Real Analysis Notes

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Section – 1 Lecture Notes -1 (A) REAL ANALYSIS
Algebraic properties of ℝ - On the set of real numbers there

are two binary operations denoted by + and ∙are called
addition and multiplication,respectively. These operations
satisfy the following properties.
1. a + b = b + a, ∀ a, b ∈ℝ(Commutativiti w.r.t addition)

2. (a + b) + c=a+(b + c) ∀ a ,b ,c∈ ℝ(Associativity of
addition)
3. There exists an element 0 in ℝ Such that 0+a = a = a+0
∀a∈ℝ (Existence of zero element)
4. ∀ a ∈ ℝ ∃ -a ∈ ℝ : a+(-a) = 0 and (-a) + a = 0
5. a ∙ b = b ∙ a ∀ a, b ∈ ℝ (commutative of multiplication)
6. (a ∙ b) ∙ c = a ∙ (b ∙ c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ ℝ(Associative of
multiplication)
7. (Existence of unit element) ∃ 0 ≠ 1 ∈ ℝ : a ∙ 1 =1 ∙ a =a
∀a∈ℝ
8. (Existence of reciprocals) ∀ 0 ≠ a∈ℝ ∃ ∈ ℝ: a ∙ =1= ∙ a
9. a∙ (b + c) = (a ∙ b)+( a ∙ c)
and (b + c) ∙a = (b ∙ a) + (c ∙ a) ∀ a, b, c ∈ℝ.( Distributive

property of multiplication over additon).
Theorem
1. If z and a are elements in ℝ With z + a = a, then z = 0

2. If u and b ≠ 0 are elements in ℝ With u ∙ b = b, then u = 1
3. If a ∈ ℝ , then a ∙ 0 = 0.
 Notes prepared by sanjeev kumar shukla

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Proof –
1. z = z + 0 (Existence of zero element)
= z + (a + (-a)) = (z + a) + (-a)
= a + (-a) = 0.
2. If u and b ≠ 0 are elements in ℝ and u ∙ b = b
To Show that - u = 1
Consider u = u ∙ 1 (Existence of unit)
= u (b ∙ ) (Existence of reciprocals)
= (u ∙ b) (using association of multiplication
= b∙ ( u∙b= bis guven)
⇒ u = b∙ = 1
⇒ u = 1
3. If a ∈ℝ , then a ∙ 0 = 0
a + a ∙ 0 = a ∙ 1 + a ∙ 0 (Existence of unit)
= a (1 + 0) = a ∙ 1 (Distributivity)
= a (Existence of unit)
⇒ a ∙ 0 = 0 (By (a))
Theorem
1. If 0 ≠ a ∈ ℝ are such that a ∙ b = 1 ⇒ b =
2. If a ∙ b = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0

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Proof –
(1). b = b ∙ 1 (Existence of unit)
= b (a∙ ) (a≠0, Existence of reciprocal)
= (ba) ∙ (Associativity)
= (ab) ∙ (Commutativity of multiplication)
= (1 ∙ ) (ab = 1)
⇒ b = (Existence of unit element)
(2). let a ∙ b = 0, If a = 0 we are done , if a ≠ 0 ,1/a exists.
Now , b = b ∙ 1 = b ) (Existence of reciprocals)
= b(a ∙ ) = (ba) = (ab) =0 ∙ = 0
⇒ b = 0
Notation –
1. a + (-b) = a – b ∀ a, b ∈ ℝ
2. a ∙ ( ) = if b ≠ 0
3. a(n+1) = (an)a n ∈ ℕ
4. a1 = a
5. If a ≠ 0 then a0 = 1 and a-1 = ,Also if n ∈ ℕ , we will
write a(-n) = ( )n

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Rational number –
Any number that can be written as where a, b ∈ ℤ and b ≠ 0,
is called a rational number. The set of all rational numbers is

denoted by ℚ.
Irrational number –
Any number which is not rational is called irrational.
OR
A number X is called irrational iff ∄ a and b(≠0) in ℤ such that
X =
Theorem –There does not exists a rational number

‘r’such that r2 = 2.
Proof– Let if possible ∃ rational number
r = (q ≠ 0, p, q ∈ ℤ) :
( ) = 2.
Note - without the loss of generality we can assume that
there is no common Factor b/w p and q, and p and q both are
positive ,Now ( ) =2 ⇒ p2 = 2q ⇒ p2 is even
(p is odd ⇒ p = 2n-1 , n ∈ ℤ
Then p2 = (2n-1)2
= 2(2n2-2n+1)-1, is odd)

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Also p and q do not have 2 as a common factor
∴ q is odd …….. (1)
Now as p is even p = 2m
Where m ∈ ℕ :
⇒ 4m2 = 2q2 ⇒ q2 = 2m2
⇒ q2 is even ⇒ q is even ……… (2)
From (1) and (2) we have a contradiction.
And hence there is no p and q in ℤ such that
( )2 = 2 ⇒ ∄ any r ∈ ℚ : r2 = 2.
ORDER PROPERTY OF ℝ -
There is a non empty subset P of ℝ, called
The set of positive real numbers ,
That satisfy the following properties.
1. If a, b belong to P , then a + b ∈ P.
2. If a, b ∈ P then a ∙ b ∈ P
3. If a ∈ℝ then exactly one of the following is true..
a ∈ P , a= 0 , -a ∈ P.
3 r d property is called trichotomy property

Negative Set –
Define a set {-a : a ∈ P} , then this set is called set of negative

numbers.

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Notations –
1. If a ∈ P we write , a > 0
2. If a ∈ P U {0} , we write a ≥ 0
3. If -a ∈ P we write a < 0
4. If -a ∈ P U {0} , we write a ≤ 0
a > 0 , ⇒ a is positive real number
a ≥ 0 , ⇒ a is non-negative real number
a < 0 , ⇒ a is negative real number
a ≤ 0 , ⇒ a is non-positive real number
Definition - Let a , b be the elements in ℝ
(a). If a-b ∈ P, we write a > b or b < a
(b). If a-b ∈ PU{0}, we write a ≥ b or b ≤ a
Theorem - Let a, b, c be any elements of ℝ
(a). If a > b and b > c , then a > c
(b). If a > b then a + c > b +c
(c). If a > b and c > 0 , then ca > cb
(d). If a > b and c < 0, then ca < cb
Note -(b)is called monotonic law of addition.
(c)is called monotonic law of multiplication.

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Proof -
(a). Given - a > b and b > c
⇒ a – b ∈ P and b – c ∈ P
To Show that - a > c i.e a – c ∈ P
As a – b ∈ P and b – c ∈ P
( By property 1.of P ) we have (a - b) + (b - c) ∈ P
⇒ a + (-b + b) - c ∈ P
⇒ a - c ∈ P ⇒ a > c.
(b). If a > b, then a + c > b + c
Proof- Given - a > b ⇒ a - b ∈ P
Now (a + c) - (b + c) = a + c - b - c
= a + c - c - b
= a - b ∈ P
⇒ (a + c) - (b + c) ∈ P ⇒ a + c > b + c.
(c). Given - a > b ⇒ a - b ∈ P
and c > 0 ⇒ c ∈ P , ∴ by property 2nd of P
c(a - b) ∈ P ⇒ ca - cb ∈ P
⇒ ca > cb.
(d). Given - a > b ⇒ a - b ∈ P

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And c < 0 ⇒ -c ∈ P
∴ again by property (2) of +ve set P
(-c)(a - b) ∈ P
⇒ -ca + cb ∈ P
⇒ cb - ca ∈ P
⇒ (cb > ca) .
Theorem -
(a) If a ∈ ℝ and a ≠ 0 ⇒ a2 > 0
(b) 1 > 0
(c). If n ∈ ℕ
Proof -
(a). Given - a ∈ ℝ and a ≠ 0
To show - a2 > 0
As a ∈ ℝ and a ≠ 0
⇒ a ∈ P or –a ∈ P
Now if a ∈ P then a2 = a ∙ a ∈ P
⇒ a2 ∈ P or a2 > 0
Now if -a ∈ P

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a2 = (-a)(-a) ∈ P ( -a ∈ P ⇒ (-a)(-a) ∈ P)
⇒ a2 ∈ P ⇒ a2 > 0
(b). Now as 0 ≠ 1 ∈ ℝ
∴ by (a) 12> 0
⇒ 1 = 12 > 0 ⇒ 1 > 0
(c). We’ll show using mathematical induction –
For n = 1 ; 1 > 0
Now assume result is true for n = k ⇒ k ∈ P
Now we’ll show that result is also true for n = k +1
Now k ∈ P and 1 ∈ P
⇒ k +1 ∈ P (using 1st property of P)
⇒ result is true for n = k +1 ∴ result is true for all

n ∈ ℕ⇒ n > 0 ∀ n ∈ℕ .
Absolute value –
Let a be any real number then absolute value of a is

denoted by |a| and is defined as.
|a| = {

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Theorem –
(a). |ab| = |a| |b| ∀ a, b ∈ ℝ
(b). |a|2 = a2 ∀ a ∈ ℝ
(c). if c ≥ 0, then |a| ≤ c iff -c ≤ a ≤ c
(d). -|a| ≤ a ≤ |a| ∀ a ∈ ℝ
Proof-
(a). if a = 0 or b = 0 ⇒ |ab| = |a| ∙ |b|
So assume a ≠ 0 , b ≠ 0 .
Case – 1 a > 0, b > 0 ⇒ ab > 0 ⇒ |ab| = ab
Now |ab| = ab = |a|∙ |b|
(∵ a > 0 ⇒ |a| = a & b > 0 ⇒ |b| = b )
Case – 2 a < 0, b < 0 ⇒ ab > 0 ⇒ |ab| = ab
Now |ab| = ab = (-a)(-b) = |a|∙

|b| (∵ b < 0 ⇒ |b| = -b, a < 0 ⇒ |a| = -a )
Case – 3 a < 0, b > 0 ⇒ ab < 0 ⇒ |ab| = -ab
⇒ |ab| = (-a)b = |a||b|
( ∵ a < 0 ⇒ |a| = -a, b > 0 ⇒ |b| = b )
Case – 4 a > 0, b < 0 ⇒ ab < 0 ⇒ |ab| = -ab
⇒ |ab| = a(-b) = |a||b|
( ∵ a > 0 ⇒ |a| = a, b < 0 ⇒ |b| = -b )
∴ in possible cases we have
|ab| = |a||b|
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(b). ∀ a ∈ ℝ : a2 ≥ 0
⇒ a2 = |a|2 = |a ∙ a| = |a| ∙ |a| = | a|2
⇒ |a|2 = a2
(c). c ≥ 0, then |a| ≤ c iff -c ≤ a ≤ c
Note - To prove this we’ll prove the following
Max {a, -a} = |a|
When a = 0 the result is true assume a ≠ 0.
Case – 1 a > 0 ⇒ |a| = a …….. (1)
a > 0 ⇒ -a < 0 ⇒ a > -a ⇒ max {a, -a} = a
⇒ max {a, -a} = a = |a| (By (1) )
⇒ max {a, -a} = |a|
Case – 2 a < 0 ⇒ |a| > -a ……… (2)
a < 0 ⇒ -a > 0 ⇒ -a > a ⇒ max {a, -a} = -a
⇒ max {a, -a} = -a = |a| (By (2) )
⇒ max {a, -a} = |a|
Now we’ll show that |a| ≤ c ⟺ -c ≤ a ≤ c
|a| ≤ c ⟺ max {a, -a} ≤ c
⟺ a ≤ c & -a ≤ c
⟺ a ≤ c & a ≥ -c
⟺ -c ≤ a ≤ c

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(d). Now |a| ≥ 0
Do yourself -
Triangular Inequality –
If a, b ∈ ℝ then |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
Proof -
Case - 1 a + b > 0
|a + b| = a + b ….. (1)
and we know that a ≤ |a|, b ≤ |b|
⇒ a + b ≤ |a| + |b| ….. (2)
Using (2) in (1) we get |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
Case - 2 a + b < 0
|a + b| = -(a + b)
= -(a) + -(b) ……. (3)
Now we know that
-(a) ≤ |a|, -(b) ≤ |b|
⇒ -(a) + -(b) ≤ |a| + |b| …… (4)
Using (4) in (3) we get |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
Case - 3 a + b = 0 ⇒ a = -b and |a + b| = 0
⇒ |a| = |-b| = |b|
⇒ |a| + |b| = 2|a|

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⇒ |a + b| = 0 ≤ |a| + |b|
⇒ |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
Corollory - If a, b ∈ ℝ then
(a). | |a| - |b| | ≤ |a - b|,
(b). |a - b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
Proof - |a| = |a - b + b|
≤ |a - b| + |b| (using triangle inequality)
⇒ |a| - |b| ≤ |a - b| ….. (1)
Now |b| = |b – a + a| ≤ |b - a| + |a|
⇒ |b| - |a| ≤ |b - a| = |a - b| ….. (2)
⇒ max {|a| - |b|, |b| - |a| } ≤ |a - b|
⇒ max {|a| - |b|, -(|a| - |b|) } ≤ |a - b|
⇒ | |a| - |b| | ≤ |a - b|.
Definition- Let a ∈ ℝ and ε> 0. Then the
ε–neighborhood of a is the set vε(a) defined as

vε(a) = { x ∈ ℝ : |x – a| <ε}.

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Thoerem - Let a ∈ ℝ . If x belongs to the neighborhood

vε(a) ∀ ε > 0, then x = a.
Proof - Since 0 ≤ |x – a| < ε ∀ ε > 0
∴ |x – a| = 0 (∵ if 0 ≤ a < ε ∀ ε > 0 then a = 0 )
⇒ x = a.
Q1: If a, b ∈ ℝ and b ≠ 0 show that
(a). |a| = √ (b). | ⁄ | = ⁄
Sol: (a). Case – 1 a > 0 ⇒ |a| = a
⇒ |a|2 = a2
⇒ |a| = √
Case – 2 a < 0 ⇒ |a| = -a
⇒ |a|2 = -(a)2 = a2
⇒ |a| = √
Case -3 a = 0 ⇒ |a| = 0
⇒ |a|2 = 02
⇒ |a| = √ = √
(b). | ⁄ | = ⁄

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Case -1 a > 0, b > 0 ⇒ > 0 ⇒ | | = =
(∵ a = |a|, b = |b| )
Case -2 a < 0, b < 0 ⇒ > 0 ⇒ | | = = ⁄ =
(∵ |a| = -a, |b| = -b| , a <0, b < 0)
Case -3 a < 0, b > 0 ⇒ < 0 ⇒ | |= ( )= ⁄ =
(∵ |a| = -a, |b| =b , a <0, b> 0)
Case -4 a > 0, b > 0. Do yourself.
ε–neighborhood
Let a be any real number and let ε > 0 be any number then
ε – neighborhood of “a” is define d as the set
vε(a) = { x ∈ ℝ : |x – a| < ε} = (a – ε, a + ε).
Neighborhood
Let a be any real number thena non – empty set V is called

neighborhood of “a” iff ∃ ε > 0 :
vε(a) ⊆ V i .e (a – ε, a + ε) ⊆ V.
Note - Every ε – neighborhood of “a” is neighborhood of “a”
Let V = vε(a)
We’ll show that V is a nbhd of a.
As vε(a) is an ε – nbhd of ‘a’ also vε(a) ⊆ vε(a) = V
⇒ vε(a) ⊆ V ⇒ V is a nbhd of a

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Open Set - A set G is said to be an open set if for each x ∈ G
∃ a nbhd V of x such that V ⊆ G.
Closed Set – A set F is said to be closet set if it’s complement
Fc = ℝ - F is an open set.
Theorem -
Let A be subset of ℝ then A is open iff ∀ x ∈ A ∃ εx > 0 :
]X - εx , X+ εx [ ⊆ A
Proof - First assume A is open then ∀ x ∈ A ∃ nbhd of V

of x : V ⊆ A ……..(1)
Now V is nbhd of x ∴ ∃ ε x > 0 : ] X - εx , X+ εx [ ⊆ V ……… (2)
From (1) & (2) we have ] X - εx , X+ εx [ ⊆ A
Conversely – Assume that ∀ x ϵ A ∃ εx > 0 : ] X - εx , X+ εx [ ⊆ A
To show that - A is open I .e To show that ∈ nbhd of V of x

∈ x ∈ A
Let x ∈ A (be any element)
By our assumption ∃ ε x > 0 : ] X - εx , X+ εx [ ⊆ A
Let V = ] X - εx , X+ εx [ ⊆ A then V is a nbhd of x
⇒ V ⊆ A ∴ A is an open set .

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Note - From now onwards whenever we need to show A is

open we’ll show that
∀ x ϵ A ∃ εx > 0 : ] X - εx , X+ εx [ ⊆ A .
Remark - G is open iff ∀ x ∈ G ∃ ε > 0 :
vε(x) ⊆ G ⇒ G is neighborhood of x
⇒ G is open iff it is neighborhood of each of it’s points.
Example Every open interval of the type ]a, b[ is an open set.
Proof - Consider ]a, b[ Let x ∈ ]a, b[ be any point, we shall

show ]a, b[ is nbhd of x.
Let εx = min {x – a, b - x} then ]x - εx, x + εx [ ⊆ ]a, b[
(∵ εx = min {x – a, b - x} ⇒ εx ≤ x – a, εx ≤ b - x )
⇒ a ≤ x - εx & x + εx ≤ b )
⇒ ]x - εx , x + εx [ ⊆ ]a, b[
And hence ]a, b [ is open set .
Example – ℝ, The Set of reals is an open set .
Proof - Let x ∈ ℝ , then ∀ℰ> 0
]x - εx , x + εx [ ⊆ ℝ⇒ℝ is open set.
Example – Set of rationals Q is not open set .
Proof -Let x ∈ Q,then ∀ x ∈ Q and ∀ ℰ> 0 ]x - εx , x + εx [ ⊈ Q

(∵ ]x - εx , x + εx [ contains infinite no. of rationals which can
be in Q) ⇒ Q can’t be open.

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Question - Empty set is an open set.
Solution - Since ∅ is a set with no elements in it ∴ there

is no element in ∅ of which it is not a nbhd
⇒ ∅ is nbhd of each of its points
⇒ ∅ is open set.
Question – Any finite set is not open.
Solution - Let S be any finite set we’ll show S is not nbhd of

any of its points. Let x ∈ S be any
Then ∀ ε > 0
]x - εx , x + εx [ ⊈ S (∵ ]x - εx , x + εx [ is infinite
set while s is finite set)
⇒ S is not open.
Question – Every open interval of the type ] -∞, a[ is open.
Proof
- Let x ∈ ]-∞,a[ be any number ⇒ x + Ԑ < a
⇒ -∞ < x + Ԑ < a ⇒ -∞ < x - Ԑ < x + Ԑ < a
⇒ ]x - Ԑ, x +Ԑ [ ⊆ ]-∞,a[
⇒ ]-∞, a[ is open.

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Open Set Properties -
1.The union of an arbitrary collection of open subsets in ℝ is

open.
2.Intersection of finite collection of open sets is an open set.
Proof –
(a) Let {Gλ : λ ∈ Δ} be an arbitrary family of open set.
Let G = ⋃ we have to prove that G is open set .
Let x ∈ G (be any element)
⇒ x ∈ G = ⋃
⇒ x ∈ Gλ for λ ∈ Δ
As each Gλ is open set ∴ ∃ εx > 0 :
]x - εx , x + εx [ ⊆ Gλ ⊆ ⋃
⇒ ]x - εx , x + εx [⊆⋃ = G ⇒ G is open set .
(b). Let G1, G2 , G3 ……. Gn be open sets
To show that ⋂ is an open set.
Let x ∈ ⋂ (be any element)
⇒ x ∈ Gi ∀ i = 1, 2, 3….. n
As each Gi is an open set ⇒ ∃ εi > 0 , i = 1, 2, 3 …. n :
]x - εi, x+εi [ ⊆ Gi ∀ i = 1, 2, 3 ….n
Let Ԑ = min { Ԑ1, Ԑ2,……. Ԑn}
Then ]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ [ ⊆ ] x - εi, x+εi [ ⊆ Gi ∀ i = 1, 2, 3 ….n

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⇒ ]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ [ ⊆ Gi ∀ i = 1, 2, 3 ….n
⇒ ]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ [ ⊆ ⋂
⇒ ⋂ is an open set.
Definition (Closed set) -
A set G is closed iff it’s complement is open.
Properties of Closed sets –
(a). Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is a closed set.
(b). Finite union of closed sets is a closed set.
Proof - Let {Gλ}λ∈Δ be a family of closed sets.
To show that – ⋂ is closed set.
i.e To show that (⋂ )cis open set
we know ⋂ ) = ⋂ ) ……. (1)
Now as Gλ is closed ∀ λ ∈ Δ (Gλ)c is open ∀ λ ∈ Δ
⇒ ⋃ ) is open set (∵ Arbitrary union of open

sets is an open set).
⇒ By (1) ⋂ ) is open
⇒ ⋂ closed set.
(b). Finite union of close d sets is a closed set.
Let G1, G2, …….. Gn be finite number of closed sets.
Then we have to show that ⋃ is closed i.e To

show that ⋃ ) is an open set.

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We know that ⋃ ) = ⋂ ) …… (1)
Now since Gi is closed for i = 1, 2, …. n
⇒ (Gi)c is open for i = 1, 2, …. N
⇒ ⋂ ) is open (∵ finite intersection of open sets is

open)
Note -1 Arbitrary intersection of open sets may not be open.
Example - Let F = { (- ) | n ∈ ℕ } a family of open sets.
We’ll show that ⋀ ℕ ( ) is not an open set
As ⋀ ℕ ( ) = {0} and {0} is not an open set,
being a finite set.
Note -2 Arbitrary union of closed sets may not be closed.
Example – Let F = {[ ] | n ∈ ℕ } then each member of F is
closed set (being closed intervals)
But ⋃ ℕ* + = (0, 2] is not closed.
Theorem – Every closed interval of the type [a, b] is a closed set.
Proof - Let F = [a, b] Then Fc = [a, b]c = (-∞,a)U(b, ∞) which

is open set (being union of open sets)
⇒ F is closed ⇒ [a, b] is closed set.

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Cluster point - (limit point)
A real number “x” is said to be limit point or cluster point of a set A

⊆ ℝ iff every Ԑ - nbhd of x contains a member of A other than ‘x’.
i.e ∀ Ԑ > 0
VԐ (x) ⋂ (A – {x}) ≠ ϕ
]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ[ ⋂ (A – {x}) ≠ ϕ ∀ Ԑ > 0
Example – Consider the set S = ]a, b[ then ∀ Ԑ > 0 ]a-Ԑ,a+Ԑ[

contains infinitely many points of ]a,b[
⇒ a is limit point of ]a,b[
Similarly ∀ Ԑ > 0 ]b-Ԑ,b +Ԑ[ contains infinitely many points

of ]a,b[ ⇒ b is limit point of ]a, b[
Theorem - A set A is closed iff is contains all of it’s limit points.
Proof -First Let us assume that A is closed set .
Let x be any limit point of A
To show that x ∈ A.
Let x ∉ A ⇒ x ∈ ℝ ~ A
Now as A is closed ∴ ℝ ~ A is open.
⇒ ℝ ~ A is neighborhood of x
⇒ ∃ Ԑ > 0 : ]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ[ ⊆ ℝ ~ A

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⇒ ]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ[ ⋂ A = ∅
⇒ x is not a limit point of A which is a contradiction as x

is limit point of A
⇒ x ∉ A is not possible ⇒ x ∈ A
⇒ A contains all it’s limit points.
Conversely assume that A contains all it’s l imit points.
To show that – A is closed for that we need to show that

ℝ ~ A is open.
Let x ∈ ℝ ~ A (be any point)
⇒ x ∉ A ⇒ x is not limit point of A
⇒ ∃ Ԑ > 0 : VԐ(x) ⋂ A = ∅
⇒ VԐ(x) ⊆ ℝ ~ A
⇒ ℝ ~ A is nbhd of x
Since x was any arbitrary point of ℝ ~ A this

follows that ℝ ~ A is nbhd of each of it ’s points
⇒ ℝ ~ A is open
⇒ A is closed.

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Examples on Cluster point.
(1) Every Real number is cluster point of Q.
Solution – Let x ∈ ℝ be any real number then ∀ Ԑ > 0
]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ[ contains infinitely many real numbers

which are rationals.
⇒ ]x - Ԑ, x + Ԑ[ ⋂ (Q – {x}) ≠ ∅
⇒ x is limit point of Q.
Definition – (Derived Set)
Let S be any subset of real numbers then derived set of S is

denoted by Sl and is defined as
Sl = {x : x is limit point of S}
Note – in view of above result and definition we can say

that Ql = ℝ
(2) Set of integers has no limit point.
Solution – Let ℤ denote the set of integers, we’ll show no real

number “x” can be limit point of ℤ
As x ∈ ℝ∴ we have two cases.
(1) x ∈ ℤ (2) x ∉ℤ
Case 1 x ∈ ℤ then ]x - [ is a neighborhood of
which contains no integers

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Other than x (between any two integers there

is distance of at least one unit)
⇒ x is not limit point of ℤ
Case 2 x ∉ ℤ then we can choose two integers n and

n+1 such that n< x < n+1
Then if we choose Ԑ = min {x-n, n+1-x}
]x-Ԑ, x+Ԑ[ will contain no integer
⇒ x can’t be limit point of ℤ
And hence no real number can be limit point of

ℤ
⇒ ℤl = ∅
Example : ( ]a, b[ )l = [a, b]
Solution:
if x ∈ [a, b] then for every Ԑ > 0 , ] x-Ԑ, x+Ԑ [

contain infinitely many members of ]a,
b[
And ∴ one member of ]a, b [, other than ‘x’
∴ x is a limit point of ]a,b[
Now let x ∉ [a, b]
Case 1 x < a then choose (0<Ԑ<a-x)

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⇒ x + Ԑ<a and ∴ ]x-Ԑ, x+Ԑ[ does not contain

any member of [a, b]
⇒ x is not a cluster point of ]a, b[
Case 2 x > b, then choose 0<Ԑ<x-b
⇒ x-Ԑ > b
⇒ ∴ ]x-Ԑ , x+Ԑ[ does not contain any member

of ]a, b[
⇒ x is not a limit point of ]a, b[
Hence ( ]a, b[ )l = [a, b]
Example Set of integers is closed.
Solution: As ℤl = ∅ and ∅ ⊆ Z ⇒ ℤl ⊆ Z
⇒ ℤ contains all it’s limit points
⇒ ℤ is closed
Example Set of natural numbers has no limit point.
OR
(ℕ)l = ∅
And (ℕ)l = ∅ ⊆ ℕ⇒ℕ is closed
Example: Let S = { ℕ}
Then Sl = {0}

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Solution: Let Ԑ > 0 be any real number then by archimedian

property ∃n∈ℕ :
n > or n <
Now S and ∈ ]0-Ԑ, 0+Ԑ[
⇒ ∀ Ԑ > 0 ]0-Ԑ, 0+Ԑ[ contains a member of S ⇒

0 is cluster point of S
To show - No real number other than 0 can be limit

point of S
Let x ≠ 0 be any real number
Case 1 x < 0
Then choose 0<Ԑ<-x ; x+Ԑ < 0
∴ ]x-Ԑ, x+Ԑ[ does not contain a member of S
⇒ x can’t be limit point of S
Case 2 x > 1
Then choose 0<Ԑ<x-1
∴ ]x-Ԑ, x+Ԑ[ doest not contain any member of

S (∵ x-Ԑ >1 ⇒ ]x-Ԑ, x+Ԑ[ ⊆ ]1, ∞[)
Case 3 x = 1, the for Ԑ = 1/3 (x-Ԑ, x+Ԑ) = (2/3,4/3)

and it does not contain any points of S
Other than 1
⇒ 1 is not limit point of S

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Case 4 0<x<1 : x ∈ S
⇒ x = 1/n , n ∈ ℕ : n ≥ 2
Now n-1 < n < n+1 ⇒ > >
Then ( ) is a nbhd of x = 1/n and it
contains no point of S other than x = 1/n
⇒ x is not limit point of S.
Case 5 Let 0<x<1, x ∉ S
Let m and m+1 be consecutive naturals such

that m < < m+1 ⇒ ) is a nbhd of x,
And contains no point of S.
⇒ x is not limit point of S
⇒ Sl = {0}
Interior point - A point x ∈ ℝ is said to be an interior point

of a set s ⊆ℝ if ∃a nbhd V of x such that v ⊆ S
Isolated point – A point x ∈ S is said to be an isolat ed point of

S if x is not an interior point of S.
Boundary point – A real number x is said to be boundary point

of A ⊆ ℝ if each nbhd of x contains points of A
as well as points of A c
Closure of a set – Let A ⊆ ℝ, then intersection of all closed

sets containing A is called closure of A,
and denoted as A

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Chapter – 11.1 (Guidelines Questions)
(Q1) If x ∈ (0, 1) and Ԑx = min {x, 1-x} if |u-x| < Ԑx , show

that u ∈ (0, 1)
Solution |u-x| < Ԑx ⇒ x- Ԑx < u < x + Ԑx ….. (1)
Now Ԑx = min {x, 1-x } ⇒ Ԑx ≤ x and x + Ԑx ≤ 1 …. (2)
From (1) & (2) 0≤x- Ԑx<u< x + Ԑx ≤ 1
⇒ 0<u<1 ⇒ u ∈ (0, 1)
(Q2) show that the intervals (a, ∞) and ( -∞, a) are open sets,
and that [b,∞) and (-∞b] are closed sets
Solution:
1. Let x ∈ (a, ∞)
Let Ԑx < x – a then a < x- Ԑx < x < x + Ԑx< ∞
⇒ (x- Ԑx , x + Ԑx) ⊆ (a, ∞)
⇒ (a, ∞) is open set
2. Let x ∈ (-∞, a)
⇒ x < a, Let Ԑx < a- x
⇒ x + Ԑx < a
⇒ x- Ԑx < x < x + Ԑx< a
⇒ - ∞ < x - Ԑx < x < x + Ԑx < a
⇒ (x - Ԑx , x + Ԑx) ⊆ (-∞, a)
⇒ (-∞, a ) is open

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3. [b,∞)c = (-∞,b) which is open set ⇒ [b, ∞) is closed
(-∞, b ]c = (b, ∞) which is open set
⇒ (-∞, b] is closed set .
(Q3) See the Proof of open set propert part (b) on

page no.(5)&(6)
(Q4) Show that (0, 1] = then 0 < x ≤ 1 < 1 + 1/n ∀ n ∈ ℕ
⇒ x ∈ (0, 1 + 1/n) ∀ n ∈ ℕ
⇒ x ∈ ⋂ ( )
⇒ (0, 1] ⊆ ⋂ ( )
Now we’ll show that no other reals belong to

⋂ (0,1+1/n)
i.e if x < 0 then x ∉ ⋂ (0,1+1/n)
and if x > 1 then x ∉ ⋂ (0,1+1/n)
Case -1 if x < 0, then x ∉ ⋂ (0,1+1/n) ∀ n ∈ ℕ
⇒ x ∉ ⋂ (0,1+1/n)
Case – 2 if x > 1, then x-1 > 0 ⇒ > 0
⇒ ∃ n ∈ ℕ : n >
⇒ < x-1 ⇒ 1+ < x
⇒ x ∉ (0,1+1/n) for some n ∈ ℕ

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⇒ x ∉ ⋂ (0,1+1/n)
⇒ ⋂ (0,1+1/n) = (0, 1]
(Q5) See on page (22) Example
(Q6) See page (22) Example , S= { ℕ } then Sl = {0}
Here A = S U {0} ⇒ Al = {0} and {0} ⊆ A ⇒ Al ⊆ A
⇒ A is closed…
Chapter - 2.2 (R.G Bartle) Exercises continued from page

14.
(Q2) if a, b ∈ ℝ , then |a+b| = |a| + |b| ⟺ ab ≥ 0
Solution: |a+b| = |a| + |b|
⟺ |a+b|2 = (|a| + |b|)2
⟺ (a + b)2 = |a|2 + |b|2 + 2|a||b| (∵ |x|2 = x2)
⟺ a2 + b2 +2ab = a2 + b2 + 2|ab| (∵|x|2 = x2 )
⟺ 2ab = 2|ab| (left cancellation law of

addition)
⟺ ab = |ab| (left cancellation law of

addition)
⟺ ab ≥ 0
(Q4) |x-a| < Ԑ ⟺ -Ԑ < x-a < Ԑ ⟺ a-Ԑ < x < a+Ԑ

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(Q3) if x, y, z ∈ ℝ x ≤ z , show that x ≤ y ≤ z ⟺ |x-y| + |y-z| =

|x-z|
Solution: first let x ≤ y ≤ z (we’ll show |x -y| + |y-z| = |x-z|)
As x ≤ y ⇒ x-y ≤ 0 ⇒ |x-y| = y-x ….. (1)
y ≤ z ⇒ y-z ≤ 0 ⇒ |y-z| = z–y …. (2)
x ≤ z ⇒ x-z ≤ 0 ⇒ |x-z| = z-x …. (3)
from (1) and (2)
|x-y| + |y-z| = z - x = |x-z| … (by 3)
Conversely assume
|x-y| + |y-z| = z - x = |x-z| …. (*)
( We’ll show x ≤ y ≤ z )
As x ≤ z ∴ it is enough to show y ≮ x and y ≯ z
Let if possible y < x ⇒ x – y > 0 ⇒ |x-y| = x- y
Also y < x ≤ z ⇒ y < z ⇒ |y -z| = z – y
∴ |x - y| + |y - z| ⇒ x + z – 2y ≠ |x - z|
∴ we have a contradiction to (*)
⇒ y ≮ x ⇒ x ≤ y …. (a)
Similarly we can show that z ≮ y
∴ y ≤ z …. (b)
From (a) & (b) x ≤ y ≤ z

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(Q5) if a < x -y x -y & b > x ⇒ b – a > x – y

…. (2)
From (1) & (2) -(b - a) < x – y < b – a
⇒ |x - y| < b – a
(Q6) (a) |4x - 5| ≤ 13
⇒ - 13 ≤ 4x – 5 13
⇒ -13 + 5 ≤ 4x ≤ 13 +5
⇒ -8 ≤ 4x ≤ 18 ⇒ (-2 ≤ x ≤ 9/2)
(b) |x2 - 1| ≤ 3
⇒ |x2 - 1|2 ≤ 32
⇒ (x2 - 1)2 - 32 ≤ 0
⇒ (x2 – 1+3 ) (x2 – 1 - 3) ≤ 0
⇒ (x2 + 2 ) (x2 - 4) ≤ 0
⇒ as x2 + 2 > 0 ⇒ x2 - 4 ≤ 0 ⇒ |x|2 ≤ 4 ⇒ |x| ≤ 2
⇒ - 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
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(Q7) |x + 1| + |x - 2| = 7
We have following cases (1) x < -1, (2) -1 < x <2, (3) x > 2
(1) x < -1 ⇒ x < 2
⇒ x + 1 < 0 and x -2 < 0
⇒ |x +1| = -(x + 1) and |x -2| = 2 – x
⇒ |x +1| + |x - 2| = - x – 1 + 2 – x = -2x +1
∴ - 2x + 1 = 7 ⇒ x = -3
(2) -1 < x <2
⇒ |x + 1| + x + 1, |x - 2| = 2 – x
⇒ x + 1 + 2- x = 7 ⇒ 3 = 7 (an absurd)
(3) x > 2 ⇒ x > -1
∴ x + 1 + x -2 = 7 ⇒ 2x = 8 ⇒ x = 4
(Q8) (a) |x - 1| > |x + 1| ⇒ (x-1)2> (x+1)2
⇒ (x-1)2 - (x+1)2> 0
⇒ ((x - 1)+(x + 1))(x – 1- x -1) > 0
⇒ 2x (-2) > 0 ⇒ -4x > 0 ⇒ x < 0
∴ x ∈ (-∞, 0)

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(b) |x| + |x +1| < 2
Case – 1 (x) < -1 ⇒ x < 0 ⇒ |x| = -x
And |x + 1| = -x – 1
∴ -x – x – 1 < 2 ⇒ x > -3/2
Case -2 0 < x
⇒ |x| = x, |x +1| = x + 1
⇒ 2x + 1 < 2 ⇒ x < ½
Case -3 -1 < x <0
⇒ -x + x + 1 < 2 ⇒ (1 < 2)
∴ -3/2 < x < ½
(Q9) y = |x| - |x - 1|
x < 0
⇒ y = -x +x – 1 ⇒ y = -1
0 < x < 1
⇒ y = x + x -1 ⇒ y = 2x -1
x > 1 ⇒ y = x – x +1 ⇒ y = 1
also y(0) = -1 y(1) = 1
(Q10) 4 < |x + 2| + |x - 1| < 5
Case – 1 x < -2 ⇒ 4 < -x -2 – x +1 < 5
⇒ 4 < -2x – 1 < 5 ⇒ 5 < -2x < 6 ⇒ -5/2 > x > -3

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Case - 2 -2 < x < 1
⇒ 4 < x + 2 + x -1 < 5 ⇒ 4 < 2x +1 < 5
⇒ 3/2 < x < 2
∴ x ∈ (3/2, 2) U (-3, -5/2)
(Q12) (a) |x| = |y| ⇒ x2 = y2 ⇒ y = ± x
(b) |x| + |y| = 1
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 ⇒ x + y =1
x < 0, y < 0 ⇒ -x – y = 1
x < 0, y > 0 ⇒ -x + y = 1
x > 0, y < 0 ⇒ x – y = 1
(c) |xy| = 2 ⇒ xy = ± 2
(d) Do yourself
(Q13) Do yourself
(Q15) as a ≠ b ⇒ |a - b| > 0, Let Ԑ =
Then U = VԐ(a) is Ԑ- nbhd of a
V = VԐ(b) is Ԑ - nbhd of b
(we’ll show U ⋂ V = ∅ )
Let if possible U ⋂ V ≠ ∅ ⇒ ∃ x ∈ U ⋂ V
⇒ x ∈ U and x ∈ V
⇒ x ∈ VԐ(a) , x ∈ VԐ(b)

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⇒ |x - a| < Ԑ, |x - b| < Ԑ …. (1)
Now |a- b| = |a – x + x - b|
⇒ |a- b| ≤ |x-a| + |x-b|
⇒ |a-b| < Ԑ + Ԑ ⇒ |a-b| < 2Ԑ ⇒ |a-b| < 2
⇒ (3 < 2) which is a contradict ion
∴ U ⋂ V ≠ ∅ is not possible ⇒ U ⋂ V = ∅
(Q16) (a)
Case – 1 a > b ⇒ max {a, b } = a …. (1)
Also a > b ⇒ |a-b| = a-b
⇒ ½{a +b + |a-b|} = 1/2 {a+b+a-b} = a …… (2)
From (1) & (2) max {a, b} = 1/2{a +b +|a -b|}
Case - 2 a < b ⇒ max {a, b} = b … (3) and |a -b| = b –a
Also ½{a+b+|a-b|} = ½ {a+b+b-a} = b … (4)
From (3) & (4) max {a, b} = ½{a+b+|a -b|},

similarly when a = b
∴ max {a, b } = ½{a+b+|a -b|} ∀ a, b ∈ ℝ
And for min {a, b} = ½{a + b - |a-b|}
Consider case - 1 a > b ⇒ min {a, b} = b … (1)
Also a > b ⇒ |a-b| = a- b
⇒ ½{a +b - |a-b|} = ½{a+b +b-a} = b … (2)

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From (1) & (2) min {a, b} = ½{a + b - |a-b|}
Case – 2 a < b ⇒ min {a, b} = a … (3)
Also a < b ⇒ |a - b| = b – a
⇒ ½{a+b-|a-b|} = ½{a+b+a – b} = a … (4)
From (3) and (4) min {a, b} = 1/2 {a+b - |a-b|}
Case – 3 a = b ⇒ min {a, b} = a … (5) (∵ a = b)
½{a+b-|a-b|} = ½{a+a- |a-a|} (∵ a = b)
= ½{2a} = a … (6)
From (5) & (6) min {a, b} = ½{a+b -|a-b|}
(Q14) for VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a) Let r = min {Ԑ, δ} (then we’ll show
VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a) = Vr(a) )
Let x ∈ VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a)
⇒ x ∈ VԐ(a) & x ∈ Vδ(a)
⇒ |x – a| <Ԑ And |x - a| < δ ⇒ |x-a| < min {Ԑ, δ} = r
⇒ |x-a| < r ⇒ x ∈ Vr(a)
⇒ VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a) ⊆ Vr(a) … (1)
Let x ∈Vr(a) ⇒ |x-a| < r = min {Ԑ, δ}
⇒ |x – a| <Ԑ And |x - a| < δ
⇒ x ∈ VԐ(a), x ∈ Vδ(a) ⇒ x ∈ VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a)
⇒ Vr(a) ⊆ VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a) …. (2)
From (1) & (2) VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a) = Vr(a)

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For VԐ(a) U Vδ(a) Let r = max{Ԑ, δ} (then we’ll show

VԐ(a) U Vδ(a) = Vr(a) )
Let x ∈ VԐ(a) U Vδ(a) ⇒ x ∈ VԐ(a) or x ∈ Vδ(a)
⇒ |x – a| <Ԑ And |x - a| < δ ⇒ |x-a| < max {Ԑ, δ} = r
⇒ x ∈ Vr(a) ⇒ VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a) ⊆ Vr(a) …. (3)
Let x ∈ Vr(a) ⇒ |x-a| < r = max {Ԑ, δ} ⇒ |x – a|

<Ԑ or |x - a| < δ
⇒ x ∈ VԐ(a) or x ∈ Vδ(a)
⇒ x ∈ VԐ(a) U Vδ(a) ∴ Vr(a) ⊆ VԐ(a) ⋂ Vδ(a) …. (4)
From (3) & (4) VԐ(a) U Vδ(a) = Vr(a).
Section 2.3 –
Definition - Let S be a non-empty subset of ℝ
(a) The set S is said to be bounded above if there exists a

number u ∈ ℝ such that s ≤ u ∀ s ∈ S.
Each such number u is called an upper bound of S.
(b) The set S is said to be bounded below if there exists a

number w ∈ ℝ such that w ≤ s ∀ s ∈ S.
Each such number w is called a lower bound of S.
(c) A set is bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded

below.

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Definition Let S be a non - empty subset of ℝ
(a) If S is bounded above then a number u is said to be a

supremum (or a least upper bound)
Of S if it satisfies the conditions.
1. U is an upper bound of S, and

2. If V is any upper bound of S, then u ≤ v.
(b) If S is bounded below, then a number w is said to be

infimum of S (or greatest lower bound of S)
If is satisfies the conditions.
1. W is lower bound of S, and

2. If t is any lower bound of S, then t ≤ w.
Order Completeness property – (Section 2.4)
Every non- empty bounded above set has a supremum .
Archimedian property –
Let x ∈ ℝ , then ∃ nx ∈ ℕ : nx> x
Proof – Let if possible n ≤ x ∀ n ∈ ℕ, for some x ∈ ℝ,
⇒ ℕ is bounded above
⇒ By O.C.P ℕ has supremum say M
Then n ≤ m ∀ n ∈ ℕ ⇒ n +1 ≤ m ∀ n ∈ ℕ

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⇒ n ≤ m-1 ∀ n ∈ ℕ
⇒ m-1 is an upper bound of ℕ
⇒ m ≤ m-1 ⇒ 0 ≤ -1 which is not possible
⇒ ∃ nx ∈ ℕ : nx> x.
Chapter (2.3) & (2.4) (R.G Bartle) (Guideline’s Questions)
(Q1) S1 = {x ∈ ℝ : x ≥ 0}
1. Clearly 0 ≤ x ∀ x ∈S1 ⇒ 0 is a lower bound of S 1

2. We’ll show that 0 is inf S 1, for that we only need to
show that 0 is greatest lower bound of S 1
Let u be any lower bound of S 1
To show that - u ≤ 0 , let if possible , u > 0 then u ∈S 1

also 0 0 is not possible ⇒ u ≤ 0 ⇒ Inf S 1 = 0
3. We’ll now show that S1 is not bounded above.
Let if possible S 1 is bounded above then by order

completeness property S1 has supremum. Let
Sup S1 = m , Now clearly m > 0
⇒ m +1 > 0 ⇒ m+1 ∈S1
As Sup S1 = m ⇒ m +1 < m

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⇒ (1< 0) (which is a contradiction)
∴ S1 is not bounded above.
(Q2) Do yourself.
(Q3) S3 = {1/n : n ∈ ℕ}
Sup S3 = 1 ; clearly x ≤ 1 ∀ x ∈ S3
⇒ 1 is an upper bound of S3
Now let u be any upper bound of S 3
We’ll show 1 ≤ u ; let if possible 1 > u ;
Now 1 ∈S3 and 1 > u is a contradiction As u is upper bound of

S3
⇒ 1 > u is not possible ⇒ 1 ≤ u
⇒ Sup S3 = 1
(Q4) S4 = {1-(-1)n/n | n ∈ ℕ} find sup S4 and Inf S4
Solution S4 = {1+1, 1 – 1/2, 1+1/3, 1-1/4…….}
= {2, 0.5, 1.333, 0.75, 1.2, …..}
Sup S4 = 2 and Inf S4 = 0.5

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(Q5) Let S be a non-empty subset of ℝ that is bounded below,

show that
InfS = - Sup{-s : s ∈ S}
Proof – Let T = {-s : s ∈ S } and SupT = m
To show that - Inf S = -m
Claim – 1 –m is a lower bound of s
Let x ∈ S be any element then –x ∈ T ⇒ -x ≤ m (∵ m =

SupT)
⇒ x ≥ -m ∀ x ∈ S
⇒ -m is a lower bound of S
Claim – 2 –m is greatest lower bound of S
Let u be any lower bound of S
⇒ u ≤ x ∀ x ∈ S
⇒ -u ≥ -x ∀ -x ∈ T
⇒ -u is an upper bound of T, As m = supT
⇒ m ≤ -u -m ≥ u
⇒ -m is greatest lower bound of S
⇒ inS = -m = -SupT = - sup{-s : s ∈ S}
Note – Since S is bounded below ⇒ ∃ k ∈ ℝ : k ≤ x ∀

x ∈ S

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Now ∀ y ∈ T , -y ∈ S
⇒ -y ≥ k ⇒ y ≤ -k ∀ y ∈ T
⇒ T is bounded above and hence by order

completeness property T has a supremum, which we
called
As m, in above Proof.
(Q6) If a set S ⊆ ℝ contains one of its upper bounds, show

that this upper bound is the supremum of S.
Solution: Let u be upbd of S : u ∈ S (T.S.T Sup(S)= u)
As u is already an upper bound
∴ we only need to show u is least upbd
Let v be any up bd of S
As V is upbd of S (T.S.T u ≤ v)
And u ∈ S ∴ u ≤ v (By definition of upbd)
∴ Sup(S) = u
(Q7) (⟶) Let u = upbd of S , Let t ∈ ℝ and t > u (T.S.T t ∉ s)
Let if possible t ∈ s as u = upbd of S ⇒ t ≤ u which is

a contradiction as t ≰ u (∵ t > u)
∴ t ∉ s
(⟵) Let u ∈ ℝ be :
If t ∈ ℝ , t > u than t ∉ s (T.S.T u = upbd of S)

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Let s ∈ S (T.S.T s ≤ u)
Let if possible s ≰ u ⇒ s > u now S ⊆ ℝ ⇒ s ∈ S ⊆ ℝ
⇒ s > u and s ∈ ℝ by our hypothesis s ∉ S, which is

not possible as s ∈ S
⇒ s ≰ u is not possible
⇒ s ≤ u ∀ s ∈ S ⇒ u = upbd of S.
(Q9) A, B are bounded Subsets of ℝ, Show that A U B is

bounded and
Sup(A U B) = Sup {SupA, SupB}
Solution A, B are bounded ⇒ ∃ k, K ∈ ℝ and kl , Kl ∈ ℝ :
K ≤ a ≤ K , kl ≤ b ≤ Kl ∀ a ∈ A, b ∈ B
Now x ∈ A U B ⇒ x ∈ A or ∈ B
⇒ k ≤ x ≤ K or kl ≤ x ≤ Kl
⇒ min {k, kl } ≤ x ≤ max {K, Kl } ∀ x ∈ A U B
⇒ A U B is bounded
Now x ∈ A U B ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ⇒ x ≤ sup(A) or x ≤
Sup(B)
⇒ x ≤ Sup {Sup(A), Sup(B)} ….. (1)
Now Let u be any upper bound of A U B(We’ll

show Sup{Sup(A), Sup(B)} ≤ u )
∀ a ∈ A as A ⊆ A U B ⇒ a ∈ A U B ⇒ a ≤ u ∀ a ∈ A
….(2)

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∀ b ∈ B as B ⊆ A U B ⇒ b ∈ A U B ⇒ b ≤ u ∀ b ∈ B
….(3)
From (2) & (3) ⇒ u is and upbd of A and u is an

upbd of B
⇒ Sup(A) ≤ u and Sup(B) ≤ u
⇒ Sup {Sup(A), Sup(B)} ≤ u … (4)
From (1) & (4)
⇒ Sup(A U B) = Sup{Sup(A), Sup(B)}
(Q10) Let S be bounded set in ℝ and S ≠ ∅
Let S0 ⊆ S and S0 ≠ ∅ then
Inf (S) ≤ Inf(S0) ≤ Sup(S0) ≤ Sup(S)
Solution - ∀ x ∈S0 ⊆ S
⇒ x ∈ S ⇒ Inf(S) ≤ x ∀ x ∈S 0
∈ Inf (S) is a lower bound of S 0
⇒ Inf(S) ≤ Inf(S0)….. (1)
Again, ∀ x ∈S0 , x ∈ S
⇒ x ≤ Sup(S) ∀ x ∈S0
⇒ Sup(S) is an upbd of S 0
⇒ Sup(S0) ≤ Sup(S) …. (2)
Now let s0 ∈ S0 (be fixed then)
Inf(S0) ≤ s0 Sup(S0) ⇒Inf(S0) ≤ Sup(S0) …. (3)

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From (1), (2) and (3) ⇒ Inf (S) ≤ Inf(S 0) ≤ Sup(S0) ≤

Sup(S)
(Q11) Let S ⊆ ℝ and suppose s* = Sup(S), s* ∈ S, If u ∉ S ,

show that
Sup{S U {u}} = Sup{ s* , u}
Solution
Case – 1 s* < u , ⇒ Sup{ s* , u} ≤ u
Claim – Sup{S U {u}} = u
1. Let x ∈ S U {u} ⇒ x ∈ S or x = u ⇒ x ≤ s * or x =
u ⇒ x u then Sup{ s*, u } = s*
We’ll claim – Sup{ S U {u}} = s* = Sup{ s*, u}
Claim – 1 s* is an upper bound of S U {u}
As s* = SupS and s* > u
⇒ x ≤ s* ∀ x ∈ S and u < s*
⇒ x ≤ s* ∀ x ∈ S U {u}
⇒s* is an upper bound of S U {u}
Claim – 2 s* is least upper bound of S U {u}

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Let k be any upper bound of S U {u} , then x ≤ k ∀ x

∈S U {u} …. (1)
Note - we are given that s* = SupS ∈ S
⇒ s* ∈ S ⊆S U {u}
Use this fact in (1) we get s* ≤ K ⇒ s* is least

upper bound of S U {u}
⇒ Sup{ S U {u}} = s* ⇒ Sup{ S U {u}} = Sup{ s*, u}.
(Q12) Show that a non - empty subset which is finite, in ℝ

contains it’s supremum.
Proof - Let S be any finite set containing n elements we’ll

prove the resukt by applying induction on
elements in S.
when s contains a single element i.e n = 1
Let S = {a1} then clearly Sup{s} = a1 ∈ S
Now when S contains two elements say a 1 & a2
(W.L.O.G) Assume , a1 > a2 then Sup{ a1 , a2 } = a1 ∈

S;
Now let us assume that result is true for all sets

containing K elements; we’ll show that result is also
true for n = K + 1 i.e for a set containing (K + 1)
elements
Let S = { a1 , a2 , ….. ak , ak+1 }

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Then S = Sl U { ak+1 } , where Sl = { a1 , a2 , ….. ak ,

ak+1 }
Note – since O(S) = k + 1 ⇒ ai ≠ aj ∀ i ≠ j
Now as Sl is a set containing k elements ∴ by our

assumption Sup Sl ∈ Sl , let Sup Sl = s*
Now by the Proof of above question (2)
We see SupS = Sup{ s* , ak+1}
⇒ SupS = s* or SupS = ak+1
Case -1 if SupS = s* ∈Sl ⊆ S
⇒ SupS ∈ S,
Case – 2 SupS = ak+1 ∈S (∵ S = Sl U { ak+1 } )
⇒ SupS ∈ S, ∴ in both of the cases .
⇒ SupS ∈ S
(Q15)Write down details in Proof of the following

theorem.
“A number u is the supremum of a non - empty subset S of

ℝ iff u satisfies conditions
1. S ≤ u ∀ s ∈ S, 2. If v < u , then there exists s * ∈ S

such that v < s* ”.

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Proof – Forward part – Assume u = SupS
⇒ S ≤ u ∀ s ∈ S, if v < u, as u is SupS ⇒ u is l.u.b and

hence v is not an upper bound
⇒ ∃ s* ∈ S : v < s*
Conversely assume that – 1 & 2 hold
Then 1 ⇒ u is an upper bound of S also if v is any upper

bound of S
T.S.T u ≤ v , let if possible v < u, then by condition 2 ∃ s *

∈ S : s* > v , which is a contradiction as v is upper bound
of S.
⇒ v < u is not possible ⇒ u ≤ v
⇒ SupS = u
Supremum and Infimum of real valued functions defined

on any region.
Let D be any region in space (Note – Space stands for ℝ,

ℝ2 , ℝ3,…..ℝn)
Let f : D ⟶ ℝ, be any function then Supf, the supremum of

the set f(D)
Defined as f(D) = {f(x)|x∈D}
i.e Supf = Supf(D)
Completeness property of ℝ -
Every non-empty bounded above subset of ℝ has a

supremum.

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Solved Questions Exercise 2.4
(Q1) Show that Sup {1- 1/n : n ∈ ℕ} = 1
Solution – Let x ∈ {1-1/n | n ∈ ℕ} be any element

then clearly x = 1-1/n < 1 , n ∈ ℕ
⇒ x < 1 ∀ x ∈ {1-1/n | n ∈ ℕ }
⇒ 1 is an upper bound of {1 -1/n | n ∈ ℕ }
Now let u be any upper bound of {1 -1/n | n ∈ ℕ }
To show that - 1 ≤ u , Let if possible 1 > u ⇒ 1 -u > 0 ⇒

> 0
By archimedian property there exists n ∈ ℕ : n > ⇒ 1-u
> 1/n
⇒ 1-1/n > u
Let x = 1-1/n; then x ∈ {1-1/n | n ∈ ℕ } and x > u ; which is a

contradiction as u is an
Upper bound of {1-1/n | n ∈ ℕ } ∴ our assumption that 1 > u is

wrong ⇒ 1 ≤ u
⇒ 1 = Sup{1-1/n | n ∈ ℕ }
(Q2) If S= { | m, n ∈ ℕ} , find InfS and SupS.
Solution – Let S1 = { | n ∈ ℕ } & S2 = { | m ∈ ℕ }
Then S = S1 + S2 and ⇒ Sup(S) = Sup(S1 ) + Sup(S2 )….. (A)

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Inf(S) = Inf(S1) + Inf(S2) …. (B)
Now Sup(S1) = 1 , Inf(S1) = 0
Sup(S2 ) = 0, Inf(S2) = -1
⇒ Sup(S) = 1, Inf(S) = -1
Note We’ll prove (A) & (B) later .
(Q3) Let S ⊆ ℝ ne non- empty. Prove that if a number

u in ℝ has the properties (i) for every n ∈
ℕthenumber u-1/n is not an upper bound of S, and
(ii) for every number n ∈ ℕ the number u+1/n us an
upper bound of S, then u = Sup(S), also conversely.
Solution – Claim – 1 u is an upper bound.
Let s ∈ S be any element , To show that – s ≤

u, Let if possible s > u
⇒ s – u > 0 ⇒ > 0 ∃ n ∈ ℕ : n >
⇒ 1/n < s – u ⇒ u + 1/n < s, s ∈ S
Which is a contradiction as u +1/n is an upper bound of S

and hence can’t be less than any element of S.
⇒ s ≤ u ⇒ u is upper bound of S.
Claim – 2 for any upper bound v of S. u ≤ v
Let if possible u > v ⇒ u – v > 0
⇒ > 0, ∃ n ∈ ℕ : n >
⇒ 1/n v is not possible ⇒ u ≤ v
⇒ Sup(S) = u
Conversely Let Sup(S) = u
⇒ x ≤ u ∀ x ∈ S ⇒ x ≤ u 0 and let aS = {as | s ∈ S}. Prove that inf(aS)
= a inf(S), Sup(aS) = a Sup(S).
(b) Let b < 0, and let bS = {bS |s ∈ S}. Prove that
inf(bS) = b Sup(S), Sup(bS) = b Inf(s).
Solution - (a) Claim – 1 a Inf(S) is a lower bound of ‘aS’
Let x ∈ aS be any e lement then x = as, s ∈ S.
Now Inf(S) ≤ s ∀ s ∈ S ⇒ aInf(S) ≤ as ∀ s ∈ S
⇒ aInf(S) ≤ x ∀ x ∈ aS
⇒ aInf(S) is a lower bound of aS.
Claim – 2 if V is any lower bound of aS then v ≤ aInf(S).
As v is a lower bound of aS, therefore v ≤ a s,

∀ s ∈ S

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⇒ v/a ≤ s ∀ s ∈ S ⇒ v/a is a lower bound of S
⇒ v/a ≤ Inf(S) ⇒ v ≤ a Inf(S)
⇒ from claim – 1 and claim – 2, we have
Inf(aS) = a Inf(S)
Now we’ll prove that Sup(aS) = aSup(S)
Claim – 1 a Sup(S) is an upper bound of aS.
Let x ∈ aS (be any) then x = as, s ∈ S …(1)
Also s ≤ Sup(S) ∀ s ∈ S ⇒ as ≤ aSup(S), ∀ s ∈ S … (2)
From (1) & (2) we have x ≤ aSup(S).
⇒ aSup(S) is an upper bound of aS.
Claim – 2 if V is any upper bound of aS, then aSup(S) ≤ v
As v is an upper bound of aS
⇒ v ≥ as ∀ s ∈ S
⇒ v/a ≥ s ∀ s ∈ S
⇒ v/a is an upper bound of S
And hence Sup(S) ≤ v/a
⇒aSup(S) ≤ v
And hence Sup(aS) = aSup(S)
(b) we’ll first prove Inf(bS) = bSup(S)
Claim – 1 bSup(S) is a lower bound of bS.
Let x ∈ bS ⇒ x = bs, s ∈ S …. (1)

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Now s ≤ Sup(S) ∀ s ∈ S ⇒ bs ≥ bSup(S) ∀ s ∈ S (∵ b < 0)

… (2)
From (1) & (2) ⇒ x ≥ bSup(S) ⇒ bSup(S) is lower bound

of bS.
Claim – 2 if v is any lower bound of bS, then bSup(S) ≥ v
As v is a lower bound of bS
⇒ v ≤ bs ∀ s ∈ S ⇒ v/b ≥ s ∀ s ∈ S
⇒ v/b is an upper bound of S
⇒ Sup(S) ≤ v/b ⇒ bSup(S) ≥ v
From claim – 1 & claim -2 , we have
Inf(bS) = bSup(S)
Now we’ll show that Sup(bS) = bInf(s).
Claim – 1 we shall show that –
bInf(S) is an upper bound of bS
Let x ∈ bS be any element then we have that , x= bs from

s ∈ S … (1)
Now as by definition of Inf(S), we have
Inf(S) ≤ s ∀ s ∈ S
⇒ bInf(S) ≥ bs ∀ s ∈ S … (2) (∵ b < 0)
From (1) & (2) we have
X ≤ bInf(S) ∀ x ∈ bS
⇒ x ≤ bInf(S) ∀ x ∈ bS

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Claim – 2 bInf(s) is least upper bound of bS.
Let v be any upper bound of bS
To show that – (bInf(S) ≤ v)
As v is upper bound of bS ⇒ v ≥ bs ∀ s ∈ S
⇒ v/b ≤ s ∀ s ∈ S ⇒ v/b is a lower bound of S
⇒ v/b ≤ Inf(s) ⇒ v ≥ bInf(S)
Hence proved.
Guideline Questions from Chapter 2.4 (Bartle)
(Q6) Let A and B be bounded non- empty sets in ℝ and
A + B = {a + b: a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
Show that
(a) Sup(A + B) = sup(A) + Sup(B)
(b) inf(A + B) = Inf(A) + Inf(B)
Solution Let SupA = m1& SupB = m2 ….
(a) To show that – Sup(A+B) = m1 + m2
Claim – 1 m1 + m2 is an upper bound of A + B
Let x ∈ A + B (be any element)
⇒ x = a1 + b1 , a1 ∈ A, b1 ∈ B
Now a1 ≤ m1 , b1 ≤ m2
∴ x ≤ m1 + m2 ⇒m1 + m2 is an upbd of A + B

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Claim – 2 m1 + m2 is least upper bound
Let v be any upbd of A + B (T.S.T m 1 + m2 ≤ v )
⇒ a + b ≤ v ∀ a ∈ A, b ∈ B
⇒ b ≤ v – a ∀ b ∈ B, a ∈ A
⇒ v – a is na upbd of B ∀ a ∈ A
⇒ m2 ≤ v – a ∀ a ∈ A
⇒ a ≤ v - m2 ∀ a ∈ A ⇒ v - m2 is an upbd of A
⇒ m1 ≤ v - m2
⇒ m1 + m2 ≤ v
∴ m1 + m2 is l.u.b of A + B
⇒ Sup(A + B) = m1 + m2 = sup(A) + Sup(B)
(b) Let infA = m1 and infB = m2 (T.S.T inf(A+B) = m1 +

m2)
(1) then ∀ x ∈ A+B, x = a + b, a ∈ A, b ∈ B
⇒ x ≥ m1 + m2 (∵ a ≥ m1 , b ≥ m2 )
⇒ m1 + m2 is a lower bound of A + B
(2) Let v be any lower bound of A + B (m 1 + m2 ≥ v)
Then a + b ≥ v ∀ a ∈ A, b ∈ B ⇒ a ≥ v – b ∀ a ∈ A, ∀
b ∈ B

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⇒ m1 ≥ v – b ∀ b ∈ B ⇒ b ≥ v - m1 ∀ b ∈ B ⇒ v - m1 is
lower bound of B ⇒ m2 ≥ v - m1
∴ m2 + m1 ≥ v ⇒ inf(A+B) = m1 + m2
Q12 Given any x ∈ ℝ , show that there exists a unique

n ∈ ℤ such that
n – 1 ≤ x < n.
Q13 If y > 0, show that there exists n ∈ ℕ such that

< y
Q18 If u > 0, is any real number any x < y, show that

there exists a rational number r such that
x < ru < y.
Solution 12 x ∈ ℝ , Define E = {m ∈ ℕ: m > x} (then by A.P

E ≠∅)
Also E ⊆ ℕ, E ≠∅ ∴ By W.O.P , E has a least element

(unique)
Say n ∈ E ⇒ n > x … (I)
Also n - 1 ∉ E ( ∵ n is least element in E )
⇒ n – 1 ≤ x …. (II)
From (I) & (II) n – 1 ≤ x < n
Solution 13 As y > 0 ⇒ 1/y > 0 ∴ By A.P, ∃ n ∈ ℕ :

n > 1/y
∴ ∃ n ∈ ℕ : 1/n < y … (I)

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Now we know ∀ n ∈ ℕ, n < 2n ⇒ 1/2n < 1/n … (II)
From (I) & (II) 1/2n < 1/n < y ⇒ 1/2n < y , for
some n ∈ ℕ
Solution 18 x < y and u > 0 ⇒ 1/u > 0 ⇒ x/u < y/u
By density theorem ∃ r ∈ Q :
x/u < r < y/u ⇒ x < ru < y
Q14 Show that there exists a +ve real number y : y 2 = 3
Q15 If a > 0, then show that there exists a +ve real

number z : z2 = a
Q16 Show that there exists a +ve real number u such that
u3 = 2
Solution – 14 Do as question 15 be low (replace, z by y and a

by 3)
Solution 15. Define S = {S ∈ ℝ : s ≥ 0 and s2 < a}
Case – 1 0 < a < 1 Choose 0 < s < a , then s 2 < a2 < a

(∵ a < 1)
⇒ s2 < a also s > 0
⇒ s ∈ S ⇒ s ≠ ∅
Now we’ll show that S is bounded above Let s ∈ S (be

any) then s2 < a < 1 (∵ a < 1)
⇒ S is bounded above by 1
Case – 2 a > 1 , s ∈ S then s 2 < a and s > 0

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As a > 1 ⇒ 12 = 1 < a also 1 > 0 ⇒ 1 ∈ S ⇒ S ≠ ∅
And we’ll show S is bounded above by a.
Let if possible ∃ s ∈ S : s > a ⇒ s 2 > a2> a (∵ a > 1)
⇒ s2 > a …… (I)
But s ∈ S ⇒s2 < a …. (II)
(I) & (II) contradict each other ∴ S is bdd above by a
∴ in each case S is non empty bdd above set ∴ By

completeness property S has supremum
Let Sup(S) = Z, Claim - Z2 = a
Claim – 1 Z2 ≮ a , Let if possible Z 2 < a
(we’ll find m ∈ ℕ : z + 1/m ∈ S i.e (Z+1/m)2 < a, which

is certainly a contradiction as Sup(S) = Z )
Consider - (Z+1/m)2 = Z2 + 1/m2 + 2z/m
= Z2 + (2z + 1) (∵1/m2< 1/m)
Now (Z+1/m)2 < a if Z2 + (2z + 1) < a
⇒ if (2z + 1) < a - Z2
⇒ m > ( ) (∵ a - Z2 > 0 )
And such an m exists by A.P
∴ ∃ m ∈ ℕ : (Z+1/m)2 < a ⇒ z + 1/m ∈ S
As Sup(S) = Z ⇒ z + 1/m < Z

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⇒ 1/m ≤ 0
⇒ (1 ≤ 0) not possible ∴ Z2 ≮ a
Claim - 2 Z2 ≯ a , Let if possible Z2 > a
(we’ll find m ∈ ℕ : z - 1/m ∈ S i.e (Z - 1/m)2 < a )
Consider - (Z - 1/m)2 = Z2 + 1/m2 - 2z/m > Z2 -

2z/m
Now (Z - 1/m)2 > a if Z2 - 2z/m > a i.e if m > ( )
(∵ Z2 > a)
And such an m exists by A.P
∴ ∃ m ∈ ℕ : (Z - 1/m)2 > a Now Let y ∈ S (be any )
Then y2 < a < (Z - 1/m)2 ⇒ y < Z - 1/m ∀ y ∈ S

which is not possible as Sup(S) = Z is least up. Bd of S ∴
Z2 ≯ a and hence Z = a

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Sol. 16
S = { s ∈ ℝ : s > 0, s3 <2}
(1) Clearly S ≠ ∅
(∵ ∃ 1 >0 and 13=1<2⟹1∈ S)
(2) S is bounded above by 2
∵ If S is not bounded above by 2
⇒∃ s∈S:s>2 ⇒ s3>8 ............(i)
Now s∈S⇒s3<2 ............(ii)
(i)and (ii) contradict each other
∴ s is bounded above by 2.
∴ By completeness property S has a Supremum say u i.e

Sup(s)=u
Claim u3=2
Claim-1 u3<2
Let if possible u 3<2
(We’ll find m∈≤: ( ) < 2)
Consider ( ) = u3 + + + < 2
< u3 + + + (∵ u >1 ⇒u1>u)
‘ = u3+ )
Now ( ) < 2 If u3 + (1+6u2)<2

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⇒ m>( ) ( ∵ 2-u3> 0)
Such an m exists by A.P.
∴ ∃ m ∈ℕ : ( ) <2 ⇒ u + ∈ S
⇒ u+ ≰u (∵u=sup(s))
⇒ 1≤0 which is not possible ⇒ u3 ≮2
Claim-2 u3≯2
Let if possible u 3>2
(We’ll claim ∃ m∈ ℕ : ( ) > 2)
Consider ( ) = u3 – – +
>u3 – –
⇒ ( ) > u3 – –
Now m3>m ⇒ < ⇒ >( )
⇒ ( ) > u3 – –
⇒ ( ) > u3 – (1+3u2)
∴ ( ) > 2 If u3 - (1+3u2) >2
⇒ m >( ) ( ∵ u3-2≠0)
and such an m exists by A.P.

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∴ ∃ m ∈ℕ : ( ) > 2
Let s ∈ S ( be any )
then s3< 2 <( ) ⇒ s < u - ∀ s ∈ S
⇒ u - is an upper bound of S
As Sup(s) = u ⇒ u ≤ u-
⇒ 0 ≤ -1 which is not possible
∴ u3 ≯2
and hence by claim 1 and claim 2 u 3 = 2
Note : Q.E.D stand for “quod erat demonstration “ ,

which is Latin for “which was to be demonstrated”.
Section 2.4
Sol 6. If A and B are bounded subsets of ℝ
Then (1) Sup (A+B) : SupA + SupB
(2)Inf(A+B) : InfA + InfB
Where A+B : {a+b/a∈A,b∈B}
Proof. Let SupA = m1 and SupB=m2
To show that Sup(A+B) : m1+m2
Claim 1 : m1+m2 is an upper bound of A+B

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Let x∈A+B (be any element)
⇒x∈a1+b1;a1∈A , b1∈B ….(1)
Also, M1 = Sup(A) ⇒a≤m1 ∀a∈A
M2 = Sup(B) ⇒b≤m2 ∀b∈B
∴a1≤m1and b1 ≤ m2
⇒a1+b1≤M1+M2….(2)
From (1) and (2) :
⇒ a1+b1≤M1+M2 ∀x∈A+B
⇒ x≤M1+M2 ∀x∈A+B
M1+M2 are upperbound of A+B
Claim 2 : If v is any upper bound os A+B then M 1+M2 ≤ v
As v = upper bound of A+B
⇒ a_b≤v ∀ a∈A and ∀ b∈B
⇒ b≤v-a ∀ a∈A and ∀ b∈B
⇒v-a is an upperbound of B ∀a∈A
M2 ≤ v –a ∀a∈A(∵sup(B) <M2)
⇒a≤v-M2 ∀a∈A
⇒v-M2 is an upper bound of A
⇒M1≤ v-M2
⇒M1+M2≤v

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∴ Sup(A+B) : M1 +M2 = Sup(A) + Sup(B)
Sol 7. f,g :X→ℝ
To prove :
(i) Sup{f(x) +g(x) : x∈X} ≤ Sup{f(x):x∈X} +
Sup{g(x):x∈X}
(ii) Inf{f(x) +g(x) : x∈X} ≥ Inf{f(x):x∈X} + Inf{g(x):x∈X}
Sol (i) : Let Sup{f(x) : x∈X} = M 1 and Sup{g(x):n∈X}=M2
Claim : M1+M2 is an upper bound of {f(x)+g(x) : x∈X}
As : M1 = Sup{f(x):x∈X}
M2=Sup{g(x):x∈X} ⇒ g(x)≤M 2∀x∈X
⇒ f(x) +g(x) ≤ M1+M2 ∀x∈ℕ
M1+M2 is and upper bound of f(x)+g(x):x∈X}
⇒Sup{(f(x)+g(x)}:x∈X}
≤ M1+M2
Sup{f(x):x∈X} + Sup{g(x):x∈ℕ}
(ii): Let Inf{f(x) : x∈X} = M1 and Inf{g(x):n∈X}=M2
Claim : M1+M2 is an lower bound of {f(x)+g(x) : x∈X}
As : M1 = Inf{f(x):x∈X} ⇒f(x)≥M1∀x∈X
M2=Inf{g(x):x∈X} ⇒ g(x)≥M2∀x∈X
⇒ f(x) +g(x) ≥ M1+M2 ∀x∈ℕ
M1+M2 is and lower bound of f(x)+g(x):x∈X}

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⇒Inf{(f(x)+g(x)}:x∈X}
≥ M1+M2
Inf{f(x):x∈X} + Inf{g(x):x∈ℕ}
Sol 8 : X=(0,1)
Y=(0,1)
h:XXY → ℝ
h(x,y)=2x+y
a) ∀x∈X,find
f(x)=Sup{h(x,y):y∈Y}
then find Inf{f(x):x∈X}
b) ∀y∈Y,find
g(y)=Inf{h(x,y):x∈X}
then find Sup{g(y):y∈Y}
a) f(x) = Sup{h(x,y):y∈Y}=Sup{2x+y|y∈Y}
=2x+Sup{y:y∈Y}
=2x+Sup((0,1)) = 2x+1
⇒f(x)=2x+1 …….(1)
Inf{f(x):x∈X}=Inf{2x+1|x∈X}=Inf{2x+1:o<x<1}
=Inf{2x+1:1<2x<1<3}
=Inf{1,3********************
b) f(x) = Inf{h(x,y):x∈X}=Inf{2x+y:x∈(0,1)}
=y+Inf{2x:x∈(0,1)}
= y+Inf{0,2)=y+0=y}

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⇒g(y)=y
Now Sup{g(y):y∈Y}=Sup{y:y∈(0,1)}
=Sup(0,1)=1
Sol 9 : X=(0,1)=Y
h:XXY→ℝ
h(x,y)={
for any x∈X
a) f(x)=Sup{h(x,y):y∈Y}
=Sup({h(x,y):x<y}U{h(x,y):x≥y})
=Sup({0}U{1})=1
Inf(x):x∈X}=Inf{1:x∈X}=1
b) g(y)=Inf{h(x,y):x∈X}=Inf({h(x,y):x≥y}U{h(x,y)
=Inf({1}U{0})=Inf{1,0}=0
Sol 12 : x∈ℝ
prove that ∃ m∈ℤ (Unique)
n-1≤x≤n
Define E ={m∈ℕ:m>x}
(then by A.P. E≠∅)
Also, E⊆ℕ,E≠∅
By W.O.P , E has a least element of E

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⇒n>x……(1)
Now , n-1∉E (∵ n is least element of E)
⇒n-1≤x…..(2)
From (1) and (2)
⇒ n-1≤x<n
Note : Since least elements of a set is unique ,∴ n is unique
m-1 ≤x<n
Sol 13 : As y>0
⇒ >0
∴ By A.Ap ∃ n∈ℕ
n>
⇒ <y …………....(1)
Now we know ∀n∈ℕ ;
⇒n<2n
< ……….(2)
From (1) and (2)
< <y
⇒ < y
Sol 15 : < < y

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To show that ∃ z>0 :
z2 =a ,a>0
Define:
S={s∈ℝ:s≥0 and s2<a}
Case 1 : 0<a<1
Choose ; 0<s<a
Then , s2<a2<a (∵a<1)
⇒s∈S
⇒s≠∅
Now we’ll show that :
S is Bounded above
Let s∈S be any element
⇒s2<a<1
⇒s2<1 ⇒ s<1
S is bounded above
By completeness property S has a supremum
Let Sup(s)=z
Now, for any s∈S
s2<a<( ) (by (1))

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⇒s2<( ) ∀s∈S
⇒s <( ) ∀s∈S
⇒z- is and U.B. of S
⇒z≤z-= (∵ Sup(s) = z)
⇒0≤ ⇒ 0≤-1 ⇒ 0≥1
∴ which is an contradiction
∴z2>a is not possible
⇒z2≯a
By claim 1 and claim 2 we have
z≮a and z2≯a
⇒ z2=a
Case 2: S={S∈ℝ|S>0,S2≤a}
If a>1, then, 1>0
And 12 = 1 ≤a
⇒1∈S
⇒s≠∅
Now we’ll show S is bounded above by a
Let id possible ∃ spme s∈S:
s>a ⇒ s2>a2………….(1)

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Now,s∈S
⇒s2<a…………(2)
From (1) and (2) :
a2<s2<a
⇒a2<a which is not possible
(∵a>1 ⇒ a2>a)
∴∄s∈S : s>a
⇒ s≤a ∀s∈S
⇒ S is bounded above by a
∴ By completeness property, S has a supremum say

Sup(s)=z
Claim 1: z2≮a
Let if possible: z2<a
We’ll find m∈ℕ:
z+ ∈ S i.e. ( ) < a
CONS :
( ) = z2 + + < z2+ (2z+1) ( ∵ < )
Now, ( ) <a If z2 + (2z+1) <a

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i.e. If )< a - z 2
⇒ m> ((2z+1) / (a-z2)) (∵a-z2>0)
⇒∃m∈ℕ:
( z + )2 < a
⇒z+ ∈S
As, Sup(s)=z
⇒ z+ ≤ z
⇒ <0
⇒1≤0 which is a contradiction ⇒ z 2<a is not possible
⇒z2 ≮ a
Claim 2 : z2 ≯a
Let if possible : z2> a
We’ll find m∈ℕ
( z + )2 > a
CONS. :
( z + )2 = z 2 + 1 / m 2 – 2 z / m > z 2 -
N o w , ( z + )2 > a I f z 2 - >a

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i.e. If < z2-a ⇒m > (2z/z2-a) (∵z2-1)
and such an m exists by A.Pa
∴ m ∈ ℕ : ( z + )2 > a
Sol 16 : S={s∈ℝ:s>0;s3<2}
(1) Clearly, s≠∅

( ∵∃1>0 and 13=1<2
⇒1∈S)
Also, S is bounded above by 2
If S is not bounded above by 2
⇒∃s∈SLs>2 ⇒ s3>8…….…...(1)
Now, s∈S ⇒ s3<2………..(2)
Thus (1) and (2) are contrary to each other
∴∄ s∈S : s>2 ⇒ s≤2 ∀s∈S
∴ S≠∅ is bounded above
∴ By completeness property, S has a supremum
Let Sup(S) = u
Claim u3=2
Claim 1: U3≮2
Let if possible U3<2
We’ll claim ∃m∈ℕ, such that (u+ )3 <2

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Consider (u+ )3 = u3 + 1/m3 + 3u2/m+ 3u/m2<2
< u3 + 1/m + 3u2/m+ 3u2/m (∵u>1 ⇒ u2>u)
= u3 + 1/m ( 1+3u2+3u2)
= u3 + 1/m ( 1+6u2)
Now, (u+ )3<2 If u3+ (1+6u2) < 2
⇒ (1+6u2) < 2-u3
⇒m > (1+6u2) / (2-u3) (∵2-u3>0)
∴∃m∈ℕ:
(u+ )3< z
⇒(u+ )∈ S
u+ ≤ u
⇒u+ ≤u
⇒ < 0 ⇒ 1≤0 which is a contradiction
⇒u3<2 is not possible
Claim 2: u2≯2
Let if possible u 3>2
We’ll claim ∃m∈ℕ (u- )3 ≯2

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CONS. (u- )3 = u3 - 1/m3 - 3u2/m +3u/m2
> u3 - 1/m3 - 3u2/m+ 3u/m2
⇒ (u- )3>u3 – 1/m3 –(3u2/m)
Now, m3>m
⇒ 1/m3< 1/m
⇒ -1/m3> -1/m
⇒(u- )3> u3 – 1/m - (3u2/m)
=u3 – 1/m (1+3u2)
Now, (u- )3>2
If u3 - (1+3u2) >2
⇒ (1+3u2) < u3-2
⇒m > (1+3u2) / (u3-2)
Sunch an m exists :
By A.P. : m∈ℕ
(u- )3>2
Let s∈S (be any)
⇒s3<2 < (u- )3 (by (1))
⇒s<(u- ) ∀s∈S

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u - is an UB of S
⇒u≤u- ⇒ 0≤-1 ⇒0≥1 (which is not possible )
Sol 18 : Given: x<y
And u>0 ⇒ >0
⇒ <
By density theorem : ∃ r∈ℚ
<r< ⇒ x<ru<y
Theorem: Every convergent sequence is bounded
Proof:Let (xn) be cgt seq and let lim xn = x
Now for ε = 1 > 0 ∃m∈ℕ : |xn – x| < 1 ∀n∈ℕ
Now |xn| = |xn-x+x|
⇒|xn| ≤ |xn-x| + |x|
⇒|xn| ≤1+|x| ∀n≥m…………(1)
Let m=max { |x1| , |x2| , |x3| …….. |xn-1 , 1+|x| }
Then c;ear;y |xn| ≤m ∀n∈ℕ ⇒(xn) is bounded
As lim xn = z ⇒∃k1∈ℕ :|xn – z|<ε ∀n≥k1

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Theorem : (Sum Theorem0
Let X  x and Yy ( i.e lim xn = x , lim yn =y)
Then X+Y  x+y (i.e lim (xn+yn) = x+y)
Proof: Let ε>0 be given
(to find m∈ℕ L |(xn+yn) = (x+y)| <ε ∀n≥m)
Consider |(xn+yn) – (x+y) | = |(xn-x) + (yn-y)|
⇒|(xn+yn) – (x+y) | ≤ |(xn-x)| + |(yn-y)|…….(1)
Now lim xn = x ⇒ for > 0 ∃ m1∈ℕ : |xn-x| < ∀n≥m1 …..(2)
Also lim yn = y ⇒ for > 0 ∃ m2∈ℕ : |yn-y| < ∀n≥m2 …..(3)
Let m = max{m1,m2} then ∀n≥m, |xn-x|< ; |yn-y| < ……..(5)
Use (5) in(1) we get
|(xn+yn) =- (x+y) | < + ∀n≥m
⇒ |(xn+yn) – (x+y)| < ε ∀n≥m ⇒ lim (xn+yn) = x+y

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DIFFERENCE THEOREM
Let Xx , Yy then X-Y  x-y
(i.e if lim xn = x , lim yn = y, then lim(xn-yn=x-y)
Proof : Let ℇ> 0 be given,
(to find m∈ ℕ :|( xn - yn )-(X-Y)| <ℇ∀n≥m)
Consider |( xn - yn) – (x-y)|<ℇ∀n≥m
|( xn - yn) – (x-y)| = |( xn - x) – (yn-y)|
⇒ |( xn - yn) – (x-y)| ≤ |( xn - x)| + | (yn-y)|…………..(1)
Now proceed as in sum theorem
PRODUCT THOREM
Let Xx and Yy then XY  xy
(i.e. If lim xn=x and lim yn=y then lim xnyn=xy
Proof:
Let ε>0 be given (to find m∈ℕ : |xnyn – xy | < ε∀n≥m)
Consider |xnyn – xy| = |xnyn – xyn + xyn –xy |
⇒|xnyn – xy| = |(xn– x)yn + x(yn –y) |

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⇒|xnyn – xy| ≤ |yn| |xn – x| + |x| |yn – y| …….(1)
Now (yn) is cgt. ⇒ (yn) is bounded ⇒ M>0 : |yn| ≤M ∀

n∈ℕ……..(2)
Use (1) in (2)
⇒ |xnyn – xy| ≤M|xn – x| + |x| |yn – y|………..(3)
Let M* = max{M,|x|} then |xnyn – xy|≤M* ( |xn – x|+|yn – y |)

……..(4)
Now as lim xn = x ∴ for >0 ∃ m1∈ℕ : |xn-x|< ∀n≥m1
….....(5)
Also lim yn=y ∴ for >0 ∃ m2∈ ℕ : |yn-y|<
∀n≥m2……….(6)
Let m=max{m1,m2| then ∀n≥m we have
|xn-x| < , |yn-y| ≤ …………..(7)
Use (7) in (4) we obtain
|xnyn – xy|<M* ( + ) ∀n≥m
⇒|xnyn – xy| <ε ∀n≥m ⇒lim xnyn=xy
Lemma: Let lim yn=y and y≠0, then ∃k>0 and m 1∈ℕ:
|yn|>k ∀ n≥m1

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Proof: As y≠0 ⇒ |y|>0 choose 0<ε<|y| ………….(1)
Then, as lim yn=y ∴ for ε>0 ∃ m1∈ℕ:
|yn-y|<ε ∀ n≥m1……….(2)
Now |y|-|yn| ≤ |yn-y|<ε ∀n≥m1 (by (2))
⇒|y|-|yn| ≤ ε ∀n≥m1
⇒|y|-ε<|yn| ∀n≥m1
Let k=|y|-ε>0 ( ∵ 0<ε<|y| ⇒ ε<|y| ⇒ |y|=ε>0)
⇒|yn|>k ∀n>m1
QUOTIENT THEOREM
Let Xx and Yy with Y≠0 and y≠0,Then 
(i.e If lim xn=x ,lim yn=y,yn≠0 ∀n∈ℕ and y≠0
then lim( xn/yn)=x/y
Proof : We’ll show lim (1/yn) = 1/y , then by product

theorem

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lim( xn/yn) =lim(xn . 1/yn) = lim xn ∙ lim (1/yn) = x∙ =
Let ε>0 be given (to find m∈ ℕ : |1/yn – 1/y| ≤ε ∀n≥m)
Consider : |1/yn – 1/y| = | y-yn / yyn| = |1/y| ∙| 1/yn | ∙|yn-

y|…………(1)
By above lemma ∃k>0 and m 1∈ℕ : |yn|>k ∀n≥m1
⇒ 1/|yn| < ∀ n≥m1 , use this in (1) we’ll get
|1/yn – 1/y | ≤ |yn-y| ∀ n≥m1……….(2)
Let ε=εk|y|>0 as lim yn=y ∴ ∃m2∈ℕ :
|yn-y|< k|y|ε ∀n≥m2
Now let m=max{m1,m2}
Then ∀ n≥m we have
|1/yn – 1/y | < |yn-y| and |yn-y| < k|y|ε
⇒|1/yn – 1/y | < k|y|ε and ∀n≥m
⇒|1/yn – 1/y | <ε ∀n≥m ⇒ lim (1/yn) =

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SQUEEZE THEOREM
Let lim xn = l = lim yn and let xn≤zn<yn ∀n∈ℕ Then lim zn=l
Proof : Let ε>0 be given
As lim xn=l
∴ ∃m1∈ℕ : l-ε<xn<l+ε ∀n≥m1 ……………..(1)
Also lim yn=l ∴∃m2∈ℕ : l-ε<yn<l+ε ∀n≥m2 …………….(2)
Let m=max|m1,m2| then ∀n≥m we have
l-ε<xnl+ε
l-ε<ynl+ε
Now l-ε<xn<zn<yn< l+ε ∀n≥m
⇒ l-ε<zn< l+ε ∀n≥m ⇒ l;im zn=l
SQUARE THEOREMLet (xn) be sequence of non-negative terms subh

that lim xn=x then lim √xn = √x
Proof : Case 1 x=0 (T.S.T lim √xn = 0)
Let ε>0 be given (to find m∈ℕ : | √xn-0|<ε ∀≥m)
As lim xn =0 ∴ for ε2>0 ∃m∈ℕ : |xn-0|<ε2 ∀n≥m
⇒|xn|<ε2 ∀≥m
⇒xn<ε2 ⇒ √xn< ε ∀n≥m
⇒|√xn – 0| < ε ∀n≥m

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⇒ lim √xn =0
Case 2: If x≠0
Let ε>0 be given ( to fid m∈ ℕ : |√xn - √x | <ε ∀n≥m )
Consider |√xn - √x | = |(|√xn - √x |) (|√xn + √x |) /

(√xn + √x )
⇒|√xn - √x | = 1/(√xn + √x) ∙ |xn - x|………….(1)
Now √xn + √x > √x ⇒ 1/(√xn + √x) ≤ 1/√x………(2)
From (1) and (2) we have
|√xn - √x | ≤ |xn-x|…………(3)
√
Lim xn=x ∴ for √x ε>0 ∃m∈ℕ:
|√xn - √x| ≤ √x ε ∀n≥m

√
⇒ |√xn - √x| ≤ ε ∀n≥m ⇒lim √xn = √x
MODULUS THEOREM
Let lim xn =x then lim |xn| = |x|
Proof : Let ε>0 be given (to find m∈ ℕ : ||xn|-|x|| <ε ∀ n≥m
As lim xn=x
∴ ∃ m∈ℕ : |xn-x|<ε ∀n≥m………(1)
Now ||xn||x|| ≤ |xn-x| <ε ∀n≥m (by (1))
⇒ ||xn||x|| < ε ∀n≥m ⇒ lim |xn| = |x|

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Q4. Let x1=1, xn+1 = √ n∈ℕ
Show that (xn) is convergent find it’s limit
Soln: x1=1, x2=√ = 1.732
x3=√ = √ = √ = …….
We can see x1<x2<x3 ………
So we observe that (xn) is ↑ (increasing)
Now we’ll prove (xn) is ↑ i.e. xn≤xn+1 ∀n∈ℕ……….(1)
The result is true for n=1 ∵x2=1.732 > x1
Now let us assume that result is true for n=k
⇒xk≤xk+1…………(2)
We’ll show that result is true for n=k+1 (i.e. xk+1 ≤ xk+2)
As xk≤xk+1 by(2)
⇒2+xk ≤ 2+xk+1 ⇒ √ ≤ √
⇒xk+1 ≤ xk+2
∴By P.M.I xn ≤ xn+1 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒xn is ↑ ……………..(*)
Now we’ll show that (xn) is bounded above by 2
(i.e xn ≤ 2 ∀n∈ℕ)
For n=1, x1=1<2 ∴ result is true

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Assume that result is true for k
⇒xk≤2………(3)
We’ll show result is t rue for n=k+1 (i.e xk+1 ≤2)
As xk≤2 ⇒2+xk≤4
⇒√ ≤√ = 2
⇒√ ≤2 ⇒ xk+1 ≤2
∴ result is true ∀n∈ℕ By P.M.I
⇒xn ≤ 2 ∀n≤ℕ⇒ (xn) is bounded
By M.C.T (xn) is convergent
Let limit = x as xn+1 = √
⇒ lim xn+1 = √
⇒ x = √
⇒x2= 2+x ⇒ x2-x-2 = 0
⇒x2 – 2x+x-2 = 0
⇒(x-2) (x+1) = 0
⇒ x=2 , x=-1
But xn≥1 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒lim xn ≥1 ⇒x=-1 is not possible
⇒ x=2 ⇒ lim xn=2

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Q5: Let y1=√ , p>0, yn+1 = √ , n≤ℕ.
Show that (yn) is convergent . find its limit.
Solution:
y1=√ , y2 = √ = √ √ >√ = y1
⇒y1=√
We’ll show that (yn) is ↑ (i.e yn+1 ≥ yn ∀n∈ℕ)
For n=1 , as y2≥y1 ⇒ result is true
Assume that result is true for n=k
⇒yk+1 ≥ yk………….(1)
As yk+1≥ yk
⇒p+ yk+1 ≥ p+ yk ⇒ √ ≥ √ ⇒yk+2 ≥ yk+1
∴ result is true foe n+k+1 too and hence by P.M.I y n+1 ≥ yn

∀n∈ℕ
⇒(yn) is ↑
Now we’ll shoe (yn) is bounded
As yn+1 ≥ yn ⇒ √ ≥ yn
⇒ (p+yn) ≥ yn2
⇒yn2 – yn – p ≤0
√
⇒ (yn - ) (yn - ) < 0

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As yn ≥ y1 = √ ⇒ yn>√ >0
√ √
∴ yn ≮ ( ∴ < 0 )
√
⇒ yn< ∀ n∈ℕ⇒ (yn) is bounded ⇒(yn) is
convergent
Now let lim yn = y
As yn+1 = √
⇒ lim yn+1 = √
⇒ y= √ ⇒ y2-y-p =0
√
⇒ y =
As yn > 0 ∀n∈ℕ ⇒ lim yn ≥0 ⇒ y≥0
√ √
Now y = , y = < 0 ( ∵ √ > 1 ⇒ 1-√ <
0)
√ √
⇒ y = ∴lim yn =
Q6 : a+0 and z1>0 , Let zn+1 = √ ∀n∈ℕ
Show that (zn) converges, find its limit
Sol: zn+1 = √
⇒zn+12 = a+zn
⇒zn2 = a+zn-1
⇒(zn+1)2 - zn2 = (a+zn) - (a+ zn-1)

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⇒ (zn+1)2 - zn2 = zn – zn-1 ……………(1)
If zn>zn-1 ⇒ (zn+1)2 – zn2> 0 ⇒ zn+1> zn
And zn< zn-1 ⇒ zn+1< zn
i.e zn+1> zn >zn-1 ∀n∈ℕ and n>1
or zn+1< zn <zn-1 ∀n∈ℕ and n>1
⇒ (zn) is ↑ or (zn) is ↓ ⇒ zn is monotone
Now zn+1> zn or zn+1> zn
⇒√ > zn or √ < zn
⇒ a+zn> zn2 or a+zn< zn2
⇒zn2 – zn – a <0 or zn2 – zn – a > 0
√ √
⇒(zn - ) (zn - ) < 0 or its >0
√ √
But (zn - ) ≮ 0 (∵ <0 and zn> 0)
√ √
⇒ (zn - ) < 0 or (zn - ) > 0
√ √
⇒ zn< ∀ n∈ℕ or zn> ∀n∈ℕ
√
i.e. If zn+1> zn ∀ n∈ℕ then zn< ∀n∈ℕ
⇒ (zn) is bounded and ↑ sequence ⇒ (z n) is cgt
√
Now if zn+1< zn then zn> ∀n∈ℕ
⇒ (zn) is monotone and bounded ⇒ (z n) is cgt

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Let lim zn =z , as zn+1 = √
⇒ lim zn+1 = √
⇒z = √
√
⇒z2 = a+z ⇒ z2-z-a =0 ⇒z =
( ∵ zn ≥ 0 ∀n∈ℕ ⇒ lim zn ≥0 ⇒ z≥0 )
Q7 : x1 = a>0 , xn+1 = xn + for n∈ℕ;
Determine If (xn) converges or diverges.
Sol: Clearly xn>0 ∀ n∈ℕ ⇒xn+1 – xn = >0 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒ xn+1 – xn>0 ∀n∈ℕ ⇒xn+1>xn
⇒ (xn) is ↑, If (xn) is cgt then it has to bounded
⇒∃b>0 : xn≤b ∀n∈ℕ
Now (xn) is cgt ⇒ lim (xn+1 – xn ) =0………..(1)
Also in that case xn0………(2)
(1) and (2) are contrary to each other ⇒ (xn) can be

convergent (xn) is divergent
Q11: Let yn = + + ………………….+ ∀n∈ℕ
Sol: yn+1 – yn = + - >0 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒ yn+1 – yn> 0 ∀n∈ℕ ⇒(yn) is ↑…………(1)

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Also yn< + + …………+ ⇒yn< 1 ∀n∈ℕ⇒(yn) is
bounded…..(2)
By (1) and (2) and using M.C.T (y n) is bgt
Q12: xn = + + + …………………… + ∀n∈ℕ
Clearly xn+1 – xn = > 0 ∀n∈ℕ

)
⇒(xn) is ↑………..(1)
Now observe that
≤ ∀k≥2
)
⇒ ≤ - ∀k≥2
)
⇒xn ≤ 1+ (1- ) + ( - ) + ( - ) + …………….. +( - )
⇒xn ≤ 2- < 2 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒xn is bounded ∴ xn is cgt (by M.C.T)
Q13:
(a) lim ( ) = lim ( ( ) ))
= lim ( ) lim )
= e-1 = e
(b) lim ( ) = l i m (( ) )
= ( ( ) ) = e2

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( )
(c) lim ( ) = = = e
( )
(d) lim ( ) = (( ( )) )
= ( ( ( )) ) = e-1- =
Exapmle : Let a>0 , Let S1> 0 , and Sn+1 = (Sn+ ) for
n∈ℕ
Determine if (sn) is convergent
Soln: As Sn+1 = (Sn+ )
⇒ 2Sn+1 = (Sn+ )
⇒2Sn+1 Sn = Sn2 + a
⇒Sn2-2Sn+1Sn + a = 0
Now this eqn must have real roots
⇒ Discreminent ≥ 0
⇒4 S2n+1 – 4a > 0 ⇒ S2n+1 > a ⇒ Sn+1>√ ∀n∈ℕ
⇒Sn> min { √ , S1 } ∀n∈ℕ
⇒ (Sn) is bounded below……..(1)
Now we’ll show its decreasing
Sn – Sn+1 = Sn - (Sn + ) = ) ≥ 0 ∀≥2
⇒(sn) is decreasing……….(2)

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From (1) and (2) (Sn) is convergent (By M.C.T).
Let lim Sn =a
⇒S= ) ⇒S= + S
⇒ S= ⇒ S2 = a ⇒ s+ √
⇒ lim Sn = √
Definition : (SUBSEQUENCE)
Let X= (xn) be a sequence of real numbers and let n 1< n2<

………… be a strictly increasing sequence of natural
numbers then the seq. X 1= is called subsequence if (xn)
Examples Let (xn) = ( x1, x2, x2 , ………) then following are

some subsequences of (xn)
(1) (x1,x3,x5,x7,……..)
(2) (x2,x3,x4………)
More examples :
(1) X=(1, , , , …………..)
Then X1 = ( , , …………..)
(2) Let X = ( 1, , , , ……………….)
X1 = ( 1, , , , ……………….)
X2 = ( , , , ……………….)

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Theorem: If a sequence X=(xn) of real numbers converges to a real

number ‘x’ then any subsequence X1 = ( ) of X also converges to x.
Proof: Let ε>0 be given, to find m ℕ:
| | < ε ∀K≥m
As lim xn=x ⇒∃mℕ:
|xn-x|<ε ∀n≥m……….(1)
Now we know nk ≥ K ∀k∈ℕ
∴∀K≥m, nk ≥ m
⇒| | < ε ∀ K≥m
⇒ lim = x
Divergence criteria :
If a sequence X=(xn) of real numbers has either of the following

properties, then X is divergent
(i) X has two conver gent subsequences X’ = ( ) and

X’’=( ) whose limits are not equal
(ii) X is unbounded
Monotone Subsequence Theorem :
If X = (xn) is a sequence of reals then there is a

subsequence of X that is monotone
NOTE : PROOF IS OMMITED

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Q8: Given : (1) (an) is ↑ (bn) is ↓ sequence of real
(2) an ≤ bn ∀n∈ℕ
Show that: lim an ≤ lim bn and If lim an = η and lim bn = ξ

them an ≤ η ≤ ξ ≤bn
Sol: an ≤b1 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒(an) is ↑ and bounded above by b 1
⇒(an) is cgt. (By M.C.T)
Also lim (an) = Sup {an : n∈ℕ|
Let lim an = η……………(1)
Now (bn) ↓ also a1≤bn ∀n∈ℕ
⇒(bn) is monotone and bounded
⇒(bn) is convergent , and lim bn = Inf{bn L n∈ℕ}
Let lim bn = ξ……….(2)
We have to show : “η≤ξ”.
As η=Sup{an:n∈ℕ} ⇒ an≤η ∀n∈ℕ……….(3)
ξ = Inf{bn : n∈ℕ| ⇒ξ≤bn …………….(4)
Now an≤bn ∀n∈ℕ ⇒an-bn ≤ 0 ⇒lim (an-bn)≤0
⇒η=ξ≤0 ⇒η≤ξ ……………..(5)
Drom (3), (4), and (5) we get

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An ≤ η ≤ξ ≤bn ∀n∈ℕ
Q9: A is infinite sunset of ℝ, that is bounded above
Let u = Sup(A) (T.S.T ∃ (xn) with xn∈A and lim xn=u)
Sol: As Sup (A)=u ⇒u- is not an upper bound of A ∀ n∈ ℕ
⇒ ∀n∈ℕ∃ xn∈A : xn>u- ……………(1)
Also xn∈A ⇒xn≤u ∀n∈ℕ (∵Sup(A) = u)
∴u- ≤ xn ≤ u ∀n∈ℕ , by squeeze theorem lim x n = u
Blozano – weierstrass theorem
A bounded sequence of real numbers has a convergent

subsequence
Proof:By monotone subsequence theorem if (x n) is a

seq of reals then (xn) has a monotone subsequence
say X1 also (xn) is bounded
⇒X1 is bouonded
As X1 is monotone by M.C.T X 1 is convergent

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Theorem If X=xn is a sequence of real numbers then X  x iff each of

its subsequences converges to x.
Proof: if (xn)  x then we have proved every subsequence

of (xn) also converges to z.
Now let every subsequence of X converges to x then X

being a subseq of itself converges to x
Exresice 3.4
Q1: Let (xn) be a seq defined as
x2n-1 = 2n-1 and x2n =
⇒(xn) = (1, , 3 , , 5 , ………….) Clearly (xn) is
unbounded, bur the subseq X 1 = ( , , , ………….)  0
⇒ X1 is convergent
Q2: Show that if 0<c<1, then ) = 1
0<c<1, then xn+1 = ) > ) = xn
⇒ xn+1> xn ∀n∈ℕ⇒ (xn) is ↑
Also 0 < c < 1 ⇒ xn = ) < 1 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒ (xn) is bounded ∴ By M.C.T (x n) is convergent
Let lim xn = x ⇒lim x2n = x

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⇒ lim )= x
⇒lim √ = x
⇒√ = x
⇒√ = x ⇒ √ = x
⇒ x2 = x ⇒x=0 , x=1
Now xn ≥ x1 = c ⇒ lim xn ≥ c ≥ 0
⇒lim xn ≠ = ⇒ x≠0 ⇒ x=1
⇒ lim xn = 1 ⇒ lim ) = 1
Fibonacci sequence :
F: = (fn) is given by the Inductive definition
f1 = 1 , f2 =2 , fn+1 = fn-1 + fn ∈n≥2
Q3: Given (1) (fn) is a Fibonacci seq
(2) xn = and lim xn = L , find the value of L
Sol: By definition of (fn) ; xn ≥1 ⇒xn>0 or lim xn ≥ 1

⇒lim xn> 0
⇒ lim xn = 0

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Now xn = = = 1+
⇒xn = 1+ ⇒xn = 1+ ⇒ lim xn = 1+
⇒ L = 1 + ⇒L2-L-1 = 0
√ √
⇒L = as L>0 ⇒ L =
Q4: Show that following sequences are divergent
(a) ) (b) ( ))
Sol: (a) Let X’ = ( )= ) = ( ) )
⇒X’ = ( ) ⇒ lim = lim =0
Let X’’ = ( )= ) = ( ) )
⇒X’’ = ( )⇒ lim = lim = 2
∴ X has two convergent sequences with different limits

and hence by divergence criteria X diverges
(b) Let X’ = ( )= ( ) = (sin 4k × ) = (sin kπ ) = (0)
⇒ lim ( )= 0
Let X’’ = ( )= ( )) = (sin 4(k-3) × )
⇒ X’’ = (sin (2kπ - )) = (-sin ) = (1)
⇒ lim ( )= 1

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∴ X has two convergent sequences with different

limits and hence by divergence criteria X diverges
Q5: first Let lim zn = z then (xn) and yn) being subsequences of
(zn) also converge to z
Now conversely assume lim xn = lim yn = z
We’ll show lim zn =z, Let ε>0 be given
As lim xn = z ⇒∃k1∈ℕ :|xn – z|<ε ∀n≥k1
And lim yn = z ⇒∃k2∈ℕ :|yn – z|<ε ∀n≥k2
(1) ⇒|z2n-1 –z| <ε ∀2n-1≥2k1-1

(2) ⇒|z2n=z|<ε ∀2n≥2k2
Let k=max{2k1=1, 2k2| then ∀n≥k, |n=z|<ε
⇒lim zn=z
Chapter 3.2 Theorems
Bounded sequence :
Let (xn) be a sequence of real numbers then (x n) is said to

be bounded if ∃ M>0 such that |x n| ≤M ∀n∈ℕ
Examples:
)
(1) Let (xn) = ( ) = (1 , , , , , ……….)
Then clearly |xn| = ≤ 1 ⇒ |xn| ≤1 ∀n∈ℕ⇒ (xn) is
bounded

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(2) Let (xn) = (1 , 2 , 1 , -1 , 1 , -2 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 2……….)

Then |xn| ≤ 2 ∀n∈ℕ⇒ (xn) is bounded
(3) Let (xn) = (1 , -1 , 1 , -1, 1 , ………….)
|xn| = 1≤1 ∀n∈ℕ⇒ |xn| ≤ 1 ∀n∈ℕ⇒ (xn) is bdd
Q5: Let xn= ) , n∈ℕ show that
(a) Xn+1< xn ⟺ ( ) < n
(b) Show that (xn) is ultimately decreasing and bounded

below so that x=lim xn exists use the fact that the
subsequence x2n also converges to x , to conclude
that x=1
Sol: (a) xn+1< xn ⟺ ( ) < n (we’ll show )
⟺ ) < )
⟺(n+1)n< nn+1
⟺(n+1)n < n2 ∙ n
⟺(n+1)n < n
⟺( ) < n
∴ xn+1< xn ⟺ ( ) < n……..(1)
Now observe
) )
( ) = 1+n ∙ + +…………..+

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= 2 + ( )+ ( )( )+ … … … . + ( ) ( )… … . .
< 2 + + + ………. +
< 2 + + + …….. + (∵ nn-1 ≤ n! )
( )
⇒ ( ) < 2 + ⇒ ( ) < 3 - < 3 ≤ n n≥3
⇒ ( ) < n n≥3
⇒ xn+1< xn ∀≥3 (By (1))
⇒(xn) is ultimately decreasing also x n ≥ 1 ⇒ (xn) cgt
Let lim xn = x
(c) lim x2n = x
⇒lim( ) )= x
⇒ ( ) ) = x
⇒ lim ( ) lim ( ) = x2
⇒lim xn = x2 ⇒ x=0 , x=1
But xn≥1 ⇒ lim xn ≥ 1 ⇒ x≥1 ⇒x=1
Q7: (a) Let xn = ( ) then lim xn
Also = .( ) / is a subsequence of (xn)

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∴ lim = lim xn = e
(b) ( ) = (( ) ) …………..(1)
Now let xn = ( ) = lim xn = e
Also x2n = ( ) is a subseq of xn
⇒ lim x2n = lim xn = e
⇒lim ( ) = e
∴ By (1) lim ( ) = ( ( ) ) =
(c)( ) = .( ) / ……………(1)
N o w a s p r o v e d i n p a r t ( a ) l i m .( ) / = 2
∴ B y ( 1 ) l i m .( ) / = . ( ) / = e2
(d) ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = ( ) ( )
( )
⇒ lim ( ) = lim ( ( ) ) = = e2
( )

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Q8: Determine the limits of following
(a) ( ) ) ( b ) (( ) )
Now let xn = ) ⇒ lim xn = 1
Then x3n = ) is a subseq of xn
⇒ lim x3n= 1 ⇒ lim ) = 1
∴ By (1) ) = ( ) ) = = 1
(b) (( )) = (( ) ) = (write details )
Q9: Given: Every subseq of (xn) has a subseq that converges to

zeroq
Show that (xn) converges to zero
Sol: let if possible (xn) does not converge to 0
⇒∃ ε0 : ∀m∈ℕ we can find k∈ℕ : k>m
And |xn-0| ≮ε0
⇒∀m∈ℕ∃ k∈ℕ : k>m
And |xn| ≥ ε0
∴for m1∈ℕ∃ n1∈ℕ : n1>m1
And | | ≥ε0
⇒ for m1>n1 and m2∈ℕ ∃ n2∈ℕ : n2>m2>n1
And | | ≥ε0

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Continuing like this we get a subseq convergind to zero
(∵ if ( ) has a subseq say( ) converging to zero then for ε 0

∃ m∈ℕ : | <ε0 for all n’k’> m which is contradiction to (1)
Which contradicts the fact that every subseq o f (xn) has a

subseq converging to zero
∴ lim xn ≠ 0 is not possible ⇒ lim xn =0
⇒ (xn) converges to zero
Q11: Given (1) xn≥0 ∀n∈ℕ
(2) Lim ) ) exists
Show that lim xn exists (i.e (xn) is cgt)
Sol: Let Lim ) ) = x (as the given limit exists)
Now, xn = |xn| = ) (∵ xn ≥0)
⇒ lim xn = |lim ) | = |x|
⇒ lim xn = |x| ⇒(xn) is cgt
Now ) is cgt
⇒lim ) = lim )
⇒lim x2k = - lim x2k-1
⇒ |x| = -|x| (∵ lim xn = |x| and (x2k) , (x2k-1) are subseq )
⇒ 2|x| = 0 ⇒ |x| = 0 ⇒x=0
⇒ Lim ) )= 0
And also lim xn = 0

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Q12 : Show that if (xn) is unbounded then there exist a
subseq ( ) such that lim ( )= 0
Sol: as (xn) is unbdd ⇒ for 1∈ℕ, ∃n1 ∈ℕ :
>1
⇒ for 2∈ℕ, ∃n2>n1 : > 2
Continuing like this for nk> nk-1
1 >k
⇒0 ≤ < ⇒ lim = 0 ⇒ lim = 0
Q14: Given: (1) (xn) is bounded seq
(2) S=Sup{ xn : n∈ℕ } . Show that if S ∉{xn:n∈ℕ}
To show that : there is a subseq of (xn) that

converges to S
Sol: As S= Sup{xn:n∈ℕ}
For 1∈ℕ, ∃n1 ∈ℕ: > S-1
For 2∈ℕ, ∃n2>n1: > S-
Continuing like this we see ∀k∈ ℕ
∃nk> nk-1 :
> S- ………….(1)
Also ∀k∈ℕ, ≤ S (∵ Sup{xn : n∈ℕ } = S )……….(2)

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From (1) and (2) S- < ≤ S
As lim (s- ) = S , lim S=S
∴By squeeze theorem lim =S
Definition (Cauchy sequence)
A seq X= (xn) of real numbers is said to be a Cauchy seq if for

every ε>0 ∃H(ε) ∈ℕ: |xn-xm| <ε ∀n,m ≥ H(ε)
Example: (a) (xn) = ( ) is a Cauchy seq
Let ε>0 be given1
Now |xn-xm| = | - | ≤ + …………(1)
Choose H(ε) ∈ℕ : H(ε) > , then ∀n,m ≥ H(ε)
n> , m> ⇒ < , <
By (1) |xn – xm| < + = ε ⇒ |xn – xm| < ε
⇒ (xn) is Cauchy sequence

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Lemma: (convergent  cauchy)
If X=(xn) is convergent seq of reals then X is a cauchy

sequence
Proof: Let lim xn=x
Let ε>0 (to find H(ε) ≤ : |xn – xm| <ε ∀n,m ≥ H(ε))
As lim xn = x ⇒for > 0 ∃H(ε)∈ℕ :
|xn-xm| < ∀n≥H(ε) ………….(1)
Now |xn-xm| = | (xn –x) – (xm – x) |
⇒|xn-xm| ≤ |xn –x| + |xm –x| …………..(2)
Now by (1) for n,m≥H(ε)
|xn –x| <
Use this in (2) we get,
|xn –xm| < ε ∀n,m≥H(ε)
⇒(xn) is Cauchy

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Lemma: (Cauchy  bounded)
A cauchy sequence is bounded
Proof: Let X = (xn) be Cauchy seq
∴ for ε = 1 ∃H∈ℕ:
|xn-xm| < 1 ∀n,m ≥ H
For m=H, |xn – xH | <1 ∀n≥H……(1)
Now |xn| = |xn – xH + xH|
≤ |xn – xH | + |xH|
< 1 + |xH| ∀n≥H (by (1))
⇒ |xn| < 1+ |xH| ∀ n≥H ……….(2)
Let M=max{ |x1| , |x2| ………. |xH-1| , |xH|+1}
Then |xn| ≤ M ∀n∈ℕ ⇒ (xn) is bounded
Cauchy convergence criteria (C.C.C)
A sequence of reals is convergent iff it is Cauchy
Proof: We know by a lemma that every convergent seq is

Cauchy. Conversely let (x n) be a Cauchy seq
We’ll show (xn) is convergebt
(xn) being Cauchy is bounded

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∴ By Bolzano-weierstrass theorem (xn) has a convergent

subsequence sau ( ) and that lim = x*
We’ll show lim xn = x*
Let ε>0:
As (xn) is Cauchy ⇒∃H∈ℕ:
|xn-xm|< ∀n,m≥h1………….(1)
Also lim = x* ∴∃H2∈ℕ : H2≥H1(say)
In the set |n1,n2,………….|, with | –x*|<
Now by (1) as H2≥H1
∴|xn- | < ∀n≥H1 ……………..(2)
Now |xn –x*| = |xn - + – x*|
≤|xn - | + | – x*|
≤ ε ∀n≥H1 (by (1) and (2) )
⇒ |xn –x*| <ε ∀n≥H1
⇒ lim xn =x ⇒ (xn) is convergent
Exercise 3.5
Q1: Give an example of a bounded sequence that is not cgt.

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Q2: Show that following sequences are Cauchy directly from

the definition
(a) ( ) (b) ( )
Q3: Show deirectly from the definition that following are not
Cauchy sequences
)
(a) ) ) (b) ( ) (c) (ln n)
Sol 1: Let xn = (-1)n
Then |xn| < 2 ∀n∈ℕ ⇒(xn)is bounded
But (xn) is Cauchy as we’ll see below ∀H∈ ℕ
Let m=2H, then m>H and let n=2H -1>H
Now |xn –xm| = |x2H-1 –x2H | = |-1-1| = 2
So far ε = 1>0
|xn-xm| = 2>€ε ∀H∈ℕ
⇒(xn) is not Cauchy
Sol 2:
(a) Let xn = = 1 + and ε>0 (be given)
The |xn – xm| = | (1+ ) – (1+ ) |
⇒ |xn – xm| = | – 1 | ≤ +
⇒|xn – xm| < + ………(1)

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(Now to find H∈ℕ : n,m>H) ⇒|xn –xm|<ε )
As n>H , m>H ⇒ < , <
From (1) |xn –xm| < , ∴|xn –xm|<ε if < ε
∴ > ⇒H> , chose H∈ℕ : H>
Then ∀n,m>H, |xn-xm|<ε ⇒(xn) is Cauchy
(b) Let xn = 1+ + ……..+
Let for m>n

|xn –xm | = )
+ )
+………..+
⇒|xn –xm | = )
+ )
+………..+
⇒|xn –xm |≤ + + + ……….
⇒|xn –xm |≤ (1+ + + ……….
⇒|xn –xm |≤ . /
⇒|xn –xm |≤ ( )<
⇒|xn –xm |< ∴|xn –xm |<ε, if <ε
⇒2n-1>
⇒(n-1) > ln( )
∴ |xn –xm |<ε if n> ln( ) +1
So chose H∈ℕ : H> ln( ) +1
Then ∀m>n≥H , n> ln( )

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And hence |xn –xm | < ε ∀n,m≥H
⇒(xn) is acuchy seq
Sol 3:
(a) See solution (1)

)
(b) Let xn = n+
For any h∈ℕ, if n=2H, m=2H-1

Then |xn –xm| = |x2H –x2H-1|
) )
= | ) |
⇒|xn –xm| = | | = | |
⇒|xn –xm| = > 1
∴ for ε = 1 , ∄ any h∈ℕ : |xn –xm| < 1 ∀n,m≥H

(c) Let xn = ln(n)
Then for any h∈ℕ
If n=4H and m=2H
|xn –xm|= |ln4H – ln2H|
⇒|xn –xm| = (ln2) ≮ε
If ε=ln2 +1 >0
∴(xn) is not Cauchy

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Q4: Given (xn) and (yn) are not Cauchy seq show that
(a) (xn + yn) is Cauchy sequence

(b) (xn yn) is Cauchy sequence
Sol:
(a) Let ε>0 be given (to find H∈ ℕ : ∀n,m>H)
Consider |(xn+ym) – (xm+ym)| ≤ |xn –xm| + |yn –ym| …….(1)
Now (xn) is cauchy ∴∃H1∈ℕ:
|xn -xm| < ∀n,m≥H1 …………..(2)
and (yn) is cauchy ∴∃H2∈ℕ:
|yn -ym| < ε ∀n,m≥H2 …………..(3)
Choose H=max{H1 , H2}
Then |xn –xm| < and |yn –ym| < ∀n,m≤H
Use this in (1) we get
|(xn + yn) – (xm + ym ) |<ε ∀n,m≥H
⇒((xn + yn)) is Cauchy seq
(b) Let ε>0 be given (to find H∈ ℕ : ∀n,m>H)
Consider |xnyn – xmym| = |xnyn – xmyn + xmyn – xmym |
⇒|xnyn – xmym| ≤ |xn – xn| |yn| + |xn| |yn-ym| …….(1)
Now (xn) and (yn) being cauchy are bdd ∴∃M>0 :
|xn|≤M . |yn|≤M ∀n∈ℕ

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Use this in (1) we obtain
|xnyn-xmym|≤M (|xn-xm| + |yn-ym|) ………..(2)
Now (xn) is Cauchy ∴∃H1∈ℕ :
|xn –xm|≤ ∀n,m≥H1 …………(3)
and (yn) is Cauchy ∴∃H2∈ℕ :
|yn –ym|≤ ∀n,m≥H1 …………(4)
Choose H=max{H1 , H2}
Then |xn –xm| < , |yn –ym| < ∀n,m≥H…………(5)
From (2) and (5) we get
|xnyn – xmym| < ε ∀n,m≤H
⇒(xn yn) is cauchy
Q5: If xn=√ , show that (xn) satisfy lim |xn+1-xn| =0 , but is not
Cauchy
Q6: Let p be a given natural number Given example of a sequence

(xn) that is not Cauchy sequence but that satisfies lim|x n+p – xn|
=0
Q7: Let (xn) be a Cauchy sequence such that x n us an integer, ∀n∈ℕ

show that (xn) is ultimately constant.

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Sol 5: | x n + 1 – x n | = |√ √ | = √ √
⇒lim|xn+1 –xn| = lim = 0

√ √
Now we’ll show (xn) is not cauchy
Let H∈ℕ (be any) then for n=4H, m=H
|xn-xm| = |√ √ √ ≥ 1 ⇒|xn –xm| ≥1
∴ |xn – xm| ≮ε, if ε = > 0, for any H∈ℕ
Sol 6: Let xn = 1 + + + ……………….. +
then (xn) is not Cauchy , for n>m
|xn – xm| =
|( )
( )|
⇒|xn – xm|= | |
⇒|xn – xm|=
Let H∈, be any then for n.2H, m=H
|xn – xm| =
⇒|xn – xm| ≥ ⇒|xn –xm| >
∴|xn-xm| ≮ ε, for ε = , ∀H∈ℕ

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∴(xn) is not Cauchy
While xn+p = 1+ + + ………….+
∴ xn+p = 1+ + + ……….. + + + ……..….+
⇒ xn+p – xn = + + ………….+
⇒ 0 < |xn+p –xn| <
⇒lim |xn+p –xn| =0
Sol 7: As (xn) is cauchy
∴for 1>0 ∃H∈ℕ ; |xn –xm|<1 ∀n,m≥H
Now xn and xm are integers
∴|xn –xm| <1 ⇒xn = xm ∀n,m≥H
(xn) is ultimately constant
Q8: Show directly that a bounded monotone increasing

sequence is Cauchy
Q9: Of 0<r<1 and |xn+1 – xn|<rn ∀n∈ℕ. Show that (xn) is a

Cauchy sequence

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Sol 8: Let (xn) be bounded and increasing as (x n) is

bounded as (xn) is bounded
⇒{xn : n∈ℕ} is bounded
⇒Sup{xnLn∈ℕ} exists (By completeness property_
Let u=Sup{xnLn∈ℕ}
Claim: (xn) is Cauchy
Now let ε>0 be given (to find H∈ ℕ : |xn –xm| <ε ∀n,m≥H)
As u=Sup{xn:n∈ℕ}
⇒ ∃H∈ℕ: u- <hH u-
Also u <u+
∴u+ > xn ≥ xm> u - ∀n≥m≥H
⇒ |xn –xm| <ε ∀n≥m>H
⇒(xn) is Cauchy
Sol 9: for m>n
|xn –xm| = |xn –xn+1 + xn+1 – xn+2 + ………+ xm-1 – xm|
⇒|xn –xm| ≤ |xn –xn+1| +| xn+1 – xn+2 | + ………+ |xm-1 – xm|
⇒|xn –xm| < rn + rn+1 + ………..+ rm-1
)
⇒|xn –xm| ≤ < ∀m>n ……………….(1)
) )

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⇒|xn –xm| < ∀m>n
Let ε>0 be given (to find H∈ ℕ : ∀m>n≥H |xn-x|<ε
Now 0<r<1 ⇒lim rn =0
∴ for (1-r) ε>0 ∃H∈ℕ:
|rn-0|<(1-r)ε ∀n≥H
⇒|rn|<(1-r)ε ∀n≥H
⇒rn< (1-r) ε ∀n≥H ………(2)
From (1) and (2)
|xn –xm| <ε ∀m>n≥H
⇒(xn) is Cauchy
Q10: if x1≤x2 are arbitrary real numbers and x n = ) for
n>2 show that (xn) is cgt. Find limit
Q11: If y1<y2 are arbitrary real numbers and yn = +
For n>2, show that (yn) is cgt. find limit
Sol 10: as x2>x1 ⇒ x2 –x1>0, let L = x2-x1
we’ll show |xn+1 – xn| = L ( )
for n=1 |x2 – x1| = L
∴result is true

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For n+2 |x3 – x2 | = | ( x1 + x2 ) – x2 |
= |x2 – x1 | = =
∴result is true for n=2
Assume result is true for n=k
|xk+1 – xk | = ………….……(1)
Now |xk+2 – xk+1 | = | (xk + xk+1 ) – xk+1 |
= | xk+1 – xk | = =
∴result is true for n=k+1
∴|xn+1 – xn| =
As in question 9 for m>n
|xn-xm| ≤ + + + ……………. +
⇒|xn – xm| ≤ ( 1+ + +………….. +
⇒|xn – xm| < , let ε >0 be given ( to find H∈ ℕ |xn – xm|
< ε ; ∀m>n)
Now lim = 0 ∴for > 0 ∃H∈ℕ:
< ∀n≥H …………….(2)
Now from (1) and (2)
|xn – xm| < ε ∀m>n≥H ⇒ (xn) is Cauchy and hence is cgt

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We’ll show that
X2n+1 = x1 + + + + ………… +
we see x3 = (x1 + x2 ) = x1 + x2 = x1 + (L + x1 )
⇒x3 = x1 +
x5 = (x3 + x4 ) = x3 + ( x2 + x3 )
⇒x5 = x3 + x2 = x3 + (L+x1)
⇒x5 = (x1 + ) + x1 + L
)
⇒x5 = x1 L = x1 +
⇒x5 = x1 + + e.t.c ………….
∴x2n+1 = x1 + + + ……… +
As (xn) is cgt ⇒ lim xn = lim x2n+1
⇒ lim xn = x1 + ( 1+ + + ……………. +
Lim xn = x1 + . / = x1 + L = + x2
Sol 11: |yn – yn+1| = |yn - (yn + yn-1 |
⇒|yn – yn+1|= | yn - yn-1|
⇒|yn – yn+1| = |yn - yn-1|

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⇒|yn – yn+1| = ∙ |yn-1 - yn-2|
⇒|yn – yn+1| =( ) |yn-1 - yn-2|
⇒|yn – yn+1| =( ) |yn-2 - yn-3|
⇒|yn – yn+1| =( ) |yn-2 - yn-3|
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
⇒|yn – yn+1| =( ) |y2 - y3|
⇒|yn – yn+1| =( ) (y2 - y3) (∵y2> y1 )
Now for m>n , as in Question 9
⇒|yn – ym| =|yn – yn+1 + yn+1 – yn+2 ………… + ym-1 – ym |
≤|yn – yn+1 |+ |yn+1 – yn+2|………… + |ym-1 – ym |
⇒ | y n – y m | ≤ ( y 2 – y 1 ) [( ) () () ]
( )
⇒|yn – ym| ≤ (y2 – y1) ( ) 0 1
⇒|yn – ym| ≤ 3(y2 – y1) ( ) ∀m>n …………..(1)
Now lim ( ) = 0 ∴ ∀ε>0 ∃ H∈ℕ :
( ) < ∀n≥H …………….(2)

)
From (1) and (2) we get |yn –ym|<ε ∀m>n≥H

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⇒ (yn) is Cauchy and hence (yn) is cgt
Find limit yourself (Ans. y1 + y2)
Definition
Let (Sn) be a seq in ℝ . we define
limSupSn =
limInfSn =
Theorem :Let (Sn) be a sequence in ℝ
(1) If limSn is defined ( in ℝ∪{±∞}), then

limInf = limSn = limSupSn
(2) If limInfSn = limSupSn, then limSn is defined and
limSn = limSupSn = limInfSn
Proof: (i) Suppose limSn = ±∞.
Let Un = Inf{Sn:n>N} and Vn =Sup{Sn:n>N} then
limSupSn = and limInfSn = for any m>0, as

limSn = +∞
∴∃N∈ℕ:
Sn>m ∀n>N
⇒Vn≥m…………..(1)
Now ∀m>N we have

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{Sn:n>m} ⊆ {Sn:n>N}
⇒ Inf{Sn:n>m} ≥Inf{Sn:n>N} ∀n>N
⇒Um≥Un≥m ∀m>N
⇒Um≥m ∀m>N ⇒ = +∞
⇒limInfSn = +∞
Similarly we can show liimSupS n = +∞
Also when limSn = -∞ case is similar
Now Let limSn=S, S∈ℝ
Let ε>0 be gien then ∃N∈ℕ:
S-ε<Sn<S+ε ∀n≥N
Now Vn = Sup{Sn:n>N} ≤ S+ε ∀ε>0
⇒Vn≤S+ε ∀ε>0
Also if m>N, then
{Sn:n>m} ⊆ {Sn:n>N}
⇒ Sup{Sn:n>m} ⊆ Sup{Sn:n>N}
⇒ Vm ≤ Vn ≤ S+ε ∀ε>0, ∀m>N
⇒ Vm≤S+ε ∀m>N
⇒ lim Vm≤S+ε ∀ε>0
⇒ limSupSn ≤S+ε ∀ε>0
⇒ limSupSn≤S ……………. *⃝1

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Also S-ε<Sn ∀n>N
⇒S-ε≤Un where Un={Sn:n>N}
⇒S-ε≤Un≤Um ∀m>N
⇒S-ε≤ ⇒S-ε ≤ limInfSn ∀ε>0
⇒S≤limInfSn ……….*⃝2
Now we know
limInfSn ≤ limSupSn
*⃝1 and *⃝2 ⇒S≤limInfSn ≤ limSupSn ≤ S
⇒limInfSn = limSupSn = S
(iii) (A) Let limSupSn = + ∞ = limInfSn

T.S.T limSn = +∞
Let M be any +ve real no.
As limInfSn = +∞
⇒ = ∞ ,Un = Inf{Sn:n>N}
∵ = ∞ ∴∃k∈ℕ:
Un>M ∀N>k
Or in particular Uk>M
⇒ Inf{Sn:n>k}>M
⇒Sn>m ∀n>ks
⇒limSn = +∞
(B) If limSupSn = -∞ = limInfSn

T.S.T limSn = - ∞
Let M∈ℝ be any real o
As limSupSn = -∞

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⇒limVn = -∞
⇒∃k∈ℕ:
Vn<M ∀N≥k
In particular Vk<M …………….(1)
Now ⇒ Sup{Sn:n>k} <M
⇒Sn<M ∀n>k
⇒limSn = -∞
(C) If limSupSn = limInfSn = S, S∈ℝ
Let ε>0 be any no. (to find k∈ℕ : |Sn-S| <ε ∀n≥k)
As limSn = S
⇒ = S, Vn = Sup{Sn:n>N}
⇒∃k1 ∈ ℕ:
|vn – S|<ε ∀N≥k1
⇒s-ε < Vn< s+ε ∀N≥k1
⇒ Vn< s+ε ∀N≥k1
In particular <s+ε
⇒Sip{Sn:n>k1} < s+ε
⇒ Sn< s+ε ∀n≥k1 ……………(1)
Also limInfSn = S
⇒limUn = s, Un=Inf{Sn:n>N}

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⇒∃k’’∈ℕ:
s-ε<Un<s+ε ∀N≥k’’
⇒ s-ε < Un ∀ n≥k’’
In particular for N=k’’
s-ε <
⇒s-ε<Inf{Sn:n>k’’}
⇒s-ε < Sn ∀n≥k’’ …………..(2)
Let k=max{k’ , k’’}, then
s-ε<Sn<s+ε ∀n≥k
⇒|Sn – S|<ε ∀n≥k
⇒limSn = S
Example: Let (Sn) = ) ) find limSupSn and limInfSn
Sol: Un = Inf{Sn:n>N} = Inf{1 ) :n>N}
⇒Un = Inf{
⇒Un = 0 ⇒limUn = 0 ⇒ limInfSn = 0
Similarly check limSupSn = 2
Example: Let xn = ) ( ) n∈ℕ, find limSupxn and liminfxn
Sol: Vn = Sup{xn:n>N}
=Sup{xN+1 , xN+2 , xN+3,……..}

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=Sup { ) ( ) ) ( ) , ………….}
={
limVn = 1 ⇒limSupxn = 1
Un = Inf{ ) ( ), ) ( ) …………}
( )
={
( )
⇒limUn = -1 ⇒limInfxn = -1
Definition:
Let (Sn) be a seq in ℝ. A susequential limit is any real

numbers or symbol + ∞ or – ∞ that is the limit of some
sunsequence od (Sn)
Theorem:
Let (Sn) be any sequence in ℝ, and let S denote the set of

subequential limits of (Sn)
(i) S is non empty

(ii) Sup S = limSupSn , Inf S = limInfSn
Proof: Not required (Not in the syllabus)

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Infinite series :
An infinite series is an expression of the form

∑ = am + am+1 , am+2 , ………
Note:We’ll often take m=0, or m=1 in this set of notes we’ll

assume m=1. ∴for us infinite seriws is ∑ ,We’ll ignore
n=1,2,………∞, and we’ll write an infinite series as ∑
Sequence od partial sums :
Let ∑ be an infinite series then a sequence (S n) defined as
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + ……… + an ,is called sequence of partial sums of ∑
Definition:
An infinite series is convergent iff (S n) is cgt
An infinite series is divergent iff (S n) is dgt
Series of non-negative terms :
A series ∑ is of non-negative terms if sn≥0 ∀ n∈ℕ
Note :S.O.P.S of series of non-negative terms is always ↑ seq
Let ∑ be series of non-negative terms and (Sn) be S.O.P.S
Then Sn+1 – Sn = an+1 ≥0
⇒Sn+1 – Sn ≥ 0 ⇒Sn+1 ≥ Sn ∀n∈ℕ

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⇒ (Sn) is ↑
As series ∑ is cgt ⟺(Sn) is cgt and (Sn) is ↑
∴ (Sn) is cgt ⟺ (Sn) is bdd
∴∑ is cgt ⟺ (Sn) is bdd above
If |r| ≥ 1 ⇒|rn| ≥ 1 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒lim|rn|≥1
⇒ lim|rn|≠0
Also Of a≠0
lim arn = alim(rn) ≠ 0 (∵ lim|rn| ≠ 0 ⇒ limrn ≠ 0)
∑ is no convergent
p-series test :
The series ∑ is cgt ⟺ p >1
is dgt ⟺ p≤1

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Cauchy convergence criteria:
∑ is convergent ⟺ ∀ ε>0 ∃ N∈ℕ : ∑ < ε ∀ n≥m>N
Proof: Let (Sn) be S.O.P.S of ∑
Then ∑ is cgt ⟺ (Sn) is cauchy
⟺ ∀ ε>0 ∃ N∈N:
|Sn – Sm| <ε ∀ n≥m>N
⟺ ∑ ∑ < ε ∀ n≥m>N
⟺ ∑ < ε ∀ n≥m>N
⟺| am+1 + am+2 + …… + an |<ε ∀ n≥m>N
Comparision test:
Let ∑ be a series where an ≥ 0 ∀ n∈ℕ
(i) If ∑ converges and |bn| ≤ an for all

n∈ℕ then ∑ converges
(ii) If ∑ = + ∞ and bn ≥ an ∀n∈ℕ, then
∑ =+∞

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Proof: (i) Let ε>0 n given
Now for n≥m
∑ ≤ ∑ ≤∑ ……………(1)
Now ∑ is cgt ∴∃N∈ℕ:
∑ < ε ∀n≥m>N
As an ≥ 0 ∀n∈ℕ
⇒ ∑ < ε ∀n≥m>N ……………..(2)
From (1) and (2)
∑ < ε ∀ n≥m>N
⇒ ∑ is comvergent
(ii) Let (Sn) be S.O.P.S of ∑
and (tn) be S.O.P.S of ∑
as bn ≥ an ∀n∈ℕ
∑ ≥∑
⇒ tn ≥ Sn ∀n∈ℕ ……….(3)
As ∑ = + ∞ ⇒limSn = +∞
(1) ⇒ limtn = + ∞
⇒∑ is divergent

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Necessary condition of convergence : (n th term test )
If ∑ is convergent then liman = 0
(i.e if liman ≠ 0, ∑ is dgt )
Proof : Let ∑ be cgt, and (Sn) be S.O.P.S then (Sn) is

cgt
⇒limSn = S (say)
Also limSn-1 = S
And an = Sn – Sn-1 ⇒ liman = limSn – limSn-1 = 0
⇒ liman = 0
Geometric test :
A series of the form ∑ for constant a and r is called

Geometric series
∑ is convergent |r|<1
Is divergent if |r|≥1 , a≠0

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Proof : Let (Sn) be S.O.P.S of ∑
Then Sn = ∑
Now )∑ = ∑ -∑
=a+ar+ar2+……=arn –(ar+ar2+……+arn+1)
=a – ar+n-1
)
⇒∑ = )
r≠1
)
⇒Sn = )
If |r| <1, then lim rn+1 = 0 ⇒ limSn = ( )
⇒S.O.P.S is cgt ⇒ ∑ is convergent
Limit comparision test: Suppose X:= (xn) and Y:=(yn) are

strictly positive sequences and suppose that the following
limit exists in ℝ ; r=lim( )
(a) If r≠0 then ∑ is cgt ⟺ ∑ is cgt

(b) If r=0 then ∑ is cgt ⟺ ∑ is cgt
Proof:
(a) If r≠0 then r>0 ⇒ > 0
And lim = r
∴∃k∈ℕ :
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| |< ∀n≥k
≤ < r + ∀n≥k
( )< x n < ( 2 r ) y n ∀n≥k ………..(1)
Now yn< xn ∀n≥k
∴Ny comparison test , If ∑ is cgt hen ∑ is cgt
again from (1)
xn< (2r)yn ∀n≥k
⇒ If ∑ is convergent then ∑ is cgt
And hence ∑ is convergent ⟺ ∑ is cgt
(b) If r=0
Then for ε = 1>0 ∃k∈ℕ:
| |< 1 ∀ n ≥ k
⇒ < 1 n≥k
Again by comparision test if ∑ is cgt then ∑ is cgt

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Root test :
Let ∑ be a sequence and ∝ = limSup ,The series ∑
(i) Converges absolutely if ∝<1
(ii) Diverges if ∝ >1
(iii) otherwise ∝ = 1, and the test giv es no information
Proof:
Case 1 : ∝ >1 ; ∝ = limSup = where we let
Vn = Sup{ : n>N};
As ∝<1, we have 1-∝>0 ; choose 0<ε<1 -e then be

definition of convergence ∃ m ℕ:
|Vn - ∝|<ε ∀N≥m
Or ∝-ε<Vn< ∝+ε ∀N≥m
Or in particular Vn< ∝+ε
⇒ Sup{ : n>N} < ∝+ε
⇒ < ∝+ε ∀n>m
⇒ < (∝+ε)n ∀n>m
As =<∝+ε<1; ⇒∑ ) is convergent
∴By basic comparision test ∑ is abs cgt

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⇒∑ is convergent
Case 1
∝>1, choose 0<ε<∝-1 then
As ∝ = limSup = ∴ for this ε>0
∃m∈ℕ :
|Vn-∝| < ε ∀ N≥m
⇒∝-ε < Vn ∝+ε ∀N≥m
⇒ Sup{ : n>N} > ∝-ε ∀N≥m
∴ ∃ some N1> N such that
> ∝-ε > 1 ∀N≥m
⇒∃ infinitely many N 1>m such that | > 1
∴ t h e r e i s a s u b s e q u e n c e (| |) o f ) such that each
| |> 1
⇒ lim|an| ≠ 0 ⇒ liman ≠ 0
⇒∑ is divergent (By nth root test)

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Ratio test : A series ∑ of non-zero terms
(i) Converges absolutely if limSup| |< 1
(ii) Diverges if limInf | |< 1
(iii) Otherwise limInf | | ≤ 1 ≤ limSup| | amd test giver no
information
Proof:
First we’ll show following result
limInf| | ≤limInf ≤limSup ≤limSup| |
The middle inequality is obvious
Now we’ll prove the third inequality
∝ = limSup
And L = limSup| |, w e ’ l l s h o w ∝ ≤ L .
If L = + ∞ then this is obvious (i.e ∝≤L)
If L<+∞. To prove that∝≤L
It is enough to show ∝≤L1 for any L1>L
Since L = limSup| |= | | < L1 ;
There exists a natural number N:
S u p ,| | -< L 1

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⇒ | |< L 1 f o r n ≥ M
⇒ for n>N, |an| = | || | ……………………. | | |aN|
⇒|an| < |an| for n>N
⇒|an| < a where a = > 0
⇒ limSup ≤ L1 , as desired
⇒∝≤L
⇒ limSup ≤ limSup| | ……………..(1)
Similarly we can show that
limInf| | ≤limInf ………………..(2)
from (1) and (2)
limInf| | ≤limInf ≤limSup ≤limSup| |
If limSup| |< 1
Then limSup < 1
∴ by root test ∑ is cgt
(ii) If limInf| |> 1
⇒ limSup > 1
⇒∑ is divergent by root test

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(iii) Let ∑ = ∑ then ∑ is dgt
Also limInf| | = limSup| | = lim| | = 1
If ∑ = ∑ then ∑ is dgt
But limInf| | = limSup| | = 1
∴ if limInf| | ≤ 1 ≤ limSup| |
Series ∑ may converge or diverge and hence

we can’t say anyting in this case
Alternative Series :
A series of the form a 1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + ………….. where ak>0 ∀ kj is

called an alternating series
Leibnitz test : If a1≥a2≥a3 …………..
And limak = 0, then the alternating series ∑ ) is cgt
Proof: we’ll prove this using cauchy’s principal of

convergence of an infinite series
Let ε>0 be given
Let ∑ = ∑ )
Consider for n>m , m∈ ℕ
|Um+1 + Um+2 + ……………… + Um|

 9971245238 or 8750558444
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= | ) am+1 + ) am+2 + …....... + ) an|
= | ) [ am+1 am+2 + …....... ) an]|
= | ) A|
Where A = am+1 – am+2 + am+3 - …………….. + ) an
Now a = am+1 – am+2 + ……….. - an
When n-m-1 is odd
A = [ am+1 – am+2 ] + [ am+3 – am+4 ]+ …………….. + [an-1 – an]
{Since (ak) ↓⇒all quantities inside the brackets are +ve

A≥0}
Now
A = am+1 – [am+2 - am+3 ]– [ am+4 –am-5 ]+ ….... + [an-2 – an-1]-an
= am+1 – ve (∵ brackets are non negative )
<am+1 …………….(A)
When n-m-1 is even
A= am+1 – am+2 + am+3 –am+4+ …………….. + an
=[ am+1 – am+2 ]+ [am+3 –am+4 ] + ……….. + [an-2 – an-1] + an
>0 ( ∵ All brackets are non negative )
A = am+1 –[ am+2 + am+3 ] ……….. [an-1 – an-n]
≤am+1 ……………….(B)

 9971245238 or 8750558444

Real Analysis Notes

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Section – 1 Lecture Notes -1 (A) REAL ANALYSIS

Algebraic properties of ℝ - On the set of real numbers there

1. a + b = b + a, ∀ a, b ∈ℝ(Commutativiti w.r.t addition)

and (b + c) ∙a = (b ∙ a) + (c ∙ a) ∀ a, b, c ∈ℝ.( Distributive

1. If z and a are elements in ℝ With z + a = a, then z = 0

 Notes prepared by sanjeev kumar shukla

1. z = z + 0 (Existence of zero element)

2. If u and b ≠ 0 are elements in ℝ and u ∙ b = b

Consider u = u ∙ 1 (Existence of unit)

= (u ∙ b) (using association of multiplication

= b∙ ( u∙b= bis guven)

 Notes prepared by sanjeev kumar shukla

(1). b = b ∙ 1 (Existence of unit)

= b (a∙ ) (a≠0, Existence of reciprocal)

= (ab) ∙ (Commutativity of multiplication)

⇒ b = (Existence of unit element)

(2). let a ∙ b = 0, If a = 0 we are done , if a ≠ 0 ,1/a exists.

Now , b = b ∙ 1 = b ) (Existence of reciprocals)

= b(a ∙ ) = (ba) = (ab) =0 ∙ = 0

5. If a ≠ 0 then a0 = 1 and a-1 = ,Also if n ∈ ℕ , we will

 Notes prepared by sanjeev kumar shukla

Any number that can be written as where a, b ∈ ℤ and b ≠ 0,

is called a rational number. The set of all rational numbers is

Any number which is not rational is called irrational.

A number X is called irrational iff ∄ a and b(≠0) in ℤ such that

Theorem –There does not exists a rational number

Proof– Let if possible ∃ rational number

Note - without the loss of generality we can assume that

there is no common Factor b/w p and q, and p and q both are

positive ,Now ( ) =2 ⇒ p2 = 2q ⇒ p2 is even

 Notes prepared by sanjeev kumar shukla

Also p and q do not have 2 as a common factor

∴ q is odd …….. (1)

⇒ 4m2 = 2q2 ⇒ q2 = 2m2

⇒ q2 is even ⇒ q is even ……… (2)

From (1) and (2) we have a contradiction.

And hence there is no p and q in ℤ such that

There is a non empty subset P of ℝ, called

The set of positive real numbers ,

That satisfy the following properties.

3 r d property is called trichotomy property

Define a set {-a : a ∈ P} , then this set is called set of negative

 Notes prepared by sanjeev kumar shukla

a > 0 , ⇒ a is positive real number

a ≥ 0 , ⇒ a is non-negative real number

a < 0 , ⇒ a is negative real number

a ≤ 0 , ⇒ a is non-positive real number

Definition - Let a , b be the elements in ℝ

(a). If a-b ∈ P, we write a > b or b < a

(b). If a-b ∈ PU{0}, we write a ≥ b or b ≤ a

Theorem - Let a, b, c be any elements of ℝ

(a). If a > b and b > c , then a > c

(b). If a > b then a + c > b +c

(c). If a > b and c > 0 , then ca > cb

(d). If a > b and c < 0, then ca < cb

Note -(b)is called monotonic law of addition.

(c)is called monotonic law of multiplication.

 Notes prepared by sanjeev kumar shukla

(a). Given - a > b and b > c

To Show that - a > c i.e a – c ∈ P

( By property 1.of P ) we have (a - b) + (b - c) ∈ P

(b). If a > b, then a + c > b + c