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Assessment of reservoir sedimentation of irrigation dams in northern Ghana

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 Lake and Reservoir Management

ISSN: 1040-2381 (Print) 2151-5530 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ulrm20

Assessment of reservoir sedimentation of

irrigation dams in northern Ghana

Thomas A. Adongo, Nicholas Kyei-Baffour, Felix K. Abagale & Wilson A.

Agyare

To cite this article: Thomas A. Adongo, Nicholas Kyei-Baffour, Felix K. Abagale & Wilson A.
Agyare (2019): Assessment of reservoir sedimentation of irrigation dams in northern Ghana, Lake
and Reservoir Management, DOI: 10.1080/10402381.2019.1659461

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LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT
https://doi.org/10.1080/10402381.2019.1659461

Assessment of reservoir sedimentation of irrigation dams in northern Ghana

Thomas A. Adongoa, Nicholas Kyei-Baffourb, Felix K. Abagalec and Wilson A. Agyareb
a
Department of Agricultural Mechanization & Irrigation Technology, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale,
Ghana; bDepartment of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, KNUST, P. O. Box KNUST-mail bag, Kumasi, Ghana; cDepartment of
Agricultural Engineering, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Adongo TA, Kyei-Baffour N, Abagale FK, Agyare WA. 2019. Assessment of reservoir sedimentation Reservoir; sedimentation;
of irrigation dams in northern Ghana. Lake Reserv Manage. XX:XXX–XXX. storage capacity; irrigation
dam; bathymetric survey
Sedimentation in reservoirs of irrigation dams is a serious issue that threatens their functionalities.
Since information on this phenomenon in irrigation dams in northern Ghana is almost nonexistent,
a study was necessary. The study used bathymetric survey integrated with geographic information
systems (GIS) tools to assess reservoir sedimentation of 9 irrigation dams in 3 northern regions of
Ghana. The bathymetric survey was conducted during August–October 2017 using a hand-held
Hondex digital depth meter. Reservoir depths at full supply level were found to range from 0.10 to
14.70 m. The volumetric storage capacity loss in the reservoirs ranged from 0.1 to 7.94 Mm3, while
the percentage storage capacity loss ranged from 8.54 to 34.12%. The reservoirs were found to be
losing volume by 0.26–0.91%/yr. The water surface area of the reservoirs lost due to sedimentation
ranged from 5.53 to 24.10%. Estimated mean annual sediment load and sediment inflows into
the reservoirs ranged from 3159 to 12,850 mg/L and from 1594 to 355,017 m3/yr, respectively.
Estimated useful life of the reservoirs ranged from 22 to 160 yr. All the reservoirs except Bontanga
and Tono had a well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits. Major causes of the sedi-
mentation were observed to be mainly human activities within the reservoir catchments.
Enactment and enforcement of bylaws to restrict farming, burning, and sand/gravel mining activ-
ities in the buffer zones of the reservoirs are necessary to reduce the rate of sedimentation.
Improved catchment management practices, construction of check dams, installation of hydrosuc-
tion sediment-removal systems, and periodic desilting are also recommended.

Water is one of the most important natural
resources to all living things (Young 2006). Due
to the seasonality of rainfall in many parts of the
world, water resources development and manage-
ment have become very important and a neces-
sity to conserve water and make it available for
human and animals use in their immediate envir-
onment. This has led to the construction of dams
(Yusuf and Yusuf 2012). Indeed, these dams are
important infrastructure and play important role
in the world’s economy by providing water for
irrigation, domestic/industrial water supply, and
electric-power generation by means of hydro-
power installation (Basson 2010, Issa et al. 2013).
As of 2011, there were about 850 small- to large-
scale dams in Ghana, of which northern Ghana
has about 370 (Namara et al. 2011).
Globally, irrigation has been noted to be the
most important user of water from reservoirs,
and irrigated area has also been reported to be
expanding at a rate of about 30% per decade
(Qamar and Gopal 2017). However, sedimenta-
tion is a major unavoidable phenomenon in all
reservoirs, and uncontrolled sediment deposition
makes storage reservoirs the key nonsustainable
component of modern water supply systems.
Accumulation of sediment in a reservoir reduces
its depth, storage capacity, and useful life and
interferes with its functions (White 2001, Wang
et al. 2018). With many reservoirs rapidly losing
their depths to sedimentation and reaching the
end of their original design useful life, sedimenta-
tion assessment is becoming an increasingly
important issue in reservoir operation and

CONTACT Thomas A. Adongo adongo.apusiga@yahoo.com

Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/ulrm.
ß 2019 North American Lake Management Society
2 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.
Figure 1. Map of northern Ghana showing the location of the study reservoirs (red color).
management (Doyle et al. 2003, USACE 2017).
The global rate of reservoir sedimentation is esti-
mated to be 0.5 to 2% loss of storage capacity
annually (Issa et al. 2015). Adwubi et al. (2009)
found 4 small reservoirs in Ghana filling up rap-
idly with sediments at a rate of 1.75%/yr.
Facilities for flushing out sediment from reser-
voirs of dams in Ghana are absent (Namara et al.
2011). Large amounts of catchment sediment due
mainly to poor land use practices are easily trans-
ported and deposited into the reservoirs (Adwubi
et al. 2009). Furthermore, routine desilting or
dredging in reservoirs for capacity restoration is
absent in Ghana amid high sediment inflows into
the reservoirs. The several patches of islands and
weeds that can be seen in some reservoirs are
indications of the occurrence of sedimentation.
However, there is lack of information regarding
their depths, storage capacities, water surface
areas, sedimentation rates, and actual useful life
span after many years of operation. This study
was therefore carried out to assess reservoir sedi-
mentation and its effects on selected irrigation
dams in northern Ghana.
Materials and methods
Study area
The study was conducted on 9 reservoirs:
Bontanga, Golinga, and Libga reservoirs in the
Northern Region; Gambibgo, Tono, and Vea reser-
voirs in the Upper East Region; and Daffiama,
Karni, and Sankana reservoirs in the Upper West
Region (Figure 1). Principal characteristics of the
reservoirs and their associated dams are presented
in Table 1. The study reservoirs represent 3% of
the number of reservoirs in northern Ghana, with
all the 3 large reservoirs covered and 6 of the small
and medium-size reservoirs. The study reservoirs
were purposively selected based on 4 criteria:

Reservoirs constructed between 1960 and 1990,
classified as old reservoirs.

Reservoirs with design maps and engineering
characteristics.

Reservoirs that have not been desilted since
construction.

Sizes of reservoirs to include small, medium-size,
and large reservoirs. Small, medium-size, and large
 LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 3

reservoirs are reservoirs with maximum storage

Nadowli-Kaleo

Note. SC, storage capacity; WSA, water surface area; FSL, full supply level; GIDA, Ghana Irrigation Development Authority; ICOUR, Irrigation Company of Upper Regions; WUA, water user association; small ¼ storage
Sankana

WUA/GIDA
capacities of <1 Mm3, 1 to 3 Mm3, and >3 Mm3,

Sep 2017
02 36’W

Medium
10 11’N
respectively (Basson 2007, Kolala et al. 2015).

1965
1970

1450
1.70
1.45
0.26
510
7.0

73
Lambussie-Karni Methodology
Upper West

The objectives of the study were achieved using

Karni

WUA/GIDA

Sep 2017
02 38’W
10 40’N

grab sampling and bathymetric surveys integrated

Small
1985
1988
6.50

0.33
0.28
0.06
530

950
19
with remote sensing and ArcGIS 10.4 software.
Observations were also made of the activities sur-
rounding the reservoirs and recorded to inform
Bussie-Issa
Daffiama-
Daffiama

the outcomes of the surveys.

WUA/GIDA

Sep 2017
02 34’W
10 27’N

Small
1986
1989

0.31
0.21
0.04
550

930
7.0

15

Bathymetric surveys
The bathymetric surveys were conducted in the res-
Oct 2017
10 52’N
Bongo

0 51’W
Vea

ICOUR
Large
13.50

ervoirs during August–October 2017 using a hand-

1975
1980

1600

1800
16.0

385
1.0
17

held Hondex digital depth meter, a hand-held glo-

bal positioning system (GPS), canoe, ArcGIS 10.4
capacity <1 Mm3; medium ¼ storage capacity of 1–3 Mm3; large ¼ storage capacity >3 Mm3. Source: GIDA (2017) and ICOUR (2017).

software, and appropriate protective equipment.

Upper East

Nankana
Kassena-
Tono

Depth measurements were collected using estab-

Oct 2017
10 52’N
1 08’W

ICOUR
Large
18.60

lished navigation lines that served as reference

1975
1985

3500

1800

3885
83.0
10.0
93

paths, beginning from the dam wall and continuing

upstream along the longitudinal extent of the reser-
Bolgatanga
Gambibgo

WUA/GIDA

Oct 2017

voir. The number of range lines required for the

10 45’N
0 50’W

Small
1960
1963

survey in each reservoir was determined using

6.50

0.30
0.26
0.05
524

745
14

equation 1 (Zarris and Lykoudi 2003):

N ¼ 14:3 x A0:29 : (1)
Aug 2017
Savelugu
Libga

0 85’W
9 59’N

Small
GIDA
1971
1974

1016

where N is the required number of range lines

0.76
0.65
0.12
650
7.0

44

and A is the reservoir surface area (km2).

Based on equation 1, the survey navigation
Aug 2017
Golinga
Northern

Medium
Tolon

0 57’W
9 22’N

lines were established at 30-m intervals for the

GIDA
1976
1980

1312
6.50

1.23
1.02
0.19
700

70

large reservoirs, that is, Bontanga, Tono, and

Table 1. Location and characteristics of study reservoirs.

Vea, and at 15-m intervals for the small and

Kumbungu
Bontanga

medium-size reservoirs, Daffiama, Gambibgo,

Aug.2017
1 02’W
9 57’N

Large

Golinga, Karni, Libga, and Sankana. Based on the

12.50

GIDA
1980
1986

1900

2296
20.0

770
5.0
25

recommendation of G omez-Fragoso (2016), depth

point measurements were done at an interval of
Number of bathymetric survey points taken

10 m for the large reservoirs and at 5-m intervals

for the small and medium-size reservoirs.
Class of reservoir based on capacity
Initial maximum SC at FSL (106 m3)

Initial WSA of reservoirs at FSL (ha)

The reservoir water levels were monitored

Maximum length of dam wall (m)
Maximum height of dam wall (m)

Dead SC of reservoir (106 m3)

thrice daily, at 08:00 a.m., 12:00 p.m., and

Year construction completed

Live SC of reservoir (106 m3)

04:00 p.m., and resulted in computation of the

Year construction started
Reservoir characteristics

Date of bathymetry

adjusted maximum pool elevation level. The

District/municipality

means of transport on the water was a canoe.

Primary data.
Management
Coordinates

The water depths were measured with an accur-

acy of ±0.01% of the measured depths and the
Region

geographic position data were taken with an

4 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.
Figure 2. Bathymetric survey points in study reservoirs.
accuracy of ±3 m. The necessary number of sur-
vey points taken ranged from 745 to 3885
depending on reservoir surface area (Table 1).
Maximum pool elevation-level adjustments and
development of bathymetric maps
The bathymetric data were adjusted to the max-
imum pool (spillway) elevation, which is the max-
imum allowable water surface elevation. The
maximum pool level adjustment was necessary
because some of the reservoirs were not at full sup-
ply level at the time depth measurements were
taken. The adjusted bathymetric data were used to
develop bathymetric survey maps (Figure 2) for
each reservoir using ArcGIS software version 10.4.
For each reservoir, the depth points and their
respective GPS coordinates were processed in
Microsoft Excel and integrated into a geographic
information system (GIS). The data (X, Y, Z) were
imported into ArcGIS 10.4 software. Using the
ordinary kriging method, the depth points were
interpolated. The depth points were then color
coded according to their specific depths and con-
verted into an elevation (raster) map, and contour
lines were created by connecting the same color
points throughout the longitudinal extent of the
reservoir using the contour spatial analyst tool. The
output was a bathymetric contour map at 0.5-m
intervals indicating the spatial distribution of depth
of reservoirs at full supply level (Figure 3).
Generation of bathymetric triangulated irregular
network (TIN) maps and computation of storage
capacity and water surface area of the reservoirs
For each reservoir, the processed bathymetric
survey vectorial data (X, Y, Z) were exported to

Figure 3. Spatial distribution of depth of reservoirs at full supply level.
ArcGIS 10.4 software in ESRI shape format.
Using customizing tools in the GIS program and
a kridging method, the depth points were inter-
polated and converted into raster maps. A trian-
gulated irregular network model (TIN) was
generated from the data stored in the GIS data-
base using the 3D Analyst module. TIN is a col-
lection of triangles generated using the data
points as the corners. The triangles were created
using the Delaunay triangulation method, so that
all points are connected using their two nearest
neighbors to form triangles (Wilson and Richards
2006). Consequently, a bathymetric TIN map was
produced for each reservoir. The current storage
capacity and water surface area of each reservoir
at full supply level were then computed using the
TIN model tool in ArcGIS. The current storage
capacity and the water surface area of the reser-
voirs as obtained from the bathymetry and the
LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 5
initial storage capacity and water surface area of
the reservoirs were used to compute the loss in
storage capacity and water surface area of the res-
ervoirs (equations 2 and 6). The storage capacity
lost in a reservoir represents the volume of sedi-
ment accumulated in it.
After the bathymetry, the following series of
computations and analysis were made for each
reservoir using equations 2–7:
SCL ¼ ISCR  CSCR (2)
where SCL is the reservoir storage capacity loss
due to sedimentation (m3), ISCR is the initial
(original) storage capacity of the reservoir (m3),
and CSCR ia the current storage capacity of the
reservoir (m3) (Ferrari and Collins 2006);
SCL
MASR ¼ (3)
Ag R
6 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.
where MASR is the mean annual rate of sedi-
mentation (m3/yr), SCL is the reservoir storage
capacity loss (m3), and AgR is the age of the res-
ervoir (yr) (Aynekulu et al. 2006);
SCL
%MASR ¼ x 100 (4)
AgR
where %MASR is the mean annual sedimentation
rate (%/yr), SCL is the reservoir storage capacity
loss (m3), and AgR is the age of the reservoir (yr)
(Basson 2010):
 
ISCRSCL
UL ¼ 0:5 (5)
MASR
where UL is the useful life of the reservoir in
years when the initial storage capacity will reduce
to 50%, ISCR is the initial (original) storage cap-
acity of the reservoir (m3), SCL is the storage
capacity loss (m3), and MASR is the mean annual
rate of sedimentation (m3/yr) (Gill 1979);
WSALS ¼ IWSA  CWSA (6)
where WSAL is the water surface area loss due to
sedimentation (ha), IWSA is the initial water sur-
face area at full supply level (ha), and CWSAL is
the current water surface area at full supply level
(ha) (Ferrari and Collins 2006); and
WSAL
PRWSA ¼ x 100 (7)
IWSA
where PRWSA is the percentage reduction in
water surface area (%), WSAL is the water sur-
face area loss due to sedimentation (ha), and
IWSA is the initial water surface area at full sup-
ply level (ha) (Issa et al. 2013).
All the historical data such as initial (original)
storage capacities and water surface areas of the
reservoirs were obtained from the database of the
GIDA and ICOUR and used in the equa-
tions presented.
Estimation of sediment loads and sediment
inflows into the study reservoirs
All the rivers and streams that feed the reservoirs
under study are not gauged at their inlet points
to monitor sediment loads and sediment inflows
into the reservoirs. Therefore, a grab sampling
method was used to measure sediment loads and
sediment inflows into the reservoirs via runoff.
Runoff samples from selected rivers and streams
that feed a particular reservoir were collected
using a 3-L suspended sediment sampler.
Samples were taken about 25–40 m away from
the reservoirs and were collected for a period of
3 years (Jun–Sep 2016, 2017, and 2018).
Sampling was done thrice daily at 8:00 a.m.,
12:00 p.m., and 4:00 p.m.. Depending upon the
depth of the runoff, the sampler was dipped to a
depth of 30–50 cm below the water level so as to
have a more representative sample at a point.
Five grams of aluminum sulfate (alum) was
added to each sample collected to aid quick
settlement of sediments. The settled sediments
were then filtered and transferred into a 1-L sam-
pling bottle and labeled. The sediment samples
were then transferred into drying metallic plates
in the laboratory for oven drying at 60 C for 12 h.
The oven-dried samples were weighed to deter-
mine the sediment concentrations. Mean annual
suspended sediment concentrations were com-
puted from the samples collected. Total sediment
load for each reservoir was estimated from the
suspended sediment load using the Strand and
Pemberton (1982) bedload correction method,
while the total sediment inflow into a reservoir
was computed taking account the annual water
inflow into the reservoir.
Acquisition and analysis of land-use/land-
cover data
Multitemporal and multisensor satellite imageries
of the reservoir catchments were acquired for the
purpose of determining the land-use/land-cover
(LULC) classes. Landsat 8 OLI images of scene
195/52 of the year 2016 were used for the study.
Two software packages, ERDAS Imagine version
10.4 and ArcGIS version 10.4, were used to pro-
cess the satellite images for layer stacking,
mosaicking, georeferencing, subsetting, and train-
ing of the images according the area of interest
(AOI). Using ERDAS, the raw satellite images
were converted from tag image file format (tiff)
to IMG format in order to be compatible with
other ERDAS Imagine files. The UTM Zone 30 N
Coordinate on the WGS84 was used to geocode
the imported images. The Landsat 8 OLI images
were georeferenced using ground control points
 LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 7

Table 2. Land-use/land-cover classes in the reservoir catchments and their areal coverage and C-factor.
Name of catchment/LULC areal coverage (km2) for year 2016
LU C-factor Bontanga Golinga Libga Gambibgo Tono Vea Daffiama Karni Sankana
CL 0.27 111.00 39.46 16.95 0.70 245.86 74.86 10.58 23.25 96.52
BL 0.25 8.23 3.77 7.04 0.63 79.43 10.38 3.91 3.01 8.80
WB 0.00 7.41 0.40 0.23 0.11 16.19 5.59 0.11 0.20 0.38
OSW 0.15 38.36 9.37 6.78 0.26 218.60 45.17 6.40 8.54 35.30
CSW 0.05 — — — 89.92 — — — —
Total — 165.0 53.0 31.0 1.70 650.0 136.0 21.0 35.0 141.0
Note. LULC, land-use/land-cover; CL, cropland; BL, built-up land; WB, water bodies; OSW, open savannah woodland; CSW ,closed savannah woodland;
C-factor, land-cover management factor.

collected from a shapefile created from samples
recorded from the field with root mean square
error (RMSE) of 0.015. The georeferenced images
of the reservoir catchments were used for an
image-to-image registration of the other images
using the same AOI. The area of each catchment
was used in the clipping and subsetting of the
images to ensure faster processing.
A combination of both unsupervised and super-
vised classification was used for classifying the two
images for each catchment. A false color composite
of bands 4-3-2 of the Landsat 8 OLI images and
bands 1-2-3 in the visible–near-infrared (VNIR) of
the ASTER images were evaluated for the ability to
distinguish LULC types. These color composites
provided the most optimal visualization of the 5
LULC classes and was consequently loaded into the
color board RGB (red, green, and blue) of ERDAS
Imagine version 10.4 software. An unsupervised
classification was first done using the classification
algorithm iterative self-organizing data-analysis
technique (ISODATA) with a maximum iteration
of 6. This was used as guidance for the collection
of training sample points on the field. The points
were then overlaid on the images and used as guid-
ance to define polygons to extract the signatures
for the various LULC types. Maximum likelihood
classification (MLC) was used for the supervised
classification. Accuracy assessment of the classifica-
tion of the satellite images was performed to assess
the quality of information derived from the data.
Determination of reservoir sediment grain
(particle) size distribution
The hydrometer method as described by
Bouyoucos (1963) was used for the determination
of the particle size distribution of the sediment
deposited in the reservoirs. This method relies on
the differential settling velocities of different par-
ticle sizes within a water column. The settling
velocity is also a function of liquid temperature,
viscosity, and specific gravity of the falling par-
ticle (Okalebo et al. 1993).
Procedure
1. A 50-g sediment sample was weighed into a
“milkshake” mixer cup, and 50.0 ml of 10%
sodium hexametaphosphate and 100 ml distilled
water were added.
2. The mixture was shaken for 15 min, after which
the suspension was transferred from the cup
into a 1000-ml measuring cylinder and distilled
water was added to reach the 1000-ml mark.
3. The mixture was inverted several times until all
sediment particles were in suspension. The
cylinder was placed on a flat surface and the
time was noted.
4. The first hydrometer and temperature readings
were taken at 40 s. After the first readings the
suspension was allowed to stand for 3 h and the
second hydrometer and temperature readings
were taken.
5. The first reading indicated the percentage of sand
and the second reading the percentage of clay.
The percentage of silt was determined by the dif-
ference. Computations were done as follows:
% Sand ¼ 100  ½H1 þ 0:2ðT1  20Þ2:0 x 2
(8)
% Clay ¼ ½H2 þ 0:2ðT2  20Þ2:0 x 2 (9)
% Silt ¼ 100  ð% sand þ % clayÞ (10)
where H1 is the hydrometer reading at 40 s; T1 is
the temperature reading at 40 s; H2 is the
8 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.
Figure 4. Land-use/land-cover classes in the reservoir catchments for year 2016.
hydrometer reading at 3 h; and T2 is the tempera-
ture reading at 3 h.
Results and discussion
Land-use/land-cover classes in the
reservoir catchments
Using multitemporal and multisensor satellite
imageries and unsupervised/supervised classifica-
tion, 4 major land-use/land-cover (LULC) classes,
namely, cropland, water body, built-up land, and
open savannah woodland, were delineated in the
catchments of the study reservoirs except for
Tono, where closed savannah woodland was
identified as the fifth major LULC class (Table 2
and Figure 4). Across all the catchments, crop-
land constituted the largest area (over 40%), fol-
lowed by open savannah woodland, except in
Gambibgo catchment, where built-up land occu-
pied the second largest area.
The land-cover management (C) factors of the
LULC classes ranged from 0.0 to 0.27, and
according to Renard et al. (1997), LULC classes
with C-factor values above 0.20 significantly con-
tribute to high soil erosion and sediment yield if
conservation measures are not installed. The C-
factor value for the predominant land-use class
(cropland) in the catchments is 0.27. This sug-
gests that it is a potential source of sediment load
to the various reservoirs. Improper tilling of land
and indiscriminate conversion of critical areas of
the catchments and buffer zones of the reservoirs
for crop production were observed to be ram-
pant. These practices enhance accelerated soil
erosion and high sediment yield, leading to sedi-
mentation in the reservoirs. The open and closed
savannah woodlands, which have high potentials
of controlling high soil erosion and sediment
yield, were also observed to be rapidly depleting
annually. Molla and Sisheber (2017) noted high

soil erosion and sediment yield in cultivated
lands, followed by built-up/bare lands and grass-
lands that are heavily grazed.
Sediment loads and sediment inflows into the
study reservoirs
The mean annual sediment load into the reser-
voirs was found to range from 3159 to 12,850 mg/
L, with the least and highest recorded at Tono
and Karni reservoirs, respectively (Table 3).
According to Kamtukule (2008), mean annual
sediment load <1000.0 mg/L indicates low sedi-
ment yield from the catchment, 1000–2999.9 mg/L
indicates moderate sediment yield from the catch-
ment, 3000–10,000.0 mg/L indicate high sediment
yield, and >10,000.0 mg/L indicates very high
sediment yield. Based on this classification, the
Tono, Gambibgo, Vea, Bontanga, Libga, Golinga,
and Daffiama reservoirs annually received high
loads of sediment, as their mean annual sediment
load ranges from 3000 to 10,000 mg/L (Table 3).
This means that their corresponding catchments
were not well conserved due to factors such as
improper farming practices, burning, and deforest-
ation rendering them susceptible to erosion and
high sediment yield, which may be transported
into the reservoirs. The sediment loads entering
the Sankana and Karni reservoirs were considered
very high as they recorded a mean sediment load
above 10,000 mg/L. This indicated that their corre-
sponding catchments were highly susceptible to
soil erosion, causing very high sediment yield. The
mean annual sediment loads obtained in this study
are within the range of annual sediment loads esti-
mated in similar studies in other parts of the
world. For example, Chitata et al. (2014) estimated
mean annual sediment load ranging from 3590 to
5880 mg/L at the Mutangi reservoir located in
semiarid southern Zimbabwe. Mavima et al.
(2011) recorded a mean annual sediment load of
5660 mg/L at the Chesa Causeway reservoir
located in the Upper Ruya subcatchment
of Zimbabwe.
The mean annual sediment inflow into the res-
ervoirs was estimated to range from 1594 to
355,017 m3/yr, with the least and highest esti-
mated in the Gambibgo and Tono reservoirs,
respectively (Table 3). It was noted that the
LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 9
Table 3. Mean annual sediment loads and inflows into the
study reservoirs.
Mean annual Mean annual
Reservoir sediment load (mg/L) sediment inflow (m3/yr)
Bontanga 4189–6471 8910
Golinga 4746–7117 8540
Libga 3286–8083 5090
Gambibgo 6317–8952 1594
Tono 3159–5811 355,017
Vea 4466–6841 64,380
Daffiama 7145–9629 1750
Karni 9931–12.850 2590
Sankana 7120–10.943 8490
reservoirs received very high sediment inflows
annually, as they recorded mean annual sediment
inflows above 1000 m3/yr.
Sediment grain size distribution and depositional
patterns in the study reservoirs
According to Morris and Fan (1997), the deposi-
tional pattern of sediment in a reservoir is driven
by sediment grain size and texture. The ranges of
average grain size distribution of the sediment
deposits in the study reservoirs were 10.3–24.8%
sand, 43.7–53.1% silt, and 30.6–37.8% clay
(Table 4). The texture of the sediment deposits in
the reservoirs included clay, loam, clay loam, silty
loam, and silty clay loam. Across all the reser-
voirs, the results indicated that the deposited
sediment are richer in fine particles such as fine
sand, silt, and clay particles. The coarse sand par-
ticles were found along the peripheries of the res-
ervoirs and the inlets of the reservoir tributaries.
Field observations and the illustrations in
Figure 4 indicated that the Golinga, Libga,
Gambibgo, Vea, Daffiama, Karni, and Sankana
reservoirs had a well-formed delta and slightly-
formed tapering deposits, while Bontanga and
Tono reservoirs had a slightly formed delta and
tapering deposits. The formation of the delta and
tapering depositional patterns in the reservoirs
could be attributed to the large amount of silt
particles in the sediment inflows to the reservoirs.
Morris and Fan (1997) noted that sediment depo-
sitional patterns in a reservoir affect the extent to
which the maximum depth and storage capacity
are lost and added that delta depositional pattern
are formed if the sediment inflows to the reser-
voir consist mainly of coarse sediment or contain
a large fraction of finer sediment such as silt,
10 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.

Table 4. Sediment grain size distribution, texture and the depositional patterns in the study reservoirs.
Grain size distribution of sediment (%)
Portion of Texture of
Reservoir reservoir Sand Silt Clay sediment Sediment depositional pattern in reservoir
Bontanga Upstream 30.1 43.9 26.0 Loam Slightly formed delta and tapering deposits
Midstream 23.5 41.4 35.1 Clay loam
Downstream 19.0 45.7 35.3 Silty loam
Mean 24.2 43.7 32.1 Clay loam
Golinga Upstream 21.3 52.6 26.1 Silty loam Well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits
Midstream 14.6 46.0 39.4 Silty clay loam
Downstream 9.7 42.3 48.0 Silty clay loam
Mean 15.2 47.0 37.8 Silty clay loam
Libga Upstream 28.1 51.7 20.2 Silty loam Well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits
Midstream 21.4 45.9 32.7 Clay loam
Downstream 11.6 48.6 39.8 Silty clay loam
Mean 20.6 48.7 30.9 Clay loam
Gambibgo Upstream 31.1 48.9 19.7 Loam Well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits
Midstream 22.6 43.3 34.1 Clay loam
Downstream 20.7 41.2 38.1 Clay loam
Mean 24.8 44.5 30.6 Clay loam
Tono Upstream 14.2 62.5 23.3 Silty loam Slightly formed delta and tapering deposits
Midstream 10.7 51.5 37.8 Silty clay loam
Downstream 5.9 45.2 48.9 Silty loam
Mean 10.3 53.1 36.7 Silty clay loam
Vea Upstream 25.0 49.9 25.1 Loam Well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits
Midstream 20.6 47.0 32.4 Clay loam
Downstream 13.1 47.2 39.7 Silty clay loam
Mean 19.6 48.0 32.4 Silty clay loam
Daffiama Upstream 30.0 51.0 19.0 Silty loam Well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits
Midstream 20.3 43.2 36.5 Clay loam
Downstream 12.8 48.1 39.1 Silty clay loam
Mean 21.0 47.4 31.5 Clay loam
Karni Upstream 28.5 44.5 27.0 Loam Well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits
Midstream 17.0 45.9 36.3 Silty clay loam
Downstream 8.4 49.5 42.1 Clay
Mean 18.2 46.6 35.1 Silty clay loam
Sankana Upstream 23.3 54.5 22.2 Silty loam Well-formed delta and slightly formed tapering deposits
Midstream 19.0 43.7 37.3 Silty clay loam
Downstream 12.9 42.1 45.0 Silty clay
Mean 18.2 46.8 34.8 Silty clay loam
Note. Upstream, upper portion of the reservoir; midstream, middle portion of the reservoir; downstream, portion of the reservoir close to the dam wall;
sand, grains of particle size ranging from 0.02 to 2 mm; silt, grains of particle size ranging from 0.002 to 0.02 mm; clay, grains of particle size <0.002 mm.

while tapering deposits are formed when deposits
develop progressively from fines from the water
moving toward the dam wall.
Spatial distribution and analysis of reservoir
depth loss to sedimentation
As presented in Table 5, the historical maximum
depths of the reservoirs at original design full
supply level ranged from 5.0 to 15.6 m. The 2017
bathymetric survey found the current maximum
depths of the reservoirs at full supply level to be
ranging from 4.0 to 14.7 m, with the lowest and
highest depth recorded in the Karni and Tono
reservoirs, respectively. Across all the reservoirs,
the deepest sections with maximum depths were
close to the dam wall, whereas the shallowest sec-
tions with minimum depths were found at the
throwback and peripheries, especially at the entry
points of the tributaries that feed the reservoirs
(Figure 4). The areas of shallow depth were over-
grown with weeds and some were converted
into farmlands.
The study found the maximum depth lost to
sediment to be in the range of 0.9–2.2 m with a
mean of 1.37 m (Table 5). The Daffiama and
Tono reservoirs, which had been in operation for
29 and 33 years, respectively, had the least depth
loss, while the Sankana reservoir ,which had been
in operation for 48 years, had the highest sedi-
ment deposition. Assuming the sediment depos-
ition is uniform over the bed of the reservoirs,
the reservoirs lose their depths at rates ranging
from 2.36 to 5.01 cm/yr, with the least in the
Gambibgo reservoir and the highest loss rate
occurring in the Karni reservoir. The magnitude
of depth loss in the small and medium-size reser-
voirs is high and thus substantially reduces their
reservoir storage capacities. The reservoir depth
loss obtained in this study is similar to that
 LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 11

Table 5. Reservoir depth loss to sediment.

Maximum Current
depth at maximum Minimum Total Reservoir
Year design full depth at full depth at full maximum maximum
Name Class of construction Age of supply supply supply depth loss to depth loss
of reservoir reservoir completed reservoir level (m) level (m) level (m) sediment (m) rate (cm/yr)
Bontanga Large 1986 32 10.7 9.4 0.10 1.3 4.06
Golinga Medium 1974 42 6.2 4.5 0.10 1.7 4.09
Libga Small 1980 38 6.5 5.0 0.10 1.5 3.95
Gambibgo Small 1963 55 5.4 4.1 0.10 1.3 2.36
Tono Large 1985 33 15.6 14.7 0.10 0.9 2.73
Vea Large 1980 38 11.5 10.5 0.10 1.0 2.63
Daffiama Small 1989 29 5.5 4.6 0.10 0.9 3.10
Karni Small 1988 30 5.5 4.0 0.10 1.5 5.01
Sankana Medium 1970 48 6.7 4.5 0.10 2.2 4.58
Average — — 38 8.18 6.81 0.10 1.37 3.61
Note. Small ¼ storage capacity less than 1 Mm3, medium ¼ storage capacity between 1 to 3 Mm3, large ¼ storage capacity greater than 3 Mm3. Historical
initial maximum depths of reservoirs from Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) and Irrigation Company of Upper Regions (ICOUR).

reported by Chanson and James (2005), such that
small and medium-size storage capacity reservoirs
lose their depths to sediment deposits at faster
rates than large storage capacity reservoirs. The
range of depth loss obtained in this study is quite
a bit lower than the 5.3-m (25.25-cm/yr) depth
loss recorded in the Akdarya reservoir in
Uzbekistan within 21 yr of its operation
(Rakhmatullaev et al. 2011) and also far lower
than the 7.57 m (37.85 cm/yr) depth loss of the
Jibia reservoir in Nigeria within 20 yr of oper-
ation (Yusuf and Yusuf 2012).
Effect of age, water inflow, sediment inflow, trap
efficiency, reservoir surface area, and storage
capacity on reservoir depth loss
For future reservoir depth analysis, the study pro-
posed equation 11, which sought to establish the
causal effect of age, water inflow, sediment
inflow, trap efficiency, surface area, and storage
capacity on reservoir depth loss to sediments:
RDL ¼ 0:0048 þ 0:0014ðAgRÞ þ 0:1251ðAWI Þ
þ0:2754ðASI Þ þ 0:5099ðATEÞ þ 0:0017ðRSAÞ
þ0:0031ðRSCÞ
(11)
where RDL is the reservoir depth loss to sedi-
ment (m), AgR is the age of the reservoir (yr),
AWI is the annual water inflow (m3), ASI is the
annual sediment inflow (m3), ATE is the annual
trap efficiency (%), RSA is the reservoir surface
area (ha), and RSC is the reservoir storage cap-
acity (m3).
The multivariate linear regression analysis
recorded an R2 of 0.917, and this suggests that
age, water inflow, sediment inflow, trap effi-
ciency, surface area, and storage capacity of a res-
ervoir account for about 91.7% of its depth loss
to sediment, while other factors account for
about 4.8%. The p values of 0.003–0.028 were
recorded, and this indicated that the factors con-
tribute significantly to reservoir depth loss. The
regression results also revealed that a unit
increase in the age of a reservoir results in a
0.14% depth loss. For annual water inflows, the
results indicated that a unit increase results in an
increase in a reservoir depth loss by 12.51%. For
annual sediment inflow, the model established
that a unit increase results in an increase in
depth loss in the reservoirs by 27.54% whilst a
unit increase in annual trap efficiency results in a
reservoir depth loss by 50.99%. Also, an increase
in reservoir surface area and storage capacity by
a unit results in an increase in a depth loss by
0.17% and 0.31% respectively.
Reservoir storage capacity and water surface area
loss to sedimentation
The results from the bathymetric survey inte-
grated with GIS are presented in Table 6, while
the bathymetric TIN maps indicating the current
storage capacities, water surface areas at full sup-
ply level and the spatial distribution of the TIN
elevations of the reservoirs are also presented in
Figure 5. The current storage capacities of the
reservoirs as estimated by the bathymetric survey
ranged from 0.2 Mm3 at Gambibgo to 85.06 Mm3
12 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.

at Tono as noted against their initial storage

Reduction in water surface area

capacities at full supply level, which ranged from

5.53
24.10
14.61
21.86
6.31
8.44
13.53
16.95
17.55
%
0.3 to 93 Mm3, respectively. The estimated volu-
metric storage capacity loss indicating the volume
of sediment accumulated in the reservoirs ranged
from 0.1 Mm3 at Gambibgo to 7.94 Mm3 at Tono

42.56
16.87
6.43
3.06
113.59
32.48
2.03
3.22
12.81
reservoir (Table 6 and Figures 6a and 6b).
ha

Note. FSL, full supply level; SCL, storage capacity loss; MASR, mean annual sedimentation rate; WSA, water surface area; storage capacity loss (m3) ¼ volume of sediment deposits (m3).
The bathymetric survey estimated the lowest
storage capacity loss of 8.54% at Tono reservoir
and 34.12% at Sankana reservoir as the highest.
2017 Bathymetric
survey WSA (ha)

The average annual sedimentation rate was found

727.44
53.13
37.57
10.94

352.52
12.97
15.78
60.19
1,686.41
to range from 0.26 to 0.91%, with the lowest rate
recorded at Tono reservoir and the highest rate
at Karni reservoir, as noted in Table 6. It was
observed that the small and medium-size reser-
Initial WSA
at FSL (ha)

voirs, namely, Gambibgo, Sankana, Daffiama,

70
44
14

15
19
73
770

1800
385

Libga, Golinga, and Karni reservoirs, were rapidly

losing their storage capacities to sediment depos-
its at high rates ranging from 0.61 to 0.91% per
Predicted useful

year compared to the sedimentation rates of

life (yr)
104
23
28
29
160
103
38
25
22

0.26–0.35% per year in the large reservoirs,

namely, Tono, Bontanga, and Vea reservoirs.
Considering the high rate of sedimentation in the
(%/yr)
MASR

small and medium-size reservoirs, they will be

0.32
0.77
0.76
0.61
0.26
0.35
0.75
0.91
0.71

seriously affected by sedimentation within the

next 5–10 years if control measures are not taken.
108077

265813
(m3/yr)
MASR

18043

71408

25455
9643
3488

3289
4800

The findings of this study agree with the asser-

tion of Chanson and James (2005) that small and
Table 6. Storage capacity and water surface area loss in the study reservoirs.

medium-size reservoirs are highly vulnerable to

10.08
32.52
28.95
33.33

13.47
21.70
27.28
34.12
SCL
(%)

8.54

rapid sedimentation if strict reservoir protection

measures are not put in place and enforced. The
(106 m3)

findings also align reasonably with findings in

SCL

2.52
0.40
0.22
0.10
7.94
2.29
0.06
0.09
0.58

the United States, where the small and medium-

size reservoirs were found to be losing storage
2017 Bathymetric
survey storage

capacity rapidly at an alarming rates of 1.5–3.5%

FSL (106 m3)
capacity at

per year while the large reservoirs were silting at

a lower rate of 0.16% per year (Dendy et al.
22.48

85.06
14.71
0.83
0.54
0.20

0.25
0.24
1.12

1973). In other similar studies, Adwubi et al.

(2009) found 4 small reservoirs located in the
storage capacity
at FSL (106 m3)

Upper East Region of Ghana losing storage cap-

Initial

acity rapidly at a mean rate of 1.75% per year.

Abubakari (2014) reported that the Tono reser-
25.00

93.00
17.00
1.23
0.76
0.30

0.31
0.33
1.70

voir was filling up rapidly with sediment at

1.74% per year. Ceylan and Ekizogllu (2012) also
Age (y)

reported a storage capacity loss of 0.51% per year

32
42
38
55
33
38
29
30
48

in the Altinapa reservoir in Turkey, while Lago

La Plata Reservoir in Puerto Rico was also
Gambibgo
Bontanga
Reservoir

Daffiama

Sankana
Golinga

reported to be losing its storage capacity annually

Libga

Karni
Tono
Vea

by 0.56% (G omez-Fragoso 2016).


Figure 5. 2017 Bathymetric TIN maps of study reservoirs.
As a result of the sedimentation of the reser-
voirs, there has been a loss in the water surface
areas that was noted to range from 5.53 to 24.10%,
with the least loss incurred in the Bontanga reser-
voir and the highest loss in the Golinga reservoir
(Table 6). The water surface area loss was observed
to be similar to the storage capacity loss, as the
small and medium-size reservoirs recorded high
water surface loss that ranged from 13.53 to
24.10% while the large storage reservoirs recorded
low water surface loss of 5.53–8.44%. As observed
from the TIN maps, the maximum loss occurred
at the peripheries, especially the entry points of the
tributaries that supply the reservoirs with water
inflows. These areas were observed to have over-
grown weeds, with other areas converted into
farms. The TIN elevations indicate that, across all
the reservoirs, the sections with maximum water
LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 13
holding capacities were closer to the dam wall, as
can be observed in Figure 5. The current (2017)
reservoir bathymetry could not be compared to
initial or any previous bathymetry on the reservoirs
due to unavailability of data.
Effect of annual soil loss rate in reservoir
catchment on annual rate of sedimentation and
effect of reservoir catchment size on annual rate
of sedimentation
A regression analysis was performed to statistic-
ally establish the relationship and the causal effect
of annual soil loss rate in the reservoir catch-
ments on annual rate of sedimentation. The
regression analysis recorded an R2 of 0.238, and
this indicates that annual soil loss rate in reser-
voir catchments accounts for about 23.8% of
14 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.

Figure 6. a) A plot of storage capacity versus age for Golinga, Libga, Gambibgo, Daffiama, Karni, and Sankana reservoirs. b) A plot
of storage capacity versus age for Bontanga, Tono, and Vea reservoirs.

annual rate of sedimentation, while other factors
account for about 76.2%. The results also indi-
cated that an increase in annual soil loss in reser-
voir catchments by a unit results in an increase
in annual rate of sedimentation by 13.5% (equa-
tion 12). The results from Pearson’s correlation
confirmed that there was a moderate positive
correlation between annual soil loss rate in the
reservoir catchments and annual rate of sedimen-
tation, r ¼ 0.367 and p ¼ 0.032, with annual soil
loss rate in the catchments explaining about
13.9% of the variation in the annual rate of sedi-
mentation of their respective reservoirs:
ARS ¼ 0:5967 þ 0:1352 ðMASLRÞ (12)
where ASR is the annual rate of sedimentation of
the reservoir (%/yr) and MASLR is the mean
annual soil loss rate in reservoir catchment
(t/ha/yr).
For the effect of reservoir catchment on annual
rate of sedimentation, the regression analysis
recorded an R2 of 0.085, and this suggests that
about 8.5% of the variation in annual rate of
sedimentation of reservoirs is caused by catch-
ment size of the reservoirs. The results also indi-
cated that every additional 1 km2 in catchment
 LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 15

Figure 7. Plates illustrating some of the major activities in the buffer zones of the study reservoirs that significantly contribute to
their sedimentation.
16 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.
size could lead to an increase in annual rate of
sedimentation of the reservoirs by 7.3%, as pre-
sented in equation 13. Also, Pearson correlation
indicated that there was a very small positive cor-
relation between the two variables with r ¼ 0.291
and p ¼ 0.041:
ARS ¼ 0:6970 þ 0:0734 ðSRCÞ::: (13)
where ARS is the annual rate of sedimentation of
the reservoir (%/yr) and SRC is the size of the
reservoir catchment (km2).
Useful life of the study reservoirs
The useful life of a reservoir is the time taken for
50% of its initial (original) storage capacity to be
depleted due to sedimentation (Gill 1979).
Considering the mean annual sedimentation rate
of 3289–265,813 m3/yr, the useful life of the res-
ervoirs was estimated to range from 22 to
160 years, with Sankana and Tono reservoirs
recording the lowest and highest, respectively, as
presented in Table 6. The estimates indicated that
if control measures are not taken, the Sankana,
Golinga, Karni, Libga, Gambibgo, Daffiama, Vea,
Bontanga, and Tono reservoirs would be 50%
filled with sediments in the year 2041, 2042,
2044, 2047, 2048, 2057, 2122, 2123, and 2179,
respectively. The predicted useful life of the reser-
voirs could not be compared to design useful life
due to unavailability of design useful life data.
Comparing the volume of sediment deposits in
each reservoir (Table 6) to their dead storage
capacities (Table 1), it was observed that all the
reservoirs except Tono and Bontanga had lost
their dead storage capacities ,which are meant to
store sediment until their anticipated design life
span. This finding is in line with that of Adwubi
et al. (2009), where 4 small reservoirs in the
Upper East Region of Ghana lost their dead stor-
age capacities within 9 yr of operation, with their
useful life ranging from 22 to 190 years. The use-
ful life of the Jibia reservoir located in Nigeria
was estimated to be 55 years and it was predicted
to be completely filled up with sediments in the
year 2046, assuming the factors influencing the
sedimentation and the rate of sedimentation
remain unchanged (Yusuf and Yusuf 2012).
Major factors contributing to the sedimentation of
the reservoirs
The study observed a number of major factors
that either are potential sources or contribute sig-
nificantly to the sedimentation of the reservoirs.
Majority of these factors are mainly human activ-
ities within the reservoirs catchments and practi-
ces within buffer zones of the reservoirs. This
article focused much more on the buffer practices
because they are more concentrated, and, there-
fore mitigation measures are easier to enforce.
These factors include:
a. Sand/gravel mining and brick molding activities
within the catchments/buffer zones of the reser-
voirs. The grass species that check soil erosion
at the peripheries of the reservoir are being
cleared to make way for gravel/sand mining, as
well as brick molding for construction of
houses. This practice renders the ground bare
and highly susceptible to erosion. The esti-
mated area under these activities ranged from
5.9 to 812.5 ha (Table 7).
b. Conversion of buffer zones of the reservoirs
into croplands. This activity makes the soil
loose and easily eroded. Irrigated farming activ-
ities very close to the reservoirs using water
pumps were observed seriously practiced in
most of the catchments. The estimated area
under these activities ranged from 70 to
24,586 ha (Table 7).
c. Improper farming practices such as plowing
along the slope, slash/burn of crop residues,
and farming very close to watercourses in the
catchments also increase their susceptibility to
water erosion and sediment transport into
the reservoirs.
d. Depletion of upstream vegetative cover through
burning and tree felling. Uncontrolled burning
of reservoir protection grasses such as Panicum
maximum grasses and other grass species by
hunters and herdsmen to make way for the
regeneration of fresh foliage for their animals to
graze are very common in the catchments of res-
ervoirs. The estimated area affected by annual
burning ranged from 29 to 3,610 ha (Table 7).
e. Encroachment in the buffer zones of the reser-
voirs by human settlements as houses are built
 LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 17

Table 7. Quantification of major activities that are significant sources of sediment load to the study reservoirs.
Name of reservoir
Factor Bontanga Golinga Libga Gambibgo Tono Vea Daffiama Karni Sankana
Estimated area of the 206.5 66.3 38.8 5.9 812.5 310.7 26.3 43.8 176.1
catchment/buffer zone
under brick molding and
sand/gravel mining (ha)
Estimated area of the 11100 3946 1795 70 24586 7486 1058 2225 9126
catchment/buffer zone
under farming (ha)
Estimated area of the buffer 1542 141 133 89 29 3,610 772 30.4 147
zone affected by annual
burning (ha)
Estimated area of the buffer 82.3 37.7 40.4 11.5 78.4 104.8 33.5 31.9 44.6
zone encroached by
human settlements (ha)

very close to about 50 m away from reservoirs.
The inhabitants of these settlements established
farmlands and gardens within 10–20 m of the
reservoir shoreline. These activities normally
cause accelerated soil erosion and high sedi-
ment transported into the reservoirs. The esti-
mated encroached area ranged from 11.5 to
104.8 ha (Table 7).
f. High to very high sediment load discharge into
the reservoirs. The estimated mean annual sedi-
ment load discharge into the reservoirs ranged
from 3159 to 12,850 mg/L, values that are in
the range of high to very high concentrations.
Measures for controlling and managing
sedimentation of the reservoirs
Since the study reservoirs do not have outlet
works for flushing out sediments, the study iden-
tified a number of pragmatic control measures
that can be used by the management of the reser-
voirs to control their sedimentation so as to
increase their useful life and benefits. The meas-
ures include:
a. The management of the reservoirs should col-
laborate with the district or municipal assem-
blies within which the reservoirs are situated to
enact and enforce the necessary bylaws restrict-
ing farming, brick molding, sand/gravel mining
activities, and encroachment of human settle-
ment within the buffer zones of the reservoirs.
b. Pragmatic erosion control and soil and water
conservation measures such as contour plow-
ing, stone/earth bunding, zero/medium tillage,
and upstream afforestation of the watersheds
are best practices to reduce sediment produc-
tion and should be carried out in the catch-
ments of the reservoirs.
c. Establish vegetative screens at the entrance of
the reservoirs as well as in the buffer zones to
reduce the quantity of sediment that enters the
reservoir, as the vegetative screens will trap
large amounts of sediments that come along
with inflows to the reservoirs. Burning of
grasses and felling of trees within the buffer
zones of the reservoirs should be prohibited.
d. Hydrosuction sediment-removal systems should
be installed in the small reservoirs to flush
out sediments.
e. Check dams should be constructed across the
major river/streams that feed the reservoirs to
reduce sediment inflow to the reservoirs.
f. Periodic desilting or dredging for removal of
sediments should be carried out in the reser-
voirs for capacity restoration.
Conclusions
The study assessed reservoir sedimentation of 9
irrigation dams in 3 northern regions of Ghana
and found substantial to dramatic sediment
impacts at most of the reservoirs. The study res-
ervoirs are losing their depths by 2.36–5.01 cm/yr.
The reservoirs have accumulated about
0.1–7.94 Mm3 of sediment after 29 to 55 years of
operation. The original storage capacities of the
reservoirs have been reduced by 8.54–34.12% due
to sedimentation, with the lowest and highest
losses recorded at Tono and Sankana reservoirs,
respectively. The annual rate of storage capacity
loss ranged from 0.26 to 0.91%, with the lowest
18 T. A. ADONGO ET AL.
and highest sedimentation rates estimated at
Tono and Karni reservoirs, respectively. The
small and medium-size reservoirs were noted to
be rapidly losing their storage capacities to sedi-
ment deposits when compared with the large res-
ervoirs. The small and medium-size reservoirs
will be seriously affected by sedimentation within
the next 5–10 years if control measures are not
taken. Due to the sedimentation, the reservoirs
lost about 5.53–24.10% of their water surface
areas, with the lowest and highest losses incurred
in the Bontanga and Golinga reservoirs, respect-
ively. The useful life of the reservoirs was found
to range from 22 to 160 yr, with Sankana and
Tono reservoirs recording the lowest and highest
values, respectively.
The deposited sediments are richer in fine par-
ticles than in coarse particles. The Golinga, Libga,
Gambibgo, Vea, Daffiama, Karni, and Sankana
reservoirs had a well-formed delta and slightly
formed tapering deposits, while the Bontanga and
Tono reservoirs had a slightly formed delta and
tapering deposits. The major land-use/land-cover
classes in the catchments of the reservoirs include
cropland, water body, built-up land, and open
savannah woodland, with cropland constituting
the largest area (over 40%) of each catchment
and noted to be a potential source of sediment
load to the various reservoirs. The mean annual
sediment loads into the reservoirs is quite high,
ranging from 3159 to 12,850 mg/L. The reservoirs
received very high sediment inflows of 1594 to
355,017 m3 annually.
The major factors that either are potential
sources or contribute significantly to the sedi-
mentation of the reservoirs are mainly human
activities within the reservoir catchments and
practices concentrated within the buffer zones of
the reservoirs. Restriction of farming, human set-
tlements, burning, felling, and sand/gravel mining
activities in the buffer zones of the reservoirs, as
well as improved catchment management practi-
ces, construction of check dams, and installation
hydrosuction sediment-removal systems, are very
necessary to prevent rapid sedimentation of the
reservoirs. There should be periodic desilting or
dredging of the reservoirs for restoration of
lost capacity.
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