Information produced by the DBMS are classified into three:

 Business resources - enterprises, business functions, positions Gobs), human/ machine resources, skills, business objectives,
projects, and information requirements
 System resources - systems, subsystems (business processes), administrative procedures (manual procedures and office
automation-related), computer procedures, programs, operational steps, modules, and subroutines
 Data resources - data elements, storage records, files (computer and manual), views, objects, inputs, outputs, panels, maps,
call parameters, and database

Steps Involved in Converting Data to Information

DATA INFORMATION

ACQUISITION DISTRIBUTION

STORAGE RETRIEVAL
MANIPULATION
In a DBMS like the student information system, the system enables acquisition storage, manipulation, retrieval, and distribution of
school data. In this case, the process is considered a subset of information processing that provides the best evidence of results.

 ACQUISITION is the process of gathering all the needed information or data whether it is relevant or not, important or
unnecessary. Data can be about the student’s profile, subjects, advisers, and grades. This step is very crucial since the quality
of data collected will impact heaving on the output (information). This step needs to ensure that the data gathered is both
defined and accurate, so that subsequent decisions based on findings are valid. 0"he decision to be made is based on the
output.)

 Once acquisition is done, STORAGE follows. Data is refined and stored accordingly. The storage, called a table, is allocated
to hold the data. For example, a student profile table may include the student number, full name, nickname, date of birth,
gender, and year level among others. The table for enrolled subjects can have subjects, time, days, rooms, and so on.

 MANIPULATION follows. In this stage, data are analyzed more closely and relationships between them are established so
that viewing and accessing of information can be made possible. This is where “data” is actually converted to “information.”
This is also where you anticipate queries or questions that may arise. For example, a summary of subjects enrolled or a
summary of grades.

 RETRIEVAL enables you to come up with a solution or answer to the queries or questions. This stage is where the result of
manipulation is retrieved and interpreted to deliver answers to the queries or questions.

 DISTRIBUTION pertains to the report that is generated for dissemination.

o Example of Data Transformation

o In order to have a good student registration system, you need to do the following.

o FIRST, gather all the data regarding the student.

 Profile

 Subjects enrolled

 Adviser

 Grades
o SECOND, create a storage that will hold the data needed.
 A student profile table that will contain the student number, personal profile, educational background,
references, and hobbies or skills
 A table for enrolled subjects that will contain the student profile, subjects, time, days, and rooms
o THIRD, think of queries that are usually asked in connection with the subject registration.
 Subjects enrolled
 Number of subjects enrolled per semester
 Summary of subjects enrolled
  Summary of grades
o FOURTH, how data can be retrieved.
 Access the database.
 Look for the folder.
 Assign an envelope for each particular student.
o FIFTH, distribute the data or information to the correct person.
 Whether you are using a computer, folder, index cards, or a record book to file and maintain records, you
are actually practicing simple database.

Functions of a DBMS
1. Data storage and retrieval - creates and manages complex structures for data storage and easy data retrieval
2. Data dictionary - stores definitions of the data elements and their relationships
3. Transaction support (updating) - guarantees that all the updates in a given transaction is made or not made
4. Concurrency control services (multiple updating) - allows access at the same time to the same database by multiple users
without affecting the integrity of the database
5. Recovery services - provides backup and data recovery if issues occurred and to ensure data safety and integrity
6. Authorization services - provides security systems that enforce user access rights and data privacy by means of security
rules
7. Support for data communication and networking - supports access of multiple users without compromising the integrity
of the database through different network environments.
Advantages of DBMS
1. Controls redundancy - No duplication of data will take place.
2. Integrity can be enforced - This means that data in a database is always accurate.
3. Inconsistency can be avoided - Propagation of data does not take place.
4. Data can be shared - Data can be used and manipulated by multiple users in multiple workstations.
5. Standards can be enforced - Elements and procedures are well-defined and carried out.
6. Restricts unauthorized access - Security rules determine the table or database that can be used by a particular end user.
7. Solves enterprise requirements rather than individual requirements - Its main goal is to have standard requirements for
standard procedures.
8. Provides backup and recovery - It provides backup and data recovery to ensure data safety.
9. Cost of developing and maintaining a system is lower - It can be maintained by a few programmers or database
administrators (DBAs) that is not costly to the enterprise.
10. Data model can be developed - The centralized system is able to represent the complex data and interfile relationships, which
results in better data modeling properties.
11. Concurrency control - It can be accessed by multiple users.
Disadvantages of DBMS
1. Complexity - Different users, different procedures, and business rules are implemented and imposed to the data collection
which must be understood and managed by the administrators and end users.
2. Size - It requires substantial amount of memory to run efficiently.
3. Performance - It may not run as fast as it is used to cater to all functionalities being requested to perform.
4. Higher impact of failure - If the database is damaged due to power failure or any other means, this can result in data
corruption and bring operations to a halt.
5. Cost of DBMS - The price of DBMS in the market is very costly.
6. Additional hardware costs - It requires high-end hardware that has to be upgraded when needed by the database. Both
hardware and software are expensive.
7. Cost of conversion - Shifting of the database from a flat file to relational is costly.
8. Qualified personnel - The professional operation of a database system requires appropriately trained staff. Without a qualified
database administrator, nothing will work well for long.
Common Examples of Database Applications
1. POS (point of sale) - It is a database application commonly used in fast-food restaurants, department stores, or supermarkets.
This application records the items or products that go outside the premises and automatically counts the number of items left
in the warehouse.
2. Mobile/smartphone contact information system - It is a database application used by mobile companies to store a person’s
contact information, such as name, mobile number, e-mail address, and can even include a picture of the person.
3. Library information system - It is an application used in libraries to determine the number of books available, list of available
 authors, titles, and a copy of books.
4. Search engine - It is a database application in a web environment that will enable you to search the nearest and most available
information you want to obtain. Examples are Google, Bing, and Yahoo.
5. Hospital information system - It is an application used in a hospital facility. It determines whether there are available rooms
for patients, the doctor’s name and his/her specialization, plus the clinic hours he/she renders in the hospital.

Classification of Database Systems

The DBMS can be classified based on several criteria: database distribution, users, type of data, and design.
A. Classification Based on Database Distribution.
1. Centralized database – database is stored in a single site that is used by several systems.
2. Distributed database - The actual database is distributed from various sites that are connected by a computer network.
3. Homogeneous distributed database - The database technology is the same or at least compatible with each of the
locations, and data at the various locations are also compatible. It simplifies the sharing of data among various users.
a. Characteristics of Homogeneous Database:
i. The computer operating systems used at each of the locations are the same, or at least they are highly
compatible.
ii. The data models used at each of the locations are the same.
iii. The DBMS used at each of the locations are the same, or at least they are highly compatible.
iv. The data at the various locations have common definitions and formats.
4. Heterogeneous distributed database - It is a database technology with different computers and operating systems.
a. Characteristics of Heterogeneous Database:
i. Each location has different operating systems and software.
ii. The data models used at each of the locations are different.
iii. The system may be composed of a variety of DBMS (like relational, network, hierarchical, or object-
oriented).
iv. Transaction processing is complex due to dissimilar software.
v. A site may not be aware of other sites and so there is limited cooperation in processing user requests.
5. Classification of Database Based on Users
a. Single user database - It allows only one connection to a database at a given moment in time.
b. Multi-user database - It provides simultaneous access for multiple users.

Classification of Database Based on Type of Data

1. Temporal database - It is a database with built-in support for handling data involving time.
2. Data stream management system database - It is a computer program to manage continuous data streams.
3. Deductive database - It is a database system that can make deductions based on the rules and facts stored in the
database.

4. Multimedia database - It includes one or more primary media types, such as text, images, graphic objects (including
drawings, sketches, and illustrations), animation sequences, audio, and video.
5. Spatial database - Also known as geodatabase, it is a database that is optimized to store and query data that represents
objects defined in a geometric space. Most spatial databases will allow representing of simple geometric objects such as
points, lines, and polygons.

Classification of Database Based on Its Design

 Flat file database - It is a database designed around a single table. It only holds a single table.
 Relational database - It incorporates multiple tables with methods for the tables to work together. The relationships between
table data can be collated, merged, and displayed in database forms.

Elements of a database

 An entity is like a noun; it is a person place, or thing. It is represented as a record in a database.

 An attribute is a property of an entity. It is represented as a filed in a database record.

 A relationship is an association between entities. It is represented using a common field in a set of records.

 Data in a list are stored in tables.