MICHAEL SPIVAK’S CALCULUS

PART I

PROLOGUE

CHAPTER I

BASIC PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS

The sum a+ b exists for any two given “numbers” a and b .

P1) (Associative law for addition) If a , b , and c are any numbers, then

a+ ( b+c )=( a+b ) + c

The equality of all possible sums of an arbitrary finite collection of numbers a 1 , … , an (p.i) re-
mains (yet) unproven. It will (for now) be assumed and expressed as the sum a 1+ …+an .

P2) (Existence of an additive entity) If a is any number, then

a+ 0=0+ a=a

This, however, does not imply that if a+ x =a, then x=0 (p.ii).

P3) (Existence of additive inverses) If a is any number, then there is a number – a such that

a+ (−a )= (−a ) +a=0

P3 provides us with the necessary tools to prove p.ii:

a+ x =a

(−a )+ ( a+ x )=( (−a ) +a ) + x =0+ x=x=(−a ) +a=0

“[W]e consider a−b to be an abbreviation of a+ (−b ) .”

We know, by P2, that 0+0=0 .

We also know, by P3, that (−0 )+ ( 0+0 )= (−0 ) +0=−0=(−0 ) +0=0.

Is 0 the only number for which a+ a=a (p.iii) and a=−a (p.iv) hold?

That if a+ a=a, then a=0 can be proven through p.ii.

That if a=−a , then a=0 cannot be proven through P1-4 as one cannot (as of now) advance
any further after noting that a+ a=0.

P4) (Commutative law for addition) If a and b are any numbers, then

a+ b=b+a

Similarly, one cannot prove that a−b=b−a if and only if a=b (p.v) from P1-4 as one cannot
advance any further after noting that a+ a=b+b .

P5) (Associative law for multiplication) If a , b , and c are any numbers, then

a ∙ ( b ∙ c )=( a ∙ b ) ∙c

P6) (Existence of a multiplicative entity) If a is any number, then

a ∙ 1=1 ∙ a=a

Moreover, 1 ≠0 . (This need be listed as it is unprovable through P1-6).

P7) (Existence of multiplicative inverses) For every number a ≠ 0, there is a number a−1 such
that

−1 −1
a ∙ a =a ∙ a=1

P8) (Commutative law for multiplication) If a and b are any numbers, then

a ∙ b=b ∙ a

P9) (Distributive law) If a , b , and c are any numbers, then

a ∙ ( b+c ) =a ∙b +a ∙ c

One would now seem capable of proving p.iv & v via P9:

a+ a=a ∙ ( 1+1 )=0

⟹ a=0

a+ a=a ∙ ( 1+1 )=b+b=b ∙ (1+1 )

 ⟹ a=b

This, however, depends on the unproven assumption that 1+1≠ 0 and so P7 is applicable.

Consider the collection P of all “positive” numbers (positivity remains yet undefined).

P10) (Trichotomy law) For every number a , one and only one of the following holds:

(i) a=0,

(ii) a is in the collection P ,

(iii) −a is in the collection P .

P11) (Closure under addition) If a and b are in P , then a+ b is in P .

P12) (Closure under multiplication) If a and b are in P , then a ∙ b is in P .

a> b if a−b is in P ;

a< b if b> a;

a≥b if a> b or a=b ;

a≤b if a< b or a=b .

If a=0, a is not in P .

If a< 0, then 0−a=−a is in P and, by P10, a is not in P .

If a> 0, then a−0=a is in P .

Therefore, by exhaustion, a is in P if and only if a> 0 and, consequently, P , the collection of

all positive numbers, is the collection of all numbers a> 0 (which, in turn, defines positivity).

If a> 0 (i.e., a is in P ) and b> 0, then ab> 0.

If a< 0 (i.e., −a is in P ) and b< 0, then (−a )(−b )=ab >0.

Therefore, for any a ≠ 0, a 2> 0 (which, in turn, proves 1>0 (since 12=1)).

The absolute value |a| of a is defined as follows:

{−a ,
|a|= a , a≥0
a≤0

T1) For all numbers a and b , we have

 |a+b|≤|a|+|b|

PROOF:

There exist four cases to consider:

(i) a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0;

(ii) a ≥ 0, b ≤ 0;

(iii) a ≤ 0, b ≥ 0;

(iv) a ≤ 0, b ≤ 0.

If (i), then a+ b ≥0 and, consequently, |a+b|=a+b=|a|+|b|.

If (iv), then a+ b ≤0 and, consequently, |a+b|=−( a+ b )=−a−b=|a|+|b|.

If (ii), then either a+ b ≥0 (ii*) or a+ b ≤0 (ii**).

If (ii*), then |a+b|=a+b , |a|+|b|=−a+b , and, consequently, a+ b←a+ b (since a← a).

If (ii**), then |a+b|=−a−b , |a|+|b|=−a+b , and, consequently, a+ b>−a+ b (since −b< b).

If (iii), consider (ii) and interchange a and b ’s roles.

Thus, ∀ a ∀ b (|a+ b|≤|a|+|b|) .

If x , y ≥ 0, and x 2< y 2, then x < y .

PROOF:

If x 2< y 2, then y 2−x 2=( y + x ) ( y−x ) >0.

It cannot be the case that y + x and y−x differ in sign. Therefore, either

y + x >0, y−x >0

or

y + x <0, y−x <0 ⟺ x− y >0 .

Since x , y ≤ 0, it cannot be the case that y + x <0 and, in turn, that x− y >0 .

It must therefore be the case that y−x >0 and, consequently, x < y .

If a> 1, then a 2> a.

PROOF:

a> 1⟹ a−1>0

a −a=a ( a−1 )=( ( a−1 ) +1 ) ( a−1 )> 0⟹ a > a

2 2

If 0< a<1, then a 2< a.

PROOF:

{
0< a<1⟹ a−0=a>0
1−a>0

a−a 2=a ( 1−a )> 0 ⟹ a2 <a

If 0 ≤ a<b and 0 ≤ c <d , then ac <bd .

PROOF:

0 ≤ a<b ⟹ {a−0=a≥
b−a> 0
0

0 ≤ c <d ⟹ {c−0=c
d−c>0
≥0

d ( b−a ) +a ( d −c )=bd−ac> 0 ⟹ ac<bd

Prove that if 0 ≤ x< y , then x n < y n, n=1 ,2 , 3 , ….

PROOF:

0 ≤ x< y ⟹ {y −x>
x≥0
0

y n−x n =( y−x ) ( y n−1 + y n−2 x+ …+ y x n−2 + x n−1 ) >0 ⟹ x n < y n

Prove that if 0< a<b , then

a+b
a< √ ab< <b
2

a< b ⟹ a2 <ab ⟹ a< √ ab

a+ b
√ ab< ⟹ 2 √ ab<a+ b ⟹ 4 ab< a +2 ab+b ⟹ 2 ab=ab+ab <a +b
2 2 2 2
2

2 2
b −ab=b ( b−a ) > ab−a =a ( b−a ) ⟹ b> a
a+b
<b ⟹ a+ b<2 b=b+b ⟹ a<b
2

P’10) For any numbers a and b one, and only one, of the following holds:

(i) a=b ,

(ii) a< b,

(iii) b< a.

P’11) For any numbers a , b , and c , if a< b and b< c , then a< c .

P’12) For any numbers a , b , and c , if a< b, then a+ c< b+c .

P’13) For any numbers a , b , and c , if a< b and 0< c , then ac <bc .

Derive P10-12 from P’10-13.

From P’10: For every number a and, and only one, of the following holds:

(i) a=0,

(ii) 0< a,

(iii) a< 0.

If (iii), from P’12, a+ (−a )=0<0+ (−a )=−a.

Define P as the collection of all numbers a> 0.

It now follows that P10.

P11: a , b> 0⟹ 0+ 0<a+ b.

P12: a , b> 0⟹ 0 ∙ 0<ab .

From P’13, for any numbers a and b , if 0< a and 0< b, then 0 ∙ 0<ab .

It now follows that P12.

Consider any two numbers a , b> 0. It follows from P’10 that either (i) a=b , (ii) a< b, or (iii)
a> b.

If (i), then, from P’12, 0+ b=0+ a=a<a+ b, and, from P’11, 0< a+b .

It now follows that P11.

Express |x|−|x 2| without absolute value signs.

|x|−|x 2|=|x|− x2

If x ≥ 0 , then |x|− x2= x−x2 =x ( 1−x ) .

If x ≤ 0 , then |x|− x2=−x−x 2=−x ( 1+ x ).

Find all x for which

(i) |x−1|+|x−2|>1

|x−1|> 1⟹ x>2 {x <0

|x−2|> 1⟹ x >3 {x<1
S= x >2
x <1{
(ii) |x−1|+|x−2|<2

Find p1 , p2 such that d ( p1 ,1 ) =d ( p 2 , 2 ) and d ( p1 , p2 ) =2.

p1=1−δ , p2=2+ δ

1 1
|p2− p 1|=|2+δ−( 1−δ )|=|1+2 δ|=1+2 δ =2 ⟹ δ= 2 ( 2−1 )= 2

⟹
{ p 1=1/2
p2 =5/2
1
⟹ S= < x<
2
5
2

Prove the following:

|x− y|≤|x|+| y|

PROOF:

Let z=− y .

|x− y|=|x + z|≤|x|+| z|=|x|+|− y|=|x|+| y|.

|x|−| y|≤|x − y|

PROOF:
If |x|−| y|>|x− y|, then |x|>|x− y|+| y|.

However, |x− y|+| y|≥|x − y+ y|=|x|.

It cannot be the case that |x|>|x− y|+| y|≥|x|.

Therefore, it cannot be the case that |x|−| y|>|x− y|.

∴ ∀ x ∀ y (|x|−| y|≤| x− y|).

Prove that |a|=|−a|.

Either (i) a ≥ 0, or (ii) a ≤ 0.

If (i), then |a|=a=−(−a )=|−a|.

If (ii), then |a|=−a=|−a|.

Prove that −b< a<b ⟺|a|<b .

Either (i) a ≥ 0, or (ii) a ≤ 0.

If (i), then |a|=a<b .

If a< b, then −a>−b. Since (i), −b< a<b .

If (ii), then |a|=−a<b .

If −a< b, then a>−b. Since (ii), −b< a<b .

Note that |a−0|<b ⟺ 0−b<a< 0+b.

Prove that b−c <a< b+c ⟺|a−b|< c .

Either (i) a−b ≥ 0, or (ii) a−b ≤ 0.

(i) ⟹|a−b|=a−b< c ⟹ b−a>−c.

⟹ b−c< a<b+ c .

(ii) ⟹|a−b|=b−a< c ⟹ a−b>−c.

⟹ b−c< a<b+ c .

PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION (PMI):

( A={ x ∈ N :P ( x ) } ∧1∈ A ∧ ( k ∈ A ⟹ ( k + 1 ) ∈ A ) ) ⟹ A=N

WELL-ORDERING PRINCIPLE (WOP):

( A={ x ∈ N :P ( x ) } ∧ A ≠ ∅ ) ⟹ ∃ φ ∈ A ( φ ≤ x , ∀ x ∈ A )
PROOF:

Let

(i) A={ x ∈ N : P ( x ) }, and

(ii) ∄ φ∈ A ( φ ≤ x , ∀ x ∈ A ) .

Let B= { x ∈ N :1 ,… , x ∉ A }.

1 ∈ A ⟹ ~(ii).

∴ 1∈ B .

( 1 , … , k ∉ A ∧ ( k +1 ) ∈ A ) ⟹ ~(ii).

∴ 1, … , k ∈ B ⟹ ( k +1 ) ∈ B .

∴ B=N .

∴ A=∅.

PRINCIPLE OF COMPLETE INDUCTION (PCI):

( A={ x ∈ N :P ( x ) } ∧1∈ A ∧ ( 1 , … , k ∈ A ⟹ ( k +1 ) ∈ A ) ) ⟹ A=N

n

∑ i2= 16 n ( n+1 ) ( 2n+1 )

i=1

PROOF:

{ }
n
1
Consider A= x ∈ N : ∑ i = n ( n+1 ) ( 2 n+1 )
2

i=2 6

∑ i2=12 =1= 16 ( 1 ) ( 1+ 1 ) ( 2 ( 1 ) +1 )
i=1

1∈ A

Consider k ∈ A
 k

∑ i2= 16 k ( k +1 ) ( 2 k +1 )
i=1

Now consider k +1

k +1 k

∑ i =∑ i2 +( k + 1 )2= 61 k ( k +1 )( 2 k +1 ) +( k +1 )2 = 13 k 3 + 32 k 2+ 13
2
6
k +1
i=1 i=1

1
¿ ( k + 1 )( k + 2 )( 2 k +3 )
6

k ∈ A ⟹ ( k +1 ) ∈ A

∴ A=N

( )
n n 2
1 2
∑i = ∑i3
= n ( n+1 )
4
2

i=1 i=1

PROOF:

{ }
n
1 2
Consider A= x ∈ N : ∑ i = n ( n+1 )
3 2

i=1 4

∑ i3=13 =1= 14 ( 1 )2 ( 1+1 )2

i=1

1∈ A

Consider k ∈ A

∑ i3= 14 k 2 ( k +1 )2
i=1

Now consider k +1

k +1 k

∑ i =∑ i3 +( k +1 )3= 14 k 2 ( k +1 )2 +( k +1 )3 = 14 k 4 + 32 k 3+ 13
3
4
k 2 +3 k +1
i=1 i=1

1
¿ ( k +1 )2 ( k +2 )2
4

k ∈ A ⟹ ( k +1 ) ∈ A

∴ A=N

Find a formula for

 n

∑ (2 i−1 )=1+3+ 5+…+ ( 2 n−1 )

i=1

2n n n n 2n n 2n n

∑ i=∑ 2i+∑ ( 2 i−1 ) ⟹ ∑ ( 2 i−1 )=∑ i−∑ 2 i=∑ i−2 ∑ i

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

n
2 n ( 2 n+ 1 ) n ( n+1 ) 2
∑ (2 i−1 )= 2
−2
2
=n
i=1

∑ (2 i−1 )2=12 +32 +52 +…+ ( 2n−1 )2

i=1

n 2n n 2n n

∑ (2 i−1 ) =∑ i −∑ ( 2i ) =∑ i −4 ∑ i2
2 2 2 2

i=1 i =1 i=1 i=1 i=1

1 2 1
¿ n ( 2 n+1 ) ( 4 n+1 ) − n ( n+1 ) ( 2n+1 )= n ( 4 n −1 )
2
3 3 3

If 0 ≤ k ≤ n, the binomial coefficient (nk ) is defined by

n! n ( n−1 ) … ( n−( k−1 ) ) 1 k

()
n =
k k ! ( n−k ) !
=
k!
= ∏ ( n−( i−1 ) ) ,
k ! i=1
if k ≠ 0 , n.

(n0 )=(nn )=1.

If k < 0 or k > n, then (nk )=0.
Prove that

(n+k 1)=(k −1 ) (k )
n + n

( n+1 ) !
(n+k 1)= k ! ( n−k +1) !
( )()n + n = n!
+
n!
k−1 k ( k−1 ) ! ( n−k +1 ) ! k ! ( n−k ) !

( n+1 ) !
¿
k ! ( n−k +1 ) !

Prove by induction on n that

 n
1−r n +1
∑ r = 1−r
i

i=0

if r ≠ 1

{ }
n n +1
1−r
Let A= n∈ N : ∑ r =
i

i =1 1−r

0 0 +1
∑ r i=r 0 =1= 1−r
1−r
=
1−r
1−r
i=0

0∈ A

Let k ∈ A

k k +1
∑ r i= 1−r
1−r
i=0

Consider k +1

k +1 k k+1 k+2
∑ r i=∑ r i +r k+1= 1−r
1−r
+r
k+1
=
1−r
1−r
i=0 i=0

k ∈ A ⟹ ( k +1 ) ∈ A

∴ A=N

n
S=∑ r
i

i=0

n n n
rS=r ∑ r =∑ r =∑ r −1+r
i i+ 1 i n+1 n+1
=S−1+ r
i=0 i=0 i=0

n+1
1−r
⟹ S=
1−r

Prove that every natural number is either even or odd

Prove that every natural number can be written either as 2 k or 2 k +1 for some integer k

Consider the set

A={ n ∈ N :n cannot be written either as 2 k ∨2 k +1 for some integer k }

From WOP, we know ∃ p ∈ A ( p ≤ n , ∀ n ∈ A )

Consider p

Since p is A ’s least member, this must mean that p−1 , the closest natural ¿ p, can be written
as either 2 k or 2 k +1

But, in either case, we incur in contradiction:

p−1=2 k ⟹ p=2 k +1

p−1=2 k +1⟹ p=2 ( k+ 1 )

Therefore, A=∅

QED

Prove that ∀ n ∈ N ( n=2k ∨ n=2 k +1 , k ∈ Z ).

Let A={ n ∈ N :n ≠2 k ∧ n≠ 2 k +1 , ∀ k ∈ Z } and let A ≠ ∅ .

A ⊂ N ∧ A ≠ ∅ ⟹ ∃a ∈ A ( a≤ n , ∀ n ∈ A ) .

a−1<a ⟹ a−1∉ A ⟺ a−1=2 k ∨ a−1=2 k +1 , k ∈ Z .

( a−1=2 k ⟹ a=2 k +1 ) ∧ ( a−1=2 k +1 ⟹ a=2 ( k +1 ) )

⟹ ∄a ∈ A ( a≤ n , ∀ n ∈ A ) ⟺ A=∅ ⟺ ∀ n ∈ N ( n=2 k ∨ n=2 k +1 , k ∈ Z ).

Let A ⊆ N ∧B={ n ∈ N :n ≥ n0 } .

Prove that n 0 ∈ A ∧ ( k ∈ A ⟹ k +1 ∈ A ) ⟹ B ⊆ A .

Let n 0 ∈ A ∧ ( k ∈ A ⟹ k +1 ∈ A ) , let C={ n ∈ N :n ∈ B ∧n ∉ A }, and let C ≠ ∅ .

C ⊂ N ∧C ≠ ∅ ⟹∃ c ∈ C ( c ≤ n , ∀ n ∈C ).

( c <n 0 ⟹ c ∉ B ) ∧ ( c=n0 ⟹ c ∈ A ) ⟹ c >n0 ⟹ n0 ≤ c−1<c ⟹ c−1 ∈ A

⟹ c ∈ A ⟹∄ c ∈ C ( c ≤ n , ∀ n∈ C ) ⟺ C=∅ ⟺ B ⊆ A .

Prove that ∀ n ∈ N ,>1 ( n either prime∨ product of primes ) .

Let A={ n ∈ N :2 ,… ,n either prime∨ product of primes }.

2 prime ⟹ 2∈ A .

Let k ∈ A .
k +1 either prime (⟹ k +1 ∈ A ) or not prime (⟹ k +1=ab where a , b ∈ N ,< k +1).

( a , b=1⟹ b , a=k +1 ) ⟹ a , b ≠1 ⟹ 1< a , b<k + 1⟺ 2 ≤ a ,b ≤ k ⟺ a , b ∈ A

⟹ k +1 product of primes ⟺ k +1 ∈ A .

( 2 ∈ A ) ∧ ( k ∈ A ⟹ k + 1∈ A ) ⟹ A=N− {1 }

⟺ ∀ n ∈ N ,>1 ( n either prime∨ product of primes ) .

Prove that ∀ n ∈ N ( √ n ∈Q ⟺ n=m2 , m∈ Z ).

∀ n ∈ Z ( √ n ∈Q ⟺ n=m , m∈ Z ) ⟺ ∀ n∈ Z ( √ n ∈Q ⟺ √n=m , m∈ Z )
2

⟹ ∄n ∈ Z (√ n= ab where a , b coprime >1).

a
If √ n ∈Q , then √ n= for some a , b coprime.
b

a a 1
Either (i) =a (if b=1 or a=0), (ii) = (if a=1), or (iii) a , b>1 .
b b b

√ n=a ⟺ n=a2 ,a ∈ Z .
1 1
√ n= ⟺ n= 2 ⟺ b=1 (i).
b b

If a , b coprime ¿ 1, then a= p1 … p m for some prime p1 , … , pm (if a prime, consider p1=a and
m=1), b=q 1 … q l for some prime q 1 , … , q l (same procedure if b prime), and ∀ m∄l ( pm =ql ) .

Thus, if (iii), then

a p1 … p m
√ n= = 2 2
⟹ b n=( q1 … ql ) ( q 1 … ql ) n=a =( p1 … pm ) ( p1 … p m ),
b q1 … ql

violating the unique prime factorization theorem.

a
Therefore, if √ n= for some a , b coprime, then (i).
b

Quod erat demonstratum.