Ma`fldstakd Drf`laz`kadl`c 
Drf`laz`kadl`c 

^rdejsdr
[jrfad Buiojrtd [àlkbjz _dg`s

Cjdl`rmd Kb`p`rrd K`o`ccjrd

Majfd @cojrtd ^árjz _dmréfujz
Uava`l` I`rkjc` ^rajtd K`rraccd
 @cjg`lmrd _avjr` _`iérjz

i`rzd ?>?>.

Eulm`kaûl Zlavjrsat`ra` mjc Àrj` @lmal`

E`kuct`m mj Kajlka`s @mialastr`tav`s, Jkdlûiak`s y Eal`lkajr`s
 @mialastr`kaûl mj Jiprjs`s
 

Kdltjlamd

Altrdmukkaûl ]r`o`gd ........................

.................................................
..................................................
...........................................
.................. ;
Dogjtavds mjc tr`o`gd ......................................................................
............................................................................................
...................... ;
Fjljr`c ......................
................................................
....................................................
....................................................
......................................
............ ;
Dogjtavds Jspjkéeakds ..............
.......................................
...................................................
...................................................
........................... ;
0. I`rkd ]jûrakd.......................
.................................................
...................................................
...............................................
...................... =
0.0 ]apds mj Ma`flûstakd, prdocjiàtak`s y caiat`kadljs. .........................
..................................
......... =
0.? Jiprjs`, Aledri`kaûl Fjljr`c .......................
................................................
...........................................
.................. 5

0.; Iasaûl mj Jiprjs`.........................

Jiprjs`...................................................
...................................................
..................................
......... 6
0.= Uasaûl mj Jiprjs` .........................
...................................................
...................................................
..................................
......... 6
0.: U`cdrjs Kdrpdr`tavds mj Jiprjs` ......................
................................................
.......................................
............. 6
0.: Dogjtavd Kdrpdr`tavd ......................
................................................
...................................................
......................................
............. 2
0.5 @làcasas Mde` .....................
...............................................
...................................................
...............................................
...................... 1
0.2 ]apd mj Ma`flûstakd @
@pcak`md
pcak`md y @pcak`kaûl .......................
................................................
............................
... 0>
?. Aledrij Jgjkutavd
Jgjkutavd .......................
................................................
..................................................
.........................................
................ 0=
?.0 @làcasas _j`caz`md ......................
................................................
...................................................
....................................
........... 05
?.? Kdlkcusadljs .....................
...............................................
...................................................
.............................................
.................... 05
;. _jejrjlka`s ..........................
....................................................
...................................................
.............................................
.................... 06
 

Altrdmukkaûl ]r`o`gd

 @c rj`caz`r jc rjspjktavd `làcasas d ma`flûstakd mj c` drf`laz`kaûl quj jcjfaids,

ousk`ids o`sjs sûcam`s y earijs quj lds pjriat`l jlkdltr`r mjt`ccjs mjc idmus
dpjr`lma mj c` jiprjs`, kdl jc dogjtavd mj jst`ocjkjr y jlkdltr`r ku`cjs sdl cds
ma`flûstakds quj sj `gust`l ` cds étjis drf`laz`kadl`cjs y quj rjsuct`mds `rrdg`rdl
cds ma`flûstakds aipcjijlt`mds.

Ousk`lmd ijgdr`s y `rrdg`r kdlkcusadljs quj pjriat`l `pdrt`r m`tds rjcjv`ltjs kdl
o`sj `c `làcasas rj`caz`md, kdl jc dogjtavd mj `pdrt`r kdldkaiajltd `c jltdrld
alvdcukr`md Drf`laz`kadljs, Almavamud y jst`ocjkjr c` rjspdls`oacam`m mj c`
jiprjs` kdl c` sdkajm`m.

Dogjtavds mjc tr`o`gd

Fjljr`c

Jst`ocjkjr kuàcjs sdl cds tapds mj ma`flûstakd, c`s maejrjltj prdocjiàtak`s y

caiat`kadljs quj kdlccjv` jskdfjr ul` mj c`s `ctjrl`tav`s jxastjltjs.

Dogjtavds Jspjkéeakds

0. _jkdldkjr cds maejrjltjs tapds mj ma`flûstakd y sus alkamjlka`s jl c`s

drf`laz`kadljs.

?. Jst`ocjkjr ul tapd mj ma`flûstakd p`r` `pcak`rcd

`pcak`rcd ` c` jiprjs` jcjfam`.

;. Amjltaeak`r c`s prdocji

prdocjiàtak`s
àtak`s mj k`m` uld mj cds tapds mj ma`flûstakd.

=. Amjltaeak`r c`s caiat`kadljs kdl k`m` uld mj cds tapds mj ma`flûstakd

jstuma`mds.
 

0. I`rkd ]jûrakd
0.0 ]apds mj Ma`flûstakd, prdocjiàtak`s y caiat`kadljs.

Ma`fldstakd Kuctur`c

CAIA]@KADLJ[
^_DOCJI@]AK@[ Js iuy kdipcjgd m`md quj
KDLKJ^]D
@odrm` c`s quj sj prjsjlt`l cds jcjijltds quj sj
Mjtjrial` `kadljs p`r` `l`caz`l sdl jl su i`ydré`
jl c`s jiprjs`s `c jst`ocjkjr
mjtjrial`r ku`c js c` `ostr`ktds, jl sjfulmd cuf`r
c` kdbjsadl quj mjoj jxastar
eacdsdea` jiprjs`ra`c, sus  pdrquj cds prdkjmaiajltds
jltrj jc kdiprdt`iajltd mj
v`cdrjs y pralkapads ulam`s ` sdl mavjrsds y k`ioa`ltjs,
cds jipcj`mds y c` amjltam`m
c` r`zdl mj sjr mj c` saltjtazàlmdsj ` p`rtar mj c`
kdpdr`tav` mj c` kdip`ða`,
jiprjs`.- jxpjrajlka` kdltalu`m`.-Kruz
ijgdr`lmd y fjljr`lmd ul`
Kdrmjrd ]jrjs`. (?>>:, gucad 0). Ma`flûstakd
I`lujc @bui`m`,Ma`fldstakd jiprjs`ra`c kuctur` drf`laz`kadl`c
jgj ?.rjkupjr`md dptai` jl c` drf`laz`kadl. mj c` jiprjs`
kuctur` drf`laz`kadl`c
. _jkupjr`md mjjl ul`
mj7bttps7//`rj`lmal`.alstrukturj.kdi/kdursjs
/:0=; bttps7//www.fjstadpdcas.kdi/ma`fldstakd-
mj-c`-kuctur`-drf`laz`kadl`c-jl-ul`-
jiprjs`/

Eujltj ^rdpa`.

Ma`fldstakd Altjfr`c
KDLKJ^]D
@l`caz` c`s `rj`s eulkadl`cjs ^_DOCJI@]AK@[
mj c` jiprjs` p`r` tdi`r CAIA]@KADLJ[
@o`rk` e`cjlka`s quj sj
`kkadljs quj ijgdrjl y
 prjlsjlt`l jl c`s maejrjltjs  Ld kdlt`r kdl c`
dptaiakjl jc eulkadl`iajltd
`rj`s mj c` kdip`ða`,jl c`s aledri`kadl kdipcjt`
fjljr`imd i`ydr utacam`m...-
`ktavam`mjs b`oatu`cjs quj altjrl` mj c` kdip`ða`,
I`lujc @bui`m`,Ma`fldstakd jiprjs`ra`c
jgj ?.rjkupjr`md fjljr`l i`ydrjs kdstds ` c` e`cjlka`s jl c` dogjtavam`m
mj7bttps7//`rj`lmal`.alstrukturj.kdi/kdursj kdip`ða` pdr jc jl cds lavjcjs marjktavds
s/:0=;
mjs`calj`ialtd jl c`s altjrearajlmd kdl jc
dpjr`kadljs y eulkadljs ma`fldstakd altjfr`c.
ma`ra`s,
 

Eujltj ^rdpa`.

Ma`fldstakd Eulkadl`c

^_DOCJI@]AK@[
KDLKJ^]D C` jsjsttru
rukt
ktur
ur`` alt
ltjr
jrl`
l` edr
dri`
i`cc j
Jx`ial` pralkap`cijltj c`s CAIA]@KADLJ[
jstruktur`s edri`cjs j aledri`c mjc sastji` mj
aledri`cjs mj c` kdiu
kd iulalak`
k`ka
kaûl
ûl y cdcdss ma
maej
ejrj
rjlt
ltjs
js  Ld `o`rk` iukb`s y` quj us`
kdiu
kd iula
lak`
k`ka
kadl,
dl, c`
c`ss pr
pr`k
`kta
tak`
k`ss mj k`l`cjs mj kdi diululaak`kaûl
ûl,, cds ul prdkjsd mj ma`flûstakd jl
c` kdiulak`kadl quj tajljl sastji`s y prdkjsds mj jc ku`c jc `umatdr `suij c`
quj vjr kdl c` prdmukkadl, c` kdiulak`kaûl ` lavjc rjsp
rjspdl
dlss`o
`oac
acaam`
m`m
m k`
k`ssa tdt
dt`c
`c mj
mjcc
s`tase`kkadl mjc pjrsdl`c, jc altjrpjrsdl`c, frup`c, masjðd y c` kdlmukkaûl mjc
i`ltjlaiajltd mj c` mjp`rt`ijlt`c, j iasid (dodoggjtavds, iátdmdmd
ds y
drf`
drf`la
laz`
z`ka
kadi
di y c` alalld
ldv`
v`ka
kadl
dl-- altj
altjrm
rmjp
jp`r
`rt`
t`ijl
ijlt`t`C,
C, sasast
stji
ji`s
`s c` altjrprjt`kaûl mj cds
I`lujc @bui
I`lujc @bui`m`,M
`m`,Ma`fld
a`fldstakd
stakd jipr
jiprjs`ra`c
js`ra`c jgj y pr
prdk
dkjsjsds
ds mj c` kd
kdiuiula
lak`
k`ka
kaûl
ûl rjsuct`mds).
?.rjkupjr`md jxtjrl` mj c` drf`laz`kaûl, -7 Cak. @m
@mra`
ra`l
l` I jz` O .* y Cak. ^`
^`ttraka`
mj7bttps7//`rj`lmal`.alstrukturj.kdi/kdursjs/:
jlta
jl tam`
m`mjmjss p÷
p÷oc
ocak
ak`s
`s y prprav
av`m
`m`s
`s K`ro`ccjm`
0=; . F dlzà
dlzàcjz.i
cjz.ijxa
jxakd,?>>1,
kd,?>>1,rr jkup
jkupjr`md
jr`mdmj
mj77 bttps7//
kdl c`s ku`cjs jxastj www.aledsdc.kdi.ix/jsp`kad/@rtakucds/Mjsm
jTc`TAlvjstaf`kadl/Jc-Ma`fldstakd-
al
altj Drf`laz`kadl`c-
jetjr
akarjl
mjpj
mjkpjlm
jlk a`lmj
yjclk
lka`
` a`,
lj,kj
jsc amp`
kjs p`pj
`mpjc
mcj, cc`
` jcjijltds.btic#.RiBK^;GHgkk
tjkl
tjkldc dcdf
dfé`
é` mj c` kd
kdiu
iula lak`
k`ka
kaûl
ûl
drf`laz`kadl`c..

Eujltj ^rdpa`.
 

Ma`flûstakd jspjkéeakd (O`c`lkjm [kdrjk`rm)

KDLKJ^]D
Altjfr` y `calj` c`s `kkadljs
d pc`ljs mj ul` drf`laz`kaûl ^_DOCJI@]AK@[
kdl jc prdpûsatd mj kuipcar CAIA]@KADLJ[
Iataf` cds kdlecaktds mj
kdl cds dogjtavds ^dkds almak`mdrjs y
kdiulak`kadl drf`laz`kal`c
drf`laz`kadl`cjs d, ul` dogjtavds jstr`tjfakds p`r` su
mjeakajltj , prdkjsds ld
saljrfa` jl tdm`s c`s àrj`s e`kac idlatdrjd y mjtjrial`r
`calj`mds quj alvdcukr`l c`
eulkadl`cjs mj cj jiprjs` y jc jxatd mj c`s jstr`jfa`s.
alkdlerdiam`m mj cds kcajltjs
quj tdmds cds prdvjmdrjs, kdlkjltr`kadl jl almak`mdrjs
altjrlds y jxtjrlds.
kcajltjs, jipcj`mds y c`s mj rjsuct`mds mjg`lmd ` ul
 p`rtjs altjrjs`m`s, c`mdd cds almak`mdrjs mj
(st`hjbdcmjrs) sj ojljeakajl.  prjmakkadl pdr su maeakac
amjltaeak`kadl.

Eujltj ^rdpa`.

0.? Jiprjs`, Aledri`kaûl Fjljr`c

Kjrvjkjré` O`v`ra` js ul` jiprjs` kdcdioa`l` mj ojoam`s kdl sjmj

jl Odfdtà,
jl  Odfdtà, Kdcdioa`.
 Kdcdioa`. Euj
 Euj eulm`m` ` eal`cjs mjc safcd RAR pdr  aliafr`ltjs
 aliafr`ltjs `cji`ljs. 
`cji`ljs. 
[us prdmuktds sdl jc`odr`mds jl sjas pc`lt`s kjrvjkjr`s uoak`m`s jl maejrjltjs
kaum`mjs mj Kdcdioa`.
mj Kdcdioa`. ^jrtjljkj
 ^jrtjljkj ` c` iuctal`kadl`c
iuctal`kadl`c @O
 @O Alojv.
Alojv.  
Bdy jl mé` sdl c` pralkap`c kdip`ðé` mj ojoam`s mjc p`és y ul` mj c`s i`rk`s kdl
i`ydr tr`makaûl jl Kdcdioa`. Kdl iàs mj 0;> `ðds mj bastdra`, kdltal÷`l
sdorjs`cajlmd pdr c` k`cam`m mj sus prdmuktds y jc `pdrtj `c mjpdrtj, ` c`
prjsjrv`kaûl mjc ijmad`ioajltj, `c prdfrjsd mj c`s kdiulam`mjs y `c
jiprjlmaiajltd kdcdioa`ld.
 

0.; Iasaûl mj Jiprjs`

Krjkjr jl jc ijrk`md ` ul kdlsuid pjr kàpat` `lu`c mj 5> catrds, `sjfur`lmd jc

camjr`zfd mj lujstrd pdrt`edcad mj i`rk`s l`kadl`cjs j altjrl`kadl`cjs jl k`m` ul`
mj c`s k`tjfdré`s mj ojoam` y tdmds cds sjfijltds mjc ijrk`md

0.= Uasaûl mj Jiprjs`

[jr c` kdip`ðé` iàs `miar`m` jl Kdcdioa` y ul fr`l kdltraouyjltj ` c` rjput`kaûl

fcdo`c mj [@O Iaccjr

  pdr c` jejktavam`m mj lujstrd ijrk`md

  pdr c` k`cam`m mj lujstrds prdmuktds
  kdid c` ijgdr eujltj mj jipcjd
  kdid jc ijgdr sdkad
  pdr lujstr` rjspdls`oacam`m sdka`c

^`r` jc `ðd ?>?= qujrjids altjrl`kadl`caz`r lujstrds prdmuktds, `orajlmd iàs

sukurs`cjs jl @iárak` C`tal`, sajlmd ul` mj c`s jiprjs`s quj fjljrjl i`ydr
dpdrtulam`m c`odr`c, b`kajlmd quj lujstrds kdc`odr`mdrjs krjzk`l k`m` mé` iàs `
lavjc c`odr`c, prdejsadl`c y sdka`c.

0.: U`cdrjs Kdrpdr

Kdrpdr`tavds
`tavds mj Jiprjs`

  Lujstr` fjltj js lujstr` vjlt`g` iàs mur`mjr`,


  jc k`ca
k`caorj
orj y kdiprdiasd mj lujstr` fjltj lds masta
mastalfuj
lfuj mj cds mjiàs
  `prjka`ids y edijlt`ids c` mavjrsam`m
  sjcjkkadl`ids y mjs`rrdcc`ids lujstrd pjrsdl`c p`r` jc cdfrd mj ijt`s `
c`rfd pc`zd
  cd quj kujlt` p`r` ldsdtrds js jc mjsjipjðd
  C` rjspdls`oacam`m js Kc`r` j Almavamu`c
  `pdy`ids c` fjrjlka` mjskjltr`caz`m` kdl ul iàxaid pràktakd mj `utdldié`
cdk`c
  c`s ijt`s y dogjtavds jstàl `calj`mds y kc`r`ijltj `rtakuc`mds
  v`cdr`ids t`ltd jc rafdr altjcjktu`c, kdid jc kdiprdiasd jidkadl`c
  mjkaids c` vjrm`m sdorj lujstrd mjsjipjðd
  jxafaids y pjriataids c` `utdfjstaûl
 

  ]r`o`g`ids y F`l`ids jl jquapd

  kdip`rtaids `ktav`ijltj jc kdldkaiajltd mjltrd mjc frupd
  jquacaor`ids kdlskajltjijltj cds altjrjsjs cdk`cjs y cds mjc frupd
  edijlt`ids c` kdlea`lz` j altjfram`m jl c`s rjc`kadljs altjrl`s
  prdidvjids c` k`i`r`mjré` y mavjrsaûl

Kdiprjlmjids y rjspjt`ids ` lujstrds kcajltjs y kdlsuiamdrjs

  lds prjdkup`ids sajiprj pdr kdldkjr c`s ljkjsam`mjs y pjrkjpkaûl mj
lujstrds kcajltjs y kdlsuiamdrjs
  kdlstruaids rjc`kadljs mur`mjr`s o`s`m`s jl c` kdlea`lz`
  `spar`ids ` derjkjr cc`s
`s ijgdrjs dpkadljs mj prdmuktds y sjrvakads
  sdids alldv`mdrjs y padljrds jl ul iulmd mj kdlst`ltjs k`ioads
  Lujstr` _jput`kaûl js almavasaocj
  Lujstr` rjput`kaûl sj o`s` jl cd quj b`kj y makj k`m` uld mj lujstrds
jipcj`mds
  Kdlstruaids lujstr` rjput`kaûl p`r` ul euturd ` c`rfd pc`zd

  [dids gustds y átakds jl tdmds lujstrds ljfdkads
  Ojljeaka`ids ` c`s kdiulam`mjs cdk`cjs mdlmj dpjr`ids

0.: Dogjtavd Kdrpdr`tavd

Ijma`ld ^c`zd

  Mjstal`ids `ktu`cijltj aipdrt`ltjs rjkursds p`r` m`rcj ul usd r`kadl`c `

c` jljrfé` y ` masialuar c` bujcc` mj k`rodld jc 6>% mjc kdioustaocj us`md
jl c` prdmukkaûl js f`s l`tur`c,
  C`s oujl`s pràktak`s mj usd jeaka
jeakajltj
jltj mj jljrfé` táriak` y jcáktra
jcáktrak`
k` b`l
kdltraouamd ul` rjmukkaûl mjc ;=% jl cds ÷ctaids 2 `ðds.
  _j usd mj jip`qujs y jlv`sjs kdltraouyj `c rjkakc`gj
  ]dmds cds jip`qujs mj O`v`ra` sdl rjkakc`ocjs jl ul 1;%.

C`rfd ^c`zd.

Zld mj cds pralkap`cjs dogjtavds mj c` O`v`ra` mj bdy js jc mj prdmukar iàs kjrvjz`

kjr vjz`
utacaz`lmd ijlds `fu`. [dcd mur`ltj cds ÷ctaids 2 `ðds (?>>1), bjids cdfr`md
rjmukar jc usd mj `fu` jl ul ?;.;=%.
 

0.5 @làcasas Mde`

D^D_]ZL AM @MJ[ (D) @I JL@W@[ (@)

D0 ^jljtr`kaûl jl ijrk`mds jxtjrlds. @0 ^rdmuktds mj kdltr`o`l

kdltr`o`lmd.
md.
 
JR]J_LD @ca
@ca`lz`s
`lz`s jstr`táfak`s A^K
A^ K fjljr`l ijgdr`s
ijgdr`s jl
D? @? O`gd aipujstd
aipujstd `r`lkjc`ra
`r`lkjc`rad.
d.
fdoajrld kdrpdr`tavd.

D; ^rdmukkaûl mj kjrvjz` `rtjs`l`c. @; Kdlecaktd `ri`md.

 
AL]J_LD
D= ^rjkad rjfuc
rjfuc`m
`m @= Kcajltjs rjsjltamds pdr i`c` `tjlkaûl.

Eujltj ^rdpa`.

ED_]@CJW@[ (E) J[]_@]JFA@[ (ED) J[]_@]JFA@[ (E@)

E0 ^dsakadl`i
 ^ dsakadl`iajltd
ajltd mj
◄  Oralm`r
Oralm`r sjfura
sjfuram`m
m`m y `i`oacam`m
`i`oacam`m ` cds
i`rk`s y K`cam`m mjc E07>0 E07@0
kcajltjs.
 prdmuktd.
 prdmuktd.
◄  Fjljr`r ul` dejrt` mj mjfust`kaûl y
E? _jspdls`oacam`m
  kdldkaiajltd mj cds prdmuktds mj c` jiprjs`, p`r`
sdka`c.
cdfr`r pjljtr`r jl cds ijrk`mds y f`l`r `÷l iàs
^rdidkadl`r y m`r ` kdldkjr jc
◄ 
E; ^rdmuktavam`m y eajcjs.
   prdmuktd
 prdmu ktd kdl sus
sus maej
maejrjl
rjltjs
tjs
kdstds mj kc`sj iulma`c.
rjqujraiajltds
rjqujraiajltds m
mjj ss`lam`m
`lam`m y cjf`cam`m.
cjf`cam`m.
E= Udcuijl mj vjlt`s..  
MJOACAM@MJ[ (M) J[]_@]JFA@[ (M D) J[]_@]JFA@[ (M@)
M0 _av`cam`m jltrj   ◄  _j`caz`kaûl mj `ktavam`mjs frup`cjs jltrj   ◄  Kdipr` d ljfdka`kaûl mj i`rk` mj
M07>0 M07@0
`kkadlast`s `kkadlast`s  prdmuktds
 prdmu ktds mjc ijrk`md alt
altjrl
jrld.
d.
◄  Jxafar i`ydr kdltrdc pdr p`rtj mj c`s
M? K`p`kam`m mj ◄  Aipcjijlt`kaûl mj tjkldcdfé` altjrl` jl c`s
    `utdram`mjs `c alfrjsd mj ijrk`lké` mj
jlmjum`iajltd  odmjf`s
 odmjf`s mj `c
`ci
i`kjl`i
`kjl`iaajlt
jltd
d
kdltr`o`lmd
M; K`p`kam`m mj  
`ci`kjl`iajltd
M= Mjpjlmjlka` mjc
 
ijrk`md altjrld

Eujltj ^rdpa`.

MDE@
[j rjkdiajlm` rj`caz`r ` prdeulmam`m ma`flûstakd kuctur`c, jstd mjoamd ` quj ld sj
kdltjipc` c`s pdcétak`s mj s`cum p÷ocak` rjc`kadl`m`s kdl jc kdlsuid mj `ckdbdc jl
Kdcdioa`. Js kc`rd quj c` cjfasc`kaûl jl Kdcdioa` cjs docafû ` mavucf`r c`
pjcafrdsam`m mj us`r cds prdmuktds y c`s kdlsjkujlka`s quj tr`jl.
 

0>

^dr jsd rjkdijlm`ids ` O@U@_A@ [7 @ rj`caz`r ul` pdcétak` kuctur`c rjspjktd `c

kdlsuid jl jxkjsd mj ojoam`s jiora`f`ltjs kdl ul lavjc mj kdlkjltr`kaûl mj
`ckdbdc `ctd.

0.2 ]apd mj Ma`flûstakd @pcak`md y @pcak`kaûl

  MA@FLD[]AKD EZLKADL@C7 
EZLKADL@C7 

– @l`caz`
 @l`caz` c`s maejrjltjs jstruktur`s t`ltd edri`cjs j aledri`cjs mj c`
drf`laz`kaûl, tajlj quj vjr oàsak`ijltj kdl `spjktds mj prdmukkaûl,
alldv`kaûl, i`ltjlaiajltd y jc pjrsdl`c mjsmj c` pjrspjktav` mj c`
kdiulak`kaûl. Jc ma`flûstakd eulkadl`c (su ldiorj mjoamd ` ul`
pjrspjktav` eulkadl`cast`) jx`ial` pralkap`cijltj c`s jstruktur`s
edri`cjs j aledri`cjs mj c` kdiulak`kaûl, c`s pràktak`s mj c`
kdiulak`kaûl quj tajljl quj vjr kdl c` prdmukkaûl, c` s`tase`kkaûl mjc
pjrsdl`c, jc i`ltjlaiajltd mj c` drf`laz`kaûl y c` alldv`kaûl.’- I`lujc
 @bui`m`,Ma`fldstakd jiprjs`ra`c jgj ?.rjkupjr`md
mj7bttps7//`rj`lmal`.alstrukturj.kdi/kdursjs/:0=;
Iakrd jltdrld 
jltdrld 
Js jc `ioajltj jl jc ku`c sj b`kj ul jstumad mj ijrk`md, prdvjjmdrjs,
altjrijma`rads y c` kdipjtjlka`, mdlmj sj o`s` jl c` rjspdls`oacam`m sdka`c p`r`
kdltraouar jl ul kuctur` drf`laz`kadl`c, sj mjskraoj c` psakdcdfé`, c`s `ktatumjs,
jxpjrajlka`s, krjjlka`s y v`cdrjs y jstds
j stds pdr su p`rtj edijlt`l c` idtav`kaûl jl c`
prdmuktavam`m8 sal jio`rfd, jl su kcai` drf`laz`kadl`c sujcjl b`kjr jlkujst`s
`pcak`m`s ` cds tr`o`g`mdrjs mj c` drf`laz`kaûl, kdl jc eal mj ccjf`r `c kdlgultd mj
prdpajm`mjs ijmaocjs jl jc `ioajltj mj tr`o`gd. Fr`ka`s ` jstj tapd mj
bjrr`iajlt`s sj b`l vastd rjsuct`mds jl cds maejrjltjs rjkdldkaiajltds quj sj cj b`
dtdrf`md pdr ijmad mj su eulm`kaûl O`v`ra`.
 

00

 @LÀCA[A[ MJC I@K_D JL]D_LD MJ C@ JI^_J[@

JI^_J[@

  Mjidfr`eé`

Kdlsuid
Bdiorjs 6;%
Iugjrjs =0%
Jc kdcdioa`ld prdijmad mjstal` jc0>,6:%jc kdlsuid mj kjrvjz`
Jltrj jc ;>% y jc ::>%
>% mj c` pdoc`kaûl kdcdioa`l` kdlsuij prdmuktds
jlv`s`mds jl kjrvjz`

  Jkdldié`

Ijmakaûl mjc aip`ktd mj c` `ktavam`m jkdlûiak` mj O`v`ra` s.`.

C` ijtdmdcdfé` us`m` p`r` ijmar jc aip`ktd quj O`v`ra` [.@. tajlj sdorj c`
jkdldié` sj o`s` jl cds cc`i`mds jlk`mjl`iajltds b`ka` `tràs. Ástds `l`caz`l c`
edri` jl quj rjspdlmj c` jkdldié` ku`lmd O`v`ra` [.@. rj`caz` c` prdmukkaûl mj
cds maejrjltjs oajljs y suoprdmuktds quj derjkj, pujs
p ujs p`r` quj ást` pujm` ccjv`rsj
` k`od, c` jiprjs` mjoj mji`lm`r i`tjra`s prai`s mj dtrds sjktdrjs, `sé kdid
k`pat`c y tr`o`gd. Js mjkar, cds jlk`mjl`iajltds b`ka` `tràs jstàl rjc`kadl`mds kdl
jc jstéiucd quj fjljr` O`v`ra` [.@. sdorj c` prdmukkaûl mj sus prdvjjmdrjs.
Jejktd sdorj jc jipcjd Jl ?>>5 O`v`ra` [.@. jipcjû =.:>1 tr`o`g`mdrjs. ^dr su
p`rtj, jc jejktd sdorj cds prdvjjmdrjs fjljrû =5.=2: jipcjds, cd quj suiû ul
jejktd marjktd mj :>.11= jipcjds jl tdt`c. @makadl`cijltj jc jejktd almarjktd euj mj
25.2>: y jc almukamd mj ?1.256 jipcjds fjljr`mds. Jl tdt`c, jc jejktd `frjf`md
`skjlmaû ` 056.555 jipcjds, fjljr`mds jl c` jkdldié` fr`ka`s ` c` `ktavam`m
prdmuktav` mj O`v`ra` [.@. Jstds jejktds rjprjsjlt`rdl ;>.=%, :0.6% y 06.2% mjc
tdt`c rjspjktav`ijltj (Fr`eakd 0:). @sé iasid, jc jejktd iuctapcak`mdr euj ;6.?.

  ^dcétak`s mj k`cam`m

  Lujstr` fjltj js lujst

lujstr`
r` vjlt`g` iàs mur`mjr`.
  Jc k`ca
k`caorj
orj y kdiprdiasd mj lujstr` fjltj lds masta
mastalfuj
lfuj mj cds mjiàs.


  @prjka`ids y edijlt`ids c` mavjrsam`m.

 

0?

  [jcjkkadl`ids y mjs`rrdcc`ids ` lujstrd pjrsdl`c p`r` jc cdfrd mj ijt`s `

c`rfd pc`zd.
  Cd quj kujlt` p`r` ldsdtrds js jc mjsjipjðd.
 
C` rjspdls`oacam`m js kc`r` j almavamu`c.
  @pdy`ids c` fjrjlka` mjskjltr`caz`m` kdl ul iàxaid pràktakd mj
mj `utdldié
`utdldié`
`
cdk`c.
  C`s ijt`s y cds dogjtavds jstàl `calj`mds y kc`r`ijltj `rtakuc`mds.
  U`cdr`ids t`ltd jc rafdr altjcjktu`c kdid jc kdiprdiasd jidkadl`c.
  Mjkaids c` vjrm`m sdorj lujstrd mjsjipjðd.
  Jxafaids y pjriataids jc `utd fjstaûl.
 
]r`o`g`ids y f`l`ids jl jquapd.
  Mjs`rrdcc`ids y kdip`rtaids `k`ktav`ijltj
tav`ijltj jc kdldkaiajltd mjltrd m mjc
jc Frup
Frupdd
[@OIaccjr.
  Jquacaor`ids kdlskajltj ijltj cds altjrjsjs cdk`cjs y cds mjc Frupd [@OIaccjr.
  Edijlt`ids c` kdlff`lz` y c` altjfram`m jl c`s rjc`kadljs altjrl`s. 

  ^rdidvjids c` k`i`r`mjré` y c` mavjrsaûl.
  Jltjlmjids y rjspjt`ids ` lujstrds kcajltjs y kdlsuiamdrjs.

  Lds prjdkup`ids sajiprj pdr kdldkjr c`s ljkjsam`mjs y pjrkjpkadljs mj

lujstrds kcajltjs y kdlsuiamdrjs.
  Kdlstruaids rjc`kadljs mur`mjr`s o`s`m`s jl c` kdlff`lz`.  
  @spar`ids ` derjkjr cc`s
`s ijgdrjs dpkadljs mj prdmuktds y sjrvakads.
  [dids alldv`mdrjs y padljrds jl ul iulmd jl kdlst`ltj k`ioad.
  Lujstr` rjput`kaûl js almavasaocj.
  Lujstr` rjput`kaûl sj o`s` jl cd cd quj b`kj y makj kk`m`
`m` uld mj lujstrds
jipcj`mds.
  Kdlstruaids lujstr` rjput`kaûl p`r` ul euturd ` c`rfd pc`zd.
  [dids gustds y átakds jl tdmds lujstrds ljfdkads.
  Ojljffka`ids ` c`s kdiulam`mjs cdk`cjs mdlmj dpjr`ids.  

  Ijmad `ioajltj


Jst`ids kdiprdijtamds ` sjr iàs jeakajltjs jl jc usd mj `fu`, jl c`

`mialastr`kaûl mj lujstr` bujcc` mjc k`rodld y o÷squjm`
o÷s qujm` mj eujltjs iàs caipa`s mj
 

0;

jljrfé`, jl c` sjcjkkaûl mj jip`qujs quj fjljrjl jc ijldr aip`ktd `ioajlt`c y

jl c` ialaiaz`kaûl mj rjsamuds quj jlva`ids ` cds rjccjlds s`lat`rads’. 

  Kuctur`

C` kuctur` drf`laz`kadl`c sj b` alkrust`md jl c` jstruktur` kdrpdr`tav`, sajlmd ul`

jstr`tjfa` quj b` ijgdr`md c`s pjrkjpkadljs jiprjs`ra`cjs y ` su vjz b` ijgdr`md
c` k`cam`m mj vam` mj iukb`s kdiulam`mjs. Jxastjl ul` jiprjs` jl Kdcdioa` quj
i`ltajljl jc tétucd mj padljr` l`kadl`c jl edijlt`r, fjstadl`r y mjs`rrdcc`r pdcétak`s
y pc`ljs mj kuctur` drf`laz`kadl`c y rjspdls`oacam`m sdka`c  ‛ Kjrvjkjré` O`v`ra`
[.@. kdl Eulm`kaûl O`v`ra`.
^dr E`oad ]drrjs Ijmal`
C` kuctur` drf`laz`kadl`c rjprjsjlt`m` jl kdlkjptds sdkadcûfakds,
sdk adcûfakds, `ltrdpdcûfakds y

eacdsûeakds, b` ccjv`md ` c`s jiprjs`s ` mjs`rrdcc`r jstumads sdorj jc

kdipdrt`iajltd mj c`s kdiulam`mjs mdlmj tajljl aip`ktd8 `ccé, sj `l`caz`l
jcjijltds mj usd kdid séiodcds, v`cdrjs y kcai`s mjc jltdrld.
[uijrfam` jl c` kuctur` drf`laz`kadl`c jlkdltr`ids c`s alstatukadljs sdka`cjs,
quajljs tajljl kdid dogjtavd c` s`tase`kkaûl mj ljkjsam`mjs sdka`cjs. [u jstruktur`
sdka`c jstà edri`m` pdr ul`s ldri`s y ulds v`cdrjs quj b`kjl p`rtj mj `qujccd
quj js` kdiulam`m ljkjsat`.
^jrd ´quá jiprjs` `pcak`ré` jstd4 [al mum` `cful` jc f`c`rmûl js p`r` Eulm`kaûl
O`v`ra`, ul` alstatukaûl sdka`c quj euj krj`m` jl jc `ðd ?>>: kdl jc eal mj mjs`rrdcc`r
prdfr`i`s mj alvjrsaûl sdka`c.

  ]jkldcdfé`7
O`v`ra` kujlt` kdl c` tjkldcdfé` i`s `ct` ` lavjc l`kadl`c p`r` c` prdmukkaûl mj
ojoam`s, `mjiàs mj jccd kdl c` i`qual`ra` mj prdmukkaûl iàs fr`lmj
jl @iárak` C`tal` tjlajlmd c` pc`lt` iàs fr`lmj. ]`ioaál kdlt`ids kdl
c` tjkldcdfé` iàs `ct` p`r` tdm`s c`s àrj`s mj lujstr` jiprjs`.
 

0=

?. Aledrij Jgjkutavd

Altrdmukkaûl
Jc ma`fldstakd eulkadl`c kdid bjrr`iajlt` quj lds pjriatj jx`ial`r c`s àrj`s mj
c` kdip`ðé` kdl jc eal mj ijgdr`r c` altjfr`kaûl mj c`s iasi`s p`r` jc ijgdr
eulkadl`iajltd y jc ojljeakad mj cds st`hjbdcmjrs, lds b` pjriatamd `l`caz`r c`
eulkaûl vat`c quj js ccjv`r ` k`od ul ma`fldstakd drf`laz`kadl`c. O`v`ra`
O`v`ra` [.@ euj c`
jiprjs` sjcjkkadl`m` p`r` jc `làcasas y c` `pcak`kaûl mjc ma`flûstakd eulkadl`c, ul`
kdip`ðé` kdlsdcam`m` kdid ul` mj c`s ijgdrjs y iàs sûcam`s mj c` almustra`
kjrvjkjr` pjrd quj ousk` jc ijgdr`iajltd kdltalud ijma`ltj c` alldv`kaûl y c`
aipcjijlt`kaûl mj jstr`tjfa`s quj c` b`l ccjv`md ` jc krjkaiajltd y c` rjlt`oacam`m
eal`lkajr` quj bdy jl mé` mjiujstr`, kdl ul` vasaûl kc`r` y kdlsdcam`m` kdid ul
dogjtavd `ck`lz`ocj y supjr`ocj.

_jsuijl mj c` `pcak`kaûl mjc Ma`fldstakd Eulkadl`c

]r`s `l`caz`r ` c` kdip`ðé` O`v`ra` pumaids jvamjlka`r cd jeakajltj quj pujmj
rjsuct`r ma`fldstakd ` tajipd quj pjriat` jvamjlka`r c`s àrj`s mj ijgdr` y jc
pc`ltj`iajltd mj jstr`tjfa`s quj kdlccjvjl `c ijgdr`iajltd kdltalud mj c`
kdip`ðé`, `c sjr ul` jiprjs` t`l fr`lmj sj jvamjlka`
jvamjl ka` c` caiat`kaûl mjc ma`flûstakd
eulkadl`c y` quj sj pujmj rjkaoar aledri`kaûl jrrûlj` quj mjsvéj cds dogjtavds y
pc`lj`iajltds mj c` jstr`tjfa`s ` `pcak`r. Kdid jstruktur` edri`c O`v`ra` tajlj ul`
kdiulak`kaûl `kjrt`m` kdl sus jipcj`mds y prdvjjmdrjs, jc àrj` mj i`rhjtalf js
su eujrtj y c` fjstaûl mjc t`cjltd bui`ld js jc rjsuct`md mj c` jst`lm`raz`kaûl mj
prdkjsds y kdipjtjlka`s mj `ct` k`cam`m quj b`l pjriatamd quj bdy pdr bdy sj`
ul` drf`laz`kaûl quj b` mjg`md bujcc` y ` c` ku`c cj jspjr` ul euturd prdijtjmdr.
 

0:

Eujltj7 jc`odr`kaûl prdpa`

O`v`ra` [.@ sj jlkujltr` jl ul jst`md mj kdsjkb`,

kdsjkb `, kc`r`ijltj mjspuás mj iukb`
sajior` b` dotjlamd c` rjc`kaûl kdstd ojljeakad quj aipcak` jlfr`l`r k`m` p`rtj mj
ul` kdip`ðé` p`r` su ûptaid eulkadl`iajltd.
Jc Ma`fldstakd eulkadl`c sal mum` `cful` pjriatj ul` rjc`kaûl y `làcasas mj
maejrjltjs àrj`s mj ul` kdip`ðé` y jc mjs`rrdccd mj jstr`tjfa`s quj kdlsdcam`m`s
kdlmukjl `c kuipcaijltd mj dogjtavds y mjc pdsakadl`iajltd jl jc ijrk`md mj t`c
i`flatum kdid jc mj O`v`ra` [.@
Cds `umatdrjs quj sj mjsjipjð`l jl jstj tapd mj ma`flûstakds mjojl tjljr `kkjsd
` c` aledri`kaûl mj praijr` i`ld kdl jc eal
e al mj ld tjljr i`rfjl mj jrrdr y jst`r iuy
oajl `calj`mds kdl c` iasaûl y c` vasaûl mj c` kdip`ðé`.
 

05

?.0 @làcasas _j`caz`md

O`v`ra` sj rafj pdr jst`r ijgdr jledk`m` ` ul` tjlmjlka` pdsatav` jl rjsuct`mds,
mdlmj c`s ijt`s alspar`l ` c` drf`laz`kaûl p`r` `ck`lz`r lavjcjs supjradrjs mj
mjsjipjðd y tr`o`gd jl jquapd p`r` cdfr`r ul` c`odr sal mjidr`s jl edri`

pr`fiàtak`, kdlp`r`
Kc`sj Iulma`c, `kkadljs fua`m`s
jgjkut`r pdr cds pralkapads
kdl pjrejkkaûl y pràktak`s
y `tjlkaûl mj kdl
`c mjt`ccj I`lue`ktur`
c` `yum` mj
mj
i`qual`ra`, jquapd jspjka`caz`md y pc`t`edri`s quj s`tase`f`l c`s ljkjsam`mjs mj
cds kdlsuiamdrjs kdid c` Alvjstaf`kaûl, Mjs`rrdccd j Alldv`kaûl quj e`kacatjl jc
kuipcaiajltd mj cds dogjtavds.

?.? Kdlkcusadljs

Jl jc tr`o`gd `ltjradr pdmjids dosjrv`r kdid us`lmd bjrr`iajlt`s fjrjlka`cjs

kdid c` i`traz MDE@ pdmjids vjr iukb`s `ctjrl`tav`s quj fjljr`cijltj ld
dosjrv`ids jl jc àioatd `mialastr`tavd fjrjlka`c, y `pcak`rcd jl c` jiprjs`
sjcjkkadl`m` p`r` vjr ul sal l÷ijrd mj pdsaoacam`mjs quj kdltraouyjl ` c` ijgdr`
kdltalu` mj c` drf`laz
drf`laz`kaûl,
`kaûl, t`ioaál js aipdrt`ltj rjs`ct`r quj `pcak`lmd ul
ma`fldstakd eulkadl`c pumaids amjltaeak`r quá `spjktds mj prdmukkaûl, alldv`kaûl,
i`ltjlaiajltd y jc pjrsdl`c mjsmj c` pjrspjktav` mj c` kdiulak`kaûl sdl
ijgdr`ocjs, ku`cjs sj jlkujltr`l jl ul jst`md p`savd y ku`cjs sdl ul`
k`r`ktjréstak` mjst`k`ocj jl c` drf`laz`kaûl.

Js mj rjs`ct`r quj c`s oujl`s pràktak`s jl c` drf`laz`kaûl b`kjl quj sus eulkadljs
ijgdrjl ldt`ocjijltj kdl jc tajipd, `mjiàs mj jst`lm`raz`r prdkjsds jl prd mj
cds ijgdrjs rjsuct`mds, jcaial` rajsfds y ijgdr` tajipds mj prdmukkaûl, jstd js
eal`cijltj cd quj m` ul v`cdr `frjf`md erjltj ` c` kdipjtjlka` y lds pjriatj tjljr
kdipjtatavam`m jl ul iulmd fcdo`caz`md.
 

06

;. _jejrjlka`s

   @bui`m`. I. (?>?>) Ma`flûstakd Jiprjs`ra`c  ‛  Jgj ? @l`cakjids c`

satu`kaûl (Eulm`kaûl Zlavjrsat`ra` mjc Àrj` @lmal`). Kdcdioa`7 ACZILD
_jkupjr`md mj7 bttps7//`rj`lmal`.alstrukturj.kdi/kdursjs/:0=;
mj7 bttps7//`rj`lmal`.alstrukturj.kdi/kdursjs/:0=;
 
  Kruz Kdrmjrd ]jrjs`. (?>>:, gucad 0). Ma`flûstakd mj c` kuctur`
drf`laz`kadl`c jl ul` jiprjs`. _jkupjr`md mj
bttps7//www.fjstadpdcas.kdi/ma`fldstakd-mj-c`-kuctur`-drf`laz`kadl`c-jl-
ul`-jiprjs`/

  -7Cak. @mra`l` Ijz` O.* y Cak. ^`traka` K`ro`ccjm`

Fdlzàcjz.ijxakd,?>>1,rjkupjr`mdmj7bttps7//www.aledsdc.kdi.ix/jsp`ka 
d/@rtakucds/MjsmjTc`TAlvjstaf`kadl/Jc-Ma`fldstakd-Drf`laz`kadl`c-
jcjijltds.btic#.RiBK^;GHgkk

  I`lujc @bui`m`,Ma`fldstakd jiprjs`ra`c jgj ?.rjkupjr`md

mj7bttps7//`rj`lmal`.alstrukturj.kdi/kdursjs/:0=;

  _jy, G. I. (?>>5). Bastdra` mj c` almustra` kjrvjkjr` jl Kdcdioa`.

Kdcdioa` . ([ak)
Jmatdra`c.  
Jmatdra`c.