring
a four-fold increase in eel production in these habitats.
Eel stock abundance in lakes and reservoirs varies greatly across Europe, as a function of two main factors. Lake
trophic level is of great influence on potential yields, in Sweden varying from 0.1-D.2 kg ha'! in oligotrophic lakes to
3.4 in eutrophic lakes. Furthermore, in most lakes, yields are sustained by means of restocking, allowing a
considerable increase in production. If a theoretical average potential yield of 10 kg ha'! is assumed for lakes, the
present level of exploitation amounts to only 11.5% of the potential yield.
The above suggests that eel stocks can be considered to be relatively underexploited, and habitats underutilised. The
scattered cases of increase in yields point to the fact that restocking is the tool to achieve an enhancement in
exploitation.
A series of considerations must be taken into account when planning the enhancement of local stocks and local
fisheries. Some of these can be defined at a local scale. Local ecological conditions, such as carrying capacities, can
differ greatly from environment to environment, even when the same type of habitat (lake or river or lagoon) is
considered. Thus, all restocking policies must be locally programmed, and based on local research and/or feasibility
studies. Furthermore, conflicts with other fisheries could arise, as in many habitats or catchment systems the
prevailing interest might be directed towards other fish species.
Considerations on a global scale must also be taken into account, for instance the economic balance between costs and
benefits. It has not been possible, on the basis of the Country Report information, to calculate or estimate the possible
economic return of stocking operations. On the whole, the main factor limiting the achievement of a European-wide
stock enhancement policy seems to be the reduced availability of seed, linked to the decline in recruitment.
3.2 Declines in recruitment
Country reports have confirmed the conclusions of the first report that there have been marked declines in eel catches
throughout Europe over the last 20 years, beginning first at the northerly extremes of their range, with the collapse of
some fisheries (Table 2.2). Whilst some declines have specific local causes (construction of major barriers, water
quality problems, etc.), reductions in the initial recruitment of glass eel appears to be a stock-wide phenomenon.
Possible common causes and implications for stocks and fisheries are reviewed below and a tentative estimate of the
amount of glass eel needed to stock all currently suitable habitats in Europe is compiled.
3.2.1 Possible causes
Factors could be acting directly on glass eel recruitment or via effects on growth or reproductive stages. The following
suggestions were made by the EIFAC (FAO) Working Party on Eel (1993):
Effects on fresh water life stages
(a) inability to use available habitats due to physical or pollution barriers in estuaries and rivers,
(b) loss of utili sable aquatic habitat, e.g. due to land-drainage or canalisation,
(c) acute and chronic effects of pollutants (especially persistent xenobiotic organochlorine compounds and heavy
metals),
18
C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
(d) the effects of infection by the nematode parasite Anguillicola crassus introduced to Europe in the 1980s from
the Far East,
(e) factors affecting silver eel emigration and, possibly, subsequent reproduction and survival of early larvae,
(t) overfishing of glass eel, elver and, possibly, yellow and silver eel.
Effects on oceanic life-stages
Changes in ocean currents could have affected transatlantic migration of leptocephali (possibly associated
with global warming and climate change).
3.2.1.1 Effects on freshwater life stages
The country reviews show that physical barriers can inhibit migration and hence recruitment into certain catchments.
The impact on Europe-wide recruitment is, however, relatively low, with only about 28% of potentially suitable waters
rendered inaccessible by natural and 3% by man-made barriers (Table 3.1). Furthermore, many barriers have been
present in rivers for a long time, predating recruitment decline by more than 20 years. Many land drainage and tidal-
and flood-control operations and other possible causes of loss of aquatic habitat similarly predate declines. Increasing
environmental awareness means that more recent schemes have had to take account of the need to provide passage for
(or compensatory stocking ot) eel and other fish species. However, there are many local catchments and waters where
structures and water management schemes still have major impacts on eel and other fish.
Pollution can be a barrier to migration, for example in major industrialised estuaries. Major improvements have been
achieved in the treatment and control of sewage and other effluent discharges since the 1970-1980s. However,
recoveries of populations have not been as rapid as might be expected if pollution had formed major barriers in the
past (Knights, 1997).
Eutrophication and dystrophic crises have caused eel kills or decreases in production, but only on local scales (as in
Italian lagoons). There have been no proven significant mortalities due to persistent pollutants such as heavy metals
and organochemicals, except in major but isolated accidents, such as the Sandoz spill into the Rhine in 1986.
Xenobiotic organochlorines are bio-accumulated but, according to Knights (1997), (a) there is no proof of major
effects on survival, (b) declines in recruitment in both Europe and North America are not clearly correlated with
periods of maximum contamination by organochlorine compounds and (c) the escapement of breeding eel from
uncontaminated waters was estimated to greatly exceed that of eel that could have accumulated toxic levels.
Parasitism by Anguillico/a crassus is now widespread in Europe, infestation rates are commonly high and damage to
the swimbladder has been observed. However, studies reported over the last decade at meetings of the ElFAC Working
Party on Eel have not shown any clear evidence for significant effects on yellow eel or on the transatlantic breeding
migration of silver eeL
Emigrating silver eel can be injured or killed on passage through hydropower turbines and land-drainage pumps.
However, the extent of water affected by such hazards is very small on a Europe-wide scale. The data sununarised in
Table 3.3 give a minimum escapement of potential spawners from known fisheries of 595 t. As this figure is based on
the very small number of silver eel fisheries whose output is reported, the actual escapement of silver eel from fisheries
would be expected to be well in excess of this leveL
Artificially matured female eel can produce 2-3 million eggs (Boetius and Boetius, 1980) and the natural fecundity of
American eel varies between 1.84 million to 20 million eggs for females between 45 and 113 cm (Barbin and
McCleave, unpublished data). If the mean is 3 million for a 300 g female and minimum escapement of females is 300 t
(i.e. 50% of 595 t), this represents 1 million females producing 3 billion eggs in total.
No information whatever is available on natural mortality of the silver eel in the course of its ocean migration and
therefore it is not possible to quantify spawning stock on the basis of spawner escapement. Current fishery practice
allows a very substantial escapement of silver eel to which must be added the production of spawners from the very
large areas of unexploited eel habitat.
Concern has been expressed that overfishing of glass eel and elver, has had major impacts on stocks and even that the
survival of the species might be endangered. There is reason to believe that natural mortality of these stages is very
high and therefore a possibility that exploitation has little or no material effect on eventual spawner escapement.
19
 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997

3.2.3 Requirement to optimisejishery and escapement

3.2.1.2 Effects on oceanic life stages
Falling recruitment cannot be fully explained by factors acting during the continental stages of the life cycle. There
have been parallel declines in recruitment of A. rostrata in Canada and these have occurred in the absence of any
significant exploitation of glass eel or later life stages (Castonguay et al., 1994). Common oceanic factors acting on
both species are implicated.
Almost nothing is known about the oceanic migration or reproduction of silver eel. However, declines in glass eel
catches in Europe are generally correlated with one another, with those for Canada and also with the position of the
north wall of the Gulf Stream (Knights et al., 1996). This oceanographic feature lies off the North American shelf,
south of Newfoundland. It represents the major boundary between subpolar and subtropical currents which may be
associated with spatial distributions of weather and sea-surface temperature fronts.
On the basis of the existing kn~wledge, the requirements for stocking material to optimise the density and production
of contmental waters can be estunated (Table 3.2). The basis for this estimation are explained in Annex 2). Within the
EU, a total of 87,335 km' of suitable habitat i~ available. Stocking rates vary over latitudes and habitat types, but the
average JustIfiable mmunallevells 0.1 kg ha eqUIvalent to a potentIal stocking volume of 744 t of glass eel. Natural
recruItment has been quantified in only a few cases, amounting to 67 t. Taking into account 33 t of glass eel being
stocked annually m recent years, it will require at least 644 t of glass eel to bring all suitable habitats to optimum
production.
The actual catch of glass eel (920 t, Report 1) is more than the amount needed (744 t, Table 3.2) to stock all European
contmental waters WIth. the minimal density required for each ecotope. This implies that the current level of spawner
esc~pement IS not lumtmg the production of an adequate number of recruits for the species as a whole, but still might

Little is known about the transoceanic migration of leptocephali and current systems in the western Sargasso and be madequate gIven the current geographical distribution of recruits.
north-eastern Atlantic are poorly understood. Castonguay et al. (1994) discussed indirect evidence for slowing of the
Gulf Stream in the 1980s. White and Knights (1994) and Knights et al. (1996) suggested that a northwards shift in the 3_3 Population dynamics and relevance to management
north wall of the Gulf Stream could have caused some leptocephali to follow longer, more northerly routes. This could
have exposed them to less favourable conditions of temperature or of food availability) for growth and survival. In order to manage eel stocks, it is essential to be able to accurately assess and monitor long-term recruitment, stock
Indirect evidence for this proposition comes from analyses of Den Oever glass eel sampled between 1960 and 1996 by distrIbutIOn and SIze, the effects of natural and fishing mortality and the escapement of silver eel. Population densities,
Dekker (1996a). He found that declines in numbers caught between 1960 and 1996 correlated significantly with productIOn and YIelds need to. be quantified in relation to habitat quality in different waters throughout Europe,
decreases in body length. He interpreted the decreases in body length as being due to poor feeding of leptocephali espeCIally m relatIon to assessmg the efficacy of management interventions, such as stocking. Density and growth
rates are unportant factors because they tend to show a negative correlation with the production of larger female eel of
during the oceanic migration.
hIgh fecundity and hence value to the breeding stock.
Despite the above relationships, there is no conclusive evidence of specific cause--effect relationships between changes
Accurate assessments of population dynamics are made difficult by the multi-stage life cycle of eel, wide variations
in North Atlantic currents and recruitment declines.
between different habItats and the problems irtherent in accurate and reliable sampling (Knights et al., 1996). The data
available m the lIterature tend to be fragmentary, originating from relatively few investigations in each country and
3.2.2 Implications of declining recruitment from unbalanced sampling over the geographical range of A. anguilla. Data derived from the literature (Table 3.3 and
There appears to be no single proven cause for declining recruitment. Combinations of factors will have negative Annex 3) thus demonstrate wide variations.
impacts but oceanic rather than continental factors are likely to be the most important overall.
Table 3.3 Yields of silver eel fisheries and estimated quantity of escapees (summary of data from Annex 2)
Taken together with data on unexploited stocks and escapement, it appears that at the moment, the species as a whole
is unlikely to be directly endangered, but the situation needs to be carefully monitored. There are many local stocks Habitat Surface area Known yield Escape rate Escapement
that could be enhanced by improved management. The greatest benefits could be gained from stocking lakes km' I % I
(especially in more northerly countries), closed saline waters (especially Mediterranean lagoons) and suitable areas of Fresh still 29,971 301 12 71
the Baltic. Country reports show that these are the waters that have historically supported major fisheries but where Fresh running 2,717 250 10 28
yields have declined most markedly because of recruitment declines. The relatively high costs of seed stock require Saline closed 17,466 300 12 33
that the distribution of stocking efforts must be carefully controlled to maximise effectiveness. This requires better Saline open 21,046 10
knowledge of optimal stocking densities, population dynamics, potential yields, etc. and further research and Ballic 16,135 1,078 30 462
management interventions are required.
Total 87,335 1,929 595
Table 3.2 Current stocking and requirements for optimal management (summary of data from Annex 2)

Natural recruitment Artificial stocking Stocking rate Additional requirement

Habitat Surface area Key aspects of population dynamics during different life stages are as follows.
km' t I kg ha" I

29.971 7 25 0.10 268

Fresh still 3.3.1 Assessment of glass eel, elver and boot/ace eel recruitment
60 5 0.10 -38
Fresh running 2,717
Saline closed 17,466 3 0.14 232 Glass eel can be sampled experimentally by boat- or hand-netting but resources have rarely been made available for
Saline open 21,Q46 0.01 21 long:term monitoring. The sampling progranune at Den Oever in the Netherlands is an ideal example and has
Baltic 16.135 0.10 161 proVIded good eVIdence of long-term changes (e.g. Moriarty, 1990a, 1996a,b; Dekker, 1996a; Knights et al., 1996).
FIshery catches can, theoretIcally, be used but catch-return data are generally very unreliable and dealers are unwilling
87,335 67 33 0.10 644 to divulge commercially sensitive information. Best-estimates of commercial catches have, however, been of benefit in
Tolal
assessmg recruitment. Export data can also be of use but these are difficult to interpret because of the lack of detail
now required for intra-EU trade: plus complicated patterns of re-export and movement of shipments around Europe
(KnIghts et al., 1996). The SItuatIOn IS now further complicated by increasing amounts of exports to the Far East.

21
20
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Accurate sampling of small juveniles is difficult because they are not easy to capture in nets or traps or by
electrofishing. Some of the best indications of upriver migration and recruitment come from pass-traps mounted on
barriers in estuaries and rivers. Good data sets have come from commercial trap-and-transport systems (e.g. in the
Bann-Lough Neagh fishery in Ireland) and from experimental systems (e.g. Knights et al, 1996). Long-tertn studies
have illustrated declines in recruitment, agreeing with the conclusions drawn earlier in this report from. Detailed
catchment studies show that barriers interfere with upriver migration and recruitment (White and Knights, 1997a).
3.3.5 Conclusions
In order to better apply the precautionary principle to local, regional and international management, more information
is required on key aspects of the biology of eel and the impacts of fisheries and other factors. Infortnation currently
available is fragmentary and based on relatively few experimental studies, except for a few fisheries, such as Lough
Neagh and Lake Usselmeer. Localised studies may be appropriate but the major research requirements that need to be
co-ordinated and inter-calibrated throughout all countries are:

3.3.2 Assessment of eel stock density More accurate, extensive and intensive monitoring of
Eel can be sampled by electrofishing in fairly shallow and transparent waters. Capture efficiency is often low,
(a) glass eel catches and recruitment
however, especially for small eel. It is also difficult to reliably mark eel. Recapture rates of marked eel are commonly <
(b) upstream elver/yellow eel migration and recruitment
2%, therefore standard catch-depletion methods of population estimation are rendered inaccurate. However,
(c) stock distribution, density, age, growth rates and sex ratios
indications of relative density can be gained. Densities can also be estimated for catchments where elver entry and
(d) escapement of silver eel
silver eel exit has been quantified, e.g. as in the Irnsa system in Norway (V~llestad and Jonsson, 1988). Data in
Table 3.3 show a very wide range of densities in European rivers, partly explained by sampling efficiency but also by
Further analytical and methodological research, involving studies of
differences in habitat and whether local populations are dominated by small or large eel. Ranges are between 0.1-1300
eel 100 m" and 0.5-328 kg hal. Interpretation of such data for management purposes is not easy, but relative
(a) natural biological production and commercial yields
differences can be related to habitat quality (e.g. average temperature and productivity) and to distance inland and to
(b) natural vs. fishery mortality
the impacts of migration barriers (e.g. see Naismith and Knights, 1993).
The above studies need integrating with others on the possible impacts of anthropogenic factors, such as migration
In deeper open still-water and saline habitats, electrofishing cannot be used. The area sampled by fyke nets in such
barriers, habitat quality and disease. Whilst of low priority in the short-tertn, further knowledge of the migration of
habitats is unknown and thus no density data are shown in the tables. Shallow open waters, such as Lake Usselmeer,
silver eel, reproduction and Leptocephalus biology could clarify oceanic causes of declining recruitment and, in the
can be sampled by trawling. long-tertn, the possibilities of artificial propagation.

3.3.3 Assessment of production and yield

Biological production can be related to habitat quality, carrying capacities, etc. but problems of assessing biomass,
recruitment and growth rates mean that few such data are available. Sampling methods are biased towards the capture
of large eel, fyke nets only being satisfactory at catching eel> 30-40 cm. Marking and recapture also pose problems,
as discussed above. Detailed data shown in Annex 3 indicate that more southerly waters (e.g. Italian lagoons) tend to
be the most productive habitats and that production in lakes exceeds that in rivers.
More infortnation is available on commercial yields of yellow and silver eel, but mainly from closed lakes that have
been stocked at known levels. Yields tend to be lower in more open waters because of the difficulties of efficient
capture by fyke net or long-lining and by silver eel nets and traps. For the purposes of European comparisons, average
annual yields (in kg ha") were assumed to be 10 for fresh still waters, 10 for fresh running waters, 20 for closed saline
waters and 5 for open saline waters. Some local differences were taken into account, e.g. lower values in the Baltic
(because of low stock densities and difficulties of capture) but a potentially very high value (40 kg ha") in productive
closed Italian lagoons. Growth rates tend to be decrease with increasing latitude because of lower average water
temperatures and shorter growth seasons which in turn affects age and length at metamorphosis to the silver eel
(V~llestad, 1992). High density stocks tend to produce a preponderance of males (Knights and White, 1997a).
In relation to escapement of silver eel, the consensus was that this was generally in the order of 12%. In the Baltic and
Lough Neagh (Northern Ireland) where there is more knowledge because silver eel are exploited, values were thought
to be nearer to 30%.
3.3.4 Natural and fishing mortality
Ideally, infortnation is needed on the relative impacts of fisheries compared to natural causes of mortality at different
stages of the life-cycle. This would help clarify whether stocks are being over-exploited and whether controls on
fisheries are required. However, there are few data available for natural mortality between immigrant glass eel and
emigrant silver eel stages. This is because of difficulties in sampling populations and accurately detertnining ages, plus
the lack of infortnation on fishing effort. Stocking studies suggest that natural mortality is in the order of 75% over the
total continental life span. The impacts of fishing mortality are rarely known. In Lake Usselmeer, annual fishing
mortality (F) is in the order of 0.5 (Dekker, 1996b). The fishing mortality in Lough Neagh (N. Ireland) is assumed to
be of a comparable magnitude.
3.4 Management objectives
3.4.1 Overview
Management of eel stocks has been practised for centuries allover Europe, without centralised management objectives.
In most cases, local objectives are unclear or only implicitly indicated. A thorough review of these objectives goes
beyond the scope of this report. However, the following main streams can be identified.
3.4.1.1 Food supply
Although the eel once contributed directly to the diet of fishertnen and local communities, it has assumed the status of
a lUXury food item and the high price of all life stages and the adequate trading infrastructure in even the smallest
outpost of the eel's distribution area, have made this objective a thing of the past.
3.4.1.2 Rural employment
The first phase of the Concerted Action estimated that 25,000 people acquire an income from the eel fisheries. Almost
all of the existing management actions discussed in Section 2.5 refer - explicitly or implicitly - to the maximisation of
their income by maximisation of their yield.
3.4 .1.3 Maximisation of production of natural resources
Although this objective has often been stated in close connection with the previous one, explicit references to this ideal
have become quite rare. The crucial distinction with the previous objective lies in the value attached to the optimal
exploitation of natural resources, independent of their economic potential.
3.4.1.4 Protection of the population and species
The recent decline in recruitment has elicited serious concerns about the possible endangertnent of the eel species. It
has been argued that the observed recruitment decline might mainly be due to oceanic effects but that the situation is
exacerbated by human activities such as reduction of habitat in continental waters, overfishing and pollution (see
Section 3.2.1).
3.4.1.5 Conservation of biodiversity
The eel has a significant position in the aquatic ecosystem as an important predator and as a contributor to the diet of
other highly esteemed aquatic predators such as otters and herons.

22 23
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
3.4,1,6 Suboptimal management
In many cases, current practices do not confonn to any of the objectives listed above, because of a mismatch between
stated objecti ves and the actual state of affairs. Overfishing of yellow eel stocks, insufficient control of the glass eel
disposition or lack of knowledge on the current state of fisheries occur in several countries (Chapter 2). However, in all
countries actions are taken by the managers (Section 2.5) in response to one or more of the objectives listed above.
3.4.2 Conflicting objectives
Management actions to enhance the European stocks are proposed in the subsequent chapters. These seem to be in
conflict with some of the objectives listed here. Objectives 3.4.1,4 and 3.4.1,5 require that eel eventually end up free,
while objective 3.4.1,2 requires as much eel to be caught in the end as possible. Given the geographical stratification
of the life stages of the eel and the corresponding geographical stratification in its exploitation, this apparent conflict
between objectives confonns to contrasts between countries in the relative weight they assign to the objectives, namely
in contrasts between southern and northern Europe.
However, assigning global and mandatory priorities to the objectives at the international level would introduce an
unprecedented and unnecessary discontinuity in the management of the eel population. Local management actions to
enhance the fisheries by additional stockings or controls to the fisheries have so far only acted to enhance the local
stocks. Thereby, management actions have unintentionally contributed to the role of the eel in the ecosystem and may
be manipulated to improve the contribution to the escapement of maturing eel to the spawning process. Historically,
there has always been a more or less stable balance between the different management objectives, a balance between
'to have' and 'to eat'.
3.4.3 Spawning stock biomass
There is a point to be made with respect to the safeguarding of the spawner escapement and the possible control of the
eel fisheries. As indicated in Section 3.2, the Minimum Biological Acceptable Level for the spawning stock of eel is
unknown, but it is unlikely that the current escapement (minimal estimate: 595 t, Table 2.3) would be insufficient to
sustain the population. Additionally, recent recruitment levels are adequate to stock all of the suitable habitats in the
EU (Section 3.2.3), provided that they are redistributed over the continent.
So far, few silver eel fisheries are known to have 100% efficiency; in many countries, there are legal measures to
prevent full efficiency. In the few cases in which an actual estimate of the efficiency could be made, results indicated
an efficiency of less than 75% (Section 2.4). A notable exception is the extensive Italian aquaculture systems, where
the lagoons have been managed in order to retain all silver eel.
Therefore, unless unprecedented improvements in the efficiency of silver eel fisheries take place, there is no
unambiguous ground for fonnulating additional control measures for the conservation of the species, nor for setting
priorities for the objectives listed above.
3.4.4 Conclusion
The objectives of management of eel fisheries vary between countries and are often only implicitly known. At the
international level, no management objective has as yet been stated explicitly. Potential management measures to
enhance the continental stock will contribute to all management objectives. Potential alterations in the priorities of
objectives might be considered at national and international levels, but they need not be based on the precautionary
approach to fish stock management, unless future developments and results of research indicate to the contrary.
3.5 Management options
The major tools available to fisheries managers are to control eel fisheries or to compensate for lack of recruitment and
low stocks by (a) stocking (using purchased eel or inter- and intra-catchment trap-and-transport) and (b) provision of
passes on barriers to enhance recruitment into freshwater catchments. Artificial propagation could in theory be used to
spare wild-caught seed stock. However, it is extremely unlikely that this will ever be feasible, given the marine
reproductive strategies of eel and the oceanic nature of the planktonic Leptocephalus stage.
The first stage in any management plan is to decide on objectives and priorities, which requires data on current stocks,
population dynamics, etc., as discussed in Section 3.3. Catch return data are then required to provide infonnation for
fisheries managers.
24
C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
3.5.1 Controls on fisheries
Such measures include restrictions on fishing areas, times or methods to prevent or reduce exploitation. There is a lack
of consistency in the specific controls on gear, closed seasons, etc. used in different European countries. These have
evolved to match local fishery conditions and traditions and some measures are not specifically directed at protecting
eel but to the management of other species or other constraints (e.g. conservation or navigation). These national
differences make it difficult to propose common legislation applicable to all European fisheries.
3.5.2 Stocking strategies
Stocking can be a cost-effective means of restoring or maintammg yields in fisheries and meeting biological
conservation requirements (Knights and White, 1997a). It is essential in catchments with barriers where passes are
ineffective and in isolated waters suitable for eel. Any increases in escapement of silver eel production (especially of
large females of high fecundity) will also enhance the panmictic stock.
There have been relatively few detailed and long-tenn studies of stocking to infonn fisheries managers. These have
been reviewed by Knights and White (1997a). Ideally glass eel, elver and yellow eel should be caught for transfer
within catchments but these are currently rarely enough available (except for the Atlantic-facing estuaries of the UK
and France). Imports have to be relied upon but then high costs are a major disincentive, as are restrictions imposed by
countries such as Sweden to prevent disease transmission. Quarantining and on-growing can help overcome some of
these problems but increase costs further.
Careful pre-stocking assessments are required, including clarification of who is to pay for stocking and who owns
catches, given the context of local and national regulations and jurisdictions over fishing. Stocks must be carefully
exploited to maximise commercial yields. Low temperatures, short sununers and poor habitat quality will restrict
growth rates, increase the length of time between stocking and exploitation and decrease the length of the fishing
season. To maximise the capture of larger and more valuable eel, it is important to minimise escapement and, if
possible, be able to trap inunigrant silver eel. Stocking density and exploitation rates must also be adjusted to ensure
that optimum sex ratios are maintained. Lower densities generally promote the development of longer maturing and
larger females of high fecundity.
Knights and White (l997a) concluded that more detailed and long-tenn research is needed on optimum stocking rates
in different waters. In warmer and more productive still waters, these generally appear to be about 0.1 kg ha'! (i.e.
about 300 glass eel/elver ha-! or an equivalent weight of juveniles). The potential yield is about 20 kg ha'! at 40-50 g
per recruit. Data on survival rates are sparse but the evidence reviewed in Table 3.3 (and Annex 3) suggests a typical
figure to be 20-30% between glass eel/elver stocking and final exploitation. To maintain the same yields in colder and
less productive lakes, stocking rates should be reduced to 150-200 eel ha·!. In both cases, numbers ha'! can be reduced
if on-grown or wild-caught yellow eel are stocked but this will increase initial stocking costs.
Data are also sparse for rivers but Knights and White (1997a) recommended that eel should be scatter-stocked (to
minimise density-dependent mortality) in rivers in the sununer, when temperatures are high enough to encourage
dispersal. Typical stocking densities used are 1-2 eel m" in low productivity waters, rising to 4-5 eel m" in warmer
waters with plenty of bottom cover and/or marginal vegetation and high productivity of macro-invertebrate prey.
3.5.3 The use of passes to enhance recruitment into freshwater catchments
Passes on migration barriers can playa useful role in enhancing migration and recruitment of young eel into certain
freshwater catchments. However, quantitative data on their cost-effectiveness is lacking (Knights, 1997).
25
 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997

The first priorities are to detennine the needs for passes and to derive sustainable and cost-effective management However, to enhance the utilisation of catchments and hence fisheries and natural community structures, the provision
objectives. lmportant site-specific factors are: (a) the number, types, purposes, management and distributions of of passes on barners IS a valuable management option, as is stocking, using trap-and-transport systems within and
obstructions in a catchment, (b) estimation of the significance of each in tenns of passability and the availability of between catchments and ~ountnes. Care must be taken, however, to match stocking densities to the carrying capacities
alternative routes, (c) the extent and quality of habitat that would be opened up to migrants, (d) the location and of different habItats of different qualIty. AnCIllary tools are to protect habitats currently used by eel, to enhance the
effectiveness of any existing fishways and (e) the number and sizes of eel that might benefit. To quantify the impacts qualIty of these habItats and any new ones opened up by stocking and to aid escapement of silver eel where
appropriate.
of barriers, past and present commercial and fishery survey data should be analysed. lmpacts can also be assessed by
sampling immigrants directly using simple pass-traps or predictions made from infonnation from similar catchments.
lnsufficient infonnation is available in the literature to set precise recruitment targets but Knights (1997) concluded
2
that typical targets for young migrants are about 40-50 per 100 eel m· for productive river systems and 10-20 per
100 eel m·2 for less productive ones. Another approach is to set annual recruitment targets on the numbers of migrants
caught in experimental pass-traps.

A wide variety of pass designs is available but basic requirements are: (i) a flow of water to attract fish towards a pass,
(ii) suitable design and placement of the entrance and exit, and (iii) suitable water velocities down a pass and/or the
prOvision of some fonn of climbing material to aid ascent. Barriers can be rendered climbable by providing a rough
surface (i.e. to fonn a rock wall). Eel ladders can be provided up which eel can climb. These can consist of by-pass
channels or pipes or troughs attached to barriers, provided with suitable climbing material, e.g. geotextiles, brushes or
horticultural netting.

Long-tenn post-construction monitoring is essential to ensure that passes are efficiently maintained and managed and
to provide infonnation for other schemes. Fitting traps on passes will provide useful infonnation on eel migration,
recruitment, population distributions and dynamics. Traps can also be used to provide eel for stocking.

3.5.4 Discussion
Doubts have been expressed in this report that the European eel is an endangered species. However, recruitment has
been shown to have declined drastically throughout Europe, particularly in more northerly and southerly countries.
This has severely impacted some natural stocks and commercial fisheries and it is possible that the recruitment
situation could worsen in the future. The precautionary principle should therefore be applied in order to protect the
species, as well as to help maintain sustainable stocks for commercial exploitation and for conservation in a general
biodiversity context. Overall, however, there is little consistency throughout Europe in management objectives,
practices and enforcement.

Catch return data are commonly required to provide infonnation for managers. However, catch-return data are
generally of poor quality (Knights et al., 1996) and all country reports noted that underclaiming of catches by
fishennen was widespread. Ideally, commercial catch data should be collected in a standardised way in all countries to
help quantify recruitment and exploitation.

It could be argued that the current high levels of commercial fishing of eel (especially of glass eel) should be curtailed
by law. This would be difficult to achieve, requiring changes in fishing regulations in the main producing countries
and, possibly, payment of financial compensation to fishennen and dealers. Restrictions would also be difficult to
enforce. It is also debatable whether fishing has a significant impact on the total panmictic European stock, given
probable low fishing mortalities, high escapement and the amount of aquatic habitat that is not exploited at all.

If oceanic factors are of paramount importance in controlling initial recruitment, it could be argued that there are no
practicable and cost-effective means by which the overall panmictic European eel stock can be managed. Given that
glass eel/elver fisheries are geographically localised, fishery controls would only directly offer significant benefits to
the associated river catchment and local stocks.

Ideally, under-utilised habitats and unexploited low density stocks could be augmented to encourage production of
mature males and females to enhance the breeding stock. This would have to be carried out on a large scale to make
any significant extra contribution to natural production in unexploited fresh, brackish and coastal waters. Furthennore,
any recoveries in recruitment might be negated by the demands for glass eel/elver for aquaculture and direct
consumption in Spain.

27
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
4. MONITORING AND RESEARCH
The European eel is a highly migratory, catadromous but essentially marine fish species, which only completes some
of its life stages in continental waters. Oceanic and continental distribution present a complete contrast: although the
hypothesis that there is only a single spawning stock in the ocean has not been seriously challenged, this stock has
never been observed. In continental waters the distribution of the eel is characterised by extreme scattering over almost
all water bodies but information is only available on local stocks.
The implications of the common responsibility for the single spawning stock and the practical problems of monitoring
and managing the scattered continental resource are discussed below. This chapter summarises past management-
related research on eel and proposes a baseline for future co-operative monitoring and research, integrating the
national and international levels.
During the discussions of the EIFAC/lCES Working Party on Eel and the Concerted Action in 1996, it was
emphasised that the Management Plan to be compiled by the Concerted Action would have a weak basis, unless
supplemented by an international scheme for monitoring and fundamental research to resolve essential biological
questions. Therefore, the implications of the achievements of the Concerted Action for future monitoring and research
were considered.
4.1 Objectives
Eel fisheries have so far been managed only on a local or national basis, with management objectives varying from
local employment through maximisation of food production to conservation of the population at regional scales
(Section 3.4). In the absence of any perceived need for international management, the eel fisheries have been run for
many decades as if they represent parallel fisheries on independent local stocks. Although this management system
appears to conform to the subsidiarity principle, it has not been based on a deliberate application of the principle.
Recently the question has been posed as to whether management at the national level can sustain the stocks throughout
the distribution area.
Since the 1980s, several independent trends have raised international issues in eel management and research:
4.1.1 Recruitment from the ocean has declined allover Europe (Section 3.2).
4.1.2 The yield of fisheries on the growing phases of the eel has shown a gradual decline over the past decades
(Section 2.3).
4.1.3 National governments have cut down their funding for monitoring and research related to eel fisheries. The
mismatch between the recent pressure for international management advice and the reductions in regular
research budgets has stimulated eel workers to apply co-operatively for international funding, as exemplified
by this Concerted Action progranune.
4.1.4 Most recently, the demand for European glass eel from eastern Asia has suddeuly increased very sharply.
Aquaculturists and inland fisheries organisatious are alarmed at the international level, because of their
inability to afford adequate amounts of stocking material.
Management of inland eel fisheries has long been considered to be a national responsibility only. However, because of
the location of the common breeding stock in the open ocean and the highly migratory status of the stock, international
management of the continent-wide aspects of the stock is a prerequisite for sustainable management at national scales.
The following points are of importance:
4.1.5 As the EIFAC/lCES Working Party on Eel reported in its 1996 meeting in Umuiden, concern about the
minimum spawning stock required to safeguard recruitment and the sustainability of the fisheries leads to
consideration of the concept of the Minimum Biological Acceptable Level (MBAL) for this stock. In the
case of the eel, this would require setting a minimal level to the number of escaping eel, which can
contribute to the oceanic spawning process. Since all known spawning takes place outside territorial waters,
the safeguarding ofMBAL is necessarily an international objective (Section 3.4).
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C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
4.1.6 The eel industries support employment in rural areas and fishing communities. Although incomes from
fishenes m mdiVldual waters are generally small, the total impact allover Europe is substantial. Local
management by national or regional authorities focuses only on short-term local issues at the expense of
enhancing socio-economic benefits throughout Europe.
4.1.7 Eel represent a significant component of the aquatic ecosystem, including their considerable contribution to
the diet of many other fish and semi-aquatic predators such as otters, cormorants, herons, etc. This implies
that the management of the eel stock should take account of the broader needs of biodiversity conservation.
Recent bird protection schemes require so-called fly-way management, consistent management throughout
the fly-way of the predators. A similar approach should be considered for such a highly migratory species as
the eel.
4.1.8 Eel and eel fisheries are found allover Europe, but most intensively in areas of maximal human
environmental impact, namely the coastal fringe of the continent. Consequently, eel have been chosen as an
indicator species of contine~t-wide monitoring progranunes on pollution. The decrease of the eel is certainly
an mtegrallve sIgnal of envrronmental stress caused by man, including the effects of pollution, habitat loss
and degradation and migration barriers.
4.1.9 The precautionary approach has been adopted in several international conventions. Since the eel has been
managed on varying local scales, management objectives have varied and are often unclear. Since the
precautionary prinCiple is given higher priority than local, short-term objectives, a thorough re-examination
of the management structure of the eel stock in Europe is urgently needed.
4.2 Monitoring
The. eel represents essentially an international, marine resource, which only completes part of its life cycle in
contmental waters, where It IS exploited. Because individual eel fisheries represent only the pixels of the complete
pIcture of the eel m Europe, It has taken considerable time to realise that the total eel stock is under severe stress.
Consequently, when the common responsibility for this unique living resource is considered, a first requirement is that
the momtormg progranunes are tailored to the international management objectives, so that management actions can
be related to the true state of the stock. Over the years, the impact of the exploitation has changed considerably,
because of mcreases m the level of exploitation and because of natural changes in the stock. Consequently, sustainable
exploitation can only be achieved through continued monitoring of the stock and its fisheries.
4.2.1 Existing national monitoring
The immigration of glass eel coming from the ocean is presently monitored at 13 sites along the European coast either
by surveying the fisheries or by dedicated sampling. Personnel involved: ± 8 man-years. '
Specific monitoring studies of the growing phases of eel are scarce, lake Usselmeer (Netherlands), Sharmon catchment
(Ireland) and the Baltic coast of Sweden probably being the only substantial ones. Personnel involved amounts to 5
man-years (I in Netherlands, <0.1 in Ireland, 4 in Sweden).
Additionally, more general fish surveys in France, Sweden, Great Britain and to a minor extent the Netherlands
related to general fisheries and polluti~n management do provide incidental data on eel. However, sampling and daU:
collatIOn and analysIs methods vary WIdely and need integrated approaches. Total personnel for the general surveys
are est1ffiated at ± 50 man-years. The share of the eel in this cost is difficult to estimate; a first bold guess amounts to
10%, I.e. 5 man-years.
There is at present only one comprehensive study of the interplay of stock density and fishing effort: the assessments of
the lake Usselmeer (Netherlands) eel fisheries, which are armually reported to the national government. Personnel: I
man-year.
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Many countries collect catch statistics, but these are rarely complete: incomplete coverage, as well as under-reporting,
makes the use of these statistics questionable even at the national level. The reliability of these data tends to
deteriorate, although eel scientists have succeeded in unearthing more of these sources in the past few years. The
sharply increasing price on the international glass eel market has had a pronounced effect on the fishing effort in the
glass eel fisheries. The statistics on the total yield of glass eel have often been used as rough indicators of recruitment,
but they are now more indicative of the impact made by man than of the well-being of the eel stock itself.
4.2.2 Existing international monitoring
At the meetings of the EIFAC/ICES Working Party On Eel, the data available from national surveys on glass eel
recruiting from the ocean have been summarised. Although similar declines are apparent, the Working Party has so
far not attempted to derive one single index of recruitment. Possible contrasts amongst data series for different
glass eel fisheries could provide information on still obscure processes acting during the oceanic life stages.
Individual members have presented overviews of the eel fisheries in their countries on several occasions, but in the
absence of common management objectives or common factors driving the fisheries, no international research co-
ordination has taken place in the past.
All the current inputs to an international overview have been run at national expense. This has severely limited the
personnel invested and resulted in fragmented and uncoordinated studies. It is unlikely that further investments from
national sources will be substantial and hence international initiatives are even more imperative.
4.2.3 Future requirements for monitoring
Requirements for future monitoring are closely linked to the management objectives to be set at the international level.
Whatever the objectives, these will probably not require a complete coverage of all individual rivers and lakes on a
yearly basis. Monitoring has so far relied on a small number of the better-documented cases. This information has
been used as if it represented a complete survey. It is doubtful whether one can improve upon the completeness on a
permanent basis, or even whether it is worthwhile pursuing. Establishment of a set of selected cases for yearly
monitoring, however, is a feasible objective and sufficient information is now available for selecting a reliable sample
of the full survey of all waters, which is unachievable on a yearly basis.
The selection of this sample of sites must reflect the following (Section 3.3):
4.2.3.1 The strength of the recruitment to the continent, independent of the socio-economic factors driving the
fisheries and independent of local (e.g. climatic) factors. The experiences at the currently running series at
Den Oever (Netherlands, constant effort in research sampling) and in French estuaries (partly discontinued
surveys of commercial fishery based on effort and catch) provide a basis for future selection of sites and
methods, as can experiences in by-catches of eel in marine planktonic surveys (ICES International Young
Fish Survey).
4.2.3.2 The density and production of the continental stocks contributing to the spawner escapement to the ocean.
In principle, direct monitoring of the escapement should definitely be preferred, but this has seldom been
achieved so far. A notable exception are studies in the Baltic (involving long-range tagging studies), a prime
production area of female spawners. Monitoring of yellow eel stocks, a pre-spawner survey, is a second
option for monitoring the spawner escapement elsewhere, in view of the known problems of monitoring
silver eel migration. Studies in lake IJsselmeer (Netherlands), the Severn and the Thames and Avon (Great
Britain) basins provide the required basic experience.
4.2.3.3 Monitoring of exploitation should refiect the different fisheries on various life stages of the eel. In view of
the geographical differences of the fishing techniques throughout Europe (glass eel fisheries around the Bay
of Biscay, yellow and silver eel fisheries in central and northern Europe), this conforms to a geographical
stratification of the monitoring. This would also yield information on the contributions of eel fisheries to
rural economies and fishing communities.
All such monitoring studies should be run at spatial intervals around the continent. However, before selecting the
appropriate sampling sites, an intensified survey should be undertaken, aiming towards complete coverage of at least
the most important catchment areas. This should be repeated at intervals of approx. 10 years, with annual sampling at
sites chosen following the first survey.
30
C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
In addition to the monitoring related to the stock-wide management objectives, local management might require
additional activities. Since the local objectives vary widely over Europe, no common line emerges at the international
level. However, it would be more cost-effective for national monitoring to fit in with the internationally co-ordinated
monitoring or at least to inter-calibrate national monitoring studies in their own right.
4.3 Methodological research related to monitoring
4.3.1 Historic overview
Almost all countries have at some time invested in methodological research on eel, in parallel with the monitoring
actlVlt1es of therr local eel stocks. Three main life stages, in running and still waters and with or without commercial
exploitation using many different fishing techniques have resulted in a wide range of monitoring methods being used.
New monitoring series have evidently been based on past experiences, but - because of the wide range of objectives
and settmgs - no standardisation or intercalibration has been attempted.
In the 1980s, the EIFAC/ICES Working Party On Eel took the initiative for two reviews on methodological issues
(ageing: V¢llestad et al., 1988, and tagging: Nielsen, 1988).
4.3.2 Required methodological research
The requirements for methodological research follow directly from the requirements for monitoring listed above:
4.3.2.1 The provision of a standardised baseline survey of the eel fisheries throughout Europe. This survey will
proVlde detailed information, not accessible at the international level on a nation by nation basis,
supplementing the outline material assembled by the Concerted Action.
4.3.2.2 The selection of sites for continuous monitoring. This requires considering the local conditions of specific
cases, as well as the consequences for (and limitations imposed by) national management. Ideally, existing
long time series of local monitoring activities should be incorporated.
4.3.2.3 The inter-calibration of monitoring methods, paying due attention to limitations set by the widely differing
habitats and life stages of the eel to be sampled.
4.3.2.4 Exploration of the potential for direct monitoring of spawner escapement in a wider setting than just the
Baltic.
4.3.2.5 The inter-calibration of fisheries assessment methods, distinguishing separate methods for fisheries on
separate life stages (glass eel fisheries around Bay of Biscay, yellow and silver eel fisheries in central and
northern Europe).
4.4 Analytical research
Management of fish stocks is generally based on analytical insight into the processes governing production and
exploitation on the one hand and current information on the status of the stock (monitoring) on the other. Concerning
the biOlogy of the eel, the analytical basis for management is relatively weak. The discussion here will focus on the
aspects relevant to the management at the international level.
4.4.1 National
The earliest reference to experimental research on fish ecology is undoubtedly Aristotle's description of the
spontaneous appearance of eel in a pool which had previously been carefully cleaned of eel. Since those days, many
aspects of the biology of the species have been studied. These research projects have been run almost entirely on a
national basis; the greater part of the impressive work by Johannes Schmidt in the Atlantic Ocean was even privately
funded. Current investment in research relevant to eel management and conservation is probably in the order of
magnitude of 5 man-years per annum.
It is therefore not surprising that many aspects of the biology of the eel are not yet fully understood: age and growth,
sexual differentiation, mortalities during recruitment and inland life and, most prominent of all, the reproductive
process itself, are incompletely known.
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
4.4.2 International
During the 1991 meeting of the ElFAC/ICES Working Party On Eel in Dublin (Ireland), it was realised that
international co-operation might yield insights that are not achievable at the national level. Consequently, three co-
operative projects were set up (recruittnent, growth, pollution) for compiling data available from national projects and
analysing the general trends. These projects were run at national expense. Because of the limited budgets available,
this approach has met with only limited success. Only the review of pollution has been finished (Knights, 1997).
At the 1993 meeting of the ElFAC/ICES Working Party On Eel in Olsztyn (Poland), the exploration of potentials for
co-operative work was given a logical extension with the compilation of a list of research subjects, aimed at a better
understanding of the biology and exploitation of the eel. This list also included projects to be run at the international
level, on a co-operative scale rather than simply the integration of national projects. However, the Working Party felt
unable to assign a priority ordering and the initiative was left to individual members. Again, the steady reductions in
national budgets have inhibited this approach.
In spring 1996, four independent proposals for studies on eel were submitted under the FAIR-programme (age
determination, recruittnent simulation, genetics, tagging of spawners). The common line in the comments received on
each of these proposals was that the Management Plan of the ongoing Concerted Action should be completed first.
This implies a linkage between management requirements and the funding of analytical research.
In the autumn of 1996, at the meeting of the ElFAC/ICES Working Party On Eel in IJmuiden (Netherlands), it was
agreed that the Management Plan to be compiled would have a weak basis unless it would be supplemented with an
international scheme for monitoring and for an increased level of fundamental research.
4.4.3 Required analytical research
4.4.3.1 Analytical research: eel in contrast to other species
Local management of eel fisheries has been practised for centuries. Although several processes (growth, sexual
differentiation, etc.) are not analytically understood, one can only conclude that the knowledge-base is sufficiently
developed to sustain or enhance the rural fisheries on a local scale. Improvements can be expected from long-term
analytical research funded on the usual competitive basis, provided that eel research in itself is competitive relative to
research on other species. In this respect it is noted that process-oriented research rarely chooses the eel as its subject,
because of the relatively poor understanding of its biology compared to other species. The extreme adaptability to
environmental diversity makes the eel a slippery animal. Temporary special dispensations for research on eel might be
needed to allow eel research to catch up with that on other species.
4.4.3.2 Analytical research related to proposed international management
On the continental scale, stocking material is transported, mostly from the southern Atlantic coasts of Europe towards
central and northern Europe. The effects of these fishing and stocking practices are poorly known, neither at the
source nor at the seed-receiving side. Additionally, the transport from one side of the population range to another
might introduce effects on homing to the breeding grounds or the population genetics of the species.
Given the immense number of newly recruiting glass eel entering the rivers on these coasts, it is likely that the natural
recruittnent could exceed optimal carrying capacities for local catchments, such as the Loire and Severn, but the
fishing pressure exerted on the incoming recruits is also immense. Since any potential effect on the escaping glass eel
and subsequent recruittnent will only become evident many years later, the depletion of the stocks in the regions of
glass eel fisheries and the question of natural mortality have attracted too little attention in the participating countries
so far.
The immense increase in the price of glass eel has raised questions on the cost-effectiveness of stocking, noting the
very long investtnent period (10 years) and the open boundaries of most fishing areas (Section 2.5).
Tagging studies in the Baltic have provided some evidence that restocked foreign eel may differ from natural
immigrants in their ability to find their way back to the breeding grounds and hence their contribution to the spawning
stock (Westin, 1990). The basis is unknown and presents an important challenge that may be related to genetics or
navigational imprinting or both.
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C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
4.4.3.3 Analytical research integrating existing knowledge
The eel is an adaptable and ubiquitous species, with ecologically distinct life stages and a wide geographical
distribution. The extremely small pixel size that makes up the overall picture of the species in Europe has been
stressed several times and the consequences for management, monitoring and research have been discussed.
Observational studies are necessarily related to the lowest geographical level, the eel population in a local water body.
At the international level and, independently, at the level of general ecosystem analysis, there can be no lasting
interest for individual pixels. The identification of global trends as well as ecological constraints in general must be
sought. Integrating studies so far have failed because of the mismatch between the responsibilities of the financing
parties and the goals aimed at. The compilation of supra-national studies as well as the integration of eel in broader
ecological studies requires international concerted actions. Since thls concerted action is a condition sine qua non for
national research bodies, it provides the international manager the opportunity to achieve cost-effective integrative
studies in close co-operation with research run by governments.
4.4.3.4 Analytical research related to the large scale of the life cycle of the eel
Eel reproduce in the Sargasso Sea area, but the precise location is still mare incognitum. The recent downward trends
in recruittnent have raised serious concerns about the spawning stock size. Because of the sheer size of the potential
area where the true spawning location might be found, no analytical research has been undertaken for nearly 20 years.
Even these efforts did little more than increase the precision of the discoveries of Schmidt in the first quarter of the
20th century.
Although concern about the size of the spawning stock was shared by the ElFAC/ICES Working Party On Eel at its
1996 meeting in IJmuiden (Netherlands), no scientific advice about the need for fisheries restriction could be provided.
Until analytical research addressing the reproduction problem is undertaken in the long run, management advice will
remain specUlative. Should the current poor recruittnent continue or deteriorate further and even if it improves and a
subsequent failure occurs, scientifically based advice on this aspect will remain inadequate. Taking into account the
costs of ocean-wide research programmes, analytical research concerning the reproduction can only be based on a
long-term research plan, executed at an international scale.
The impact of aquaculture on the wild stock of eel has shown a sharp increase during the term of the Concerted
Action. In the European setting, aquaCUlture has often been integrated in the management of the wild stock, for
instance in the use of pregrown elver for stocking outdoor waters. However, the use of glass eel for aquaculture in
eastern Asia has changed the impact dramatically: glass eel are removed from the wild population, to be grown in
man-controlled systems in eastern Asia, without any being returned to the wild population. This removal severely
threatens the wild stocks. Attempts to induce artificial reproduction have failed at the young larval stage. Knowledge
of the natural reproduction process at sea might provide clues to the key factors related to maturation. In the end, this
might result in successful artificial reproduction, uncoupling the commercial exploitation of eel culture and the
conservation of the wild stock.
4.5 Implementation of this monitoring and research plan
This report has highlighted the importance of the eel stock as an international, marine derived resource which is of the
highest biological and commercial value in its continental life stages. A baseline for monitoring and research related
to international management is outlined. Implementation of this baseline requires working up of the required
geographical, temporal and statistical detail, including aspects of methodology, data collection and processing, co-
ordination and communication to management. Although the route to be taken is evident, details of the programme
cannot be finalised at this stage. Co-ordination and synchronisation between managers at the national and
international level on the one hand and scientists working on the common eel stock on the other, should have first
priority. The elaboration of a detailed plan of action will then be a straightforward task for the eel workers invol ved.
In preparation for that synchronisation, the following considerations with respect to management level are paramount:
4.5.1 Monitoring projects related to international management will make a major contribution to local
management. Co-financing by national and international parties is the most obvious structure here. The
total manpower currently involved in eel management-related research and monitoring is estimated to be 19
man-years. Full implementation of the international monitoring scheme will require an additional 10 man-
years.
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
4.5.2 Baseline survey. All of the work under this heading will be done at national level. The results will in due
course be analysed at international level, but most nations will also benefit immediately from the collation of
information above the regional scale. Therefore, the subsidiarity principle indicates a major share of
national funding. Costs are estimated at 2 man-years per country over a 2-year period, with the exception of
France and Italy, which will require double this input, because of the size of these countries and their
intensive eel culture and fisheries.
4.5.3 Methodological research on monitoring is inherently linked with the monitoring itself. The route proposed
here, essentially starts off from the national level, integrating existing knowledge in special Working Party
meetings, concentrating on documentation of the methodologies used and their inter-calibration.
International involvement is needed only to steer the national efforts towards the common goal, as by a
Concerted Action structure.
4.5.4 Analytical research can seldom be cost-effective on a national basis, because of the great temporal and
spatial scales involved and the limited application of the resulting knowledge within single countries.
However, conducting parallel lines of research on all aspects of the biology of the eel within every single
country is obviously not cost-effective. Therefore, a co-ordinated sharing of research effort between national
Institutes is the only means of achieving the final goals. A Shared Cost status will reflect both the common
goal and local work.
4.5.5 Breeding. Although all parties have a long-term' interest in the common breeding stock, without
international initiatives none of the countries will undertake any research of appreciable size related to the
breeding problem. Therefore, international involvement is a prerequisite for support by national
governments. Because of this special structure and the sheer size of the problem and field area, a dedicated
implementation will be needed.
4.6 Conclusion
The eel qualifies as a single, highly migratory fish stock, found in all European waters. The requirements for
monitoring and research implied by this status have been outlined in this chapter.
Essential monitoring should reflect the highly migratory status of the eel while covering the scattered distribution area
in continental waters and the wide range of fishing techniques on different life stages throughout the continent.
The analytical basis for management is relatively weak; future research should first concentrate on the proposed
management actions, Research co-ordinated between countries will be most cost-effective.
Until a long-term research prograrmne is instituted to address the still unknown reproduction process and oceanic
stages of the eel, future management advice on the status of the whole stock will remain speculative.
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C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
5. MANAGEMENT PLAN
It is clear from the foregoing chapters that, although many phases of the eel fishery may be managed within countries,
the eel is a shared marine resource and must be treated as such. Management-related information on stocks,
recruitment and population dynamics is seriously limited when compared with that relating to a number of the most
valuable marine fish. In spite of this, the data gathered in the course of the concerted action are sufficient to compile a
provisional management plan for the species.
Chapter 3.5 considers the available management tools. This chapter summarises the case for international action,
presents a list of options ranging from extreme measures to complete inaction, followed by a table of the national
priorities. The chapter ends with a recommendation for international action.
5.1 The case for international management measures
The Country Reports have shown that there are very large areas of water, marine, fresh and saline, in which
unexploited stocks of eel exist. In addition, an escapement of 595 t of silver eel has been estimated from the small
proportion of eel fisheries in which this stage is exploited and for which data are obtainable. The actual figure for
escapement must be very much greater. There is little evidence one way or the other of whether the spawning stock
bIOmass is sufficient. No scientific case can therefore be made for further restrictions on any fishery, nor can it be
assumed that fishing mortality has no effect on spawning stocks. Therefore, the goal of improved management by
increased distribution of glass eel must remain a priority because it serves both to enhance the fishery and to contribute
to the spawning stock.
However, in the absence of uniform and obligatory control measures, rapid changes in the international markets for eel
as observed in the past 2 years, form a serious risk. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to establish procedures at
the international level to prevent deterioration of the current situation and to enable rapid intervention when
monitoring studies indicate the need.
The proven fall in recruitment to yellow eel habitat in all countries, however, has led to serious reductions in yield in
all but a very small number of managed fisheries which depend on stock enhancement. The falling yield has been
accompanied both by reduced employment for fishermen and by reduced supplies of wild eel to processing industries.
The latter may have been replaced to some extent by increasing availability of intensively cultured eel.
The consequent unemployment and social disruption cannot be quantified in the absence of historical data on the size
of the labour force in the past. But the overall socio-economic value of eel fisheries is high over a large part of the eel's
range in Europe.
All the depleted bootlace, yellow and silver eel fisheries can be restored by stocking. The central problem lies in the
fact that the majority of these fisheries are in countries which have no access within their boundaries to substantial
untapped sources of glass eel. In three countries, Spain, Portugal and Great Britain, glass eel are the primary target
species and fisheries for yellow and silver eel are of secondary importance. In a fourth, France, glass eel are the target
on the Atlantic coast and yellow eel in Mediterranean regions. Decline of the fishery for yellow and silver eel in the
other countries is largely explained by the fall in recruitment.
Because of the relative scarcity of glass eel and the unprecedented demand by aquaculture, particularly the rapidly
developing industry in the Far East, the prices paid to glass eel fishermen are so high that they have led to serious
reductions in the quantities available to national governments or fishery associations for stocking of open waters. This
exacerbates the under-recruitment problems of the majority of yellow and silver eel fisheries.
In simple terms of maximising the income made from the sale of eel, market forces could be allowed to prevail to the
benefit of the glass eel fishermen on the Atlantic coasts. However, from the point of view of the European economy,
the cost in social and economic terms of further decline of the eel fishing industry in rural areas must be taken into
account. The concerted action has shown that this decline is inevitable in the absence of greatly improved
management.
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Management of the eel fisheries on a Europe-wide scale requires that steps be taken to ensure that the distribution of 5.2.2.4 Solve catchment or national problems within their own areas
glass eel from the Atlantic sources to depleted fisheries in other countries may be maintained or enhanced. There is Local actions (e.g. fishery controls, trap-and-transport stocking, passes) can be beneficial. However, in many cases
strong circumstantial evidence that, even with the prevailing low recruitment, the carrying capacity of the habitat for these are not possible, because local recruitment is too small to provide stocks for the catchments. Import of recruits is
feeding and growing eel associated with the glass eel fisheries is often exceeded. The glass eel removed from these essential to halt the decline of such fisheries.
waters for direct consumption or aquaculture could certainly not have lived within the catchments where they were
captured. Should the fishery be closed or restricted, most of them would not survive to provide a catch of yellow or 5.2.2.5 Do nothing
silver eel or to contribute to the spawning escapement. The ideal of Europe-wide management is to redistribute a
Some fisheries will be maintained by the exercise of current management measures, but the downward trend is likely
proportion of this glass eel catch for the benefit of the depleted yellow and silver eel fisheries in other catchments.
to persist in many. The spawning stock might be endangered by rapid increases in the fishing pressure, stimulated by
rising demands.
5.2 Management options
The options given in summary in this section range from stringent conservation measures to a state of laissez faire. 5.3 National management priorities
The table below summarises the main problem areas within countries. The low recruitment is, on the one hand, a
5.2.1 Glass eel fisheries universal problem but on the other the supply of glass eel locally available is simply not sufficient to restore depleted
5.2.1.1 Stop all fishing fisheries. In many cases it is possible, by reorganising the capture and release industry, to sustain levels of yield for
consumption and of added spawner escapement. This is a first priority in all participating countries.
This would cause extreme social hardship and could not be justified because, even in the absence of conclusive data,
there is reason to believe that, in place of fishing mortality, extremely high natural mortality would occur in
Priority area National problems Remedial measures
catchments with major glass eel stocks.
Denmark (1) Coastal water, fjord and (1) Insufficient stocking (1) Importation from England,
fresh water: redevelopment of material obtainable within France and Portugal
5.2.1.2 Restrict fishing fishery country (2) Subsidise supply
Maintenance of current fisheries is recommended on the precautionary principle. This requires strengthening of the (2) Maintenance of intensive (2) High cost of stocking
management procedures. Further restrictions should not be imposed unless studies of natural mortality show that the culture material
glass eel fishery has a significant negative effect on the production of spawners. Sweden (1) Maintenance and (1) Insufficient stocking (1) Transfers within country,
development of the fishery in material obtainable within importation from England,
5.2.1.3 Use levies on glass eel fishing to subsidise restocking programme the Baltic and lakes country France and Portugal
A levy payable by exporters and Aquaculturists may be justified on the grounds that they remove potential spawners (2) Maintenance of intensive (2) High cost of stocking (2) Subsidise supply for
from the population and that they themselves are dependent on the survival of the wild stocks. Alternatively, an agreed culture material stocking
proportion of all glass eel caught could be diverted to stocking for the mutual benefit of fishermen and Aquaculturists Ireland (N!) Lake fishery development Insufficient stocking material Develop glass eel/elver fishery,
alike. Importation from Great Britain
Ireland (Rep) Lake fishery development Insufficient stocking material Develop glass eel/elver fishery
5.2.1.4 Use all glass eel for restocking Great Britain Ri ver and estuarine fishery High cost of stocking material Improve management of
development glass eel/elver fisheries
The data in Table 3.2 show that the entire glass eel catch is required for stocking to attain the full potential of the wild
Netherlands Maintenance of IJsseImeer Over-fishing, Improved control,
eel fishery and to enhance the spawning escapement. Its use in this way would, however, destroy the eel aquaculture
fishery, redevelopment of insufficient stocking material importation from England,
industry.
inland fisheries obtainable within country France and Portugal
France (1) Development of capture of (1) Unprecedented demand (1) Measures to ensure
5.2.1.5 Do nothing live glass eel; (2) Habitat loss, reduced escapement
If no steps are taken, current market trends are likely to render uneconomical the majority of capture fisheries and all (2) Restoration of depleted recruitment (2) Subsidised transfers within
European intensive eel culture, while the increasing demands for glass eel may threaten the future spawning stock lagoon fisheries country
biomass. Germany (1) Redevelopment of coastal (1) Insufficient stocking (1 & 2) Subsidised importation
fishery material of glass eel
5.2.2 Yellow and silver eel fisheries (2) Maintenance of intensive (2) High cost of stocking
culture material
5.2.2.1 Stop all fishing
Spain Development of capture of live Unprecedented demand Measures to ensure escapement
Extreme social hardship would result, although cessation of fishing is likely to lead to an increase in spawning glass eel.
escapement. In the absence of clear evidence that fishing is a major cause of recruitment failure, this could not be Portugal (1) Development of capture of (1) Unprecedented demand (1) Measures to ensure
justified. live glass eel; (2) Growth overfishing escapement
(2) Maintenance of lagoon (2) Transfers within country
5.2.2.2 Restrict fishing to protect spawning escapement fishery
Restrictions are desirable in fisheries whose decline can be attributed to growth over-fishing and would in most cases Italy (1) Restoration of depleted (1 & 2) Insufficient stocking (1, 2 & 3) Subsidised
benefit the fishermen in the medium-term by increasing the yield of larger eel and in the long-term by increasing lagoon fisheries material importation of glass eel and
spawning escapement. Additionally, existing spawner escapement should be ensured by legislation. (2) Maintenance of lake (3) High cost of stocking bootlace eel
fisheries material
5.2.2.3 Enhance the existing international stocking operation (3) Maintenance of intensive
A stocking operation, developed from 5.2.1.3 above, is the most positive option to help halt the decline in the fisheries culture
and enhance spawner escapement.

36 37
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

5.4 Maintenance and enhancement of yellow eel stocks 5.7 International management priorities

The highest densities of yellow eel are observed in coastal lagoons and in the lower reaches of river and lake systems.
Yellow eel stocks in many habitats are naturally small or have been reduced by a number of factors, of which the
following five may be ameliorated by the application of established management techniques:
5.4.1 Stocks naturally numerically small because of distance of habitat from the sea
Management requires stocking at rates to obtain optimum biomass by ensuring maximisation of use of the habitat
1
without inducing growth retardation from over-crowding. A stocking rate of 0.1 kg of glass eel ha· is recommended
as an overall figure. It is likely that more effective use of the available glass eel is made when they are artificially
grown to the bootlace stage on the assumption that natural mortality of the bootlace eel is substantially lower than that
of the glass eel following release.
5.4.2 Stocks reduced by natural recruitment failure
The programme operated by Denmark, Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands for the within-catchment transfer of
stocking material and importation of glass eel from other (mostly more southern) countries should be maintained or
enhanced. Mediterranean coastal lagoons also require introduction of glass eel from other catchments.
5.4.3 Stocks substantial but size of eel small due to growth overfishing
The precautionary principle requires that new developments should be permitted only in cases where it can be shown
that stocking material for enhancement has been diverted from the direct consumption market and therefore does not
represent reduction of spawning escapement.
5.4.4 Stocks reduced by emplacement of barriers with inadequate fish passes
Installation or improvement of fish passes, as appropriate, leads to enhanced survival and consequently to increase in
fishing yields and spawning escapement.
5.7.1 Market control of glass eel
The development .of a major export demand and the consequent high prices for glass eel are threatening the very
eXistence of stocking programmes already in progress. Unless addressed as a matter of urgency, they are likely to
prohlbll any slgmficant moves towards realising the full potential of European waters as a source of eel and could lead
to an increasingly rapid decline of the capture fisheries for yellow and silver eel. Consideration of ways and means of
maintaining an adequate supply of glass eel for Europe should be given the highest priority.
5.7.2 Baseline survey and monitoring programme
The Concerted Action has compiled all available information of relevance on fisheries and biology and has concluded
that this is far from sufficient for the requirements of fully effective management of the stocks. Implementation of co-
ordinated one-off national surveys and of an internationally integrated monitoring programme to be determined by
reference to therr results IS the next most urgently required measure.
5.7.3 Distribution of stocking material
The Concerted Action has shown that sufficient glass eel are currently captured to provide the stocking mfiterial
required for three objectives: (a) to prevent further depletion of the capture fishery, (b) to restore or enhance the
depleted continental stocks, (c) to increase the spawning escapement. Following the completion of the baseline survey
advocated in Section 5.7.2, an international group, similar to the Concerted Action, should be convened to formulate a
very much more specific and detailed series of recommendations for the rational use of the available stocking material.
5.7.4 Establishment of standard management procedures
Because of the scattered nature of the eel stock and the lack of consistency of management procedures at national
levels, it has taken considerable time to realise that the total eel stock is under severe stress. Establishment of
procedures for monitoring, management decisions and implementation is a prerequisite to rational management of the
stock.

5.4.5 Stocks reduced by environmental changes

In cases of occasional mortality caused by eutrophication, the management recommendation is to continue or enhance
stocking as it is usual for eel to grow satisfactorily between crisis periods. Habitat restoration or improvements may be
beneficial locally or regionally.

5.5 Estimates of costs of remedial measures

The initial reckoning is that an increase from the current 9,000 t to 60,000 t could be obtained in annual yield of
yellow eel in the areas studied in this report. At 6 ECU per kg, the value of the increased catch would be 360 M ECU.

The cost of the 650 t of glass eel required for stocking at the current price of 125 ECU per kg is 80 M ECU. This
appears to be a very worthwhile effort. Not included in the calculation are the value-added for the processing of the
yellow and silver eel and the cost of handling the glass eel.

5_6 Implementation ofthe management plan

In Report 1 the Concerted Action has gathered the available data on the current state of the stocks of the European eel
and likely future developments. This report presents the relevant scientific information on which progress in
management may be based. The implementation of the plan is an administrative matter with serious international
implications and therefore outside the competence of the members of the Concerted Action.

It must be stressed that sufficient recruit material exists in Europe to develop and enhance the fishery while at the
same time increasing the spawning stock biomass. Sufficient information has been gathered to indicate management
priorities but development of a monitoring system and a greater research input - as described in Chapter 4 - are
urgently required so that the cost effectiveness of the implementation of the management measures may be maximised.

In view of the rapidly changing situation. brought on by the unprecedented demand for glass eel, the Concerted Action
considers that appropriate international action is a matter of urgency for social and economic reasons.

38
39

Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
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1993/M:5, 10 pp. planning for each of the participating countries.
Westin, L., (1990) Orientation mechanisms in migrating European silver eel (Anguilla anguilla): temperature and
olfaction. Marine Biology 106: 175-179.
White E.M. and B. Knights (1994) Elver and eel stock assessment in the Severn and Avon. RandD Project Record
Sweden HAkan Wickstrom and Stellan Hamrin,
256/13/ST. National Rivers Authority, Bristol, England, 141 pp.
White, E.M. and B. Knights (1997a) Dynamics of upstream migration of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla L., with Denmark Michael Pedersen
special reference to the effects of man-made barriers. Fisheries Management and Ecology in press.
Germany Eka Hahlbeck and Holmer Kuhlmann
White, E.M. and B, Knights (1997b) EnvironmentaJ factors affecting migration of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla
L., in the Rivers Severn and Avon. Journal ofFish Biology 50,1104-1116.
Ireland (Northern) Robert Rosell
Wickstrom, H. (1984) The Swedish eel stocking progranune. ElFAC Technical Paper 42/Supplement 1,68-83.
Ireland (Republic) Christopher Moriarty and Julian Reynolds
Wickstrom, H. and S. Hamrin (1997). Sweden in Moriarty and Dekker (eds.) Management of the European eel.
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15,44-49.
Great Britain Brian Knights
Wickstrom H., L Westin and P. Clevestam (1996) The biological and economical yield from a long-term eel stocking
experiment. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 5, 140-147. Netherlands Willem Dekker
Winfield U., C. M. Tobin and C. R Montgomery (1993) The fish of Lough Neagh. Part E. Ecological studies of the
fish community. In: R.B. Wood and RV. Smith (eds). Lough Neagh: the Ecology of a MUltipurpose Water France Guy Fontenelle, Eric Feunteun and Cedric Briand
Resource, K1uwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 451-471.
Portugal Maria Assun~ao Santos

Spain Maria Jose Lara

Italy Eleonora Ciccotti

44 45
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 HMcan Wickstrom and Stellan Hamrin Sweden in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Westerberg has in several papers (e.g. Westerberg, 1994, 1996, Westerberg, et al 1993) given data on the abundance of
SWEDEN small eels along the Swedish and the Danish coast in the vicinity of the Oresund. Typical values were 1 - 2 small eels
m" in vegetation in shallow waters on the Sweetish side and about 0.2 along the Danish side.
Hilkan Wickstrom and Stellan Hamrin
National Swedish Board of Fisheries. Institute of Freshwater Research, $-178 93 Drottningholm. Sweden. From extensive electrofishing investigations we know that during 1954-1979 eel were found in about 70% of all sites
(below 100 m a.s.!) visited. During 1990-1995 the corresponding value had fallen to about 35%. Today eel are found
Habitat in 10% of all stream sites investigated and where they occur the mean density is 9 eel 100 m·'. From this electrofishing
survey a fishing efficiency of 0.78 (p3) was found (B. Sers, pers. comm.).
Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks
Table 1. Eel yield of Swedish lakes.
Estuaries Nonnally the estuary concept is not used in Sweden. Sometimes the whole Baltic, including the Danish
Belts and Kattegat, is looked upon as an estuary (Westerberg, 1996). The mouth of the River Gota Alv situated on the Surface Yield Trophic state Years
west Coast could perhaps be considered a real estuary. There is an extensive eel fishery in that area, but as eel are, or km' kg/ha t of data
at least were, abundant in all coastal areas this question is not really relevant. There are however no specific data on L. Vanern 2,691 0.1 20 mainly oligotrophic 10
this issue. L Malaren 872 0.3 29 mainly mesotrophic 10
L Hjalmaren 484 0.5 22 meso-eutrophic 10
Coastal lagoons There are no coastal lagoons in Sweden. L Ymsen 15 3.4 5 eutrophic 1
L. Tjarnesjon 3 0.2 0 oligotrophic, acietified 11
Lakes There are about 39,639 km' of freshwater lakes in Sweden. Of this about 17,570 km' seem suitable for eel L Ringsjon 41 2.7 0 eutrophic 3
production. It is estimated that about 11,074 km' today support eel stocks which, however, in most cases are extremely L Vombsjon 12 7.4 0 eutrophic 3
sparse. There are large parts of this area which do not support any local eel fishery at all, due to very sparse stocks, but L. A in Ostergotland 94 0.7 11 eutrophic 22
on the national scale most of them will contribute to the commercial fishery in the large lakes and along the Baltic L. Angen 2 0.4 0 mesotrophic 6
Coast. A more developed eel fishery takes place in about 4,921.4 km'. L Fardume Trask 3 1.2 0 oligo-mesotrophic 6
L. B in Ostergotland 76 0.2 3 oligotrophic 22
Coastal water Eel are present in most Sweetish coastal waters, ranging from quite abundant along the west coast L. Sommen 132 0.1 1 oligotrophic 1
(8,600 km' with depths less than 20 m) to more and more scarce in the northern part of the Baltic Sea (25,500 km' L. Vigdan system 6 0.1 0 oligo-mesotrophic 11
with depths less than 10 m). The total area is thereby 34,100 km'. There are commercial fisheries for eel up to about Ten lakes in Scania 77 3.4 29 eutrophic 38
60° N on the Baltic coast, so that eel fishing takes place in about 14,600 km' out of the available 25,500 km' along the
Baltic coast.
The occurrence of etifferent fish species in lakes was investigated during the time period 1930-1950. Compared to the
Rivers/canals There are 118 main rivers in Sweden and some adetitional 5,763 rivers and streams of sufficient size to data derived from the most recent electrofishing surveys (in running waters) eel were much more common in those
be registered with their own co-orclinates in the database of the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. days. Large inland areas draining to the Baltic Sea are today devoid of eel (cf. Figs 1 and 2: B. Sers, pers. comm.).
Total length of all 5,881 is about 79,153 km. Assuming a mean width of 10 m, this length represents an area of about
792 km'. There are no data on how much of this is utilised by eel. However, there are no fisheries targeting eel in
running water, except in small mill traps and some few fixed installations of the stow net type allana. Historical records of stocking
The recent long-tenn yield of 0.5 kg ha'! in Lake Hjalmaren is based on an annual stocking rate of about 4.7 t of
Areas of water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions yellow eel, i.e. about 1.1 yellow eel (37 em) ha·!. The 10 Scania lakes of 77 km' with a yield of about 3.4 kg ha'! are
nonnally stocked annually with about 20 yellow eel of 37 cm per ha.
Lakes In rivers where ascencling eel are still fairly abundant there is nonnally some kind of eel pass or upstream
transportation. In that way most areas of water are theoretically accessible for eel. However, in areas where recruiting Table 2. Quantities of elver and yellow eel stocked.
eel have become naturally rather few in recent days such installations have often been forgotten and mismanaged
leaving areas without eel. The extent of this is not known. Another possible obstacle to eel recruitment is low Yellow eel Imported elver Miscellaneous
temperatures, low productivity and high altitudes in the northern parts of Sweden. Some parts of the largest lakes are from Sweetish after quarantine Trollhiitteal
too deep (>20 m) for eel. On account of this we estimate that 20,620 km' of our total lake area, i.e .. 52%, have no west coast
potential for eel production. Today physical obstacles, etc. are perhaps not the primary limitation of eel in Sweden. kg numbers numbers
The general lack of recruits, especially in the Baltic part of the country, is probably much more important. 1990 56,716 731,000 29,300
1991 60,780 339,900 57,600
Rivers/Canals The same observations apply as in the preceding paragraph. 1992 76,608 398,000 33,700
1993 64,725 625,000 14,900
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield 1994 59,215 1,982,900 12,800
1995 39,605 1,664,060 0
Data from the Fisheries Officers of various County Administrative Boards together with the authors personal 1996 25,000 1,123,380 64,200
observations are given in Table 1.
Total 382649 6864240 212500
Thonnan and Fladvad (1981) investigated, among other fish species, the abundance, growth and production of young
eel in the estuary of the River BroaJven (north of Gothenburg on the Sweetish west coast). The net annual production
of 0+ and 1+ eel was estimated to be about 43 g m" in riverine areas. In the marine areas, production was much lower, A restocking programme was begun in Sweden in 1972. The stocking programme used three sources of eel (Table 2):
between 0.06 and 0.69 g m·'.

46 47
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
-Medium-sized yellow eel caught along the Swedish west coast, where eel were still quite abundant.
-Imported elver from France (Bay of Biscay) and subsequently from the UK (River Severn).
-The redistribution of young eel within the same river system.
Figure 1. Presence • and absence 0 of eel in lakes in Sweden In Lake Hjillmaren about 74,866 kg of
1930 - 1950. (Swedish Lake Register, Institute of Freshwater yellow eel were stocked between 1966 and
Research, Drottningholm). 1995. This amount roughly corresponds to
823,526 eel. In addition to that some 200,000
elver were stocked in 1985. Corresponding
data for Lake Mlilaren are 177,587 kg or
about 1,953,457 eel between 1984 and 1995.
The numbers of elver were 2,003,750. In
Lake Viinern 142,034 kg were stocked
between 1966 and 1993. In addition some
1,847,000 elver and 2,220.100 natural
recruits (from the eel ladder) were stocked
between 1957 and 1995.
Data on population dynamics
Andersson et al. (1991) applied catch curve
analyses (Ricker, 1975) to medium sized eel
from three coastal localities on the Swedish
west coast. The rate of decrease was 57%,
47% and 32% in the three populations,
respectively, when passing from successive 5-
cm length classes, very roughly corresponding
to I-year growth. This decrease was assumed
to be the combined effect of natural mortality
and migrations.
Svediing (1996) has investigated the fishing
and fishing pressure for yellow eel along the
Swedish West Coast. From data on the age
distribution of yellow eel from heavily
exploited areas and from areas with a very
low fishing pressure he calculated a natural
instantaneous mortality of 0.18 for eel above
40 em in length, including emigration (M+E).
When applying this value to the exploited
stocks he found the fishing instantaneous
mortality to be approximately 0.27.
Recruitment
Natural mortality of glass eel
In a paper on the abundance of young eel (7-
25 cm) representing three or four year classes
along the Swedish west coast, Westerberg et
al. (1993) showed that elver dominated (ca.
80%) in the inshore zone. The number of eel
of the next year class was about 83% fewer,
suggesting a combined effect of natural
mortality and migration of about 80%,
assuming that recruionent was the same in
successive years.
48
HAkan Wickstrom and Stellan Hamrin Sweden in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Fishing mortality of glass eel
Figure 2. Presence • and absence 0 of eel in streams in Glass eel or, more exactly, elver are caught in some
Sweden 1954-1996. (Swedish Electro-fiShing Register, rivers, including Gota iilv, Viskan, Lagan,
Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm). Morrumsiin and Motala Strom. for transfer to
upstream regions.
Some calculations on the total recruionent to the
Swedish Electro- Swedish west coast were made by Lindquist (1976)
fishing RegiSte and Westerberg (1979). From Lindquist's data on
the transport of glass eel to the Skagerak,
Westerberg estimated the total recruionent to be
about 5 million. From later studies with the drop-
trap technique (described in Westerberg et al.,
1993), Westerberg (1987) estimated the total
number of 0+ recruits to be about 25 million.
Escapement of glass eel
Glass eel and elver are not exploited in Swedish
rivers apart from the organised catch in traps at the
most downstream dam for transfer and distribution
upstream. This is valid also for larger young eel
entering fresh water. Such activities are today
taking place in about 20 rivers.
Data on survival of glass eel or bootlace eel after
stocking
Westerberg (1987) discussed in a paper on a
stocking experiment the losses of young eel and the
proportion that was due to natural mortality. About
50% disappeared every year, considered to be
mainly due to emigration. The natural mortality
was estimated to be 10% at the most. southern
Baltic, off the south coast of Sweden.
Mortality or, strictly speaking, minimum survival
! rates expressed as recapture rates were given by
Andersson et al. (1991) and Wickstrom et al.
(1996). In the first case, elver stocked in an open
coastal area improved the local stock and, within 7
years, more than 3.5% were recaptured. The
remaining 96.5 % might be explained by natural
~
mortality, dispersal and the fact that most eel were
!. not fully recruited to the fishery in the course of the
investigation. In the latter case, in which cultured
bootlace eel were stocked in a closed freshwater
system, about 11.3% (males and females together)
were recaptured within 14 years. In Simplified
terms, 8.2% of the female eel stocked in this Lake
Fardume Trask were recaptured around 1992, after
roughly 12 years in the lake. Thus. not more than
91.8% (100-8.2%) can have died within this
period. This corresponds to a yearly mortality of about 18.5%.
49

Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
As the cumulative recapture rate has not yet levelled out we assume there are many eel left to be recaptured in the
future and therefore this estimate of mortality is very conservative. If the current trend in recapture continues for
another 5 years the total recapture rate will reach 17%.
Rough calculations on data of average stocking densities and the corresponding yields from the lakes Vanern,
Hjillmaren and the Scania lakes give 0.30, 0.45 and 0.17 kg, respectively, as yield per recruit.
The Board of Fisheries together with Statistics Sweden made a survey regarding the catch of sport fishermen and
household fishermen in 1995. Responses on eel were relatively few, 125 out of 5,400 persons, and the standard
deviations were high. Svedang (1996b) mentions that a local study showed that non-professional fishermen made an
eel catch equal to about 32% of the total commercial catch of eel.
In total, 1,273 t ± 301 of eel were said to be caught, mostly by longlines, 569 t ± 204, followed by fyke nets, 384 t ±
109. If this is accurate, the sport fishermen's catch is about the same as the commercial catch. Most of the 10ngline
catch was from the southern parts of the Baltic Sea and from small lakes - not the five largest. The catches by fyke net
were mainly from the middle part of the Baltic (east coast) and from the
Data on economics of stocking
Wickstrom et aI. (1996) reported a very good economical return from one stocking experiment. A shallow oligo-
mesotrophic lake of 339 ha was stocked once with about 53,000 cultured eel of about 3 g each. Thus the stocking
density was 156 eel ha'! . The resulting stock was monitored for many years, mainly by catching descending silver eel
in an outlet trap. The investment in stocking eel was repaid with interest after about 10 years and there were many
years of yield left. Westerberg (1987) discussed the economic gains from eel stockings proposed for the Swedish west
coast and found the return to be negative on a local scale. From a national perspective, however, having regard for the
dispersal of stocked eel, the return should be almost twice the cost of investment plus interest.
Escapement
Escapement of silver eel
Tagging experiments have been in progress along the Swedish east coast, in the Baltic, for many years (Ask and
Erichsen 1976; Westin, 1990; Sers et al., 1993). The primary aim has been to assess the disturbing effects of various
effluents such as thermal discharges and effluents from industries such as paper mills, etc., on the migrating silver eel.
Ask and Erichsen (1976) reported on the recapture rates of silver eel tagged and released at different occasions and
sites along the Baltic coast. Of a total of 16,882 silver eel 8,302 were recaptured, corresponding to 49.35%. The
recapture rates from different experiments ranged between 69 and 76%. Sers et aI. (1993) summarised the recapture
rate of 2,403 silver eel tagged during 1980-1985 to be 35%. Westin (1990) found much lower recapture rates ill hIS
investigations, however the experiments were performed with silver eel previously stocked.
The tagged eel which were not recaptured in Sweden, Germany or Denmark are believed to be able to continue
towards the spawning area without further fishing mortality.
Number and extent of unexploited water bodies
As the commercial fishery nowadays targets mainly large silver, and therefore female, eel, the few males appearing in
Swedish waters are seldom exploited. Males are found mostly along the west coast where the unsheltered open water
does not permit an effective fishery.
There are eel-producing waters such as large rivers with boat traffic and locks and also the open coast of the Kattegat
and Skagerak where efficient fishing for silver eel is not feasible. All these regulations and situations make it possible
for eel to avoid exploitation.
It might be possible to give the area of sea and from a number of rivers on the Swedish West Coast where an efficient
fishing for silver eel is not possible. However the matter is complicated as the fishery for yellow eel is quite efficient
along that coast. According to Svedang (1996) the fishing mortality (F) for eel above 40 cm is about 0.27.
HMcan Wickstrom and Stellan Hamrin Sweden in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Information on conservation measures
There is no legislation in Sweden primarily aimed at the active conservation of the spawning stock of the eel. There
are, however, minimum legal sizes in force in all coastal waters, in coastal streams up to the most downstream barrier
(for salmonids) and in some freshwater lakes. This rule is quite recent (1994) and one result is that there are no
minimum legal size limits in fresh water above this barrier. The five biggest lakes are excepted and require a 55 cm
size. In some additional lakes the private fishery-owners have adopted the same 55 cm size. For the time being this
new legislation means that elver and young eel above this barrier are no longer protected against exploitation.
The operation of fixed traps for eel and other species is prohibited by law during certain months of the year when
smolts and salmon and trout are believed to descend the rivers. Normally a catching device is not allowed to close the
full width of a river. According to very old regulations one-third to one-half has to be left open unless exemption has
been granted.
Commercial capture of glass eel and elver is controlled by minimum size regulations, but young eel are often caught at
the most downstream dam on a river system and then distributed in the watercourse upstream. The dam-owner is
required to take such measures by the water law-court.
Since 1994 only licensed fishermen are allowed to use more than six fyke nets or pots. This legislation probably leads
to a decreased catch from sport fishermen, etc. and thus the commercial statistics become more reliable.
References
Andersson J., Sandstrom 0., and Hansen H.J.M. (1991) Elver (Anguilla anguilla L.) Stockings in a Swedish thermal
effluent - recaptures, growth and body condition. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 7, 78-S9.
Ask L. and Erichsen L. (1976) BlankAlsmiirkningar vid svensks Ostersjokusten 1941-1968. Meddelannde fran
Havsfiskelaboratoriet Lysekil199, 1-117.
Edman G. (1995) AIfOrekomst i Tjarnesjon, Falkenbergs Kommun. Miljo- och HalsoskYddskontoret Rapport 1995: 2
Falkenbergs Kommun, 23 pp.
Ricker, W. E. (1975) Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Bulletin of the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada 191, pp 328.
Lindquist A. (1976) Observations on glass eel in the Skagerak and Kattegat. Meddelanden Havsfiskelab, Lysekil. 201
7 p.
Sers B., Meyer E. and Enderlein O. (1993) Sarnmanstlilining av fiskmiirkningar utfOrda under iiren 1980-S5.
Informationfriin Sotvattenslaboratoriet, Drottningholm, no 4, 71 p.
Svedang H. (1996) Kustlaboratoriets yttrande angiiende framstallan om begransning av antalet iilryssjor langs
vastkustenfriin Norra Bohuslans PO.
Thorman, S. and B. Fladvad (1981). Growth and production of fish in River Broalven Estuary on the Swedish west
coast. PM 1416, National Swedish Environmental Protection Board, pp 112 ..
Westerberg H. (1979) Elver in the thermal discharge of a nuclear power plant. Information Fran
Sotvattenslaboratoriet, Drottningholm 7, pp 12.
Westerberg H. (1987) Utsattning av aI pa vastkusten, del 3, Pa vastkusten samlas alen. Yrkesfiskaren 19-57, 8-9.
Westerberg, H. (1994) Juvenil iii pii grundomriiden i Oresunde. Baslinjestudie. statusrapport maj 1994. Rapport 11,
pp 11.
Westerberg H. (1996) Oceanographic aspects of the recruitment of eel to the Baltic Sea. EIFACI1CES Working Group
on Eel, Umuiden, Netherlands, 1996.
Westerberg H., Haamer J. and Lagenfelt I. (1993) A new method for sampling elver in the coastal zone. ICES CM
1993!M:5, 10 p.
Westin, L. (1990). Orientation mechanisms in migrating European silver eel (Anguilla anguilla): temperature and
olfaction. Marine Biology 106, 175-179.
51
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 M. Pedersen: Denmark in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management 0/ the European eel

Wickstrom H., Westin L. and Clevestam, P. (1996) The biological and economical yield from a long-term eel-stocking
experiment. Ecology o/Freshwater Fish 5,140-147. DENMARK

Michael Pedersen
Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Inland Fisheries Laboratory, Vejls~vej 39, DK-8600 Silkeborg, Denmark

Habitat

Extent 0/ water currently supporting eel stocks

Estuaries The expression semi-inland waters is used to include fjords, estuaries, sheltered bays and lagoons covering
some 3,000 km' which possibly have relatively large eel stocks compared to more open coastal waters.

Lakes There are about 500 freshwater lakes and ponds in Denmark covering a total area of about 430 km' and about
10 km' of reservoirs. Eel are believed to be present in most of these waters, either naturally recruited or stocked by
landowners or local fishermen's organisations.

Rivers There are about 15,000 km of major rivers and streams. The total area including minor streams is 150 km'. Eel
have access to all streams and rivers because fish passes must be installed at any obstruction.

Coastal waters
Eel fishing takes place all along the Danish coasts. The only known area with no eel fishing is on the west coast of
Jutland from the north tip down to the Wadden Sea. In the Wadden Sea, eel populations are present as they are on
practically all other coasts. The area of coastal waters where eel slocks may be present is in the order of 10,000 km' of
which 9% is considered to be part of the Baltic Sea.

Areas o/water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions

Rivers/streams
Streams contaminated with ochre make up some 5-10% of the total river system. Due to low invertebrate populations
in these streams only small populations of eel are present. In the largest river system, Guden ii, the lakes are known to
act as sinks for ascending elver and yellow eel and the tributaries upstream of the large lakes are devoid of eel.

Lakes
Eel passes are enforced by law where there is any obstruction. There is no record of any lakes without eel populations.

Data on stock and sustained or increased yield

In the Limfjord, a bottom trawl survey during 1980-1990 showed a decrease from 14 eel per unit effort (30 minute
trawl) in 1980 to only 1 eel per unit effort during 1986-1990 (Anonymous, 1992). The Limfjord is the largest fjord
(1,500 km' ) in Denmark and eel fishing, traditionally very important, has now decreased to very low catches. At the
beginning of the 20th century, catches were on average 800-900 t annually and reached 1,300 tin 1915. In the mid-
1950s catches started to decline and in 1994 the catch was reduced to only 10 t. Reduction in catch has been common
in other fjords, e.g. in Ringk¢bing Fjord catches are said to have been reduced by 90% between the 1960s and the
1990s. The official catch for the whole country has fallen by two-thirds between the 1960s and the 1990s.

Yield and production Some estimates of yield in freshwater reservoirs are available from Han Herreds Vejler, by the
Limfjord, during the late 1960s. Yield was estimated to be between 1.2 and 8,8 kg ha'! varying with site and fishing
efficiency (Anonymous, 1970). Estimates of annual biological production (P) and yield (Y) are also available from
studies in freshwater streams and from the official catch statistics in fjords between 1982 and 1994.

Historical records of stocking

Stocking of lakes has been practised throughout the 20th century by lifting elver and glass eel trapped at sluices and
weirs into lakes. This practice had ceased by the end of the 1980s due to a low supply of naturally recruited elver and
to avoid the spread of the swimbladder nematode Anguillicola crassus.

53
52
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 M. Pedersen: Denmark in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Since 1987, a national stocking programme funded by the government has been in progress. In the first years, mainly Recruitment
freshwater sites were stocked but, from 1990, the programme was extended to coastal waters. The stocking material is
imported glass eel mainly from France and England and raised in heated water to a size of 2-5 g when they are Natural mortality of glass eel
released. The quantities stocked have been between 1.0 and 8.5 million elver annually since 1987. No information.

k,,/ha Life stage Data Reference Fishing mortality of glass eel

Freshwater
At Vida sluice on the west coast of Jutland glass eel have been fished commercially and records are available from
K0ge-Lellinge Ii 93 yellow production Rasmussen and TherkiIdsen, 1979 1968 to 1990. The highest catches since 1968 were 0.9 t in 1975. Due to very low catches, 5-10 kg in 1989 and 1990,
Brede Ii 19.6 ±33% silver yield Nielsen, 1982 the glass eel fishery terminated in 1990.
Bj0msholm Ii 9 yellow production Bisgaard and Pedersen, 1990
Bj0msholm A 19-38.6 silver production Bisgaard and Pedersen, 1990
Escapement of glass eel
Fjords 1982 1994 Glass eel are able to migrate into all river systems.
Ringk0bing Fjord 3.2 0.8 yellow & silver yield Official catch statistics
Limfjorden 2 0.06 yellow & silver yield Official catch statistics Data on survival of glass eel or bootlace eel after stocking.
Isefjorden 11.5 2.6 yellow & silver vield Official catch statistics
Glass eel! elver In order to restock tributaries deficient in eel, a series of stocking experiments was performed by using
small eel of varying sizes, 0.3-1.1 g, and different stocking methods, spot versus scatter. The results suggest that spot
stocking resulted in density-dependent mortality, which can be reduced by scatter stocking. Daily instantaneous
Data on population dynamics =
mortality rates, in the first 3 months after stocking were estimated to be from z 0.0107-D.0233 a survival of 12-38%
Growth, mortality and production have been studied in streams by fyke netting or electro fishing. Growth from streams after 3 months (Berg and J0rgensen, 1994). A survival of 70% after 3 months of elver stocking in ponds (I ha or less)
has been studied by length at age data and from tagging experiments. is found by mark-recapture (Anonymous, 1970).

Von Bertalanffy's growth parameters calculated on yellow eel populations in three streams are: Bootlace eel Cultured bootlace eel, size 15-30 em were tagged individually and introduced into River Giber A. One
year after tagging survival was estimated to be 16.3% (Bisgaard and Pedersen, 1991).
Site L k to Method Reference
K0ge-Lellinge A 59.83 0.119 0.568 Length at age Rasmussen and TherkiIdsen, 1979 Data on economics of stocking
Giber A 90.3 -1.44 0.053 Back calculated Bisgaard and Pedersen 1991 No information is available.
Bi0msholm A 60.1 0.Q7 -1.63 Length at age Bisgaard and Pedersen 1990

Escapement
Annual length increments from individual tagged eel in Giber A were found to be 3.0-5.0 em for length groups from
10 to 35 em and 1.0-2.0 em for length groups from 35 to 60 em (Bisgaard and Pedersen, 1991).
Unexploited water bodies.
The number of unexploited water bodies is most probably insignificant. In a few water bodies, eel fishing conflicts
Mortality rates estimated in the same streams showed decreasing mortality with size and age. The figures are probably with nature conservation. However, fishing for migrating eel is continued at their migrating routes outside these areas.
biased due to emigration of silver eel from the study sites.
Silver eel escapement from tagging experiments
Site Length Mortality Method A mark-recapture experiment in the River Brede A, where a commercial fishery exists, showed that 60% of the tagged
em Z silver eel were not recaptured, but the silver eel may be trapped on their migration route in the Wadden Sea (Nielsen,
K0ge-Lellinge Ii 11-55 0.65-0.36 Reduction in age groups 1982).
Giber A 15-60 1.79-0.26 Reduction in size groups
Bj0rnshoimA 15-50 0.91-0.23 Reduction in age groups Mark-recapture experiments on silver eel in different parts of the Limfjord showed recapture rates between 43 and
88% (Anonymous, 1970).

The density of eel in streams increases during spring and summer and decreases during autumn and winter. The
Information on conservation measures
mobility of the eel stock in streams is probably a result of feeding migration into the stream following a counter-
movement to hibernate in the lower parts during winter. The mean number of eel in streams varies with the strength of Capture of glass eel and yellow eel below legal size is not permitted. Fykes in streams are only allowed to cover one-
recruitment to the stream. third of the river width. Silver eel traps in rivers or by the outlet of lakes are not allowed to operate between 1 March
and 31 May without a special permit, to protect downstream migration of smolt of sea trout and salmon.
Site Number Years Reference
perm' References
K0ge Lellinge A 1.01 1971-74 Rasmussen and TherkiIdsen 1979
Vester Vedsted Brek 13.00 1979-81 Rasmussen 1983 Anonymous (1970) Alekollokvium i Br¢ns - Resumeer-, Br0ns, Denmark, 1970.
Bi0rnsholm A 0.21 1988 Bisgaard and Pedersen, 1990 Anonymous (1992) Statusredeg¢relse om fiskeriet i Limfjorden 1992. Fiskeriministeriet, Ringk0bing, Viborg og
Nordjyllands amter, Skov og NaturstyreIsen, pp. 284.

54 55
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Berg S. and J~rgensen J. (1994) Stocking experiments with 0+ eel (Anguilla anguilla L.) in Danish streams: post
stocking movements, densities and mortality: In. I. G Cowx (ed.) Rehabilitation of Freshwater Fisheries.
Oxford: Fishing News Books.
Bisgaard J. and Pedersen M. I. (1990) Population dynamics and production of eel (Anguilla anguilla L.) in
Bj¢rnsholm d. DFH rapport No. 378/1990.
Bisgaard J. and Pedersen M.1. (1991) Mortality and growth of wild and introduced cultured eel (Anguilla anguilla
in a Danish stream, with special reference to a new tagging technique. Dana. 9, 57~9.
Nielsen G. (1982)- Brede A - river system. Silver eel production -1981. DFH rapport.
Rasmussen G. (1983) Recent investigations on the population dynamics of eel. Proceedings 3rd British Freshwater
Fish Conference Liverpool, England.
Rasmussen G. and Therkildsen B. (1979) Food, Growth and Production of Anguilla anguilla L. in a Small Danish
Stream. Rapports et Proces verbaux du Conseil internationale pour ['Exploration de Mer 174, 32-40.
56
E. Hahlbeck and H. Kuhlmann Germany in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
GERMANY
Eka Hablbeckl and Holmer Kublmann2
1Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Fischerei, Institut fur Ostseefischerei, An der Jagerbak 2, 18069 Rostock, Gennany
2B FA.Fischerei, Inst. fUr Fischereiokologie, Wulfsdorfer Weg 204, 22926 Ahrensburg, Gennany
(L» Habitat
Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks
Coastal waters and estuaries An exact figure for the area is difficult to obtain. The estimate for the North Sea is
1,800 km' and for the Baltic 900 km' , including the area of estuaries. Data are available for the following biotopes:
Elbe estuary, Elbe estuary Cuxhaven, Hamburg Harbour, Elbe weir Geesthacht, lagoon Wyk/F6hr, North Sea near
Elbe estuary, estuary of river Oste, rock littoral of Helgoland (Penaz and Tesch, 1970: LOwenberg, 1979) .
For the Baltic Sea data are available for the stock in the Oder-estuary connected with the Oder-Iagoon (Dietzsch,
1978) and from the open Baltic (Hahlbeck, 1991). ln Germany during the best years (1950s/1960s), the total catch
from the North Sea and the Baltic was much higher than from inland waters. Eel fishing along the whole region of the
German coast, especially in the brackish waters of the Baltic coast is important (yellow and silver eel) (Jarmatz et al.,
1986).
Coastal lagoons On the German Baltic coast there is only one coastal lagoon, the legendary Conventer See which
many years ago had a maximum yield of 60 kg eel ha·'. ln the 1970s land reclamation took place which cut the lagoon
off from the Baltic causing a severe decline in eel catches. Natural immigration of eel is no longer observed.
Lakes, rivers, canals According to Meyer-Waarden (1968) the total inland water area of Germany is 4,000 km' from
which 3,000 km' are suitable for eel (75%). The official fisheries census (1993) states that the total area used by
commercial fishery is 480 km' for rivers and 1,820 km' for lakes. This amounts to a total of 2,300 km'. The area used
by recreational fishery is not known.
The eel is the main species for commercial fishery in lakes and rivers.
Areas of water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions
Lakes No details have been published. A rough estimate is that about 5% of all lakes are influenced by physical
obstructions: no chemical pollution, as a barrier to eel ascent, is known.
Rivers/canals Most of the southern rivers have several dams. For example, according to Meyer-Waarden (1968) there
are 12 dams in the German part of the River Mosel with a catchment of 30,000 km'.
The eel, with its wide ecological adaptability, will find living conditions and food in the whole German water area,
and also in polluted rivers and in reservoirs.
Data on stock. and sustained or increased yield
CPUE data are very scarce. For the German Bight LOwenberg ( 1979) gives data for eel trawling, but only for one
year. For the River Elbe CPUE data are available for 20 years. Total catch fluctuates around the long-term average.
Since 1980 a sharp decrease in the number of small eel has been observed. Similar results are reported from the River
Weser. Berg (1988) gives CPUE data for Lake Constance (5,390 km') over a very long series of years from 1950 to
1982. In addition a comparison between different gears is made.
The density of the eel stocks in Europe probably depends on the one spawning stock, so we have reason to believe that
stock fluctuations will influence the eel yields in all European countries in a similar way.
57
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 E. Hahlbeck and H. Kuhlmann Germany in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Gear Mesh size Median lenj(th ± S.D. Escapement

mm cm Even the largest gears (i.e. otter board stow nets) do not block the total diameter of a river. According to information
Pound net 11 50.1 10.4 from the River Elbe (Kothke, pers. comm.) the largest stow net has a diameter of 40 x 3 m, whereas the total width of
Pound net old 24 82.5 8.4 the river is 300 m. The stow net does not reach the bottom. Trials have led to an estimate, that, using 7 stownets of the
Electro-gear 40.5 10.7 diameter mentioned, about 5% of the migrating eel are caught. The catch, for example, of the stow net No.4 was
Electro-gear + net 43.9 9.4 influenced only very weakly whether or not stow nets 1-3 were in action. The situation is similar in all big rivers with
Longline 59.2 10.6 stow-net fishery.
Trawl 60.0 16.9

References
Historical records of stocking Anwand K. and Valentin M. (1982) Age and growth of eel in natural inland waters. Sportfischer Informationsdienst
Detailed stocking data are available for Lake Constance from the 1940s until 1982. Stocking intensity and total catch pp.23-26
generally were positively correlated. Berg R. 1988: Der aal im Bodensee Verlag Josef Margraf, Gaimersheim.

Stockinj( of j(lass eel Resulting yield Dietzsch D. (1978) Fishery biological studies on eel stocks in the Oder Lagoon. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der WPU
Period Nwnbers Period h/ha Rostock 4,447-453.
1880 1880 0.001 Hahlbeck E. (1991) Eel fisheries and eel catches in the coastal zone of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and present
from 1950 69,200 1975-1982 1 distribution of the swim bladder parasite Anguillicola). Arbeiten der Deutsche Fischerei Verb. 53, 25-39.
from 1960 173,000 1975-1979 3-4
from 1970 707,000 1980-1982 5-6 Jarmatz K., Winkler H. and Biester E. (1986) Fishery biological studies concerning eel stocks in the DDR coastal
waters in 1982. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der WPU Rostock 3, 48-53.
Koops H. (1988) Study on protection and conservation of the eel stocks especially on the glass eel stocks. Der
In Lake Constance yields rose 10 years after stocking. Estimates show that at least 10% of stocked glass eel reached Fischwirt, Vols. 6+7.
commercial size. For several other rivers stocking data are available until 1968 (Meyer-Waarden), but recent data are
very scarce. From the Hebrwn station (River Ems) glass-eel catch data are available from 1928 to the present. The last LOwenberg U. (1979) Investigation in the eel of the German Bight, biology and fishery. Diplomarbeit Fachbereich
high catch of glass eel was in 1976 (more than 3,000 kg); since 1981 this figure has been under 1,000 kg and from Biologie, Univ. Hamburg.
1983 to 1995 under 200 kg (Schmeidler, 1963; Aalversandstelle des DFV). The total catch is used for stocking. Meyer-Waarden P.F. (ed.) (1968) The Eel Fishery in Germany. Verlag Heenemann kg, Berlin

Eel stocking data are available from 1973 to the present. In the best years, from 1974 to 1980, every year 8 t elver and
70 t fingerling were released (1993 3 t elver and 29 t fingerling).
Data on population dynamics
Detailed investigation on population dynamics have been carried out in Lake Constance (Berg, 1988). For example the
growth rate per year was between 4.63 and 5.22 cm. Jarmatz et al. (1986) investigated the eel from coastal Baltic
waters. Dietzsch (1978) made population dynamic investigations in eel from the Oder Lagoon (Oder-Haft). Penaz and
Tesch (1970) conducted investigations on the sex ratio and growth of eel from the North Sea and River Elbe. Anwand
and Valentin (1982) worked on eel from different lakes in the eastern part of Germany.
All data are relatively old. No recent data are available for the big Rivers Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Eider and Oder, nor for
the big lakes or marine areas.
The following table summarises the data from Penaz and Tesch (1970).
Miiller H. (1975) The Eel. A. Ziemsen-Verlag, Neue Brehm-Biicherei; Nr. 471
Penaz M. and Tesch F.-W. (1970) Sex rate and growth of the eel (A. anguilla) in different biotopes of the North Sea
and the River Elbe. Berichte der Deutschen Wissenschaftlichen Kommission fuer Meeresforschung 21, 290-
310.
Rahn J. (1955a) Investigation in age and growth of the eel stock in the Sacrow Lake. See. ZeitschriJt fuer Fischerei, 4,
235-256.
Schmeidler E. (1963) Observations on the development of the quantity and the time dependence of glass eel ascent in
the River Ems (Hebrwn) in the years 1950-62. Dt. Gewiisserkundl. Mitt. 7, 84-86.
Tesch F.-W. (1983) The Eel. Parey-Verlag ,Hamburg.
Thurow F. (1957) Contributions to the Biology of the Eel (A. vulgaris). Phil. Diss. Kiel.
Thurow F. (1959) Yield and growth of the eel in the western Baltic. Zeitschriftfuer Fischerei 13 N. F. Heft 7/8.

Age groups II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII

Length (cm) 9.4 15.5 23.2 26.4 30.0 33.7 38.6 43.9 52.8 54.8 64.0 70.7 72.1

Recruitment

Natural mortality of glass eel

No information.

Fishing mortality of glass eel

The only recruitment data available concerning glass eel are the data from Hebrwn. Additional data on bootlace
catches are collected in the Aalversandstelle of the German Fisheries Association. Glass eel as well as bootlace are all
used for stocking purposes.

58 59
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
IRELAND (NORTHERN IRELAND)
Robert Rosell
Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Aquatic Systems Group, Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, N. Ireland
Habitat
Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks
Estuaries The Bann and Foyle estuaries, totalling 21 lan' in combined area, are the only significant estuaries in NI.
Both contain occasionally lightly fished populations of yellow eel in addition to seasonally migrating elver and
silver eel. Areas, intertidal area and substrate types are listed in Buck (1996). Water quality parameters are described
by Service (1993).
Coastal lagoons There are no coastal lagoons containing significant Anguilla anguilla stocks.
Lakes The extent of eel habitat in Northern Ireland can be estimated on the basis that while there are no fish survey
data for most lakes, it is known that eel exist in all but a very few small upland sites. The total lake area is circa
626 lan' (Smith et al., 1991). It is probable that eel exist in 95% or more of the recorded total lake area, i.e.
approximately 600 lan' of eel habitat.
Coastal waters Most NI coastal waters are of high salinity and essentially marine in character. There are no significant
A. anguilla stocks. In a study offish entrainment on power station intake screens (Moorehead and Service, 1992) eel
have been found in low numbers at three of four sites, all in estuaries or where there is freshwater influence.
Rivers/canals There is no estimate available of total river area in NI, but in eel habitat or production terms this is not
significant in relation to lake area. Some information can be extrapolated from official water statistics (Anonymous,
1979a), which contain some useful data in relatively raw form on hydrometric areas, and river basin areas. There is of
the order of 20 lan' of river surface area, most of which will contain eel at relatively low density (as compared with the
figure of approximately 600 lan' of lakes containing eel - see above). The rivers feeding Lough Neagh, by far the
largest catchment in Northern Ireland, are exploited as part of the emigrating silver eel fishery from the lake.
Areas of water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions.
Lakes There are no specific data. However, inaccessible areas can be assumed to be an insignificant proportion of total
water surface area likely to be useful for eel production.
Rivers/canals The Water Quality Map for Northern Ireland (Anonymous, 1995a) shows that at least Cyprinid water
quality conditions (as listed in the EC Freshwater Fish Directive) are met in all NI rivers. There are hence no chemical
barriers to eel migration. Physically inaccessible reaches are very li1nited and only in upland or steep coastal rivers, not
significant in terms of total area.
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
Data on annual declared catches for all commercial licences since 1966 are held by the Fisheries Division of the
Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland. Catch data are dominated by the output of the Lough Neagh Fishery,
which is more than 20 times that of the Erne, the only other major fishery. Other small fisheries are insignificant in
the total. Mean annual total NI declared catch of all eel since 1986 is 730 t, range 650 t to 830 t. Over the past 30
years the Lough Neagh data show a slightly declining trend in total catch and, within that, a shift from silver to
yellow eel harvest as the bulk of the total output (Anonymous, 1995b).
Parsons et al. (1977) analysed sex ratios of silver eel for Lough Neagh, in relation to elver stocking periods, and
showed an increase in numbers of smaller male silver eel in catches following periods of upstream elver transport.
Kennedy and Vickers (1993) gave a general description of the Lough Neagh fishery and changes in practice, eel
harvests 1960 to 1988 and silver eel runs in relation to river discharge. Following on from Parsons et al. (1977),
Kennedy and Vickers also made a further analysis of the sex ratio in silver eel, showing that the effect of elver
transport in increasing proportions of males had been temporary, indicating possible genotypic determination of sex of
the eel.
60
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R. Rosell Ireland (Northern Ireland) in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel I
Historical records of stocking
Parsons et al. (1977) provided data on quantities of glass eel transferred to Lough Neagh from the estuary of its
outflowing River Bann. Anonymous. (1995b) brings the time series up to 1995. Quantities were relatively large
between 1965 and 1978 (mean 6.1 t) and small (mean 2.1 t) from 1979 to 1995. Between 1994 and 1995, glass eel
from the River Severn in England were stocked in eight seasons, the quantities ranging from 9 t to 2 t. Moriarty and
Tesch (1997) give details of quantities of glass eel transferred from the estuary of the River Erne to the lakes upstream
since 1965, ranging from 0.4 to 4.5 t, mean 1.3 t.
Data on population dynamics
Lough Neagh silver and yellow eel data were recorded by DANI at various times from 1965 to 1978, and some of the
trends in these data have been sununarised by Kennedy and Vickers (1993). Mean lengths and ages of eel in both
yellow and silver eel catches declined in the 1960 and 1970s. Male and female silver eel averaged 37.5 cm and
53.9 cm long, respectively, in 1973 (Anonymous. 1972). In Lough Neagh, growth rates for males and females are
similar, at 2-3 cm per year, with males migrating after 10-13 years in freshwater and females after 17 years
(Anonymous., 1969a). Other populations have been shown to have faster growth rates (Moriarty, 1973, Anonymous.,
1976).
Recruitment
Natural mortality of glass eel
No information.
Fishing mortality of glass eel
Fishing takes place only on the River Bann, for transport to Lough Neagh. Ladder traps are operated at a weir at the
head of the tide and it is believed that a large proportion of the ascending glass eel enter these. Data on numbers
(Anonymous, 1995b) are sununarised under historical records of stocking above.
Escapement of glass eel
There is no coastal fishing for glass eel. Populations are free to develop in all river systems in NI. Experimental
glass eel fishing was attempted in the Bann estuary in 1996 and made a considerable contribution (in excess of 30%)
to the number of elver transported to Lough Neagh. It is not known to what extent these elver would have reached the
ladder traps if left to migrate naturally.
Data on survival of glass eel after stocking
Male Lough Neagh eel migrate to sea at ages 10-13 years and females at 17+ years (Anonymous, 1969a). Growth
rates are of the order of 2 to 3 cm per year, meaning that eel of both sexes reach market size as yellow eel (30 to
40 cm) in about 10 years. An analysis of existing elver run data and catches, (Anonymous 1995a), using a !O year lag
to yellow eel and an average 15 year lag to silver eel, demonstrates a yield per recruit of !O5 g of eel per elver
transported, or 314 kg of eel per kg of elver (3,000 elver =1 kg) over the harvest years corresponding to elver supply
over a 20 year period from 1965. Production per unit area averages approximately 17 kg ha'! over the same period.
Similar estimates of yield can be made for Lough Erne. Elver and eel harvest data are presented in Moriarty and Tesch
(1997). Harvest data are supplied annually to DANI (unpublished) and growth rates have been measured by Moriarty
(1973). The latter suggests that most eel should reach market or migration sizes ( > 45 cm) in around 8-9 years.
Applying a 10 year lag to the elver to adult production data, the Erne system is currently yielding 19 g of eel per elver
transported, or 56 kg eel per kg elver transported. Production per unit area averages approximately 5 kg ha'! over the
same period. These figures are almost certainly underestimates due to difficulties in collating data on the total catch,
and should probably be at least doubled, resulting in an output of the order of 40 g of eel per elver, as opposed to !O5 g
from Lough Neagh (above). It is unlikely that the Erne elver run is much underestimated due to the probability of the
power station at the trapping point on the river preventing other natural upstream migration.
61
 Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Data on economics of stocking
Although elver stocking to Lough Neagh has been carried out over two defined periods with known numbers of elver,
a full analysis of the economics or effectiveness of this practice has never been carried out. Following initiation of
elver transport Parsons et al. (1977) found a significant correlation between numbers of elver stocked in 1936-1947
and yellow eel catch 8 years later, corresponding to the approximate known lag after which growth should allow
recruitment to the yellow eel fishery. Further analysis has not produced statistically significant correlations since.
Analysis of more recent data over a longer time series (elver years 1960--1988, Anonymous, 1995b) yields a weak
positive but not statistically significant correlation. A lack of information on catch per unit effort or any other measure
of stock density in the yellow eel fishery prevents more detailed analysis. There are no data on costs of the transport
and stocking operation.
Escapement
Escapement of glass eel
No information.
Escapement of silver eel
There are no summary references or reliable estimates of silver eel escapement available. This could potentially be
measured in the Bann system by using the sequential downstream trapping facilities at Toome, Portna and
Movanagher.
Figures for the Toomebridge weir at the outlet of Lough Neagh and the Kilrea weir 23 km downstream are given in
Anonymous (1992). The mean annual catches over the period 1962-1992 were 127 t and 80 t, respectively. A lake,
Lough Beg, of 700 ha lying downstream of Toome together with 19 km of river contributes to the catch at Kilrea. It is
assumed, however, that the greater part of the Kilrea catch, 39% of the total for the catchment (and up to almost 50%
in some years) derives from escapement from the 10% free gap at Toome.
A preliminary analysis shows that a high proportion of the water area of Northern Ireland is exploited or partially
exploited for both yellow and silver eel - thus all the lakes and rivers feeding Lough Neagh and Lough Erne can be
considered as at least partially exploited by yellow and silver eel fisheries, and the Foyle system, while extensive, has
not in recent years yielded commercially viable quantities of eel (although fishing methods were probably inefficient).
These three catchments account for circa 90% of the land and inland water area of Northern Ireland. The only totally
unexploited waters contributing to a spawning escapement are some small lakes and rivers in minor coastal
catchments without extensive lake systems.
Some escapement is protected by a legislative requirement for silver eel fisheries to maintain a free gap equivalent to
10% river width at all times (Anonymous, 1979b). It is probable that escapement exceeds this 10% where applied
(Bann, Erne and Quoile systems).
It is only possible to guess on a very approximate basis at the proportion of silver eel reaching the sea. The output of
silver eel is dominated by the Bann and Erne systems, with some additional eel from other systems. The Erne system
has been estimated to be somewhat underexploited, but does have a power station on its exit which may damage some
silver eel. Escapement from the Bann system almost certainly exceeds the 10% which the legal free gap would allow if
eel migrated proportionally to river width and fishing were 100% efficient. Escapement from the Erne system may be
as high as 50% if current estimates of catch and potential production are correct. As a province-wide figure, a total
potential spawning escapement of perhaps 30% of a current silver eel run averaging approximately 300 t would be a
reasonable starting point, i.e. approximately 100 t of silver eel.
Number and extent of un exploited water bodies
In Northern Ireland, the extent of unexploited water is very limited (see escapement of silver eel, above), and is
probably less than 20 km' in total eel habitat of around 650 km'. Angler exploitation in considered insignificant.
62
R. Rosell Ireland (Northern Ireland) in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Information on conservation measures
Close seasons for eel fishing run from March to May, inclusive, in the case of silver eel weirs, and 8 January to 30
April for fyke net fishing. These in effect only reflect the practical seasonality of eel fishing. Eel netting is banned
within 1.6 km ofriver mouths and in certain defined areas of Lough Erne. Longlining is only permitted in Laughs
Neagh and Erne. In Lough Erne, effort is restricted by limitations on boat size. Glass eel may only be fished under
special conditions for restocking purposes. There is a legal size limit of 30 cm for yellow eel, though for marketing
purposes the Lough Neagh co-operative prefers eel longer than 41 cm. Silver eel weirs must preserve a 10% river
width free gap at all times (Anonymous, 1969b, 1979b).
References
Anonymous (1969a) Annual report on research and technical work - Fisheries Research Laboratory. Department of
Agriculture for Northern Ireland, HMSO, Belfast, pp. 76-77.
Anonymous (1969b) Fisheries Act (Northern Ireland) 1966, reprint to 1969. HMSO, Belfast.
Anonymous (1972) Annual report on research and technical work - Fisheries Research Laboratory. Department of
Agriculture for Northern Ireland, HMSO, Belfast, pp. 99-100.
Anonymous (1976) Annual report on research and technical work - Fisheries Research Laboratory. Department of
Agriculture for Northern Ireland, HMSO, Belfast, pp. 115-117.
Anonymous (1979a) Northern Ireland Water Statistics. Water service, Dept. of the Environment for Northern Ireland.
Belfast. HMSO.
Anonymous (1979b) Eel fishing regulations (Northern Ireland) 1979. Statutory rules of Northern Ireland, No. 19.
HMSO, Belfast.
Anonymous (1992) Lough Neagh Fishermen's Co-Operative Society Ltd. Annual report.
Anonymous (1995a) Water quality map for Northern Ireland, DOE(Nl) Calvert House, Castle place, Belfast.
Anonymous (1995b) Lough Neagh Fishermen's Co-Operative Society Ltd. Annual report.
Buck A.L. (1996) An Inventory of UK estuaries. Joint Nature Conservation Committee 1996. Nos. 156 (Lough Foyle),
157 (Bann Estuary). HMSO. London, (in press).
Kennedy G.J.A. and Vickers K.U. (1993) Salmon and eel. (eds Wood R.B. and Smith R.V.) Lough Neagh - the
ecology of a mUltipurpose water resource, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 397-417.
Moorehead P. and Service M. (1992) Capture of fish on screens of power stations in Northern Ireland. Irish
Naturalists lournal24, 3-8.
Moriarty C. (1973) Studies of the eel Anguilla anguilla in Ireland. 2. In Lough Conn, Lough Gill, and North Cavan
Lakes. frish Fisheries Investigations Series A, 13 13 pp.
Moriarty C. and Tesch F.W. (1997) Possible increase in catch of Atlantic elver Anguilla anguilla in 1993 and 1994.
Ecology of Freshwater Fish 5, 213-215.
Parsons J., Vickers K.U. and Warden Y. (1977) Relationship between elver recruitment and changes on the sex ratio
of silver eel Anguilla anguilla L. migrating from Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland. Journal of Fish Biology 10,
211-229.
Service M. (1993) Review of Monitoring in Northern Ireland's Coastal waters and proposals for an integrated
Classification programme. Department of Economic Development, Report TI 89/3146.
Smith S.J., Wolfe-Murphy S.A., Enlander I. and Gibson C.E. (1991) The Lakes of Northern Ireland: An annotated
inventory. Countryside and Wildlife Research Series, No 3. HMSO, Belfast.
63
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C.Moriarty and J. Reynolds Ireland (Republic) in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

IRELAND (REPUBLIC)
Christopher Moriartyl and Jnlian Reynolds 2
1Marine Institute, Fisheries Research Centre, Dublin 15, Ireland
2Department ofZoo!ogy, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
Habitat
Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks
Estuaries No details of extent have been published and, on account of the difficulty of detennining the seaward
boundary of a number of estuaries, an exact figure is difficult to obtain. Populations of eel are known or assumed to
exist in the estuaries of 237 rivers. Of these, 16 estuaries are greater than 1 lan' in extent and professional fishing for
yellow eel takes place in two of these. Trapping of elver for transportation takes place at the tidal boundary of five
estuaries. Experimental glass eel fisheries occur in three.
Coastal lagoons Only six substantial coastal lagoons exist in Ireland, of which one has an area of 3 lan' and the others
are less than 1 Ian'. Two are man-made. Eel populations exist in all but only one yields a professional catch.
Coastal water Experimental eel fishing in coastal waters around Ireland has yielded negative results and it is believed
that there is no significant population of marine-dwelling eel.
Lakes Freshwater lakes total 1,445 Ian'. Eel fishing takes place in 745 lan' of this area, approximately 50% of the total
habitat.
Rivers/canals Rivers described as main channel number 237 with a total length of 5,341 Ian. At least 95% of these are
accessible to eel, either because of the absence of any obstructions or because fish passes or capture and transportation
allow elver to enter them. Eel fishing takes place on ten of these, but depends largely on silver eel migrating from
upstream lake systems. The sole exception, an exploited river system with no lakes, is the Barrow, length 190 Ian.
Construction of a hydrodarn at the tidal boundary of the River Shannon in 1928 significantly reduced the numbers of
elver ascending to fresh water in the Shannon lake system which has a total surface area of 340 Ian'. A management
plan based on capture and transportation of elver, elimination of commercial capture of yellow eel and concentration
of silver eel capture to three fishing stations was initiated in 1958. Fyke net sampling of yellow eel began in 1969 and
has continued up to the present. These surveys showed that the greater part of the eel population inhabited Lough
Derg, the lowennost of the lakes in the system. Lakes upstream were popUlated by relatively smaller numbers of eel of
greater size and age than in Lough Derg. The implication was that migration of the eel to the upstream lakes takes
place so slowly that a large proportion of the population reaches maturity while still in Lough Derg and therefore the
upstream lakes are under-populated.
A substantial increase in silver eel catch began to be observed in 1979 and the numbers of eel per unit effort in
experimental fyke nets increased by 62% between 1969 and 1981, following which the sampling results suggested that
a steady state of population had been attained. The mean annual silver eel catch at Killaloe, the principal fishery, from
1979 to 1988 was 27 t, as against 18 t for the previous decade. Comparison of the Shannon lakes with Lough Neagh
(Northern Ireland) showed that fyke net CPUE for the Shannon lakes was nearly double that of Lough Neagh while
growth rates and length frequencies were similar in both. However, the yield per hectare in Lough Neagh was 22 kg as
against less than 2 kg on the Shannon lakes (Moriarty, 1987).
The hypothesis that the low yield of the Shannon lakes resulted from under-fishing began to be tested in 1992 by the
development of an experimental commercial yellow eel fishery. In 1994, 36 two-man crews operated 50 fyke nets per
crew and the number of silver eel trapping stations was increased. The catches for 1994 were 55 t of yellow eel and
38 t of silver (McCarthy et aI., 1994a).
The current yield of 2.7 kg ha-! from a mean stocking rate of 357 elver ha'! appears to be extremely poor. Sampling of
the fyke net catches continued to show a high population density. A study of silver eel migration, including extensive
tagging and releasing of silver eel, indicated a very high rate of escapement. The nets of the fishery at Killaloe,
through which all eel from the 340 lan' of lake migrate, extend over 90% of the width of the river and under nonnal
flow conditions extend from surface to bed. In spite of this, only 20% of 1,170 silver eel tagged and released upstream
of the nets were recaptured (data extrapolated from McCarthy et aI., 1994b).

Areas of water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions In the oligotrophic Burrishoole system yellow eel are unexploited but all migrating silver eel are trapped. The number
of silver eel trapped since 1959 has gradually declined; however, the total yield has not decreased as there has been a
Lakes change in sex ratio from 94.5% male in 1962 to 37.5% in 1988. The mean length of males has also increased by
Eel are present throughout the 144,500 ha of lakes except for one man-made lake of 12 lan' and an insignificant area 16.5% and females by 27.6%, coupled with an increase in age at migration for both sexes (Poole et aI., 1990).
of small mountain lakes and lakes which drain by percolation.
Historical records of stocking
Rivers/canals As outlined above, stocking by overland transfer of elver intercepted in their migration from tidal to fresh water, has
It is estimated that not more than 5% of the 5,341 Ian of main channel rivers are inaccessible to eel. They are absent been in progress since 1958 in the River Shannon. Elver, from two adjacent rivers, the Maigue and the Feale have
from the tributaries of the man-made lake mentioned above and from an unspecified number of mountain torrents. Eel been captured and transferred to the Shannon lakes from time to time but the principal source is the main stream of
are extremely scarce in the Avoca catchment, 106 Ian main channel, to which access is prevented by mine effluent the Shannon. The great majority of these elver are age 0+. This stocking has been supplemented by transfer of bootlace
close to its mouth.
eel, the majority aged between 2+ and 10+, captured at a fish pass 18 Ian upstream of the tidal boundary. (Reynolds et
aI., 1994; Walsh, 1994).
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
Data on catch per unit effort by a standard train of ten small «50 cm mouth diameter) fyke net pairs in 38 water Data on population dynamics
bodies are given in Moriarty (1988) together with mean length of specimens and growth rate calculated as a linear Values for L_ were calculated for yellow eel captured by fyke net stocks in the River Barrow and in Lough Derg on the
regression on length at age of capture. The number of eel caught per unit ranged from zero (in coastal water) to 466. River Shannon:
The latter was exceptional and based on only one unit. A narrower range, from 3 to 205 was observed elsewhere in
fresh water. This standardised catch per unit is used in Ireland to compare population density and structure between Site Method L k to Reference
water bodies. In the preparation of management plans it has been adopted by reference to known commercial fishing R. Barrow Back calculation 105 0.05 Moriarty (1983)
yield and effort in Lough Neagh to estimate potential catch in other fisheries. Lough Derg Back calculation 87 0.02 -2.5 Walsh et aI (1993)
Lough Derg Age at capture 79 0.04 -1.4 McCarthy et aI (1994a)
Louoh Derg Back calculation 103 0.02 -4.1 Poole and Reynolds (1996b)

However, it seems likely that the sizes and ages attained by silver eel are of far greater significance in the context of
eel management and these are usually well below the 1._ value:

64 65
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) IS, 1997 C.Moriarty and J. Reynolds Ireland (Republic) in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Killaloe Burrishoole Data on economics of stocking

Galway
males females males females males females The natural recruitment to the Shannon lakes is known to be substantial because few silver eel are older than 21 years
Mean length (cm) 36 47 38 60 37.3 50.4 and good catches of eel continued to be made for 30 years after elver migration was impeded by the building of a
Length range 30-42 38-87 30-43 43-90 29-46 41-97 hydrodam at the tidal boundary. Fyke net sampling between 1969 and 1982 indicated a doubling of the exploitable
Age range 7-17 12-19 7-16 9-21 10-33 8-57 yellow eel population as a result of initiating elver transport in 1959 (Moriarty, 1987). The costs of the transfer
Reference Moriarty (1991) Moriarty (1989) Poole & Reynolds operation have not been quantified, nor were the increased stocks exploited efficiently. Therefore the economic return
(1996~) cannot be calculated.

Random measurements of silver eel at Killaloe on the River Shannon between 1972 and 1988 showed a significant
reduction in length of females at migration, in the order of 10 cm total length, from means of 60 cm to 50 cm
(Moriarty, 1989). On the other hand systematic measurements of silver eel on the Burrishoole River between 1959 and
1988 showed an increase from 35 to 45 cm (Poole et al., 1990).
Silver eel of the River Shannon showed a very distinct difference in lengths attained by males and females: eel of
45 cm length were extremely rare and those examined were female. Smaller specimens were all male and the larger
ones were all female. In the neighbouring catchment of the River Corrib both male and female silver eel were
considerably smaller and overlapped in length, females of as little as 39 cm being observed (Moriarty,1989). In the
Burrishoole, the overlap between shortest female and longest male was 5.5 cm in 1988.
Escapement
Number and extent of un exploited water bodies
Rivers unexploited for eel in Ireland number 227 from the total of 237. It is estimated that the eel of one third of the
length of these rivers are exploited, totalling 1,800 km. Of the lakes, 800 km' are exploited and 645 km' are free.
McCarthy et al. (1994b) estimated that escapement of silver eel from the Shannon system is at least equal to the
annual catch of yellow plus silver eel. On the Burrishoole, virtually all descending silver eel are caught and sold but
this is unique in having a highly efficient salmon smolt trap which prevents the escape of silver eel. The Shannon is
probably the most efficiently exploited commercial eel fishery in the State and therefore escapement from all other
fisheries may be assumed to be greater than the total catch.

Annual survivorship was calculated for the Shannon lakes Derg and Ree based on an assumption of constant
recruitment and fishing mortality. Values ranged from 68% to 74%, derived from instantaneous mortality z = 0.30-
0.38 (McCarthy et al., 1994b).
Recruitment
Information on conservation measures
Capture of glass eel is forbidden by law except when authorised for stock-enhancement purposes. A free gap of at least
10% of the width of the river must be included in all fisheries for silver eel. Commercial capture and sale of eel may be
carried out only by licensed fishermen or dealers. Persons found in possession of eel by law enforcement officers must
be able to provide evidence that the eel were legally caught or purchased.

Natural mortality of glass eel References

No information.
Fishing mortality of glass eel
In Ireland all glass eel captured are used for on-growing, usually within the river system of capture. Less than 50 kg of
glass eel are used in eel culture. All glass eel for these purposes are captured in ladder traps at the tidal boundary and
the catches include a small proportion of older eel. However, the variations in annual catch reflect the extent of
migration of newly arrived eel into fresh water. Capture takes place annually on two major rivers, Shannon and Erne
and to a much smaller degree in four others.
Catches on the Shannon have been recorded since 1977. High returns, from 2 to 7 t, were observed between 1979 and
1982. In the subsequent years, annual catch has never been greater than 1.6 t.
Catch data for the River Erne have been recorded since 1962. They were not especially large in the 1970s and did not
show any marked decline thereafter. Highest catches of 4 t were made in 1982 and 1994 (Moriarty and Tesch, 1997).
Escapement of glass eel
Glass eel populations are free to develop in the absence of exploitation in 231 of the 237 Irish rivers.
Data on survival of glass eel or bootlace eel after stocking
McCarthy et al. (l994b) concluded that between 50 and 100 t of silver eel per annum escape from the Shannon lake
system. The known fishing mortality in 1994 was 93 t. This suggests a possible production (catch plus spawning
escapement) of 193 tor 4.2 kg ha'! from stocking at a rate of 357 glass eel ha- 1
McCarthy T.K, Allison J., Callaghan R., Purcell P. and Copley L. (l994a) Yellow eel stocks in the River Shannon and
the development of a fyke net fishery. Report to Electricity Supply Board.
McCarthy T.K., Cullen P., Faherty K. and O'Farrell M. (1994b) River Shannon silver eel: Population biology,
factors influencing downstream migration and commercial fishing. Report to Electricity Supply Board.
Moriarty C. (1983) Age determination and growth rate of eel, Anguilla anguilla (L). Journal of Fish Biology 23, 257-
264.
Moriarty C. (1987) The eel stocks of the Shannon system and prospects for the development of the fishery. Fishery
Leaflet (Dublin). 139.
Moriarty C. (1988) The eel in Ireland. Royal Dublin Society Occasional Papers in frish Science and Technology 4.
Moriarty C. (1989) The silver eel catch on the lower River Shannon, Ireland. EfFAC Working Party on Eel, Porto,
1989. pp 12.
Moriarty C. (1991) Management of the Corrib eel fishery. ElFAC Working Party on Eel, Dublin, 1991, pp 12.
Moriarty C. and Tesch F.-W. (1997) Possible increase in catch of Atlantic elver Anguilla anguilla in 1993 and 1994.
Ecology of Freshwater Fish 5, 213-215
Poole W R and Reynolds J.D. (1996a) Growth rate and age at migration of Anguilla anguilla. Journal of Fish Biology
48, 633-D42.
Poole W R and Reynolds J.D. (1996b) Age and growth of yellow eel Anguilla anguilla (L.) determined by two
different methods. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 5, 86-95.
Poole W.R., Reynolds J.D. and Moriarty C. (1990) Observations on the silver eel migrations of the Burrishoole River
System, Ireland, 1959 to 1988.fnternational Revue der Gesamten Hydrobiologie 75,807-815.
Reynolds J.D., Donnelly R., Molloy S. and Walsh, T. (1994) Glass eel, elver and juvenile eel programme. Report to
Electricity Supply Board.

67
66
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 B. Knights: Great Britain in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Walsh T. (1994) Biological studies of glass eel Anguilla anguilla (L.) in the Shannon Estuary, Ireland.MSc thesis,
Trinity College, Dublin. GREAT BRITAIN
Walsh T., Moriarty C. and Reynolds J. (1993) Using OPRS electronic scanning in age detennination of the eel
Brian Knights
Anguilla anguilla (L.). ElFAC Working Party on Eel, Olsztyn, Poland, 1993. pp 7. Applied Ecology Research Group, University of Westminster, 115 New Cavendish Street, London WIM 8JS, UK

Habitat

Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks

Estuaries Estuaries fonn a substantial part of the coastal zone of Britain, with 155 larger estuaries comprising an
intertidal/channel area of ca. 5,300 Ian'. Fyke nets, traps and pair trawls have been or are currently being used to
exploit eel stocks in shallower, warmer, productive waters with depositing shores in the south and east, such as the
Humber, Wash, Solen!, Severn and Dee (Morrice, unpublished data). The Thames is the only well,defined estuarine
fishery for which infonnation is available (Naismith and Knights, 1993). However, the area able to support reasonable
eel stocks is probably 40-50% of the total, i.e. ca. 2,500 Ian'.

Coastal lagoons There are no significant coastal lagoons in Great Britain.

Coastal waters Eel stocks are high enough to support occasional trawling in shallower coastal waters in the southern
North Sea and English Channel. Eel also appear in by,catches in other near,coastal waters (unpublished data from
Morrice, McKinnon and Potter; G. Williams, pers. comm.). Taken together with the estuaries above, a conservative
2
estimate of the total area of saline waters occupied by eel would be 5,000 lan

Lakes Lakes in Great Britain number:

Area (Ian') Number

<I 1,665
1-10 50
10-100 2

The total area oflakes which could support eel stocks is ca. 1,924 lan' (Dill, 1993).

Rivers/canals The total area of inland water is 2,404 lan', of which still waters account for about 80%, thus the area of
rivers and canals which could support eel is about 500 Ian'. Estimates of length of river vary from 38,820 to 58,380
Ian for 155-160 main rivers, 1,445 rivers in total (Dill, 1993).

Areas inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions

All inland waters, even acid ones, should be capable of supporting eel if access is possible (Tumpeuny, 1989; Mann,
1995). Relatively few are totally inaccessible.

Lakes Man,made lakes number approximately 500. Access to some of these, and to some natural lakes, is restricted
because of isolation from rivers or by water storage and river regulation purposes. The area totally inaccessible is,
however, believed to be relatively small.

Rivers/canals There are few totally unpassable obstructions of any significance, mainly because of the lack of major
hydro dams in comparison with other European countries. Large tidal barriers built in recent years have had to be
fitted with fish passes. However, most main rivers are carefully regulated for flood control, water supply and
navigation, with numerous weirs and sluices (Plus some tidal, flap or gate barriers to the sea in low,lying areas such as
East Anglia and the Somerset Levels). The number and relative severity of such obstructions have been shown to
inhibit elver and yellow eel inunigration and hence full utilisation of catchments. Data have been published for the
Thames (Naismith and Knights, 1988, 1993), Severn (Aprahamian, 1988; White and Knights, 1994, 1997a, 1997b)
and some smaller rivers (Tumpeuny, 1989; Mann, 1995).

68 69
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
This work has shown that upriver sites may not be utilised or stocks may achieve lower densities and productivities
than might be expected. For example, in surveys of the Severn, 93% of sites on tributaries feeding the estuary but only
69% of those above the tidal limit contained eel (Aprahamian, 1988). Comparable figures for the Thames are 62% and
34%, respectively (Naismith and Knights, 1993). Of 181 streams studied by Turnpenny (1989), 65% with pH >6.1
contained eel. Thus 60% could be used as an approximation of the area of riverine waters actually inhabited by eel in
Great Britain. Lower density populations deeper in catchments tend to be dominated by older, larger and female eel.
These can make a potentially high contribution to the total eel breeding stock.
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
There is much circumstantial historical evidence of decreases in stocks. For example, the number of pre-1086 and pre-
1900 records of silver eel traps in the Thames suggest stocks deep in the catchment were very much higher than today
(Naismith and Knights, 1993). There is a general consensus that stocks have decreased over the last 15-20 years
(McKinnon and Potter, unpublished survey), but quantitative data are lacking.
Best estimates for typical current freshwater stocks (Mann, 1995; Knights et al., 1996; Knights and White, 1997) are:
Population density:
-2
ca. 0.3 eel m (range 0-12.2)
ca. 60 kg eel ha" (range 0-328)
Annual yield: Range 0-35 kg ha-'
The higher estimates tend to come from productive lowland rivers and still waters. Average potential yield from fresh
waters in Great Britain is probably about 10 kg ha-'. Applying this figure to the areas of running and still freshwaters
above, estimated total potential sustainable yields are about 500 t and 1,924 t, respectively.
Similarly, if potential yield in saline open waters is estimated to be about 2 kg ha-'.(Table 3.1), total potential
sustainable yield is ca. 1,000 t, and the total potential from all waters is about 3,424 t .
Historical records of stocking
Stocking of eel has never been carried out on a large or commercial scale.
Data on population dynamics
The only estimates of natural mortality are of z = 0.37 per 3 cm length class for eel> 30 cm in the Thames Estuary,
comparable figures in the literature range between 0.17 and 0.65 (Naismith and Knights, 1990a). Recruitment
derivations are discussed below.
Recruitment
Natural mortality of glass eel
For initial recruitment into the Severn/Avon, White and Knights (1994) found the number of immigrant elver and
juveniles trapped at the tidal limits represented < 1% of the estimated commercial glass eel catch in the lower estuary.
Whilst fishing mortality was important, natural mortality was also probably very high between the time of arrival as
glass eel in early spring and resumption of active migration up the long estuary in early- to mid-summer when
temperatures rise to 14-16°C (White and Knights, 1997b).
Fishing mortality of glass eel
Some 20-30 t of glass eel are caught annually by dipnet in the Atlantic-facing Severn Estuary and rivers off the Bristol
Channel, such as the Parrett and Wye. Increasingly large quantities are coming from other waters, encouraged by
rising prices (Moriarty, 1996a,b). The impacts of fishing versus natural mortality are still, however, unclear.
70
B. Knights: Great Britain in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
-
Data on survival of glass eel or boot/ace eel after stocking
Some unrecorded casual stocking has occurred in the past, leading to relatively isolated local stocks of larger eel, for
example in the upper Thames (Naismith and Knights, 1993). The Environment Agency (formerly National Rivers
Authority) has stocked parts of the Lea and other rivers, but few accurate records have been kept or later monitoring
studies carried out. Parts of the River Avon were stocked after 1973 with on-grown elver. Local populations could have
been augmented by up to 20% as a result (Knights and White, 1997). Data on mortality are not available but estimates
for natural stocks in the Thames Estuary (Naismith and Knights, 1993) agree with European figures for stocked
glass eel of about 75-80% (Knights and White, 1997). However, mortality estimates are confused by immigration and
emigration in open waters.
Recruitment data
Recruitment data are lacking, except some for the Severn and Thames. In both cases, there is strong evidence that
barriers (in addition to the effects of low glass eel recruitment from the sea, plus natural and fishing mortality) are
reducing the full utilisation of available catchment resources, as discussed above. Eel passes are being fitted to
obstructions in the River Avon and there are future plans for the Thames (G. Armstrong, pers. comm.) and the rivers
and wetlands of the Somerset Levels. Naismith and Knights (1990a) suggested from z values that 80 glass eel would
be required to produce one marketable (34-41 cm) eel in the Thames Estuary, a commercial yield of about 1.5 g per
recruit. Such estuarine populations are, however, very mobile.
Data on economics of stocking
No information is available.
Escapement
Escapement of glass eel
Glass eel are exploited in the major Atlantic-facing estuaries of south west England. In the Severn, the number of elver
trapped at the tidal head are < 1% of the number of glass eel captured in the downstream commercial fishery, but, as
pointed out earlier, the impacts of natural mortality may be very high (Knights and White, 1997). The majority of
rivers are not exploited but increasing prices are leading to more intense and widespread fishing for glass eel.
Escapement of silver eel
Very few trap or net fisheries designed specifically for silver eel remain in operation; therefore, escapement should be
high.
Number and extent of un exploited water bodies
Commercial eel fishing takes place in many catchments and some estuaries and coastal waters but escapement is
probably large. It was estimated above that if all waters supported optimum stocks, the total potential yield of eel from
Great Britain waters is in the order of 3,424 t. This is about ten times the estimated commercial yield of 350 t. Thus
the species as a whole is not being overexploited, although impacts (especially of glass eel fisheries, plus migration
barriers and loss of habitat) may be relatively high in some catchments.
Information on conservation measures
Bye-laws requiring licensing and catch returns for glass eel exist in some areas, such as the Severn-Trent and North
Wessex fishery region. They restrict methods to the use of hand-held dip nets of specified size and forbid fishing from
a moving boat. All fishery regions require some form of licensing and catch returns for yellow and silver eel fishing
and restrictions are placed on the use of [lXed engine devices (mainly to protect migratory salmonids). There are no
standard requirements on minimum size but, for example, minimum fyke net mesh sizes are set in the Thames Estuary
fishery to allow the escape of eel < ca_ 100 g (Naismith and Knights, 1990a). Other local restrictions apply, e.g.
fishing may be forbidden because of conflicts with navigation or nature conservation. Otter guards are required in
some regions.
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
References
Aprahamian, M.W. (1988) Age structure of eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.), populations in the River Severn, England, and
the River Dee, Wales. Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 19,365-376.
Dill (1993) Inland Fisheries of Europe. EIFAC Technical Paper 52 suppl., pp 281.
Knights B. and White E.M. (1997) An appraisal of stocking strategies for eel. In: l.G. Cowx (ed.) Stocking of Fish
Into Fresh Waters. Oxford: Fishing News Books, Blackwell Scientific Publications. In press.
Knights B., White E.M and Naismith l.A. (1996) Stock assessment of European eel, Anguilla anguilla L. In: l.G.
Cowx (ed.) Stock Assessment in Inland Fisheries. pp. 431-447. Oxford: Fishing News Books, Blackwell
Scientific Publications.
Mann R.H.K. (1995) Eel Stock Assessment in the UK. Report to MAFF, Project No. SF0305. Institute of Freshwater
Ecology Project No. Tll063al, !FE, Abbots Ripton, Cambs., England
Moriarty C. (1996a) The European eel fishery in 1993 and 1994. Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 14,52 pp.
Moriarty, C. (1996b) Glass eel supply and demand in Europe in 1995 and 1996. EIFAC/ICES Working Group on Eel
Umuiden, Netherlands 1996.
Naismith LA. and Knights B. (1988) Migrations of elver and juvenile European eel, Anguilla anguilla L., in the River
Thames. Journal of Fish Biology 33(Supplement A), 161-175
Naismith l.A. and Knights B. (1990a) Studies of sampling methods and of techniques for estimating populations of
eel, Anguilla anguilla L. Aquaculture and Fisheries Management 21,357-367.
Naismith LA. and Knights, B. (1993) The disttibution, density and growth of European eel, Anguilla anguilla L., in
the River Thames catchment. Journal of Fish Biology 42,217-226.
Turnpenny A.W.H. (1989) Field studies on fisheries in acid waters in the United Kingdom. In: Morris et al. (eds) Acid
TOXICIty and AquatIC Animals. SEB Seminar Series 34, 45--{)5.
White E.M. and Knights B. (1994). Elver and Eel Stock Assessment in the Severn and Avon. NRA R&D Project
Record 256/13/ST. Bristol: National Rivers Authority (now the Environment Agency).
White E.A. and Knights B. (1997a) Dynamics of upstream migration of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla L., in the
Rivers Severn and Avon, England, with special reference to the effects of manmade barriers. Fisheries
Management and Ecology in press.
White E.A. and Knights B. (1997b) An analysis of environmental factors affecting upstream migration of the
European eel, Anguilla anguilla L., in the Rivers Severn and Avon. Journal of Fish Biology in press.
72
W. Dekker Netherlands in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
NETHERLANDS
Willem Dekker
RIVO-DLO, Haringkade 1, IJrnuiden, The Netherlands
Habitat
Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks
Estuaries The rivers Rhine, Meuse and Schelde flow through the Netherlands into the North Sea, in an intertwining
network of branchings and anastomosations. Therefore the estuarine area is hard to define. Brackish areas amount to
500 km'. The Waddensea is a lagoon-like area of 14,500 km' . Because of the inflow of water from the river Rhine
directly through lake Usselmeer and indirectly via the coastal areas of the North Sea, it is brackish in nature. The
brackish areas have been greatly reduced by land reclamation, often resulting in freshwater lakes, where the eel
populations still strive.
Coastal lagoons No true lagoons exist.
Coastal water Eel are taken as a by-catch in the fishery for brown shrimp. The shrimp fishery has been operated by
numerous small boats operating within a few kilometres from the coast; surface area some 50,000 km'. The nature and
extent of the habitat for eel in these areas is unknown; the eel caught might be migrating animals. There are no
statistics on the eel catches, but the impression is of a steady decline in the past decade. Additionally, eel are caught as
a by-catch in all fisheries on the North Sea. Traditionally, this profit is for the crew members, with the exclusion of the
ship owner.
Rivers All surface waters in the Netherlands are connected to the rivers Rhine and Meuse. In the absence of major
obstructions in the major waterways, virtually all may be considered to contain eel populations. Surface area of the
main rivers is less than 1,000 km'.
Canals, polders and smaller lakes The accumulated length of ditches in all polders amounts to approximately 300,000
km, corresponding to about 3,000 km'. The surface area of all fresh water, excluding lake Usselmeer, is approximately
15,800 km'. Eel populations exist in all.
Lake ljsselmeer The surface area of lake Usselmeer has declined from 34,000 km' in 1932 when the lake was closed
off from the Waddensea to its present area of 18,200 km'.
Areas of water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstruction
Lakes/canals There are no cases of lakes becoming completely inaccessible due to chemical or physical obstructions,
but there is reasonable doubt with respect to the efficiency of recruits passing physical (water management) barriers.
Rivers No real obstructions.
Estuaries Many estuaries have been enclosed, but in most cases the immigration of elver has not been blocked
completely. There is some evidence that the habitat in enclosed estuaries is more favourable to eel. This includes lake
U sselmeer.
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
Over the past few centuries, large parts of the Dutch estuaries have been enclosed, enpoldered or controlled by dams.
On the one hand, this has certainly reduced the favourable area for the eel but, on the other, previous marine habitats
have been transformed into freshwater habitats, still supporting eel populations. Furthermore, it is known that human
interference in the estuaries (notably stocking with young mussels) has increased the potential for eel populations.
Eel fisheries are found in all coastal/estuarine areas, but the fishery is nowhere of great economical importance. The
volume of the fisheries has gone down over several decades. Following the recruitment failure in the 1980s, yield has
fallen rapidly and only a last remnant of the fisheries exists.
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
In historic times, more than 500 boats (schokkers) fished for eel on the river Rhine between Basel and the North Sea.
Nowadays, the numbers seem to have stabilised at less than 10 in the Dutch parts, and none in Germany. Catches are
not centrally recorded, but certainly do not exceed a few tonnes per boat per year.
The fisheries for eel in polders, canals and smaller lakes has been operated by thousands of fishermen/farmers,
supplying anything from a full income to a lifetime hobby. Professionalisation of the fishery sector since the Second
World War has resulted in about 400 mostly full-time fishermen. In the past decade this number has fallen to below
300, with an average catch of I or 2 t per crew per year, corresponding to some 400 t in total. The Organisation for the
Improvement of Inland Fisheries (OVB) keeps records of subsidised elver supplies, but no statistics are kept of the
resulting yield in individual water bodies. Stockings vary from nil in areas near the coast to 0.5 kg ha'! per year in
remote areas.
The fall in this fishery has been caused by reductions in the accessible area, by land reclamation, 'better' drainage
systems preventing the upstream migration, eutrophication and pollution, but also by the fishery falling back compared
to the rising average incomes, and recently by shortage of elver supplies.
The eel stock of the Usselmeer is very heavily overexploited. The yield of silver eel has consequently decreased from
20% to less than 5% of the yellow eel catch, while the annual catch of yellow eel itself has dropped from over 5 kg ha'!
to I kg ha·!.
The eel stock on lake Usselmeer is extensively monitored. Data on natural recruitment from the Waddensea (dipnet
sampling; Dekker, 1986a, 1996b) and stock surveys on the lake itself (trawl surveys; Dekker, 1996a) correlate well
over the years, both showing a sharp decline since the 1980s. However, no man-made stocking is done here.
Historical records of stocking
The elver supply series from the OVB dates from shortlyafrer the Second World War. Over the years, the general
trend in stocking has followed the same pattern as the natural immigration; following the natural recruitment failure
along the Dutch coast, the rise of the price of glass eel on the international market has prevented compensation by
supplementary stockings.
The sampling of the natural recruitment to lake Usselmeer started in 1938, and was interrupted only for the winter of
1945. The natural recruitment to lake Usselmeer peaked in the 1960s (and 1970s, absolute maximum in 1963), falling
in the eighties to an all-time low in 1991. The rise in recent years has been of negligible magnitude (Dekker, 1996b).
Data on population dynamics
Lake Usselmeer has been closely monitored. Based on recruitment surveys, commercial catch sampling, independent
stock surveys and data series on fishing effort, an accurate picture of the eel stock has been compiled. Most of the
research effort has been directed towards the stock dynamics and methodologies for assessment (Dekker, 1996c), not
towards estimation of vital statistics of the eel biology (Dekker, 1986b). Estimation of growth has been shown to be
tedious, and therefore largely ignored. However, estimates of exploitation rates are available on a yearly basis (Dekker,
1996a), based on routine sampling of the commercial landings. Following a reduction in the fishing effort of
nominally 40% in 1989, this has shown that annual fishing rates decreased from 45% to 35% per year (z=0.55, resp.
0040).
Analysis of stocking densities, growth and survival in small experimental ponds were undertaken in the late 1980s, in
order to advise on optimal stocking densities (Klein Breteler et al., 1989). Maximum production of yellow eel was
achieved at a biomass of 20-40 kg ha'!, amounting to 19 kg ha'! . However, during this analysis, the supply of elver
has fallen to record low values, because of the recruitment failure allover Europe.
Predation by cormorants The quantity of eel eaten annually by cormorants in lake Usselmeer is negligible: 0.1 kg ha'!
compared to 2.5 kg ha'! taken by the fisheries. Cormorants have a much more substantial impact on the fisheries for
perch and pikeperch (van Dam et al., 1995).
74
W. Dekker: Netherlands in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Recruitment
Natural mortality of glass eel
No information.
Fishing mortality of glass eel
Glass eel fisheries are only allowed when operated on behalf of the Organisation for the Improvement of Inland
Fisheries (OVB). Traditionally, the OVB had permission to catch 3 t at one of the entrances to lake Usselmeer
(53°04'N 5°20'E). Following the recruitment failure since the mid-1980s, actual catches on this single location fell
well below this quota, resulting in a permit to catch a total of 3 t at six sites along the coast, including the second
entrance to lake Usselmeer (52°56' N 5°03' E). Fishermen on lake Usselmeer complained that this increased effort
took a larger share of their recruitment during the meagre years.
The government decided to allow a catch of 5% of the total immigration to lake Usselmeer, without knowing how
much that amounts to. The fishermen fishing for the OVB estimated the total immigration at 158 tonnes (i.e. 8 tonnes
quota would be acceptable), while the RIVO estimates for the same period were only 2 to 5 t (acceptable quota 0.1-0.2
t). The actual catch in that period amounted to 0.6 t. A first attempt to obtain direct estimates of the absolute numbers
immigrating, by means of mark-recapture experiments, failed because of methodological problems (Dekker and van
Willigen, 1996).
Escapement of glass eel
The fisheries for glass eel traditionally have had only a marginal impact, allowing almost 100% escapement. However,
following the recruitment failure in the 1980s, the fishing intensity for glass eel has increased. Views on the impact
differ widely (see Fishing mortality of glass eel above).
Data on survival of stockings
An experimental study on growth and survival of stocked eel included experiments on glass eel. The combined effect
of natural mortality and incomplete recapture amounted to ca. 25% per year (Klein Breteler et al., 1989).
Data on economics of stocking
In the 1950s, stocking and yield in 18 polders were analysed, resulting in a recommendation to stock at most 0.5 kg
glass eel per ha per year. Gradually, this maximum norm was understood as an optimal norm. No further evaluation
has taken place.
Escapement
Number and extent of unexploited water bodies
Polders, lakes and canals are fully exploited. Escapement of silver eel is known to occur, but there is absolutely no clue
as to the extent. The minimum legal size is set at a level that allows for fishery on eel at a size approaching that of
silver eel, before they escape the fishery. Rivers are not very heavily exploited, catches comprise mostly silver eel and
it is likely that large amounts of silver eel escape the rivers.
Information on conservation measures
All legal protection of eel is aiming at optimisation of the yield. The minimum legal size is 28 cm; proposals for 32 cm
have been around for nearly 10 years now. The minimum mesh size corresponds to the legal size. There is no nation-
wide closed season, but on lake Usselmeer most eel fishing methods are prohibited from October through April; this is,
however, motivated by the by-catch of perch and has only a marginal effect on the eel fishery itself.
References
Dekker W. (1986a) Regional variation in glass eel catches; an evaluation of multiple sampling sites. Vie et Milieu
36(4),251-254.
Dekker W. (1986b) Age reading of European eel using tetracycline-labelled otoliths. ICES CM 1986/M:16.
75
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 G. Fontenelle, E. Feunteun and C. Briand: France in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Dekker W. (1991) Assessment of the historical downfall of the I1sselmeer fisheries using anonymous inquiries for
effort data. In: LG. Cowx (ed.) Catch Effort Sampling Strategies, Their Application in Freshwater FRANCE
Management. Oxford: Fishing News Books, 420 pp., pp. 233-240.
Guy Fontenelle', Eric Feunteun' and Cedric Briand'
Dekker W. (1996a) De visstand en visserij op het Usselmeer en Markermeer: de toestand in 1995. (Fish stocks and lLaboratoire Halieutique, ENSA, 65 Rue de St Brieue 35042, Rennes Cedex, 2Universite de RelUles, UMR CNRS 6533, Laboratoire ESNM, 35042
fisheries on lake I1sselmeer and Markermeer: status in 1995). RIVO report C001/96, 36 pp. Mei 1996. Rennes Cedex,

Dekker W. (l996b) Long-term trends in the glass eel immigrating at Den Oever, the Netherlands. EIFACIICES
Working Group on Eel, IJmuiden, Netherlands, 1996,24 pp.
Dekker W. (l996c) A length structured matrix population model, used as fish stock assessment tool. In: LG. Cowx
(ed.) Stock Assessment in Inland Fisheries. Oxford: Fishing News Books.
Dekker W. and van Willigen J. (1996) Hoeveel glasaal trekt het Usselmeer in Verslag van een glasaal-merkproef in
Den Oever in 1996. (How much glass eel immigrate into lake I1sselmeer? Report on a mark-recapture
experiment in Den Oever, November 1996). RIVO-DLO report 96012/WD, November 1996, 18 pp.
Klein Breteler J.G.P., Dekker W. and Lammens E.H.H.R. (1989) Growth and production of yellow eel and glass eel in
ponds. ElFAC Working Party on Eel, Oporto, Portugal, 1989.
van Dam C., Buijse A.D., Dekker W., van Eerden M.R., Klein Brete1er J.G.P. and Veldkamp R. (1995) Aalscholvers
en Beroepsvisserij in het Usselmeer, het Markermeer en Noordwest Overijssel. Informatie en Kenniscentrum
Natuurbeheer, Wageningen. Nr 19, 104 pp.
Habitat
Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks
Estuaries In spite of the lack of a current survey, the extent of French estuaries can be esitmated at about 1,000 km'.
All these habitats are inhabited by eel at some stage. Nevertheless, there is no current monitoring or regular surveying
at national scale, except for some estuaries where some scientific work is being carried out (Somme, Arguenon,
Vilaine, Gironde, Adour).
Coastal lagoons Almost all coastal lagoons along the Mediterranean Sea support eel exploitation (350 km'). Most of
these areas are accessible for eel, although the water and habitat quality has decreased in recent years because of
human activities (sewage, refmeries, water management, among others: Cavailles et Loste, 1988).
Reclaimed marshes The reclaimed marshes on the western Atlantic coast are 2,800 km' in extent. They contain about
240 km' of water, and 40,000 km of ditches. All these areas are accessible to eel and provide for a wide range of
habitats except when agricultural practices lead to chemical or physical obstruction.

Lakes The extent of natural lowland and mountain lakes can be estimated as 500 km'. Hydrodams and drinking water
reservoirs cover about 96 km'. The 3,000 man-made ponds extend over 1,100 km'.

Rivers and canals.

Average width Total length Surface
m km km'
35 II,800 413
10 25,530 255
1 88,000 88
0.5 150,000 75

Total 280,000 840

Most of these areas are accessible by eel, at least in the downstream reaches. However, major dams can obstruct the
rivers more or less completely at various distances from the sea (Chancerel, 1994).

Areas inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstruction.

There are no data about the accessibility of these hydrosystems, but most of the mountain lakes, among them the
Leman Lake (200 km' ), are inaccessible mainly because of dams and to a lesser degree because of natural
obstructions.

Usually, all lowland lakes and ponds are colonised by eel. Some of them, like the Lake of Grand-Lieu (4()...{j0 km'
according to the water levels) support intensive commercial fisheries.

No precise data are available on river systems. However, annual surveys conducted by Conseil Superieur de la P6che
(CSP), the State Fisheries Agency, indicate a decreasing density of eel in rivers with increasing distance from the sea
(Chancerel, 1994; Legault and Porcher, 1988). This density decline can occur immediately within the estuaries (for
example, the Vilaine) and to a greater degree because of multipurpose dams along the system. A rough estimate shows
that 10 to 20% of catchments are therefore inaccessible, especially in the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Massif Central.

There is no extensive geographical review on chemical barriers to eel in French freshwater waterbodies except in a few
cases where eel may highlight biocontamination by xenobiotics.

77
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
Standing crop
An extensive survey throughout France, using electrofishing and the removal method, is conducted each year over 600
sites. The target species is not only eel, but the survey evaluates the interannual development of eel population
structure and abundance at a regional and national scale. This survey has shown that at national level, eel densities
average between 0 and more than 500 individuals ha'! in France, according to the accessibility and the quality of the
habitats (Chancerel, 1994). In all short rivers or lower parts of big river systems which remain accessible to the eel, the
species constitutes the major part of fish density and biomass (> 50% : CSP, unpublished data).
At a regional level, for example in Normandy and Brittany, this survey has shown a decreasing trend in eel abundance
since 1990. During this period, average biomass has fallen from 70 kg ha'! to 40 kg ha'! in Brittany and from
120 kg ha'! to 60 kg ha'! in Normandy (CSP, unpublished data). This general decrease of the population in Brittany,
Normandy and in the Vendee, has also been observed in Mediterranean lagoons (Loste et Dusserre, 1996). Fisheries
surveys show that the average catch per fisherman has fallen by about 40% between the 1985-1990 period and the.
1991-1995 period in spite of increasing fishing effort. Meanwhile, the average size of silver eel has increased, possibly
related to lower densities.
Nevertheless, the accuracy of such a survey is too low to provide for reliable data on the scale of a given watershed. In
order to obtain a greater accuracy, more intensive surveys are conducted upon a small number of experimental
watersheds. For example, a study in the reclaimed marsh of Bourgneuf (South-Brittany) showed a fall from about
2,000 eel ha'! to less than 600 eel ha'! between 1987 and 1991. The corresponding biomass simultaneously decreased
from 70 kg ha'! to less than 20 kg ha'! . This decrease could be due to obstruction to the upstream migration by a dam
and to the mortality caused by an elver fishery of about 5 t a year. The total numbers of elver caught represent a
density of 50,000 individuals ha'! in the whole catchment. Bad water quality (sewage, agriculture and industries)
associated with loss of available habitats (filling of ditches and ponds) can also be involved in the decrease of eel
abundance in these man-made waterbodies (Feunteun, 1994).
In 1995 and 1996, a survey conducted in an experimental coastal catchment has shown that the average densities may
be about 90,000 ha'! of elver and eel downstream and they drop rapidly to 5,000 eel ha'! in upstream areas because of
several physical obstructions to upstream migration. Nevertheless, the average density at the scale of the catchment is
very high (5,000 eel ha'! ) compared to other rivers, probably because there is no commercial fishery neither in the
estuary, nor within the river itself (Guillouet et al., 1995, 1996 ; Feunteun et al. in prep.).
Yield
There is no annual survey conducted in France to assess the overall yield of eel by commercial fishers and anglers. The
most recent reviews (CasteInaud and Babin, 1987; Babin, 1991) show that 302 t of eel (including 120 t of silver eel)
were caught in 1989 in French inland waters. No data about non professionals are available. Since then, only a few
surveys have been conducted within small catchments by CEMAGREF (Bordeaux), especially in the Lake of Grand-
Lieu where the eel landings ranged from 22 tin 1991 to 31 tin 1992. The corresponding yield comprised between 0.9
and 8 kg ha'! , of which 4 to 12% were silver eel (Adam & Elie 1994).
A study conducted in 1990 and 1991 (Schaan, 1993) on the estuaries of the Loire and Vilaine has shown that the total
captures of eel varied between 75 and 100 t per year and 10 to 20 t per year, respectively. This fishery is conducted by
450 fishermen in the Loire (including 300 non-professionals) and by less than 20 in the Vilaine.
In some reclaimed marshes of the Atlantic coast, in the 1980s about 15 t of eel (mainly silver eel) were caught every
year. This represents a yield of 37 kg ha'! . Since then, this resource has declined tremendously and has been reduced
by a factor of about 4 : nowadays in the same area (3,600 hal the yield does not reach 10 kg ha'! .
In the Mediterranean lagoons, once again, the fishery system constitutes the backbone of any survey of eel populations
which live in these areas. Unfortunately, very few studies are still in progress (CEPRALMAR, IFREMER).
78
G. Fontenelle, E. Feunteun and C. Briand: France in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
r
Most of the yield production data are compiled by the Maritime Statistics System but do not seem reliable and must be
considered as underestimates: from 1,264 t in 1991 to 251 t in 1994 (Loste, pers. comm.).The only recent figures
which are available come from lagoons near Palavas (Languedoc) and Bages Sigean (Roussillon) that cover about
90 km 2 In both lagoons, the yields and CPUE have decreased by about 40% since 1985 (from 99 to 45 kg ha'! on
Bages-Sigean) while the number of fishers declined as well (Loste and Dusserre, 1996).
Some population parameters are available, including age-length keys derived from former validation experiments
(Panfili, 1988; Loste et Dusserre, in prep.). The mean length of yellow eel sampled from commercial fisheries (fyke
nets) did not change within 10 years (30 cm).
Some water quality problems appear to modify the available habitat for eel: mostly summer dystrophic crises,
regression of eel-grass fields, heavy metal and organochlorine pollution (Anonymous, 1992, 1996).
There is a real need for such surveys in France.
Historical records of stocking
No intensive stocking has ever been conducted in French rivers because of a generally favourable natural recruitment.
Nevertheless a few rivers of the central regions of France were stocked with bootlace eel until the 1980s. But since
then the increasing prices led to cessation of this operation.
Data on population dynamics
Only a few studies have been conducted lately on population dynamics, and only three are now carried out on the
continental phases of the life cycles at the scale of wide hydrosystems.
In the marsh of Bourgneuf a study has been in progress on a 36 km' area since 1987 by the University of Rennes and
the CEMAGREF of Bordeaux. Its main scope is to define the eel habitat relationship with regard to human
management and activities. The major conclusions were presented in a PhD thesis (Feunteun, 1994) and in several
papers. In this site, the eel distribution mainly depends on the accessibility to the waterbody and has been reduced by
various obstructions: sluices and low connectivity of the ditch web which progressively fills up with mud because of
increasing land abandonment. Habitat preference changes during the life cycle: young eel preferring shallowest waters
with high vegetation cover whilst the oldest tend to occupy deeper waters. Now, in order to increase the accessibility
and habitat quality, experimental areas have been cleared and sluices equipped with fish passes. A survey is in
progress to measure the consequences of such development on the eel stock.
In this area, a study concluded that herons consumed on average 6 to 10% of the standing eel biomass. Available and
consumed eel population structure was very similar although the biggest eel (>45 cm) were partly neglected (Feunteun
and Marion, 1994).
A second study started on the Lake of Grand-Lieu in 1990 to provide data on population dynamics in relation to the
commercial fisheries (CEMAGREF of Bordeaux, Ministry of Environment). Part of the results on yields are presented
in Adam and Elie (1994) and the full results were to be published in 1997.
The third study began in 1995 in a small catchment of northern Brittany (60 km'). It aims to measure the effects of the
placement of fish passes on two major barriers < 5 km from the sea. The enhancement of the stocks and the population
dynamics will be surveyed for at least 3 years. Elver/juvenile and emigrant silver eel trappings will be compared. Mark
release studies will be conducted, electric fishing and fyke net surveys will be carried out to assess changes in
catchment stocks and population dynamics. First results on the initial stock have been published (Guillouet et al.,
1995, 1996) and final results on the dynamics were due for presentation in 1997.
Some studies focused on age determination by otolithometry. They provided growth rate figures, but they emphasised
the difficulty in using such techniques because important variations could be observed according to environmental
factors such as salinity, latitude, water velocity, etc. (Panfili, 1991; Mounaix, 1992). As an example, in the Vilaine
catchments the findings by Mounaix (1992) are reported below.
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 Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 G. Fontenelle, E. Feunteun and C. Briand: France in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Age (years) 1 2 3 456 7 8 As a base line, previous data have become available: from nine estuarine eel traps built since 1985, only three remain
Estuary (mm) 126 198 243 302 464 550 610 670 monitored (Vilaine, Sevre and Sal). On rivers, 60 fish passes have been settled, among which 18 are equipped with
River(mm) 140 235 296 306 335 traps and 10 are monitored (Fish-Pass Co. pers. comm.). However, all these data have yet to be compiled into a
national database to assess an overall escapement towards upstream reaches

Promising results have been published (Dufour, 1997) on the possibility of discriminating the sex ratio and related sex
dimorphism by testing the growth hormone rate on small eel (as small as 20 cm long and 3 years old). Other
phYSIOlogical works are in progress on abs?rption of oestrogens by eel in waterbodies commonly used for drinking
water. Thes~ results deserve greater attentIOn from eel fishery managers and scientists to address the relationship
between habitat and sex differentiation.
Recruitment
Natural mortality of glass eel
No precise information is available.
Fishing mortality of glass eel
The commercial fisheries in estuaries remain important. Estimation of fishing mortality is not so easy because of the
Wide range of fishmg methods and limited accuracy of surveys. Recently, the scientific involvement decreased in
validating the catch-data at a national scale. Only some estuaries remain under scrutiny.
The national scheme for statistics developed towards a system of logbooks which are filled by commercial fishers and
conveyed to a natIOnal database. Unfortunately, no distinction among estuaries seems possible (hence, the quality of
data has detenorated compared With preVIous years). However the French Seawater Authority states that 580 t of
glass eel were caught in 1995 (CRTS). These data could be underestimates because no validation has been made using
the logbooks from the ClPE.
Very few published data are available: Sevre Niortaise (Legault, 1996), Arguenon, Fremur (Fish-Pass and Feunteun,
unpublished data), Vilaine where 600 kg of glass eel passed over the dam as compared with 22 t caught by fishers
downstream in 1996 (first year functioning) (Briand & Bouisson, 1997). A few devices are also available on upstream
dams (more than 200 kin from the estuary): Dordogne, Garonne, Vienne (Loire tributary) and surveys have been
conducted for long time periods. The migrating population is very different from those of downstream reaches
(average size 30-35 cm). Migration is mainly triggered by temperature and water discharge (Legault and Feunteun,
1992 ; Briand & Bouisson, 1997). A general database will soon be available to manage all this information on a
national scale.
Information on silver eel escapement
No accurate survey has been conducted on this topic. However, the following assumptions are suggested.
In Mediterranean coastal lagoons, very few silver eel seem to escape because of intensive fishing effort on young eel of
less than 25 cm. Therefore, eel very rarely exceed 30 cm long. However, runs of small and young silver eel have been
reported which suggests that they may migrate at younger ages (Panfili, 1991).
In most rivers, silver eel fisheries, which were operated mainly on water mills, have progressively been abandoned.
But this stage remains a target for some commercial fishers (including the Grand-Lieu Lake, Loire, Garonne, Rhone).
The majority of silver eel are theoretically able to escape, but there are currently no reliable statistics on this topic.
Over and above both previous considerations, the main barrier to escapement could be related to the succession of
hydrodams (both small and large installations) which lead to high mortalities after passing through the barriers.

Surveys have been conducted on some fisheries at a regional scale. In the Vilaine, the total catches, after a decade of
decrease m the 1980s (200 t in 1979), seem to have remained constant since 1985 (between 10 and 50 t) for the same
fishmg effort. Regular surveys of eel and glass eel fisheries by 1FREMER stopped recently. However, the Vilaine
fishery IS bemg studied by IAV, ENSAR and Commerical Fishers' Association.
Some scientific work (south-west: Adour, Gironde) is still in progress to relate some hydrographic estuarine
conditions and glass-eel migration. Unpublished data are also available in Gironde (CEMAGREF Bordeaux) and
Adour (1FREMER).
Whatever the estuary, the general trend has been a decrease. in fishery production despite an increasing fishing effort
for glass eel due to a shift m market demand. After the traditIOnal export to the Spanish consumption market, glass eel
are also m demand by Asian dealers for on-growing commercial ventures (Taiwan among others) for sale to the
Japanese market.
Information on conservation measures
Because of the past abundance of eel in French inland waters, successive fishery policies have never really taken stock
management of the species into account. Until 1984 eel was considered as a nuisance and was systematically removed
from salmonid rivers by the authorities.
Since this date, a law on inland waters enforces dam owners that are settled on migratory fish rivers to build efficient
fish passes. To encourage such development of migratory fish stock enhancement on all rivers, the Ministry of the
Environment has initiated a national funding prograrrune which focuses on several catchments (Somme, Vilaine,
Loire, Adour, Rhone). This fishpass policy is supposed to be the milestone towards restoration of the species on
degraded zones and better management on a watershed scale. Indeed, it allows calculation of natural mortality and
escapement at different steps on a river system. On the other hand, there is no significant development of safe devices
adapted to downstream migration for silver eel.

In common with many other countries, France has become a target for glass eel capture. The first consequences have The Ministry of the Environment has recently listed eel as a threatened species (Livre rouge des espece menacees en
been an increasing fishing effort mainly by non-commercial fishers who can earn a lot of money (> 2,000 FF kg-I). In France). A national report on the issues of the Rio Convention also mentions the eel as a vulnerable species to which
special intention has to be paid.
Japan, the value can reach 10,000 to 30,000 FF kg-I. This higher pressure may jeopardise all French management
efforts.
Despite this official policy on the eel, there is currently no full-time research worker on the species in France, and
research prograrrunes on biology or on stock management are poorly funded.
Data on survival of glass eel or bootlace eel after stocking
No information. The management policy of migratory fish recently changed from national to regional entities (COmites de GEstion des
POissons MJgrateurs). These committees are composed of one-third representatives of Local Goverrunents, one-third
representatives of Administrations and one-third representatives of fishery organisations (commercial and
Escapement
recreational). Two scientific advisors are also members (CSP for inland topics and 1FREMER for marine resources).
Escapement of glass eel Unfortunately, IFREMER recently stopped working on validating statistics in estuarine zones by surveys.
Although this parameter is essential for the upstream dynamics of glass-eel runs, very few sites are currently equipped
to momtor escapement toward fresh water. Nevertheless, recent policies on stock enhancement were implemented to References
encourage escapement upstream (see below).
Anonymous (1992) Etang de Bages-Sigean: 25 ans d'evolution. Rapport BRL, AIBPA, 45 p.
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ElFAC Working Party on Eel.
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Loste, C. and K. Dusserre (1996) La peche sur ['etang de Bages-Sigean. Rapport CEPRALMAR, Montpellier, 100
Adam, G and P. Elie (1994). Etude de la faune ichthyologique et de l' exploitation halieutique professionelle du Lac
pp. + 10 annexes.
de Grand Lieu, Loire Atlantique. Premieres descriptions et analyses. Rapport CEMAGREF, Minstere de
I'Envirorunent. pp 128. Mounaix B. (1992) Intercalibration et validation des methodes d'estimationde ['age de l'Anguille Europeenne
(Anguilla anguilla). Doctorat Halieutique, Ecole Nationale Superieure Agronomique de Rennes. 146 pp.
Babin, D. (1991) Resultats de ['enquhe express 1989: estimation de la production et du chiffre d'affaires des peche s
professonnelles continentales Franr;aises (marins pecheurs exclus). Plaquette CEMAGREF Bordeaux Panfili, 1. (1991). Etude des populations d' Anguilles (Anguilla anguilla) des lagunes du Languedoc et de Camargue:
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CEMAGREF Bordeaux, pp 131. Ximenes, M. C. (1986). L' Anguille en Mediterranee franr;aise : aspects ecobiologiques et halieutiques. Rapport du
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atlantique). Approche methodologique pour une analyse quantitative de la distribution spatiale du peuplement
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Feunteun E. and L. Marion (l994)Assessment of grey heron predation on fish communites: the case of the largest
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majeurs de gestion. Revue des Sciences de l' Eau 5 (4), 509-527.
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Fontenelle, G. and B. Mounaix (1993). L' anguille (Anguilla anguilla) espece traceur de certains polluants dans Ie
bassin versant de l' Elorn et en Rade de Brest. Etude de faisabi/ite. Plan d'amelioration de la qualite des eaux
de sauvegarde et de restoration de I' ecosysteme marin en Rade de Brest. Rapport Contrat Communaute Urbaine
de Brest/Ecole Nationale Superieure Agronomique de Rennes. pp 50.
Guillouet, J., E. Feunteun and A. Legault (1995). Etat initiale de la population d' anguilles du bassin versant du
Fremur avant amenagement de passes d poissons sur des obstacles majeurs a iamigration anadrome. Rapport
Fish Pass - Federation Departmentale AAPMA, I1e et Vilaine, pp 34.
Guillouet, J., E. Feunteun and A. Legault (1995). Etat initiale de la population d' anguilles du bassin versant du
Fremur avant amenagement de passes a poissons sur des obstacles majeurs a lamigration anadrome. Premier
suiviv de la migration anadrome et catadrome Rapport Fish Pass - Federation Departmentale AAPMA, I1e et
Vilaine, pp 23.
LegaUlt, A. (1994). Etude preliminaire du recrutement fluvial de l'anguille. Bulletin franr;ais de nche et de
Pisciculture. 335, 33-41.
Legault A., (1996). Colonisation dynamics of catchment area by eel: characterisation of migrating populations in a
free access river. Communication Colloque Ecohydraulique 2000, Quebec 1996.
Legault A., (1996) Colonisation dynamics of catchment area by eel: characterisation of migrating populations in a free
access river. Communication Colloque Ecokydraulique 2000, Quebec 1996.
Legault A. and E. Feunteun, (1992) Etude de la migration estivale des anguilles au barrage de Golfeck sur la
Garonne. Rapport Fish Pass / Magado, 25 pp.

83
82
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 M. Santos Portugal in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

SamDling sites Salinity dOcm 20-30 cm >30cm

PORTUGAL V. F. Xira 8-25% 30% 50% 20%
Alcochete 0-14% 20% 58% 22%
Maria da Assun~ao Santos
lnsrituto de Ciencias Biomedicas de Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Lg. Prof. Abel Salazar 2 ,4000 Porto, Portugal
In a small stream below the Belver dam on the River Tejo, 200 km from the sea, the median size of eel captured by
electrofishing was 23.3 cm. The density reached 0.9 individuals m" or 22 kg ha'! (Costa et al., 1991).
Habitat

Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks A study in the exploited coastal lagoon Ria de Aveiro revealed that 94% of a sample of 1,170 eel belonged to age
groups 0 to 2. This lagoon system was inhabited by a young eel population (Gordo and Jorge, 1991).
Estuaries Areas of estuaries were rarely available, The Tejo estuary, the largest in western Europe, measures 320 km'
and the Minho estuary is 5 km', Potentially, all estuaries are inhabited by eel populations and their densities seem to
depend on the level of pollution. Historical records of stocking
Eel stocking has probably never taken place.
Coastal lagoons Various lagoons exist at a short distance from the coast, communicating with the sea permanently or,
in certain seasons of the year, through natural or artificial entrances. Six lagoons of a total area of 225 ha are located Data on population dynamics
within 6 km from the sea, on the coastline between Mira and Quiaios, in the central region. Another five coastal
No information.
lagoons exist, including Lagoa de 6bidos, the largest in the country, with a length of 5.5 km and a maximum width of
1.5 km. Fishing activities take place in the larger lagoons where eel are caught by trap, long line and rod-and-line.
Recruitment
There are two important estuarine coastal lagoon systems in Portugal, the Ria Formosa with an area of 17 km' at low
spring tide and 84 km' at high spring tide, and the Ria de Aveiro with an area of 43 km', connected to the sea by a Natural mortality of glass eel
470-m wide canal. Eel fisheries are well established but unquantified in Ria de Aveiro. No information available.

Lakes There are no substantial lakes in Portugal. Small mountain lakes in the Serra da Estrela (Seca, Redonda, Escura Fishing mortality of glass eel
and Comprida, and the Manteigas lagoons) should be mentioned, but eel have never been recorded in them.
Glass eel are intensively fished in almost all Portuguese estuaries, that of the River Minho being the most important.
Yields from Portugal and Spain, according to official data, decreased from a peak of 50 t in 1980/81 to 8 t in 1987/88
Coastal water Scuba divers report the presence of eel at breakwaters or jetties made of quarry rocks. There is no
and less than 10 t thereafter (Antunes and Weber, 1996). A slow recovery began in 1994.
targeted fishery for eel, but they occur in by-catch.

Rivers/canals The 12 largest catchment areas total 79,742 km', almost equal to the total surface area of Portugal. The
total length of the 65 main rivers is about 6,000 km. The reservoir areas of the largest Portuguese dams cover 266 km',
but eel popUlations, if they occur at all, are very sparse.
Areas of water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions
Lakesllagoons In general, coastal lagoons as typical habitats for eel popUlations, show signs of accelerated eutrophic
processes due to the introduction of wastewater effluents.
Escapement of glass eel
The escapement of glass eel is limited in all the major hydrographic areas by impoundments close to the estuaries. In
the River Douro, with the largest catchment area of the Iberian Peninsula (97,682 km'), the first impoundment is
located only 22 km from the estuary. In relation to its length within Portugal (330 km), only 6.7% is available for eel
colonisation.
Escapement

Regular opening of the canals which communicate with the sea, dredging activities to avoid accumulation of sand, and
the control of pollution, could lead to high densities of eel.
Rivers/canals Fishing resources and the distribution of eel have been affected by the construction of hydro dams,
mainly since the 1950s. Besides a huge number of small dams, 100 large impoundments exist in Portugal. Some of
them are equipped with fish ladders and other similar devices (Carrapatelo, Crestuma-Lever, Pocinho, Regua, and
Valeira, located in the River Douro, Penide in the River Cavado and Touvedo in the River Lima) (Portuguese National
Committee on Large Dams, 1992). Their ineffectiveness, bad design and unsuitable or non-functioning fishways, are
reasons why some of the migrating species have disappeared (Valente, 1993). In some rivers, on the downstream side
of the impoundments and close to the sea, the eel is subject to intense fishing. Approximately 70% of total Portuguese
catchment areas are inaccessible to glass eel.
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
Preliminary conclusions on the abundance and distribution of eel in the Rio Minho during 1988, based on results of an
experimental fishery with fyke nets and electrofishing, indicated that the estuary was inhabited by smaller eel than the
upper parts of the river (Antunes and Weber, 1990).
In the upper zone of the Tejo estuary, a study on feeding habits of the eel provided the following length frequencies
(Costa et al., 1992):
84
Number and extent of un exploited water bodies
Close to the estuaries and on the downstream side of the dams, eel are fished in all the rivers. Fishing is largely
recreational and therefore possibly inefficient and allowing substantial escapement. The major coastal lagoons and one
of the estuarine coastal lagoon systems (Ria de Aveiro) are intensively fished and, in the few cases where the fishery
has been studied, give a strong indication of growth overfishing and extremely low escapement. Smaller coastal
lagoons and the larger estuaries are less intensively exploited.
Information on conservation measures
The Portuguese fishery regulations of 26 November 1981 (Dec. Lei 316, Art 55') permit the use of a hamen net or stow
net for catching glass eel between November and April, only in the 75 km of the international Minho (Weber, 1986).
In the rest of the country fishing for glass eel is allowed only with dip net, from the river banks, and is confined to the
period October to April. The diameter, depth and mesh size of this gear are also established by law. Since 1985,
fishermen are required to apply for fishing licences and to report their catches (Domingos, 1992).
Fyke nets are allowed only for 3 months, September to November, whereas bottom long lines are permitted all the year
round.
An official publication classifies the eel as a commercially threatened species in Portugal (SNPRCN, 1991).
85
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
References
Antunes C. and Weber M. (1990) Abundance and distribution of eel (Anguilla anguilla) in the Rio Minho.
International Revue der Gesamten Hydrobiologie 75 (6): 795.
Antunes C. and Weber M. (1996) The glass eel fishery and the by-catch in the Rio Minho after one decade (1981-
1982 and 1991-1992). ArchiwumRybactwa Polskiego 4 (2): 131-139.
Costa J.L., Almeida P.R.: Assis C.A. Moreira P.M. and Costa M. J. (1991) A study of methods of estimating the size
of eel populations ill small streams. Irish Fisheries Investigations, Series A 36: 68--{)9.
Costa J.L., Assis C.A., Almeida P.R., Moreira F.M. and Costa MJ. (1992) On the food of the European eel, Anguilla
anguilla (L.), ill the upper zone of the Tagus estuary, Portugal. Journal of Fish Biology 41: 841-S50.
Domingos I.M. (1992) Fluctuation of glass eel migration in the Mondego estuary (Portugal) in 1988 and 1989. Irish
Fisheries Investigations, Series A, 36: 1-4.
Gordo L.S: and Jorge I.M. (1991) Age and growth of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus, 1758) in the
Averro Lagoon, Portugal. Sci. Mar. 55 (2): 389-395.
Portuguese National Committee on Large Dams (1992). Large dams in Portugal. Lisbon, 276 pp.
SNPRCN (Servi,o National de Parques, Reservas e Conserva~o da Natllfeza) (1991) Livro Vermelho dos Vertebrados
de Portugal. Vol.lI Peixes dulciaquicolas e migradores. 55 pp.
Valente A. (1993) lmpactes de emprendimentos hidroelectricos sabre as comunidades piscicolas. Recursos Hidricos
13 (3): 9-14.
Weber M. (1986) Fishing method and seasonal occurrence of glass eel (Anguilla anguilla L.) in tIie Rio Minho, West
coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Vie et Milieu 36 (4): 243-250.
86
M. Santos Portugal in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
SPAIN
Maria Jose Lara
c/. Cabrales N°84 9°C, 33201 Gijon Asturias, Spain
Habitat
Extent of water currently supporting eel stocks
Estuaries Dill (1993) lists 60 rivers of> 60 lan in length. The estuaries of all 60 have eel populations.
Coastal lagoons The main coastal lagoons are on the Mediterranean coast: Albufera (Valencia) and Mar Menor
(Murcia) and in the Balearic Islands: S' Albufera (Mallorca) and Albufera des Grau (Menorca). Eel stocks exist in all.
Catch data are scarce and biased.
Eel and glass eel fishing take place in Albufera, having 20 lan' of lagoon plus 19 lan' of rice field. It is a very
important ecological system. Mar Menor is a hypersaline lagoon (45-52%) with a surface of 132 lan'. Eel fishing
takes place from October to May, but there is no glass eel catch.
Lakes A large proportion of the lakes are in Astllfias, in mountain places. In other regions, the lakes are not developed
for fisheries and many of them are inaccessible to eel. In Astuarias, lakes are in mountain areas, over 1,000 m above
sea level and most of them over 1,500 m. There are no references to fish populations in these lakes and data on extent
are only available for the biggest (18, 7, 10, 12 and 8 ha, total 55 hal. There are no references to the presence of eel. In
lakes communicating with the Narcea-Nalon basin it is unlikely that eel exist as their migration is blocked by
hydrodams.
Coastal waters The Astuarias coast measures about 300 lan and it is known by sport fishermen that the eel is a
common species (but not appreciated) in several places, mainly inside ports and near river mouths. Eel is not
exploited.
Rivers/canals Spain has seven main rivers with a total catchment area of 397,654 lan' . In addition, in the north of the
country there are a great number of short rivers (mountains are very near the coast) very important in water discharge,
and having a total catchment of 56,487 lan', of which 4,827 lan' are for the Narvea-Nalon basin. The Pyrenees rivers
have a catchment of 16,600 lan'. Dill (1993) gives the number of rivers and streams as 1,800 with a total length of
permanent rivers of72,000 lan.
Areas inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstructions
Estuaries There are no studies on eel populations in Spain in recent years, but it is clear that there are eel in almost all
the estuaries. The exception could be some river mouths and estuaries with a high level of industrial contamination,
such as several cases in the Basque country, or some rivers degraded by agricultllfal pollution or tourist use, as
happens in some Mediterranean areas. In nearly all estuaries glass eel fishing takes place.
Coastal lagoons There are no obstructions to eel migration into coastal lagoons, though in all cases the surface area of
the lagoons has been reduced by agricultllfal or tourist use. For this reason the water quality has deteriorated.
Lakes Access to the majority of lakes is prevented by their distribution at high levels in mountain ranges.
Rivers/canals (a) Northern rivers: There are several main rivers and a large number of small ones. The whole
catchment is 40,252 lan' including the Narcea-Nalon basin, and the Mino (natllfal border between Spain and
Portugal) has a catchment area of 16,235 lan' in Spain. In Astllfias the Narcea-Nalon basin has a series of obstacles,
mainly in the Nalon branch, that together with pollution from coal mines probably caused the disappearance of eel. In
the Narcea branch eel is present in almost all zones of the river except in mountain areas.
87
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 M. Lara: Spain in: C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Recruitment

Natural mortality of glass eel

(b) Mediterranean rivers: The main rivers which discharge to the Mediterranean Sea are:
No information.
River Len~tb Catcbment area
including reservoirs Fishing mortality of glass eel
Ian lan' There is a strong tradition for glass eel consumption in Spain and it is the main consumer in Europe. It is known that
Ebro 910 85,500 glass eel is fished at all the river mouths and estuaries, mainly on the North Atlantic and southern rivers.
Jucar 498 42,989
Segura 325 18,870 In Asturias there are at least 12 estuaries where glass eel are fished. The only data available refers to the Nalon estuary
and the area in which fishing takes place is 2 Ian'. Catch figures are available from 1952 onwards. Catches from 1952
to 1972 varied between 10 and 20 tons without a trend. A dramatic increase began in 1973, to a peak yield of 60 t in
There are also a number of small rivers for which no information is available, 1977. It returned to the earlier levels in 1984 and fell even lower in the 1990s but without a marked increase in fishing
effort (Lara, 1993, 1994). In the 1990s very poor catches have been made in comparison with 1970s and 1980s when
In the Ebro, due to the presence of a number of important dams, the eel is present only in the delta and lower part. For catches began to decrease. The season 1995/96, with less than 6 t, has been the poorest season in all the Nalon fishery
Jucar and Segura, prolonged drought and important hydrological works have seriously degraded the rivers and it is history. Recent comments show that the current season, 1996/97 has been very similar to its predecessor.
possible that the eel has disappeared from most of the areas, being present only in estuaries or river mouths,
Year Catcb
(c) Atlantic rivers: These are shared with Portugal in which the estuaries are situated, The rivers (other than the Mino) t
are: 1990 7.2
1991 10.2
River Len~tb Catcbment 1992 9.7
Ian in Spain Ian'in Spain 1993 9.9
Duero 920 79,300 1994 12.5
Tajo 1,007 55,769 1995 5.9
Guadiana 78 48,556
Guadalquivir 657 54,970
On the whole northern coast of Spain, from Galicia to the Basque country, glass eel are fished in all river mouths and
estuaries. On the Mediterranean coast, glass eel are fished in the Ebro delta and in the channels entering the coastal
The Duero and Tajo rise in Spain and meet the sea in Portugal, In both cases there are many big dams, the first within lagoons. In the south of Spain, glass eel are fished in the Guadalquivir estuary.
Portugal, and in Spanish territory the eel has disappeared, The Guadiana forms the southern border with PortugaL The
estuary is shared by the two countries, a margin for each one, It is likely that dams have the same effect as in the
Duero and Tajo. No information is available for the Guadalquivir. Escapement

Escapement of glass eel

Eel are present in all the northern rivers except in the biggest where it is possible that they have disappeared from the
major parts in some cases due to dam constructions and in others due to pollution. In the Mediterranean rivers, eel
have disappeared from the middle and higher parts due to dams and pollution (industrial, agricultural and tourist
problems). In Atlantic rivers, the eel has disappeared from the Spanish zone mainly because of dam construction and
eel populations are largely confined to the Portuguese zone. No information is available about the eel population in
southern Spain, but they exist in the lower parts.
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
No studies have been carried out on stock and yield of yellow and silver eeL
Historical records of stocking
There are no available data on stocking in Spain.
Data on population dynamics
Work is in progress on eel population dynamics in the Narcea basin, including such parameters as growth and age.
Lobon-Cervia and Carrascal (1992) studied eel silvering in a Cantabrian river and showed that silver eel are found
between September and March, and range from 28 to 35 cm. Lobon-Cervia et al. (1995) in the same river showed that
mean eel size decreased upstream and showed marked seasonal and annual fluctuations. In this river population was
mainly composed of males. They gave values of z in four tributaries of the same river ranging from 2.04 to 2.89.
88
In practically all the rivers of northern Spain, glass eel are fished, though they may be completely unexploited in some
small rivers and streams. In Mediterranean areas (rivers and coastal lagoons) glass eel and eel are fished but the
exploitation level is unknown.
Evidence for glass eel over-fishing is not very clear, because in the north, where there has been glass eel fishing from
the beginning of the century, eel populations are at present better than in other areas where the species has
disappeared, even though recruitment has diminished in the last decades as in all parts of the distribution area.
Conservation measures
Spain is divided into several regions and each one has its own legislation on fishing. For glass eel there exists a legal
season and it is necessary to hold a licence. But, owing to the high prices of the product, unlicensed or sport fishermen
exploit glass eel in river mouths and estuaries, because little or no control exists. The same happens with dealers who
buy glass eel from anyone and they are also outside controL In addition, now that glass eel are targeted by Asian
dealers, fishing effort has increased even more, mainly by non-professional fishermen, who can earn a lot of money.
This could damage any conservation measure.
References
Dill W.A. (1993) Inland Fisheries of Europe. EIFAC Technical Paper 52 suppL
Fernandez-Delgado C. (1987) lctiofauna del esturio del Guadalquivir: su distribucion y biologia de las especies
sedentarias: Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Cordoba.
Lara M.L (1993) The glass eel fishery in Asturias (NW Spain) and biological studies on eeL EIFAC Working Party on
Eel. Olsztyn, Poland, 1993.
89
 E. Ciccotti Italy in e. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management oJthe European eel
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997

Lara M.J. (1994) Catch statistics, capture methods, size and development stages of glass eel in Asturias (Northwestern
Spain). Bulletin oj the Sea Fisheries Institute (Poland). 1 (131),31-39. ITALY
Lobon-Cervia J. and Carrascal M. (1992) Seasonal timing of silver eel Anguilla anguilla (L) in a Cantabrian stream Eleonora Ciccotti
(North Spain). Archiv Juer Hydrobiologie 125 (I), 121-126. Dipartimento di Biologia, Laboratorio di Ecologia Sperimentale ed Acquacoltura, Universita 'Tor Vergata', Via della Ricerca Scientifica, 00133
Lobon-Cervia J., Utrilla e.G. and Rincon P.A. (1995) Variations in the population dynamics of the European eel Rome, Italy
Anguilla anguilla (L.) along the course of a Cantabrian river. Ecology oj Freshwater Fish 4, 17-27.
Habitat

Extent oj water currently supporting eel stock

Estuaries The estuaries of the main ( > 60 lan total length) rivers number 29, to which about seven minor estuaries
have to be added. Eel are probably present in most of them, but professional eel fisheries (yellow and silver) are
confined to a small number. Glass eel ascent, on the contrary, has been ascertained by experimental fishing in many
main and minor rivers (AAVV, 1988), and professional glass eel fisheries take place in a higher number, and in many
charmel mouths as well, owing to the fact that this kind of fishery is often mobile, fry fishermen moving from site to
site in different regions with equipped trucks to catch and transport glass eel, besides the juveniles of other eurhyhaline
species.

Coastal lagoons Most of the yield of yellow and silver eel fisheries comes from extensive culture in the coastal lagoons
which cover around 1,500 lan', of which approximately 610 lan' are exploited at present. Of the exploited area, about
300 lan' are located in the upper Adriatic and 120 in the Po delta, the rest being scattered in Apulia, Campania,
Latium, Tuscany, Sicily and Sardinia (Ardizzone et aI., 1988).

Lakes Large freshwater lakes, greater than 5 lan', in Italy number over 370 and have a total area of about 2,045 lan'
(Dill, 1990). The number of Italian lakes employed in fisheries is about 150, of which 107 have an area larger than 20
ha (De Angelis, 1986), providing fisheries for both cold- and warm-water species.

On the whole, the presence of eel is known, from literature or other sources, in about 1,200-1,300 lan', including all
the large Alpine lakes of northern Italy and the volcanic lakes of central Italy. In some of them eel is the most
important commercial species and yields are sustained by means of restocking. Furthermore, 300 lan' of hydro dams
and 1.5 lan' of irrigation reservoirs are present (De Angelis, 1961).

Coastal waters It is believed that there is no significant population of marine-dwelling eel.

Rivers/canals The number of rivers in total is about 98, but main rivers, those greater than 60 lan, number 45, 16 of
which are tributaries to others. The total length is 7,782 lan and water surface area 78 lan'. The total catchment area
amounts to 231,000 lan'. To this total, about 30,000 lan, about 30 lan' , of artificial canals must be added (De Angelis,
1961). Some, such as those which link the Sesia, Ticino and Po rivers to supply irrigation water, aid in the distribution
of fish, and certainly of eel.

Eel are present in most main and minor rivers, but production by riverine fisheries is probably negligible at present, as
it is never mentioned in official statistics. Eel professional fisheries are practised in not more than four or five rivers,
and concern only limited portions of rivers and some canals. Sport fishing could account for a certain amount of
riverine catches.

Areas oj water inaccessible to eel due to chemical or physical obstruction

Lakes Even if lakes exploited for fisheries are about 40% of the total, eel are probably present sporadically in most
basins, owing to migrations through tributaries or to methodical or occasional restockings. An exception is perhaps the
case of the small, deep, high altitude Alpine lakes.

Rivers/canals As with the lakes, eel are probably present in all the Italian riverine system, but undoubtedly abundance
progressively falls with increasing distance from the sea, owing to the presence of numerous dams, most of which are
not supplied with fish ways or have inadequate fishways, and are therefore impassable. It can be roughly estimated that
60% of the rivers are inaccessible to eel. To enhance stocks, rather than to sustain yields, restockings are carried out by
Province or Regional Administrations. Eel are scarce or completely absent from the upper reaches of rivers and from
an unspecified number of mountain torrents.

90 91
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Data on stock and sustained or increased yield
Many data on stocks and sustained yields in the literature refer to coastal lagoon populations, Italian extensive culture
in coastal lagoons is, rather than a culture system, a special case of management North Adriatic lagoons represent
nearly 50% of the total exploited surface of lagoon environments, In this region, the traditional vallicultura is carried
out in the valli, sectors of lagoon enclosed by embankments whose main structural features are sluice gates, internal
canalisation, fish collecting and wintering basins and lavorieri, the traditional fish barriers (Ardizzone et al" 1988),
Overall yield from the extensive sector in the North Adriatic region seems to amount to 900-1000 t,
Cumulative data from some North Adriatic lagoons based on samples of 234 male and 1,746 female silver eel in 1976
showed that males ranged from 36 to 54 cm and from 70 to 245 g, with an average length of 43,2 cm and became
silver between 3 and 9 years old, The females ranged from 39 to 100 cm and from 130 to 2,400 g, with an average
length of 59,6 cm, becoming silver from 3 to 14 years old, Yield from seven lagoons ranged from 6 to 25 kg ha'!
(Rossi and Colombo, 1976).
Differences in environmental conditions, and therefore in trophic state, can account for differences in growth, while
variations in yield among lagoons are due to the fact that each valle has its own management strategies: fish densities,
fry stockings, fishing effort can differ from lagoon to lagoon. Furthermore, in the 1970s in the North Adriatic region,
eel production declined as a consequence of argulosis, and infection rates varied among lagoons.
For the Comacchio lagoons (North·Adriatic), biomass 76 kg ha'! and production 36 kg ha'!, were estimated for the
period 1974-1976 by Allen's method. The yield observed in the above period was 19 kg ha·!. It was suggested that the
Valli were underexploited in the above mentioned period and the author discussed various possibilities of a different
environment management for a thorough exploitation of the natural resources (Rossi, 1979).
Rossi et al. (1987-1988) studied the Comacchio lagoon 10 years later and found dramatic changes in eel population
and density. This did not influence either the eel's growth rate or survival rate, estimated by means of the mark-
recapture method at between 77 and 90% for eel of age class 2 and up, while the sex ratio was shifted from 3: 1 to 9: 1
in favour of the females. Because of the decrease in recruitment, the estimated annual production (from 13 to 25 kg ha'
!) was lower than that previously calculated.
In other Italian lagoon environments, such as the brackish water coastal lakes of central and southern Italy and the
Sardinian ponds, management strategies are simpler, and yield comes primarily from artisanal fisheries inside the
lagoons all the year, rather than from seasonal catches at the fish barrier. A typical model of Italian lagoons other than
the North Adriatic ones cannot be defined, since widely differing conditions may exist in each case. Artisanal fisheries
yields in lagoons amounted to 473 tin 1993, 191 of which were from Sardinian ponds (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica,
1996).
Sardinia is the Italian region with the largest number of coastal lagoons and, although most of them are small, they
have an overall area of around 100 km 2 • Environmental and fishing resource management are extremely variable. In
general, the lagoons are not very deep, < 1 m, and salinity varies. Some problems of eel fishing in hypersaline coastal
lagoons were examined by Rossi and Cannas (1984) by an analysis of eel catches in Porto Pino, three connected basins
of about 441 ha in southern Sardinia, where the average annual catch of eel, about 19 kg ha'!' was roughly half of the
total catch and over 65 % of the gross economic return from these ponds.
The parameters of eel population dynamics and exploitation rate were estimated from the number and weight of eel in
each of three trade-weight categories, into which the catch was divided each day as required by the market, and from
examination of random samples, from each stratum, for age and sex. In the particular case of Porto Pino ponds, the
estimated yield of 12 g per recruit seemed to indicate that the stock of eel was under-fished. The authors observed that
catch is not proportional to the intensity of effort, but depends on environmental conditions, such as lunar phase,
presence of winds and bad weather. The catch could be increased by using a larger number of fyke nets, but should not
be sought by extending the fishing period, because that might harm the juveniles of other commercially exploited
species. It was then suggested that yield optimisation could be achieved by concentrating the maximum effort in the
period of silver eel migration.
92
E. Ciccotti Italy in C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Data are available also for the Tortolliagoon, 259 ha, in eastern Sardinia, from 1957 to 1978. Production was affected
by a series of management actions, such as the closing of the freshwater canal in 1959 or the closing of a canal
conveying fry in the lagoon in 1964. Restocking operations, with fry caught in the surrounding coastal areas, were
carried out in the period 1969-1971, but later suspended when fry fishing was forbidden. Eel represented about 30% of
total catches in former years: eel yield amounted to 120-130 kg ha'! in the period 1957-1964, but dropped to an
average of about 40 kg ha'! from 1965 (Ardizzone et al., 1988). .
The fish catch and samples of commercial fishes caught in the Acquatina lake, a brackish water coastal lake of 45 ha
in the south-western Adriatic coastal region of Apulia, were studied by Rossi and Corbari (1982). The fish population
was mainly formed by species reproducing in the sea: 33% are silver eeL The eel grew slowly, probably because of
their high relative abundance. The shortage of the prey-species in the intermediate trophic levels, due to the rocky
bottom which covered one-third of its area, was also limiting. Yields ranged from 4.6 to 17.6 kg ha'! over the period
1976 to 1979.
In the Lesina lagoon, 51 km', in the Southern Adriatic, the global production trend for all fish gradually decreased
from an average of 80-90 kg ha'! in the 1950s-60s to about 30 kg ha'! in the 1970s, showing a partial recovery in the
1980s thanks to artificial stocking of fry. The eel constituted 40% of the catch but has now fallen to about 23%, i.e.
about 9.4 kg ha'! . The change has not only been quantitative: eel and grey mullet have been reduced in favour of other
species that can reproduce inside the lagoon (Rossi and Villani, 1980).
The trophic status of most Italian lagoons is at present increasing because of inputs of organic pollutants. This can lead
to increasing trends in fish yields, but may also cause dystrophic status with periodical mass mortalities. This has been
the case in the Orbetello lagoon in Tuscany on the central Tyrrhenian, which has a total area of about 27 km 2 and an
average depth of I m. The general management of the lagoon has steadily improved, by means of dredging of the
bottom, building of modem fish barriers and seawater pumping during critical periods. A strong increase in
eutrophication has progressively taken place, which has perhaps positively affected production, but on the other hand
has caused more and more frequent dystrophic crises with high fish mortalities. The catch of all fish has increased,
from an average 100 kg ha'! in the 1960s to about 170 kg ha'! average, of which 48% was represented by eel, >
80 kg ha'! during the period 1971-1982. Occasional decreases were due to massive losses coinciding with dystrophic
crises. Artificial fry stocking is rather limited and scarcely important for the yield (Ardizzone et al., 1988).
An environment in which management has improved eel production is the Monaci coastal lake, in Latium on the
central Tyrrhenian. This is one of the four lakes that are the remains of the Pontine Marshes and has an area of 95 ha
and a mean depth of about 1 m. Salinity ranges between 17 and 38%. Communication with the sea is not direct: it took
place in the past through a heavily polluted channel that led up to a few years ago to frequent dystrophic crises both in
winter and sununer. The first were linked to phytoplanktonic blooms, the later ones to macrophyte blooms, both
causing mass losses of fish. Twenty years ago, in 1979, the management that took over the lake blocked the inlets from
the channel and provided the necessary water input by prunping from a nearby channel connected to the sea.
The fish barrier located at the outlet channel is ineffective, thus excluding the principal gear used for silver eel fishing.
Gears most commonly used are winged fyke nets, used singly or in groups, usually installed along the shores with a
few groups in the middle of the lake, up to a maximrun of 100 at a time. The annual fishing effort on eel is about 250
days/year, divided in two periods, October-January for silver and March-July for yellow eeL
Production data are available for a few years (Ardizzone and Corsi, 1985). Following the beginning of restocking with
glass eel at a density of 1 kg ha'! in 1979-80, the yield observed in 1983 had increased to 112 kg ha·!. In 1981, the
seeding was performed with small eel of 6-9 g, and production rose in 1984 to 324 kg ha·!. No recent data are
available.
On the whole, eel yields in coastal lagoon environments depend primarily on environmental quality and then on
recruitment These in turn influence fish densities and management strategies with reference to fishing effort and
restocking. Thus, observed yields are extremely variable, from the 6 kg ha" observed in Comacchio in recent years
(Rossi et al., 1987-1988) to the 324 kg ha'! obtained in the Monaci coastal lake in 1984 by means of restockings
(Ardizzone and Corsi, 1985).
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Eel stocks in inland waters, and in particular in lakes, are based completely on restocking, and this is particularly true
in the case of artificial lakes, De Angelis (1986) reports that about three quarters of the arulUal global catch in inland
waters (estimated to be about 10,000 t) comes from the 17 main lakesof north and central Italy, for a total area of
about 1,169 km', with eel accounting for 50% of the total, some 5,000 t Other statistics, however, give lower figures:
annual eel catches in inland waters decreasing from 1,000 to 449 t in the period 1970--1983, representing from 20 to
8.5% of total catch (Dill, 1990), and average 340 t in the period 1989-1993, ranging from 3.9 to 5.2% of total inland
water catches (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, 1996).
To make a qualitative and quantitative description of the fish fauna composition of Lake Suviana (159 hal and Lake
Brasimone (53 hal, artificial basins in the Tuscan-Emilian Apennine mountain range, over 10 years, after the last
emptying and filling operations were completed in 1975, samples were taken from each lake using professional fishing
nets (Rossi et al., 1991); 390 kg and 169 kg of eel, respectively, were introduced in Suviana and in Brasimone during
the period 1975-1987. Eel were not present in all samples, since they are not plentiful in these two lakes. In both
Suviana and Brasimone, eel represent only 0.05% of total catches (mean Suviana total CPUE = 89.90, mean
Brasimone total CPUE = 24.53). Using the data available from the sport fishermen also, the total catches per year were
estimated. Every year in the Suviana lake from 15 to 29 kg of eel were fished, a yield of 0.1-0.34 kg ha", while in
Brasimone the observed range was from 5 to 18 kg per year, 0.1-0.2 kg ha·'.
In some natural lakes, where professional fisheries are present, eel is the most important species and yields are
increased by means of restocking. In the Lake of Garda, 368 km', northern Italy, eel have an important economic
value for local fishermen, both professional and sport, since they represent the most constant target species (Ghetti et
al., 1985). Eel presence is reported since 1816; restockings have been carried out on a regular basis since 1952.
Fishing uses both tranunel nets, fyke nets and different artisanal traps. Ghetti et al. reported data on annual eel yield
since 1886.
Period Total yield Yield
t t/ha
1887-1906 27.5 0.74
1920-1939 36.8 1 with glass eel and more often with small eel (5-20 g).
1952-1962 38.7 1.05
1974-1981 54.2 1.5
On the whole, besides fluctuations from year to year, an increase in production was evident from 1952 to 1981, related
to restockings. Further increases were due to progressive increases in seeded quantities.
In other lakes of northern Italy, Lago Maggiore and Lago di Lugano, both shared with Switzerland (for the former, the
Italian portion is 170 km', i.e. 80%, and for the Lago di Lugano, the Italian portion is only 18 km', 37%), data on
fishing yield are available (Technical Commission for the Fishery in Italian-Swiss waters). For the Lugano lake the
total eel fishing yield during 1986-1995 was 7.83 t, representing on average 1.6% of the total fish production. No
catches were recorded in 1987, owing to the fact that fishing was forbidden in Swiss waters following the Chernobyl
accident The maximum catch was observed 2 years later, amounting to 5.07 t (Polli, 1996). For Lago Maggiore, the
total eel fishing yield in the period 1979-1995 was 20.7 t, 1.2 t per year on average, representing about 0.3% of the
total catch. The maximum, 2.3 t, was recorded in 1980 and the minimum, 0.3 t in 1995 (Grimaldi, 1996).
Considering one of the small volcanic lakes of central Italy, an example of sustained stock is that of Bracciano Lake, in
Latium, which has an area of 56 km' and a maximum depth of 160 m. Eel fisheries in the lake rely entirely on seeding
practices carried out by the Rome Province Administration, as the lake is no longer connected to its effluent, the
Arrone river (in which in the past glass eel recruitruent was intense). Restocking practices began on a regular basis in
the 1980s, small (20 g) eel being used. Quantities planted amounted to an average of 7 t each year (Moccia and
Mattina, 1991). Fishing effort in the 15 years up to 1996 remained more or less constant, but yields fluctuated to some
extent depending on factors such as the catchability of eel in winter. During colder periods, yields were low due to the
fact that eel remain in the deeper parts of the lake. Average production can be estimated to range between 50 to 80 t in
good years and 20 in bad years
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E. Ciccotti Italy in C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
It is evident from these case studies that lake production is low when compared to production in lagoon environments,
ranging between 0.5 and 1.5 kg ha-' with stockings amounting to about 46 glass eel ha-' plus 0.05 kg ha" of bootlace
eel, in the case of the Lake of Garda (Ghetti et al., 1985). Higher yields are obtained when restocking rates are higher,
as in the Bracciano Lake, where an average 1.2 kg ha" of bootlace eel are stocked, yielding 4-14 kg ha-' depending on
years (Moccia and Mattina, 1991), but of course differences in environments must be taken into account
Concerning the rivers, in the River Tiber, in the Latium region, entering the central Thyrrenian, a large eel population
is present which is prevented from moving further upstream by a series of dams, the first of which is located about 40
km from the sea. Water quality is characterised by a high level of eutrophication, resulting from organic pollution due
to a certain inadequacy of the civil waste treatruent Even if it has caused a reduction in the diversity of the
macrobenthic community, this nevertheless sustains its quantitative abundance. This, together with the obstruction of
the dam, has favoured a high eel population density.
Notwithstanding the fact that in the course of 20 years the fishing effort has improved, historical data series of
glass eel catches have shown an overall decreasing trend, with catches dropping from >6 t per season in the period
1975-80 to about 4 t per season in the following 3 years. Minima were recorded in the years 1984-86 with a slight
recovery in recruitruent in the years 1987-1990. Thus, the typical abundance fluctuations from season to season were
again confirmed. But in the years 1991-1996 the situation changed dramatically as no recovery was apparent The
glass eel yield was less than 200 kg in the season 1995-96. In spite of this, the yellow and silver eel yield has not
shown a similar decline: average production continued to be of the order of 10--15 t per season, reasonably constant
from year to year, even if fishing effort increased. Fluctuations in yield from season to season are mainly a function of
the fishing days, which in their tum depend on the climatic conditions.
Historical records of stocking
Stockings are carried out frequently in Italy, but the significance of the stockings may be different from environment to
environment. In lagoons, stockings are carried out in order to balance the fall in natural ascent, due both to
environmental problems and to reduction of recruitruent, but seedings are carried out methodically only in the valli of
the northern Adriatic, where stocking is part of the management regime. As a rule, stockings are performed rarely
In the valli di Comacchio, traditional fishery management has been carried out for centuries, but stocking has become
the rule since the middle 1960s, when natural ascent became progressively reduced.
Official data of fish production have been available since 1781. The trend in those two centuries was characterised by
fluctuations, but the average annual yield of fish per hectare is 16.4 kg, of which 14.3 kg are eel, about 78% of the
total. Strong fluctuations can be observed in eel yield, ranging from 5 to > 30 kg ha·'.
Fluctuations have always been due to environmental problems: a fall in 1822-1860 was due to hypersalinity and
freezing of the valli, and to breaches in the Reno embankments. Around 1880 and in the 1925-1930 period falls in
yield were also due to high mortality caused by cold and hypersalinity. Higher yields were obtained after 1964,
coinciding with restocking and seeding practices while, from the late 1970s, yield has been considerably lower, 5-
7 kg ha-' because of a series of environmental problems, including filling and blocking of inlet canals, general
decrease in recruitruent, anoxic crisis due to phytoplankton blooms in consequence of increased pollution, cold winters
(Ardizzone et al., 1988).
Rossi et al. (1987-1988), comparing yields in the 1980s and in the 1970s, attributed to the decrease in recruitruent to
the decrease in yield in the Comacchio lagoons. From 1979 to 1982 the natural recruitruent of fry into the lagoons was
limited by the fact that a regional law allowed direct fry fishing in the canals connecting sea and lagoons. During those
years, therefore, recruitruent was provided by artificial restockings with small yellow eel 1 year old, about 10 g, from
the French Atlantic coasts in the following quantities:
95

Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Year Restockinl!;
t strongly skewed in favour of females: 79.4% (Rossi, 1979), 88.14% (Rossi and Colombo, 1979). It is interesting to
1978 16.3
1979 22.5
1980 34.4
1981 17.4
1982 13.5
The same authors calculated a yield per recruit of 58-113 g, but this value, using a mean value of 220 recruits ha",
would lead to a yield of 12.8-24.0 kg ha·'. The observed yield in the period was, in reality, only 6 kg ha·'.
From 1990, owing to the above-mentioned environmental problems and to internal problems of the Consorzio Valli di
Comacchio, eel production has reached its historical minimum, falling to less than 5 kg ha", stockings having been
completely abandoned. Catches consist now only of large eel, the older individuals still inside the lagoon.
In most lakes, and in particular in the major Alpine lakes of northern Italy, eel stockings are performed to sustain
fisheries, both professional and sport. In the Lake of Garda, where eel fisheries have been in operation since 1816,
methodical restockings have been carried out since 1952, because natural ascent and eel migration have fallen as a
consequence of the construction of dams along the effluent river. Both glass eel and small eel were used for restocking,
until 1975 when restockings have been largely of small eel. The average quantity of seeded glass eel amounted to
about 1,703,330 per year (510 kg), while average quantity of elver has been about 1.8 t per year, equivalent to an
average of 46 glass eel and about 0.05 kg of small eel ha·'. Yields ranged from 17.2 t in 1954 to 70.6 t in 1978:
increase in yield in this period was due to progressive increases in seeded quantities (Ghetti et aI., 1985).
The practice of restocking is quite widespread in inland waters, and it concerns most catchments and rivers.
Periodically, restocking programmes adopted by the Fishery Commissions are subsequently carried out with eel bought
from dealers or from aquaculture plants. In the past, wild glass eel were used together with small eel, but recently
glass eel availability has been reduced and costs have increased; thus restockings use young eel in preference. In public
waters, restockings are carried out at present by the local Administrations (Provincial or Regional), but often small
lakes and river stretches are given in concession to Anglers Associations or to Co-operatives, that perform stockings,
under the supervision of the Administration, aimed at enhancing the stocks for sport fishing. Even if those seedings
concern mostly other fish species, eel are also restocked.
Vaudo et aI. (1990) provide data on eel quantities used for restocking in the whole country for the period 1988-89. In
1988 12.7 t of glass eel and elver and 22.2 t of eel were used for these purposes for all Italy, while in 1989 11.23 t of
glass eel and elver and 15.2 t of eel were used. In 1990 11.23 t of glass eel and 15.2 t of young eel were introduced in
the Italian public waters (Melotti et aI., 1990).
Data on population dynamics
Most studies on population dynamics concern northern Adriatic eel popUlations, and have been carried out between
1973 and 1983; no updated information is available in the literature.
Rossi (1979) examined 276 yellow and 552 silver eel caught in the Valli of Comacchio during 1974-76, and
determined the survival and growth curve. M value was 0.72 for males and 0.34 for females. M values have been
calculated on the Cornacchia population 10 years later; their value was then 0.57 for males and 0.25 for females.
Growth curves have also been calculated for the Monaci lagoon (Ardizzone and Corsi, 1985) and for the lower Tiber
(AA VV, 1987).
96
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E. Ciccotti Italy in C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel
Length attained by eel in North Adriatic lagoons is high: the observed range was 30.6-54 cm for males and 30.1-
100 cm for females (means respectively 43.2 and 59.6 cm) in the Valli of Comacchio: maximum age observed was 9
years for males and 14 for females (Rossi, 1979; Rossi and Colombo, 1979). Sex ratio in the Comacchio lagoon is
observe that Rossi et aI. (1987-1988) compared the silver eel population in Comacchio in the 1970s and 1980s and
found no differences in growth but differences in sex ratio, 9: 1 in favour of females; they attributed this to the strong
decrease in density that occurred in this 10 year period. In other north Adriatic valli, Rossi et aI found sex ratios
always in favour offemales (80-95%).
A completely reversed situation seems to be present in the southern North Adriatic coastal lagoons, where sex ratios
seem always in favour of the males: 20% females in the Lagoon of Lesina, 10% females in the Lagoon of Varano
(Rossi and Villani, 1980) and as low as 3% in the Acquatina coastal lake (Rossi and Corbari, 1982). In these lagoons
eel residence inside the lagoon seems to be shorter than in the North Adriatic: maximum observed age was 6+ in
Lesina for both males and females, 7+ for males and 5+ for females in the Varano Lagoon (Rossi and Villani, 1980)
and 8+ in the Acquatina coastal lake (Rossi and Corbari, 1982). An intermediate situation has been observed in Porto
Pino, Sardinia, where 60% females have been observed, and a maximum age for silver eel of both sexes of 9+ (Rossi
and Cannas, 1984).
The life cycle of Anguilla anguilla presents several distinctive features, such as high plasticity in body growth, marked
sexual dimorphism, sex ratio strongly skewed in favour of the female and sexual maturation largely dependent upon
the size of individuals. A demographic model incorporating all these characteristics was derived using 1989
population data from Comacchio lagoons and an estimate was made of survival at different ages. Survivorship in the
juvenile stage (35% from age 1 to age 2) is much less than that in the older age-classes for which it is roughly 90%.
An estimate was made also of the metamorphosis rate and abundance in each age- and size- class for both yellow and
silver eel, crucial information for the management of the Comacchio fishery. The use of a non-parametric technique
(bootstrapping) yielded not only the moments, but also the distribution of the estimates. Validation of the model was
performed on data collected in 1990. The approach adopted was very flexible, and different assumptions about
survival, sexual maturation and net selectivity could be easily incorporated in the model (De Leo and Gatto, 1995).
No data are available for lake popUlations, while population dynamics in the river Tiber have been studied (AAVV,
1987). In this river a sex ratio strongly in favour of the males was observed both for yellow (78.6%) and silver eel
(64.6%), with a maximum observed length of 36.9 cm for silver males and 47.4 cm for silver females. It is interesting
to note that a reduced residence in the river can be inferred, as eel > 5+ have not been found.
Recruitment
Natural mortality of glass eel
No information.
Fishing mortality of glass eel
Fishing pressure in those estuaries where glass eel fisheries are carried out is supposed to be very strong, as in the
Tiber river. For the River Tiber eel population, a study of population dynamics has been performed by analytical
models, using Von Bertalanffy data of the male fraction of the population, which is strongly dominant. Numbers of
individuals for each age class and fishing mortalities for each age class have been evaluated by VPA using catches for
each age class and assuming mortalities M=1.0 for glass eel and M=0.8 for the 1+ to 5+ age classes (AAVV, 1987).
Data on survival of glass eel or boot/ace eel after stocking
Estimates of natural mortality of glass eel have never been performed using mark-recapture methods in coastal lagoon
environments nor in estuaries. Gatto et al. (1982) set up a mathematical model for the population dynamics of eel in
the Valli di Cornacchia, using samples from the 1974-1976 catches. The model is based on a series of considerations,
one of which is that the natural mortality can roughly be divided into a juvenile mortality up to age 2+, and an adult
mortality. For the former, a survival value of 0.398 (survival rate 40%) has been evaluated by the authors.
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997
Rossi and Papas (1979) provide data on the Valle Nuova, a complex of three valli of about 1,900 ha, during the period
1950--1978, Each year the seeded quantities have been about 2,2 kg per hectare, using small eel of about 20 g, The
authors in this environment have calculated a survival rate for the eel, proportional to its size at seeding, ranging
between 34% when small eel (5 g) are seeded and 2% when glass eel are used, Between 1950 and 1978, eel
represented about 47% of the total production which ranged between 10 and 30 kg ha- 1 from 1950 to 1958, rising to
about 50 kg ha- 1 till 1965, and falling in the period 1965-1978 for two reasons: the flooding that struck the whole
region in 1966, destroying all the enclosing embankments, and the spreading of the parasite Argulus giordanii, that
affected the whole Italian extensive eel production in the 1970s.
Data on economics of stockings
No infonnation is available in the literature on the economics of stocking. It would in any case be difficult to calculate
the economic return of stocking, in view of the different stocking regimes, whether glass eel or small eel (5-20 g) are
used, and the different purposes of the stockings, which may be:
- in coastal lagoon environments to sustain and increase yields
- in rivers, to enhance stocks, and to counteract the presence of impassable dams, and to sustain mainly sport fisheries
- in lakes and reservoirs to enhance eel stock and to sustain fisheries
- as seed in intensive aquaculture
Escapement
Escapement of glass eel
No data available. Glass eel escapement rate is supposed to be extremely reduced, owing to the fishing pressure in
many estuaries. Where fishing pressure is not too high, escapement towards higher regions is frequently reduced by
dams.
Escapement of silver eel
No infonnation available. Escapement of silver eel can, however, be considered as minimal not only in lakes, but also
in most coastal lagoons, owing to the presence of fish barriers where silver eel are caught during their migration
towards the sea. Escapement is extremely reduced in those estuaries, such as the Tiber, where eel fisheries are present.
Number and extent of unexploited water bodies
No infonnation available.
Information on conservation measures
In Italy there are no measures specifically aimed at eel stock conservation, other than the prohibition of glass eel
commercialisation for human consumption. Destination of glass eel ought to be, in fact, only seeding for aquaculture
or restocking of natural basins. Notwithstanding the fact that direct consumption is forbidden, a certain amount of
glass eel for consumption reaches the traditional markets of Pisa, Livorno, Viareggio, Lucca (Ingle, 1988; Rossi and
Franzoi, 1991). The existence of this black market is due to three main causes: besides a higher profit for the
fishennen, there is a reduced interest from aquaCUlture installations (both intensive and extensive) in wild glass eel as
seed, because of the reduced survival rates; weaned elver or small eel (6-20 g) from France are preferred.
With regard to fisheries regulation, for glass eel fisheries in coastal waters and estuaries (within the limit of salt and
brackish waters) authorisation by the Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forest Resources is necessary, to be renewed
yearly. Each licensed fishennan or co-operative, when applying for authorisation for fry fishing, must declare catches
of the previous year, the quantities to be caught, the areas where the fishing activity will take place and the destination
of the fry (aquaCUlture, restocking, etc.). No restrictions on fishing season nor on gear are indicated by the Ministry for
glass eel fishing, contrary to other fmfish and bivalve fry, except for the fact that glass eel fishing is forbidden from 15
July to 15 September. The authorisation is valid in the whole national territory, while in Sardinia and Sicily fry fishing
is forbidden by regional laws.
98
E. Ciccotti Italy in C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel i
I
In inland waters eel fishing is regulated by the Provincial Administrations or the Regions. Usually an individual
professional fishing licence is issued (type A), valid for 6 years and only within the Region. Each Province keeps
registers where all fishing licences, professional or for angling, are listed. For the eel, a size limit is established
(25 cm), while there are no limits with regard to season. With regard to eurhyhaline fry fisheries, and therefore to
glass eel, the Regions (except Sardinia and Sicily) tend to act in agreement with the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and
Forest Resources and with the adjoining Provinces: thus, professional fishennen who intend to operate fry fisheries in
inland waters (above the limit of brackish waters) have to ask for a special authorisation from the Regional Committee,
stating periods, places, fish species, equipment for fishing and fry transportation. Fishennen must also declare sales of
fry, and destination (aquaculture, restocking); the Province Administrations can demand a certain quota of the catches
for restocking purposes.
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schema pre/iminare di piano per la pesca el' acquacoltura. Ministero della Marina Mercantile/ CNR, Natural
fish fry session, Vol. II: pp 709-1013.
Ardizzone G.D. and Corsi F. (1985) Eel population structure, dynamics and fishing yield in a Mediterranean coastal
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Ardizzone G.D., Cataudella S. and Rossi R. (1988) Management of coastal lagoon fisheries and aquaCUlture in Italy.
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De Angelis R. (1961) Production des Poissons dans les eaux interieures Italiennes. Proceedings General Fisheries
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De Angelis R. (1986) Italy. EIFAC Occasional Paper 16, 83-88.
De Leo G.A. and Gatto M. (1995) A size and age-structured model of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla L.).
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Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (1996) Staitstiche della Caccia e della Pesca. Sistema Statistico Nazionale.
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acque interne. Ed. API (Associazione Piscicultori Italiani), 91 pp.
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Polli B. (1996) Rapporto informativo sulla Pesca nel Lago di Lugano. Sottocommissione tecnica della Commissione
italo-svizzera per la pesca, Bellinzona, maggio 1996.
Rossi R. (1979) An estimate of the production of the eel population in the Valli of Comacchio (Po Delta) during 1974-
1976. Bolletino di Zoologia, 46, 217-223.
Rossi R. and Cannas A. (1984) Eel fishing management in a hypersaline lagoon of southern Sardinia. Fisheries
Research 2, 285-298.
Rossi R. and Colombo G. (1976) Sex ratio, age and growth of silver eel in two brackish lagoons in the northern
Adriatic Valli of Comacchio and Valle Nuova. Archivi di Oceanografla e Limnologia, 18, suppl. 3, 327-341.
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Rossi R. and Colombo G. (1979) Some observations on age, sex and growth of silver eel (Anguilla anguilla L.) in
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64-69. ESTIMATED ESCAPEMENT OF EXPLOITED SILVER EEL
Rossi R. and Corbari L. (1982) La fauna itticadei laghi Suviana e Brasimone (bacini artificiali dell' Appenino Tosco-
Emiliano. Rivista di ldrobiologia, 30, 1, 157-177. This annex provides details from the country reports of habitats, recruitment, known yield and potential yield together
with estimates of spawner escapement from exploited waters.
Rossi R. and Franzoi P. (1991) Pesca di ceche lungo Ie coste italiane nel periodo 1987-89. Bollettino dell'Accademia
ltaliana dell'Anguilla (AIDA): Anno 1, 1: 5-17. The sources of information are listed in the tables as a reference code. These link to the literature cited on page 40
Rossi R. and Papas P. (1979) Analisi del pescato di una "valle" del Delta del Po (Valle Nuova, Ferrara) dal 1950 al above.
1978. Annali del Universitd di Ferrara (Biologia, I), 9,123-148.
Rossi R. and Villani P. (1980) A biological analysis of eel catches, Anguilla anguilla, from the lagoons of Lesina and
Varano, Italy. Journal of Fish Biology 16,413-423.
A.2.1 Habitat
Rossi R., Carrieri A., Franzoi P., Cavallini G. and Gnes A. (1987-1988) A study of eel (Anguilla anguilla) population
dynamics in the Comacchio lagoons (Italy) by mark-recapture method. Oebalia 14, NS, 1-14. The country reports provide an estimate of the total surface area of outdoor waters in each country and, where
available, an estimate of the percentage that is accessible to eel. In cases where river lengths were given instead of
Rossi R., Carrieri A. and Rizzo M.G., (1991) Fish fauna in the Suviana and Brasimone lakes (artificial basins in the surface area, an average width of 10 m was assumed. In sununarising the country reports, waters were classified under
Tuscan-Emilian Apenninemountain range). Rivista di ldrobiologia 30,157-177. one of the following headings:
Vaudo A., Scaglia R. and Bronzi P. (1990) II contributo dell' anguilla al mercato del pesce di acqua dolce in Italia:
approccio conoscitivo. Bollettino dell'Accademia Italiana del/'Anguilla, numero unico. -Fresh still waters: all water bodies characterised by a low salinity, where the standing stock is largely dependent on
biological production within the same water body. This includes lakes, reservoirs, canals, polders, extensive
aquaculture ponds.

-Fresh running waters: all water bodies characterised by a low salinity, where the stock is at least partially dependent
on biological production in connected, mostly upstream areas. This conforms almost exclusively to rivers and streams.

-Saline, closed waters: all water bodies characterised by a relatively high salinity but with limited interchange with the
open sea, where the standing stock is largely dependent on biological production within the same water body. This
includes coastal lagoons and some fjords.

-Saline, open waters: all water bodies characterised by a high salinity, where the stock is at least partially dependent
on biological production in connected areas. This includes estuaries, river mouths, open coastal areas, archipelagos.

-The Baltic area is difficult to classify within the above system. Since it represents as much as 18% of the hbaitat of
the eel, it is treated on its own ..

The percentages of surface area inaccessible to eel were taken directly from the country reports.

A.2.2 Glass eel

Current stocking rates of glass eel are variable, with a maximum of 0.5 kg ha·'. The number of studies on optimal
levels of stocking is low. An overall base level for potential stocking of glass eel of 0.1 kg ha" was assumed, unless
specific information was available for particular regions. In open systems, stockings might not contribute to the local
production. In most inland waters, however, the stocking of rivers would benefit individual countries.

Natural recruitment to open coastal waters, including estuaries, is an unknown quantity but likely to be higher than to
closed and inland waters. The relatively enormous areas involved would require unattainably large quantities of
stocking material and it was considered unlikely that serious attempts would be made to undertake such a programme
in the foreseeable future. A notional figure of 0.01 kg ha-' was included in the table.

Figures for actual stocking levels, as well as estimates of natural recruitment were taken from the country reports. In
several cases, waters are stocked using bootlace eel. These quantities were transformed to the equivalent amount of
glass eel. The contrast between actual stockings and the minimal potential derived from the base level as defined
above, is listed as 'estimated understocking'. Lack of knowledge on natural immigration results in a high estimate of
understocking.

100 101
Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) IS, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

In the case of France, the natural immigration of glass eel is estimated at 60 t, while the minimal level required comes Annex 2. Table 1. Habitat, stock, yield and escapement
to only 8 t. Consequently, the estimate of understacking appears as a negative figure, the actual immigration level
(after fisheries) exceeding the continent-wide base level for stocking. However, there are serious doubts as to the
Habitat Surface area Stocking Yellow and silVer eel Silver eel
optimal level of stocking in France, but there are no published sources to justify the use of a higher estimate. country
a b c d e
c c
0 0
0. 0. ;;::
~
A.2.3 Yellow and silver eel 0 0 Z ro ro 5'
II 0
~0
The potential yield in European waters was estimated, on the assumption that seed stocking and local management
If0 20 ~ "~
c
Q. w 3
ro
~
3
~
x
"§-
A
0
m
~
'j"
C

might be optimised by proper stock-wide management. In this respect, a strategy parallel to the one on glass eel ~. iD it iil
0-
0
"-
0 0. 0
~
0
~
0
"0
3
ID
0-
iD
0. 0. S? 0
~. 5- '"Q $' iD
o·
0 ID
~

~ ,.~
stocking was used: a continent wide base level, with specific values in cases where local evidence is available. Unlike 0
'!0-2. 0: 0. -< 0
S? ~ 3" '" rr S?
-<
iD
0
~ "0
ro
the case of glass eel stockings, the base level was determined by type of water body: 10 kg ha'! yield for all fresh 3
oj" a 8- •"- '"
~
<0 0: Q
3
waters, 20 kg ha'! for saline closed systems and 5 kg ha'! for saline, open systems. The yield in the Baltic was
estimated at 5 kg ha'!, because of the negative influence of low temperatures and short growth seasons.
il ,.
~
,.
~
3
8
0
+
~
0-
8- 5
'?
ro
"-
e- ro

Sweden 14,435 43 0.10 144 5 586 6.631 557 30 239

Baltic
Figures for actual yields of yellow and silver eel were taken from the country reports. The contrast between the Denmark 900 0.10 9 5 419 31 425 30 182
estimated potential yield and the reported catches makes up the estimate of underexploitation. This latter quantity Germanv 700 0,10 7 5 320 30 96 30 41
Fresh still 17.838 55 0,10 1 2 176 10 460 17,378 117 10 12
indicates the yield that could be attained by proper local management and the provision of adequate seed stocking Swden
Fresh running 277 65 0.10 3 10
levels, rather than the yield available simply by increasing the level of exploitation of existing stocks. Saline closed 8,600 0,10 1 86 10 430 8.170 30
Saline open 0,01 199 ·199
Several entries indicate a higher actual yield than the assumed potential. This can arise where actual recruinnent is Denmark Fresh still 440 0.10 4 10 110 330
Fresh running 150 10 0,10 1 20 20 280
greater than the proposed overall stocking rate of 0.1 kg ha'!, 10 405 2.595 200 10 22
Saline closed 3.000 0.10 2 28
Saline aDen 9,100 0.01 9 2 405 1,415
Germany Fresh still 230 20 5 0.10 2 10 400 ·170
A.2.4 Silver eel 600 20 5 0.10 1 5 10 275 325 250 10 28
Fresh running
Saline closed 1.600 0,10 16 10 200 1,400 100 10 11
The quantity of silver eel escaping is unknown, but an estimate was derived from the known catches of silver eel, on
Saline open 0,01
the assumption that at least 10% of the original stock is able to escape the fisheries. Wherever a detailed assessment of Fresh still 626 5 0,10 1 1 4 15 735 204
N.lreland
the escape rate was available, the best estimate was used, In all cases, these best estimates were in the order of Fresh running 20 0.10 10 20
magnitude of 30%, indicating the conservatism in the overall value of 10%. Saline closed 0,10
Saline open 21 0.01 5 11
Rep. Ireland Fresh still 1,445 5 0.10 2 12 10 250 1.195
Fresh running 53 5 0.10 1 10 53
Saline closed 5 0,10 20 10
Saline open 600 0.01 1 5 300
Great Britain Fresh still 1.924 0,10 19 10 300 1.624
Fresh running 500 0,10 5 10 500
Saline closed 0.10 20
Saline open 5.000 0,01 5 2 50 950
Fresh still 3.400 5 0.10 5 12 17 10 685 2.715 14 10 2
Netherlands
Fresh running 100 0.10 1 10 20 80
Saline closed 1.950 0,10 20 10 100 1.850
Saline open 5.000 0.01 5 1 100 400
France Fresh still 1.696 5 5 0,10 17 10 1.696
Fresh running 840 10 0.10 60 ·52 10 300 540
Saline closed 590 0,10 6 40 300 2.060
Saline open 1.000 0,01 1 5 500
Portugal Fresh still 3 99 0,10 10 3
Fresh running 18 70 0,10 10 18
Saline closed 50 0.10 1 20 67 33
Saline open 325 0,10 5 33 130
Spain Fresh still 10 0,10 10 10
Fresh running 50 93 0.10 1 10 400 50
Saline closed 171 0,10 2 20 100 242
Saline open 0.10 5 75 ·75
Italy Fresh still 2.360 59 0,10 6 18 5 400 780
Fresh running 108 50 0,10 4 ·3 10 100 8
Saline closed 1.500 0.50 75 40 1.400 4.600
Saline open 0,10 5
Fresh still 29.971 4 40 0.10 7 25 268 10 3.340 25.764 301 12 71
Sum or
Fresh running 2.717 25 13 0.10 60 5 ·38 11 715 2.152 250 10 28
average
Saline closed 17.466 0,14 3 232 14 3.002 20.960 300 12 33
Saline open 21.046 0.10 21 2 862 3.431
Baltic 16135 40 0,10 161 5 1.325 6.743 1.078 30 462
87.335 3 27 0.10 67 33 644 9,244 59,050 1.929 12 595
Totol

102 103
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C, Moriarty and W, Dekker: Management of the European eel I,

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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

Reference list for Annex 3. FuJI citations are given on p 39.

Annex 3. Table 3. Lagoons (saline, closed)

1 Aprahamian, 1988 29 Moriarty, 1990b
Habitat Density Production Yield Mortality Comment Reference 2 Barak and Mason, 1992 30 Moriarty, 1990c
N/lOO m2 kg/I,. kglha/y kglha glrecruit 3 Berg, 1988 (cited in 11) 31 Moriartyet al., 1990
France Coastal lagoons 600 - 2000 70 -> 20 99 -> 45 Reduced habltat & water 10 4 Berg and Jorgensen, 1994 32 Moriarty and Nixon, 1990
quality, Mediterranean coast
5 Callaghan and McCarthy, 1991 33 Moriarty and Tesch, 1997
Creeks and lagoons 100 - 500 30 -100 Man made salt marshes & 10
pans, Atlantic coast. 6 Cicotti, 1997 34 Mortensen, 1982
Italy 7 N. Adriatic Lagoons 76 36 19 falling recruitment since 45 7 Costa et al., 1991 35 Naismith and Knights, 1990b
1970, 8 Degennan et al., 1986 36 Naismith and Knights, 1993
Cornacchia 13 - 27 29 58 - 113 pre 1980 47 37 Neveu, 1981
9 Dekker, 1997
Cornacchia 5-7 post 1980 6
10 Fontenelie, Feunteun & Briand, 1997 38 Pedersen,
Valle Nuova 5 - 25 1950-1978 46
Aquatina 4.6 - 17.6 1976 -1979 44 11 Hahlbeck and Kuhlmann, 1997 39 Poole et al., 1990
Porto Pino 19 12 43 12 Hussein, 1981 40 Pursainen and Toivenen, 1984
Tortoli Lagoon 120 - 130 1957 -64 6 13 Hvidsten, 1985 41 Rosell, 1997
Tortali Lagoon 40 1965 -1978 6 14 Ibbotson et al" 1994 42 Rossi, 1979
Lesina 7 - 36 1950 - 70 6
15 Klein Breteler, 1994 43 Rossi and Cannas, 1984
Other 6 -324 12 40%@2+ 6
1O-23%@>2+ 16 Knights and White, 1997a 44 Rossi and Corbari, 1982
17 Larsen, 1955 (cited in 31) 45 Rossi and Colombo, 1976
18 Leopold, 1980 46 Rossi and Papas, 1979
19 Leopold, 1986 47 Rossi et al., 1987 - 1988
20 Leopold and Bninska, 1984 48 Tesch, 1977
21 Lobon-Cervia et al" 1990 49 Thonnan and Fladvad, 1981 (Cited in 54)
Annex 3. Table 4, Estnaries (saline, open)
22 Mann, 1995 50 Turnpenny, 1989
Mortality 23 Mann and Blackburn, 1991 51 Vollestad and Johnsson, 1988
Habitat Productio Natural Fishing Comment Reference 24 Mann and Penzak, 1994 52 Westerberg et al., 1993
kglha % Z % 25 McCarthy et aI., 1994a 53 Wickstrom and Hamrin, 1997
Sweden Broalven Estuary 0.06 -0.69 0+ to 1+ eels 49 26 McCarthy et al., 1994b 54 Wickstrom et al., 1996
coastal 0.18 27 53 27 Moriarty, & Reynolds 55 Winfield et al., 1993
coastal 80 1 year 52 28 Moriarty, 1987
England Thames estuary 0.37 Estimate (per em year class) 35/36
Italy Po Delta 36 42

106 107
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997 C. Moriarty and W. Dekker: Management of the European eel

ANNEX 4. OBSERVATIONS ON THE GLASS EEL FISHERY IN 1997
Guy Fontenelle
Laboratoire Halieutique, ENSA. 65 Rue de St Brieue 35042,
This account is based on infonnation from an established eel merchant in February 1997.
Glass eel are collected along the coast by commercial (and non commercial) fishers in esroarine and lower parts of
rivers. Then, they are mostly managed by to Basque traders who decide how to sort the glass eel depending on their
potential. In large estuaries higher mortalities> 10-20 % are frequent After cleaning, they separate dead from living
and direct the dead to the Spanish market and the rest to China (Shanghai and Hong Kong) via Paris airport (50%),
Amsterdam or London. At the arrival airport, a very small number of distributors take care of the glass-eel to
distribute them among a large number of Chinese farmers. It seems impossible to get in touch directly with the
farmers. This network appears very well controlled.
A high survival rate of 90 % is achieved from glass-eel stage to 10-12 g. They can reach 3-5 g within 3-5 weeks. The
grown eel are sold when they weigh more than 200 g which they can reach within only 10 months. They are exported
mainly to Japan at about 60 F/kg for "kabayaki" product (about 80-92 F/kg). Recently, some distributors and farmers
made requests to use estrogen honnones to induce female differentiation and therefore bigger eel.
The recent shift to the Asia market of glass eel from Europe seem likely to increase fishing effort as people are
attracted by the high price offered. Although probably an incomplete figure, the export statistics from France (Table 1)
indicate such a change (average price 870 F/kg in 1996 in contrast to 670 F/kg in 1995). In 1997, prices have
increased much more.
According to the traders, about 80-100 tons had already left France on February 13, 1997. The Chinese market was
estimated by the glass eel traders at about 110-120 tons in 1996, wltich means substantially more than the official
export data. Today, there is no reliable infonnation available to explain such a discrepancy and to track transnational
shipping within the EU before Asian destinations are reached.

In mid-February 1997, the trading price for glass eel after holding in France was 1,860 F/kg and the price 'on arrival
in Hong Kong' was about 2,300 F/kg for live fish. The price of dead fish used for consumption on the Spanish market
was 300 F/kg. At t his period about 3 to per day were being shipped to China.

The glass eel are packed for shipping in foam plastic boxes of 12 litre capacity with 1 kg ice to every 1 kg glass eel.

On the Far-eastern fish farms, the high success may be explained by the ltigh quality of naroral food based upon
Tubifex, prepared in the following way. Organic manure is placed in streams in which no other production is expected
to induce Tubifex production. The wonns are "purified" before being fed to the glass eel.

Table 1. Exports of glass eel from France in 1995 and 1996 (to end of Angnst). From Frencb Cnstoms data
tbrougb FlOM.

Destination Ouantitv (t) Value (KF) Price Fikg

1995
Hong Kong 50.4 34,855 692
China 7.7 4,468 580
UK 5.1 2,638 517
Greece 0.4 221 553
Indonesia 0.2 196 980
Lithuania 0.2 137 685

Total 64 42,515 Average: 668

1996
Hong Kong 49 48,515 990
Denmark 12.4 4,200 339
China 11.8 12,887 1,092
UK 3.8 2,988 786
Japan 2.6 689 265
Gennany 0.7 582 831
Mexico 0.5 231 462
Greece 0.4 361 903
Lithuania 0.4 518 1,295
Singapore 0.1 89 890
Taiwan 0.1 148 1,480

Total 81.8 71,208 Average: 870

108 109
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Fisheries Bulletin (Dublin) 15, 1997

ANNEX 5, NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF PARTICIPANTS

Sweden
S tellan Hamrin National Swedish Board of Fisheries, Institute of Freshwater Research,
S,I78 93 Drottuingholm.
Hakan Wickstrom National Swedish Board of Fisheries, Institute of Freshwater Research,
S,178 93 Drottningholm.

Denmark
Michael Pedersen Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Inland Fisheries Laboratory,
Vejlsf/lvej 39, DK,8600 Silkeborg,

Germany
Eka Hahlbeck Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Fischerei, Institut fur Ostseefischerei,
An der Jagerbak 2, 18069 Rostock.
Holmer Kuhlmann BFA,Fischerei, Ins!. fur FischereiOkologie, Wulfsdorfer Weg 204,
22926 Ahrensburg.

Ireland (Northern)
Robert Rosell DAN!, New Forge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX.

Ireland (Republic)
Christopher Moriarty Marine Institute, Fisheries Research Centre, Abbotstown, Dublin 15.
Julian Reynolds Department of Zoology, Trinity College, Dublin 2.

Great Britain
Brian Knights Applied Ecology Research Group, University of Westminster,
115 New Cavendish Street, London WIM 8JS.

Netherlands
Willem Dekker RJVO,DLO, PO Box 68, 1970 AB Umuiden.

France
Cedric Briand Laboratoire Halieutique, ENSA, 65 Rue de St Brieue 35042,
Rennes Cedex.
Yves Desaunay IFREMER, Centre de Nantes, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu ' BP 1105,
44311 Nantes Cedex 03.
Eric Feunteun Universite de Rennes, UMR CNRS 6533, Laboratoire ESNM, 35042
Rennes Cedex.
Guy Fontenelle Laboratoire Halieutique, ENSA, 65 Rue de St Brieue 35042,
Rennes Cedex.
Raymonde Leeomte,Finiger EPHE, Universite de Perpignan, Avenue de Villeneuve,
66860 Perpignan Cedex.
Antoine Legault Fish Pass, 85 Rue de St Brieue, 3500 Rennes.

Portugal
Maria Assun,ao Santos Instituto de Ciencias Biomedieas de Abel Salazar ,
Universidade do Porto, Lg. Prof. Abel Salazar 2 , 4000 Porto.

Spain
Maria Jose Lara C/. Cervantes No.2, 2° Izda, 33206 Gijon,Asturias.

Italy
Eleonora Cieeotti Laboratorio di Eeologia Sperimentale ed Aequaeoltura, Universitll
'Tor Vergata', Via della Rieerea Seientifiea, 00133 Rome.

110