Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BUSINESS
BY KHUSHI MOTWANI
Table of Contents
Unit 1: Chapter 1 .....................................................................................................................................................2
Unit 1: Chapter 2 .....................................................................................................................................................4
Unit 1: Chapter 3 .....................................................................................................................................................7
Unit 1: Chapter 4 .....................................................................................................................................................9
Unit 1: Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................................... 12
Unit 2: Chapter 10 ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Unit 2: Chapter 11 ................................................................................................................................................. 15
Unit 2: Chapter 12 ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Unit 3: Chapter 16 ................................................................................................................................................. 20
Unit 3: Chapter 17 ................................................................................................................................................. 23
Unit 3: Chapter 18 ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Unit 3: Chapter 19 ................................................................................................................................................. 30
Unit 4: Chapter 22 ................................................................................................................................................. 34
Unit 4: Chapter 23 ................................................................................................................................................. 35
Unit 4: Chapter 24 ................................................................................................................................................. 40
Unit 5: Chapter 28 ................................................................................................................................................. 42
Unit 5: Chapter 29 ................................................................................................................................................. 44
Unit 5: Chapter 30 ................................................................................................................................................. 45
Unit 5: Chapter 31 ................................................................................................................................................. 48
Unit 1: Chapter 1
Business: any organization that uses resources to meet the Role of an Entrepreneur
needs of customers by providing a product or service that Entrepreneur: someone who takes the financial risk of
they demand starting and managing a new venture
Consumer Goods: the physical and tangible goods sold to the They have: had an idea for a new business, invested some of
general public like cars, drinks, machines their own savings and capital, accepted the responsibility of
Consumer Services: the non-tangible products sold to the managing the business and accepted the possible risks of
general public like hotel accommodation, insurance services failure
Capital Goods: the physical goods used by industry to aid in Characteristics
the production of other goods and services Innovation: attract customers in innovative ways
and present their business differently from others in
Factors of Production the same market. This requires original ideas and an
Land: renewable and non-renewable resources of ability to do things differently.
nature Commitment and Self-Motivation: willingness to
Labour: manual and skilled workforce of the work hard, keen ambition to succeed, energy and
business focus as it may take many hours each day with a lot
Capital: finances and man-made resources used in of work that needs to be done.
Multiskilled: they will have to make/provide the
production like computers, machines (also called
product/service, promote it, sell it and keep
capital goods)
accounts. These different business tasks require a
Enterprise: risk taking individuals that combine the person who has many different qualities/skills with
other factors of production into a unit capable of keen and ability to learn more required skills.
producing goods or services Leadership: lead by example and personality that
encourages people in the business to follow and be
motivated.
Self-Confidence: setbacks occur and they must have
belief in themselves that the business would bounce
back from any setbacks and not be discouraged by
it.
Risk Taking: willing to take risks in order to see
results. Often the risk is investing their own savings
into the new business.
Challenges
Identifying Opportunities: difficult to identify a
market need that will offer sufficient demand for
their product to allow the business to be profitable.
Sourcing Capital: it is crucial to raise the necessary
Creating Value: increasing the difference between the cost of capital needed for a business. It is difficult as: lack
purchasing raw materials and the price of the finished goods. of sufficient own finance, lack of awareness of
It requires effective management of resources. Mainly financial support and grants available, lack of
customer focused businesses are successful in creating value trading record to present to banks of past business
as customers are prepared to pay high prices for success, poorly produced business plan that fails to
products/services that exactly meet their needs convince potential investors.
Added value: the difference between the cost of purchasing Location: important point to consider is minimising
raw materials and the price of the finished goods fixed costs and keeping break-even level of output
low. Few aspects to consider while working from
Value created by a business is not the same as profit. If a home: close to market potential, status of locality,
business can create increased value without increasing its able to separate personal and work life, family
costs then profit will increase. tensions.
Competitions: Older and established businesses
Increase Added Value by: developing the shop, increasing with more resources and market knowledge is
quality of service, attractive packaging, establish brand experienced. However, by offering better customer
Economic problem: there are insufficient goods to satisfy all service, it is possible to overcome the cost and
of our needs and wants at any one time pricing advantages that bigger businesses offer.
Opportunity Cost: The next most desired product given up Building Customer Base: The long-term strength of
becomes the ‘lost opportunity’ or opportunity cost the business will depend on encouraging customers
to return to purchase products again and again. By
offering personal customer service, pre and after
sale services and customer requests will help to
retain customers.
Why do businesses fail? Impact of Enterprises in a Country
Lack of Record Keeping: they believe it is less Employment Creation: national level of
important than meeting customer needs or think unemployment will fall and if the business
they can remember everything. They need evidence expands more jobs will be created to supply
for taxes, when is the next customer due, whether them.
the cheque from a customer was received or Economic Growth: increase in gross domestic
checking how many hours an employee worked. It is product of a country and lead to an increase in
advisable to keep paper records incase computer living standards. Increase in output and
crashes. consumption will lead to increase in tax
Lack of Cash and Working Capital: capital is needed revenues for the government.
for holding inventories, giving credit to customers, Innovation and Technological: more innovative
paying suppliers and more. To avoid not being able and creativity are introduced and make the
to do the same, construct a cash flow forecast and business sector competitive and help advance.
keep it updates, increase capital at start up, Exports: increase the country’s exports and
establish good relations with the bank so that short improve its international competitiveness.
term problems can be overcome and effective credit
control. Social Enterprise: a business with mainly social objectives
Poor Management Skills: they may have not that reinvests most of its profits into benefiting society rather
developed leadership, cash management, planning, than maximising returns to owners
communicating, marketing skills and more.
Changes in the Business Environment: business Objectives (Triple Bottom Line)
environment is dynamic (constantly changing) such Economic: make a profit and reinvest into the
as new competitors, legal changes, economic business with returning some to owners
changes, technological changes (old fashioned) Social: provide jobs and support to the community
Environmental: manage the business in an
Primary Sector: producing or extracting natural environmentally sustainable way
resources to be processed by other firms
Secondary Sector: manufacturing or processing
products out of raw materials
Tertiary Sector: providing services
Unit 1: Chapter 2
Investors in a firm may wish to compare the size of the Possibility to become established and expand and
business with close competitors to compare the rate of the economy will benefit from large scale
growth however there are two problems with this – there are organizations in the future
several ways of measuring and comparing business sizes and Have lower average costs than large firms so this
they give different comparative results so a firm may appear benefit is passed onto the customer and costs could
large by one measure but small by another, there is no be lower due to wage rates being lesser than
internationally agreed definition of what a small, medium or salaries paid in large firms.
large business is but the number of employees is often used
to make this distinction. Government assists small firms by
Reduced rate of profit tax so that the retained
Different Measures of Size profits can be used for expansion
1. Number of Employees: measure of the number of Loan guarantee scheme is a government funded
employees in a business however the problem is scheme that guarantees the repayment of certain
that a highly automated company will employ only percentage of a bank loan if they business fails and
few people but might be able to produce a higher this tends to make banks lend money to newly
output than average. formed businesses however the rates of interest are
2. Revenue: total value of sales made by a business in a higher than the market rates and the firm must pay
given time period. It is less effective when an insurance premium to the government
comparing firms in different industries as some Information, advice and support will be provided
might be engaged in high value production such as through small firm agencies of the department for
expensive jewels and others might be engaged in business, innovation and skills
low value production such as cleaning services. This In cities with high unemployment, government
measure is needed to calculate market share. finances the establishment of small workshops
3. Capital Employed: total value of all long-term which are rented to small firms at reasonable rents.
finances invested in the business. The larger the Aid is designed to help with marketing, operations,
business the greater the value of capital is required. keeping accounts and dealing with staff as business
It is less effective when comparing firms in different cannot afford specialists, problems in short-term
industries as two firms employing the same number and long-term finances, limited product range as
of employees may have different capital equipment. well as finding a suitable priced premises
Cleaner only needs cleaning supplies but an
optician needs expensive diagnostic and eye sight
measuring machines.
4. Market Capitalization: total value of company’s
issues shares: only for public limited companies.
The formula is Market Capitalization = Current
Share Price * Total Number of Shares Issued.
Share prices tend to change every day and a Strengths of Family Businesses
temporary but sharp drop in share price could Commitment: shows dedication in seeing the business grow
appear to make the business seem smaller. and passed on to the future generation hence members work
5. Market Share: sales of the business as a proportion harder to reinvest profits into the business to allow it to grow
of total market sales. If a firm has high market share in the long term.
it must be comparatively large however when the Reliability and Pride: family’s name and reputation is
size of the total market is small, high market shares associated with their products so they strive to increase the
will not indicate a large firm. The formula is Market quality of their output to maintain good relationship with
Share = (Total Sales of Business/Total Sales of their stakeholders.
Industry) * 100 Knowledge continuity: a priority is made to pass on
6. Profit: not a good measure of business size but can knowledge, experience and skills to the next generation.
be used to assess business performance.
Weaknesses of Family Businesses
Why small firms are important? Success/Continuity Problems: most family businesses fail to
Jobs are created be sustainable. The high rate of failure can be explained by
Small businesses come with new ideas and this the lack of skills or the splitting of management
helps create a variety in the market and customers responsibilities between family members.
benefit from greater choice Informality: little interest in setting clear and formal business
Competition is created for larger businesses, if not practises and procedures so as business grows it can lead to
then large firms could exploit customers with high inefficiencies and internal conflicts.
prices and poor services Traditional: lack of innovation could be a consequence as
Kommentar [KM3]: Page 39 example
Supply specialized goods and services to important they don’t want to change systems and procedures and
industries. Often being able to adapt quickly to the operate as it was historically run.
changing needs of large firms Conflict: problems within the family may reflect on the
Kommentar [KM4]: Example page 39
management of the business and make effective decisions
less likely.
Advantages of Small Businesses By growth of business: profits are increased as expanding the
Managed and controlled by owners business achieves higher sales, market share is increased and
Offer personal service to customers gives greater bargaining power with suppliers and retailers,
Adapt quickly to meet changing customer needs economies of scales are increased, increase of power and
Disadvantages of Small Businesses status and reduced risks of being a take-over target as the
Limited access to sources of finance business is too large for a potential predator company.
Owners carry a large burden of responsibility
Few opportunities for economies of scale Internal Growth: expansion of a business by means of
opening new branches, shops or factories (also known as
Advantages of Big Businesses organic growth). It can avoid problems of excessively fast
Afford to employ specialists growth which tend to lead to inadequate capital
Benefit from economies of scale (overtrading) and management problems.
Access to several different sources of finance
Risks are spread as products in many markets External Growth: Mergers and Takeovers – a company merges
Afford research and development into new products with another company and its resources and operated under
and processes one entity or control. In a take over the company takes over
Disadvantages of Big Businesses the target company and makes it a subsidiary.
Difficult to manage especially if geographically
spread
Potential cost increase associated with large scale
production
Slow decision making and poor communication
Unit 1: Chapter 4
A business aim helps to direct, control and review the success Corporate Objectives: based upon the central aim or mission
of business activity. The most effective business objectives of the business but are expressed in terms that provide a
meet the ‘SMART’ criteria much clearer guide for management action or strategy.
S: specific: objective should focus on what the business does Common Corporate Objectives
and directly apply to that business 1. Profit Maximization: it means producing at that level
M: measurable: objectives with quantitative value are proven of output where the greatest positive difference
to be more efficient targets for directors and staff to work between total revenue and total costs is achieved.
towards However, limitations of this objective are that it
A: achievable: setting unachievable targets are pointless and focuses on high short-term profits and allows
demotivates staff who are trying to reach these targets competitors to enter the market and jeopardise the
R: realistic and relevant: objectives should be realistic when long-term survival of the business, many business
compared with the resources of the company and be relevant analysts access the performance of a business
to the people who have to carry them out through return of capital employed rather than the
T: time specific: a time limit should be set when an objective total profit figures, it may be an objective for owners
is established and shareholders but other stakeholders give
priority to other objects and it cannot be ignored, it
is difficult to assess whether the point of profit
maximization has been reached as prices or output
is constantly changing.
2. Profit Satisficing: aiming to achieve enough profit to
keep the owners happy but not aiming to work to
earn as much profit as possible.
3. Growth: usually measured in terms of sales or value
of output. Larger firms will be less likely to be taken
over and benefit from economies of scale. Managers
are motivated to see business achieve its full
potential by gain in higher salaries and fringe
benefits. However, limitations of this objective are
Corporate Aims: long-term goals that a business hopes to that expansion that is too rapid can lead to cash
achieve. The core central purpose of a business’ activity is in flow problems, larger businesses can experience
its corporate aims diseconomies of scale, using profits to finance
growth can lead to lower short-term returns to
Benefits from established corporate aims: they become the shareholders, growth can sometimes be away from
starting point for all the objects on which effective firm’s core activities and loss of focus and direction
management is based, develops a sense of purpose and for the whole organization.
direction for the whole organization if they are clearly 4. Increasing Market Share: indicates that the
communicated to the workforce, allow assessments to be marketing mix of the business is proving to be more
made of how successful the business has been in attaining its successful than its competitors. It helps retailers to
goals, provides the framework within which strategies or stock and promote the best-selling brand, profit
plans of the business are drawn up margins offered to retailers will be lower than
competing brands as the shops are keen to stick it
Mission Statements: statement of the business’s core aims, leaving more profit for the producer, effective
phrased in a way to motivate employees and to stimulate promotional campaigns. Possible for an expanding
interest by outside groups. business to suffer from market share reductions Kommentar [KM5]: Page 49 example
Benefits: informs people outside the business what the if market is growing at a faster rate than the
central aim and vision are, prove to motivate employees business itself.
especially when the organization is looked upon (they want 5. Survival: key objective of more new business start-
to be associated), includes moral statements or values to be ups.
worked towards, not meant to be detailed working objectives 6. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): businesses
but help establish what the business is about. that consider the interests of society by taking
Drawbacks: too vague and general so they end up saying little responsibility for the impact of their decisions and
about the business or its future plans, based on public activities on customers, employees, communities
relations (make stakeholders feel good about the and the environment while having objectives about
organization), very general so it’s common for two social, environmental and ethical issues there is
completely different businesses to have similar vision much greater adverse publicity given to the
statements. business. Additionally, influential pressure groups
and legal changes forces businesses to change their
Vision statements appear in corporate plans, internal approach.
company newsletters and magazines, advertising slogans
and more
7. Maximising Short-Term Sales Revenue: benefits Factors that determine the corporate objectives of a business
managers and staff when salaries and bonuses are Corporate Culture: defined as the code of behaviour and
dependent on sales revenue. However, if increased attitudes that influence the decision-making style of the
sales are achieved by reducing prices then the managers and other employees of the business. Culture is a
actual profits of the business might fall. way of doing things that is shared by all those in the
8. Maximising Shareholder Value: these targets might organisation. It is about the people, how they perform and
be achieved by pursing the goal of profit deal with others, how adaptable they are in face of change. If
Maximization. However, this puts the interests of directors are aggressive in pursuit of their aims are keen to
shareholder above stakeholders. take over competitors and care little about social or
environmental factors then the objectives of the business will
The setting of clear and realistic objectives is one of the be very difficult to those of a business run by more people.
primary roles of senior management. Before strategy for Size and legal form of the business: small business owners
future action can be established, objectives are needed. may be concerned only with a satisfactory level of profit.
Without a clear objective, a manager will be unable to make Larger business owners may be more concerned with the
important strategic decisions rapid business growth to increase state and power of
managers. They are more concerned about their bonus,
salaries and fringe benefits than on maximising returns to
shareholders.
Stakeholders: people or groups of people who can be 3. Employees: providing training opportunities, job
affected by and therefore have an interest in any action by an security, paying more than minimum wages, good
organisation working conditions, involve in some decision
Stakeholder Concept: the view that businesses and their making. Benefits: employee loyalty, low labour
managers have responsibilities to a wide range of groups, not turnover, employee suggestions to improve
just shareholders efficiency and customer service, improved
motivation and effective communication.
Stakeholders: customers, suppliers, employees and their 4. Local Community: offer secure employment so that
families, local communities, government, lenders, special there is less local fear of job losses, spend on local
interest groups supplies to generate more income, reduce the
transport impact of business activity and also keep
Responsibilities to stakeholders and impact on business environmental effects to a minimum. If failed to
decisions meet responsibilities the business faces serious
1. Customers: essential to satisfy customers’ demands problems with plans to expand or may not attract
in order to stay in business for a long-term. local customers. Benefits: most likely to give
Decisions about quality, design, durability and planning permission to expand, contracts from local
customer service should consider the customers’ council, acceptance of some negative effects caused
objectives. They also have responsibilities to not by business operations.
break the law concerning customer protection and 5. Government: pay taxes on time, complete
accurate advertising. Benefits: customer loyalty, government statistical accurately, seek export
good publicity, good customer feedback. markets. Most likely to give planning permission to
2. Suppliers: good, reliable suppliers must be found expand, valuable government contracts, requests of
and given clear guidance on what is required as subsidies may be approved, licences to set up new
poor quality or late will fail to satisfy customers. In operations may be awards.
return, the business should pay promptly, place
regular orders and offer long-term contracts. Corporate Social Responsibility
Benefits: supplier loyalty, meet deadlines and the concept that accepts that businesses should consider the
special orders, reasonable credit terms. interests of society in their activities and decisions, beyond
the legal obligations that they have
Unit 2: Chapter 10
Motivation: the internal and external factors that stimulate Conclusion of the Hawthorne Effect
people to take actions that lead to achieving a goal. Changes in working conditions and financial
The best-motivated workers will help an organisation achieve rewards have little or no effect on productivity
its objectives as cost-effectively as possible. Unmotivated When management consults with workers,
staff will be reluctant to perform effectively and quickly and motivation is improved as they take an interest in
will offer nothing but the absolute minimum of what is their work
expected. Motivation levels have a direct impact on the level Working in teams and developing team spirit can
of productivity and thus the competitiveness of the business improve productivity
Groups can establish their own targets and these
can be influenced by the informal leader of the
group
Human Resource Management (HRM): the strategic approach 3. Preparing a job advertisement: reflects the
to the effective management of an organisation’s workers so requirements of the job and the personal qualities
that they help the business gain a competitive advantage. needed. It can be displayed within the business
It aims to recruit capable, flexible and committed people, premises or in government job centres, recruitment
managing and rewarding their performance and developing agencies and newspapers. Kommentar [KM7]: Example page 169
their key skills to the benefit of the organisation. The purpose 4. Drawing up a shortlist of applicants: a small number
of HRM is to recruit, train and use the workers of an of applicants are chosen based on their application
organisation in the most productive manner to assist the forms and personal details often contained in a CV.
organisation in the achievement of its objectives References may have been obtained in order to
check on the character and previous work
Human Resource Management focuses on performance of the applicants.
Workforce Planning: planning the future workforce 5. Selecting between applicants: Interviews are the
of the business. most common method of selection. Interviewers
Recruitment and Selection: selecting appropriate question the applicant on their skills, experience
employees and inducting them into the business. and character to see if they will both perform well
Developing Employees: appraising, training and and fit into the organisation. Candidates are
developing employees at every stage of their assessed on their achievements, intelligence, skills,
careers. interests, personal manner, physical appearance
Employment Contracts: preparing contracts of and personal circumstances.
employment and deciding how flexible they should
be. Benefits of Internal Recruitment
Ensuing HRM Operates Across Business: monitoring Applicants may be already known to the selection
and improving employee morale and welfare team.
including giving advice and guidance. Applicants will already know the organization and
Incentive Systems: developing appropriate pay its internal methods.
systems for different categories of employees. Quicker than external recruitment.
Monitoring: measuring and monitoring employee Cheaper than using external advertising and
performance. recruitment agencies.
Staff will not have to get used to new style of
Recruitment: the process of identifying the need for a new management.
employee, defining the job to be filled, the type of person
needed to fill it and attracting suitable candidates for the job. Benefits of External Recruitment
Selection: involves the series of steps by which the New ideas and practises brought into the business.
candidates are interviewed, tested and screened for choosing Wider choice of potential applicants.
the most suitable person for vacant post. Avoid resentment if existing colleague is promoted
above them.
Recruitment and Selection are necessary when the business Standard of applicants could be higher than internal
is expanding and needs a bigger workforce or when staff.
employees leave and they need to be replaced (also known
as labour turnover) Employment Contracts: a legal document that sets out the
terms and conditions governing a worker’s job.
Steps of Recruitment and Selection Process It typically contains: employee’s work responsibilities and
1. Establishing the exact nature of the job vacancy and main tasks, whether the contract is permanent or temporary,
drawing up a job description: includes job title, working hours and level of flexibility expected, payment
details of tasks to be performed, responsibilities, method, holiday entitlement, number of notice days if they
place in hierarchy structure, working conditions and wish to leave or make redundant
assessment and performance of the job. Job
description is a detailed list of key points about the Labour Turnover: measures the rate at which employees are
job to be filled and is beneficial as it provides an leaving an organisation. The formula is Labour Turnover =
idea for potential recruits whether they are the right (Number of Employees Leaving in 1 year/Average Number
type of person to apply for the job. of Employees Employed) * 100. Higher the value, lesser
2. Drawing up a person specification: it is a detailed list motivated the employees
of the qualities, skills and qualifications that a
successful applicant will need to have. It helps in the Training: work-related education to increase workforce skills
selection process by elimination applicants who do and efficiency
not meet requirements.
Different Types of Training:
1. Induction Training: introductory training To show fair dismissal proof must be shown and they can
programme to familiarise new recruits with the include: inability to do job after sufficient training,
systems used in the business and the layout of the continuous negative attitude at work, continuous disregard
business site. Objectives include introducing them of health and safety procedures, destruction of employer’s
to the people that they will be working with most property, bullying of other employees
closely, explaining the internal organisational
structure, outlining the layout of the premises and Dismissal can be unfair when they include: pregnancy,
making clear essential health and safety issues. discriminatory reasons, member of a union, non-relevant
2. On-the-Job Training: instruction at the place of criminal records
work on how a job should be carried out. Often
conducted either by the HR managers or Most HR departments will offer advice, counselling and other
departmental training off icers. Watching or working services to employees who are in need of support. These
closely with existing experienced members of staff is support services can reflect well on the caring attitude of the
a frequent component of this form of training. business towards its workforce
3. Off-the-Job Training: all training undertaken away
from the business. Could be a specialist training Work-Life Balance: a situation in which employees are able to
centre belonging to the firm itself or it could be a give the right amount of time and eff ort to work and to their
course organised by an outside body to introduce personal life outside work
new ideas that no one in the firm currently has To achieve better work-life balance, businesses allow: flexible
knowledge of. working, teleworking, job sharing, sabbatical periods
(extended period of leave from work)
Employee Appraisal: the process of assessing the
effectiveness of an employee judged against pre-set Equality Policy: practices and processes aimed at achieving a
objectives. fair organisation where everyone is treated in the same way
Dismissal: being dismissed or sacked from a job due to and has the opportunity to fulfil their potential.
incompetence or breach of discipline. Diversity Policy: practices and processes aimed at creating a
Unfair Dismissal: ending a worker’s employment contract for mixed workforce and placing positive value on diversity in
a reason that the law regards as being unfair. the workplace.
Redundancy: when a job is no longer required the employee
doing this job becomes unnecessary through no fault of their
own.
Unit 3: Chapter 16
Why are Marketing Objectives important? Asset-Led Marketing: an approach to marketing that bases
Provide a sense of direction for the marketing strategy on the firm’s existing strengths and assets instead of
department purely on what the customer wants. This is based on market
Progress can be monitored against targets research too but does not attempt to satisfy all consumers in
Broken down targets allow for management of all markets. Instead, the firm will consider its own strengths
objectives in terms of people, assets and brand image and will make
Form the basis of marketing strategy only those products that use and take advantage of those
strengths.
Demand
Societal Marketing: this approach considers not only the Level of demand varies with prices and may change due to
demands of consumers but also the effects on all members Changes in consumers’ income
of the public (society) involved in some way when firms meet Changes in price of substitute goods
these demands. Changes in population size
It implies that Fashion and taste changes
Attempt to balance three concerns: company Advertising and promotional spending
profits, customer wants and society’s interests
Difference between short-term consumer wants Supply
(low prices) and long-term consumer wants and Level of supply varies with price and may change due to
social welfare (protecting environment or paying Cost of production
workers reasonably) Taxes imposed on suppliers by government
Aim to identify consumer needs and satisfy more Subsidies paid by government to suppliers
efficiently than competitors Weather conditions and other natural factors
Lead to forms being able to charge higher prices as Advances in technology
benefiting society becomes a ‘unique selling point’
Features of Markets
Demand: the quantity of a product that consumers are willing Location: Local Markets sell products to consumers
and able to buy at a given price in a time period. in the area where the business is located. They have
Supply: the quantity of a product that consumers are willing limited sales potential. Regional Markets cover a
and able to buy at a given price in a time period. larger geographical area and often expand into the
In free markets the equilibrium price is when demand equals region so that they can increase sales. International
supply. Markets offer the greatest sales potential.
Equilibrium Price: the market price that equates supply and Multinationals operate and sell in many different
demand for a product. national markets illustrates the sales potential from
exploiting international markets.
Size: the total level of sales of all producers within a
market. It can be measured in two ways: volume of
sales (units sold) or value of goods sold (revenue). It
is important for three reasons: marketing manager
can assess whether market is worth entering, firms
can calculate their own market share, growth or
decline can be identified.
Market Growth: the percentage change in the total
size of a market (volume or value) over a period of
time. Pace of growth depends on: general economic
If price were higher than equilibrium price then there would growth, changes in consumer incomes and
be unsold stocks (excess supply) and if prices are lower than development of new markets and products that
the equilibrium price then stocks will run out (excess take sales away from existing ones, changes in
demand) consumer tastes and factors, whether the market is
saturated or not. Kommentar [KM8]: What is
Market Share: percentage of sales in the total saturation?
market sold by one business. It is the most effective
way to measure the relative success of marketing
strategy against its competitors. The product with
the highest market share is called brand leader. The
formula is Market Share = (Total Sales of
Business/Total Sales of Industry) * 100
Benefits of high market share: sales are higher and
could lead to higher profits, retailers will be keen to
stock the product and will be sold to them at a lower
discount rate resulting in higher sales level and may
lead to higher profitability, the fact that the brand is
the ‘market leader’ can be used in advertising.
Competitors: The most common way of
competitiveness is price. Other forms (non-price) of
competition include customer service, location and
more.
Direct Competitors: businesses that provide the
same or very similar goods or services.
Indirect Competitors: businesses that provide in the
In Fig 16.1 it shows that as prices reduces demand increases same industry but different alternatives or in
In Fig 16.3 it shows that as supply increases price increases different markets.
Creating/Adding Value: the difference between the selling family size. Having decided on the most appropriate
price of a product and the cost of the materials and one, it will be essential to gear the price and
components bought in to make it. promotion strategies towards this segment. Income
and Social Class are two very important factors
Marketing Strategies to increase added value leading to market segmentation. Individuals Social
create an exclusive retail environment that makes Class may have great impact on their expenditure
customers feel important. This makes them feel patterns.
more prepared to pay higher prices as it convinces
them it is of higher quality. Main Socio-Economic Groups in UK:
High quality packaging to differentiate the product Upper Middle Class
from other brands. Middle Class
Promote and brand the product so that it becomes a Lower Middle Class
‘must-have’ brand name that customers will pay a Skilled Manual Workers
premium price for. Working Class
Create a ‘unique selling point’ (USP) that clearly Casual, Part-Time workers
differentiates the product from other manufacturers
Unique Selling Point: the special feature of a Marketing Acronyms for different Demographic
product that differentiates it from competitors’ Groups
products. DINKY: double income no kids yet
Product Differentiation: making a product NILK: no income lots of kids
distinctive so that it stands out from competitors’ WOOF: well off older folks
products in consumers’ perception. SINBAD: single income no boyfriend and desperate
3. Psychographic Factors: differences between
Mass Marketing and Niche Marketing people’s lifestyles, personalities, values and
Niche Marketing: identifying and exploiting a small segment attitudes. Many of these can be influenced by an
of a larger market by developing products to suit it. individual’s social class too. For example, the
Mass Marketing: selling the same products to the whole attitudes towards ethical business practices are very
market with no attempt to target groups within it. strong among some consumers. Lifestyle is a very
broad term that relates to activities undertaken,
Advantages of Niche Marketing: small firms may be able to interests and opinions rather than personality. Many
survive in a market that is dominated by larger firms, if firms advertise to appeal to customers who share
market is unexploited by competitors then niche can sell at personality characteristics (activity holidays aimed
high prices and high profit margins, products can be used by at outgoing people who wish to pursue dangerous
large firms to create status and image. sports)
Advantages of Mass Marketing: enjoy lower average costs of
production due to economies of scale, run fewer risks then Advantages of Market Segmentation
Niche as they depend on consumer habits that tend to keep Define their target market precisely and design and
changing. produce goods specifically aimed at these groups
leading to increased sales.
Market Segment: a sub-group of a whole market in which Enables identification of gaps in the market (groups
consumers have similar characteristics. on consumers that are not being targeted)
Market Segmentation (also known as differentiated Differentiated marketing strategies can be focused
marketing): identifying different segments within a market on target market groups. This avoids wasting money
and targeting different products or services to them. It is on trying to sell products to the whole market (some
market oriented (customer focused). It needs to have a customers have no intention of buying)
consumer profile. There are three common bases for Set correct prices and increase revenue and profits.
segmentation.
Consumer Profile: quantified picture of consumers of a firm’s Limitations of Market Segmentation
products, showing proportions of age groups, income levels, Research and development and production costs
location, gender and social class. might be high as a result of marketing different
product variations.
1. Geographic Differences: Consumer tastes may vary Promotional costs might be high as different
between different geographic areas and so it may be advertisements and promotions needed for
appropriate to offer different products and market different segments.
them in ‘location-specific’ ways. Consumers There is danger when focusing on one or two limited
demand products geared towards their specific market segments that excessive specialization could
needs. These geographical differences might result lead to problems if consumers in those segments
from cultural differences. change their purchasing habits significantly.
2. Demographic Differences: demography is the study Extensive market research is needed.
of population data and trends and demographic
factors such as age, gender, ethnic background,
Unit 3: Chapter 17
Market Research: this is the process of collecting, recording 2. Research Objectives: objectives are tied in with the
and analysing data about customers, competitors and the original problem and must be set in a way that they
market can be achieved with all the information needed to
It helps analyse customer reaction to solve the problem. For example, how many people
Different price levels are likely to buy the product in country X, if the price
Alternative forms of production of product X how will it increase sales volume, what
New types of packaging would be the impact of new packaging on sales of
Preferred means of distribution the product, why are consumer complaints
increasing.
The need for Market Research 3. Sources of Data (primary and secondary): collects
1. Reduce the risks associated with new product information that is required and can be done in two
launches: by investigation potential demand for a ways.
product/service, the business should be able to Primary Research: the collection of first-hand data
assess the likelihood of a new product achieving that is directly related to a firm’s needs.
satisfactory sales. It is a key part of new product Secondary Research: collection of data from second
development (NPD) hand sources.
2. Predict future demand changes: businesses may
investigate social and other changes to see how Sources of Secondary Data
these might affect the demand of a product/service. 1. Government Publications: gives information about
3. Explain patterns in sales of existing products and population census, social trends, economic trends,
market trends: managers can analyse the sales data annual statistics, family expenditure survey.
of existing products and conduct market research 2. Local Libraries and Local Government Offices: data
and take effective action to reverse the decline in needed for small area such as local population with
sales/trends. details of total numbers and age and occupation
4. Asses most favoured designs, flavours, styles, distribution, number of households, proportions of
promotions and packaging for a product: enables a the local population from different ethnic and
business to focus on the aspects of design and cultural groups.
performance that customers rate most highly and 3. Trade Organizations: they produce regular reports
incorporate it into the final product. Market on the state of the markets their members operate
Research can be used to discover: market size and in. For example, Engineering Employees Federation.
customer taste and trends, product strengths and 4. Market Intelligence Reports: detailed reports on
weaknesses, promotion used and its effectiveness, individual markets and industries produced by
competitors and their unique selling propositions, specialist market research agencies. They are very
distribution methods preferred by customers. expensive and usually available in local business
libraries and contain key note reports, Mintel
New Product Development reports and more.
5. Newspaper Reports and Specialist Publications:
marketing (this journal provides weekly advertising
data and customer ‘recall of adverts’ results), motor
trader, the financial times (features articles on key
industries and detailed country reports) and more.
6. Internal Company Records: previous customer sales
records, guarantee claims, daily weekly or monthly
sales trends, feedback from customers on product,
service, delivery and quality.
7. Internet: has access to data that have already been
gathered from sources above. Whenever research is
conducted from internet, the accuracy and
relevance must be checked.
Market Research Process
1. Management Problem Identification: helps have a Advantages of Secondary Research: obtain data cheaply,
clear idea of the purpose of the research or the identifies nature of market and assists with planning of
problem that needed investigation. For example, primary research, obtain data quickly, allows comparison
size of potential market, why sales are falling, how from different sources.
to break into the market of another country, how to Disadvantages of Secondary Research: out of date, might not
effectively overcome challenges of new be suitable due to collection for different purposes, data
competitors, target customer groups. Without collection methods and accuracy is unknown, might not be
setting out the problem, unnecessary data would be available for newly developed products.
gathered and might prevent the real issue from
being investigated.
Methods of Primary Research Systematic Sampling: the sample is selected by
Qualitative Research: research into the in-depth taking every nth item from the target population
motivations behind consumer buying behaviour or until the desired size of sample is reached. The
opinions. It helps discover the motivational factors researcher must make sure that the chosen sample
behind consumer buying habits. does not hide a regular pattern and a random
Quantitative Research: research that leads to starting point must be selected.
numerical results that can be statistically analysed. Stratified Sampling: the target population may be
made up of many different groups with many
Sources of Qualitative Research different opinions. These groups are called strata or
Focus Groups: a group of people who are asked about their layers of the population and for a sample to be
attitude towards a product, service, advertisement or new accurate it must contain members of all these
style of packaging. Possible drawbacks include time wasting strata.
and irrelevant discussion, it can also be difficult to analyse Quota Sampling: similar to stratified sampling.
and present. It could also lead to biased conclusions if Interviewees are selected according to the different
researchers leading or influencing the discussion. proportions that certain consumer groups make-up
of the whole target population. However, the
Sources of Quantitative Research interviewer might be biased in their selection of
1. Observation and Recording: count number of people in each quote (prefer to ask only very
people or cars that pass a particular location to attractive people)
assess the best site for business. Observe people in Cluster Sampling: when a full sampling frame list is
shops to see how many look at the new display or not available or the target population is too
products in shelves. However, if people are aware of geographically dispersed then cluster sampling will
being watched they can behave differently and take a sample from just one or a few groups and not
researchers don’t get the opportunity to ask for the whole population.
explanations.
2. Test Marketing: involves promoting and selling the Method of sampling depends on the size and financial
product in a limited geographical area and then resources of the business and how different consumers
recording consumer reactions and sales figures. It are in their tastes between different age groups. Cost
reduces the risk of new product launch failing effectiveness is important in all market research
completely but the evidence is not completely decisions.
accurate if the total population does not share the
same characteristics and preferences in the selected
region.
3. Consumer Survey: involve directly asking
consumers or potential consumers for their
opinions and preferences. It can be both qualitative
and quantitative. There are four important issues for
market researchers to be aware of while conducting
customer surveys: who to ask, what to ask, how to
ask, how accurate it is.
Marketing Mix: the four key decisions that must be taken in Unique Selling Point: the special feature of a product that
the effective marketing of a product. (4Ps) differentiates it from competitors’ products.
Customers require the right product at the right price with Benefits of Unique Selling Point
effective promotion distributed at the right place. People Effective promotion that focusing on the
(skilled and motivated staff) and process (the way in which differentiating feature
customers accesses the service) are equally important Opportunities to charge higher prices due to
exclusive design/service
Role of Customers (4Cs) Free publicity from business media reporting on
Customer Solution: what the firm needs to provide to meet USP
customer’s needs and wants Higher sales than undifferentiated products
Cost to Customer: total cost of the product including Customers more willing to be identified with the
extended guarantees, delivery charges and financing costs brand because it’s different
Communication with Customer: up-to-date and easily
accessible two-way communication links to promote the Brand: an identifying symbol, name, image or trademark that
product and gain important customer market research distinguishes a product from its competitors.
information Intangible Attributes of a Product: subjective opinions of
Convenience to Customer: providing easily accessible pre- customers about a product that cannot be measured or
sales information and demonstration and convenient compared easily.
location for buying the product Tangible Attributes of a Product: measurable features of a
product that can be easily compared with other products.
4Cs are the key feature of customer relationship
management. Difference between Brand and Product
Customer Relationship Management (CRM): using marketing Product is s general term used to describe what is being sold.
activities to establish successful customer relationships so Brand is the distinguishing name or symbol that is used to
that existing customer loyalty can be maintained. differentiate one manufacturer’s product from another.
Branding can have a real influence and powerful impact in
minds of consumers giving the firm’s product a unique
identity.
Customer Expectations
Quality
Durability
Performance
Appearance
Introduction: when the product has just been launched after
Product: the end result of the production process sold on the development and testing. Sales are low and may increase
market to satisfy a customer need. Includes consumer and slowly.
industrial goods and services. New Product Development is Growth: if the product has been effectively promoted and
based on attempting to satisfy consumer needs that have well received by marketing, sales should grow significantly.
been identified through research. It involves ‘research and The reason for growth dying down include increasing
development’ costs and many of the products initially competition, technological chances making the product less
developed will never reach the final market appealing, changes in consumer tastes.
Maturity/Saturation: sales fail to grow but they do not decline Pricing Levels set for a Produce will
significantly. Saturation of consumer durable products Determine the degree of value added by the
because customers who want the product have already business to bought in components
bought it. Influence the revenue and profit made by a business
Decline: sales will decline steadily because no extension due to impact on demand
strategy has been implemented or it has not worked so the Reflect on marketing objectives of the business and
only option is replacement. help establish psychological image and identity of a
product
Consumer Durable: manufactured product that can be
reused and is expected to have a reasonably long life.
Extension Strategies: marketing plans to extend the maturity
stage of the product before a brand new one is needed. Aim
to lengthen the life of an existing product. For example,
selling in new markets, repackaging and relaunching the
product with new uses.
Promotion: the use of advertising, sales promotion, personal Advertising Agencies: firms who advise businesses on the
selling, direct mail, trade fairs, sponsorship and public most effective way to promote products
relations to inform consumers and persuade them to buy. It is Stages in Devising a Promotional Plan
about communicating with actual or potential customers. 1. Research the market, establish consumer taste and
The combination of all forms of promotion used by a preferences and identify consumer portfolio
business for any product is known as ‘promotion mix’. The 2. Advice on the most cost-effective forms of media to
amount a firm spends on promotion is known as ‘promotion attract these potential consumers
budget’ 3. Use their own creative designers to device adverts
appropriate to the media to be used
Promotional Objectives Aim to 4. Film or print the adverts used
Increase sales by raising consumer awareness of a 5. Monitor public reaction to the campaign and feed
product this back to the client to improve effectiveness of
Remind consumers of an existing product and its future advice on promotion
distinctive qualities
Increase purchases by existing consumers or attract Which media to use?
new consumers Cost: TV, radio and cinema advertising can be very
Demonstrate the qualities of a product compared expensive per minute of advert. The actual cost will
with competitors depend on the time of day that the advertisements
Create or reinforce the brand image or ‘personality are to be transmitted and the size of the potential
of a product audience. Marketing managers are able to compare
Correct misleading reports about the product and the cost of these media and assess whether they fall
reassure the public after the incident within the marketing budget.
Develop the public image of a business through Size of Audience: this will allow the cost per person
corporate advertising to be calculated. Media managers will provide
Encourage retailers to stock and actively promote details of overall audience numbers at different
products to final consumers times of day or in different regions.
Profile of Target Audience (age, income, interests):
Promotion Mix: the combination of promotional techniques this should reflect as closely as possible the target
that a firm uses to sell a product consumer profile of the market being aimed for.
Children toys after 10 pm at night would not be
Advertising: paid-for communication with consumers to effective. Younger consumers are likely to be most
inform and persuade thorough media such as radio, TV accessible on social media.
This is sometimes referred to as ‘above the line promotion’. Message to be Communicated: written forms of
Above-the-Line Promotion: a form of promotion that is communication are likely to be most effective for
undertaken by a business by paying for communication with giving detailed information about a product that
consumers. needs to be referred to more than once by potential
It can be of two types consumers. If an image-creating advert is planned
Informative Advertising: adverts that give then a dynamic and colourful TV advert or YouTube
information to potential purchasers of a product, video could be more effective.
rather than just trying to create a brand image. This Other Aspects of Marketing Mix: the link between the
information could include price, technical other parts of the mix and the media chosen for
specifications or main features and places where the adverts could be crucial to success.
product can be purchased. Legal and Other Constraints: widespread ban on
Persuasive Advertising: adverts trying to create a tobacco advertising in Formula One grand prix
distinct image or brand identity for the product. racing has forced many sponsors to use other media
They may not contain any details at all about for presenting their cigarette advertising. In addition
materials or ingredients used, prices or places to to legal controls, there are in most countries other
buy the product. Common where there is little constraints on what advertisements can contain.
differentiation between products.
Firms tend to spend more when the economy is booming
Trade Advertising: aimed at encouraging retailers to stock than when it is in recession. It could be argued that
and sell products to customers and promote them in advertising is needed most when sales are beginning to
preference to rival products. Most likely to take place in trade slow down or even decline due to economic forces
journals and magazines not available to consumers
Sales Promotion: incentives such as special offers or
special deals directed at consumers or retailers to
achieve short-term sales increases and repeat purchases
by consumers. Generally aimed to achieve short-term
increases in sales but advertising aims to achieve returns
in the long run through building customer awareness’
This is sometimes referred to as ‘below the line Marketing Budget: the financial amount made available by a
promotion’. business for spending on marketing/promotion during a
Below-the-Line Promotion: promotion that is not a certain time period
directly paid-for means of communication but based on
short-term incentives to purchase. Marketing Budgets
Percentage of Sales: the marketing budget for
Incentives under Sales Promotion expenditure will vary with the level of sales. If the
Price Deals: a temporary reduction in price sales increase then the depart will add funds for
Loyalty Reward Programmes: consumer collect promotional activity. Major flaw in this method is
points, air miles or credits for purchases and when sales are declining because of lack of
redeem them for rewards promotional activity then the amount for promotion
Money-off Coupons: redeemed when consumer reduces too.
buys the product Objective-Based: analysing what sales level is
Point-of-Sale Display in Shops required to meet objectives and then assesses how
BOGOF: buy one get one free much supporting expenditure is required to reach
Games and Competition such targets. This then becomes the promotion
budget.
Personal Selling: member of the sales staff communicates Competitor-Based: when two or more firms are
with one consumer with the aim of selling the product and roughly the same size in terms of sales it is possible
establishing a long-term relationship between company and that they will attempt to match each other in terms
consumer. of marketing spending. This can lead to spiralling
Direct Mail: directs information to potential customers promotion costs as each tries to outdo the other’s
(identified by market research) who have a potential interest advertisements.
in this type of product. What the Business can Afford: marketing budgets
Trade Fairs: marketing to other businesses to sell products to will be set on the basis of what can be afforded aft er
the ‘trade’. These firms will then increase the chances of it all other forecast expenses have been paid for. This
gaining increased sales to consumers. method fails to take account of market conditions or
Sponsorship: payment by a company to the organisers of an marketing objectives.
event or team/individuals so that the company name Incremental Budgeting: taking last year’s budget
becomes associated with the event/team/individual. and adding on a percentage to reflect different sales
Public Relations: the deliberate use of free publicity provided targets the new figure is set. It does not require
by newspapers, TV and other media to communicate with marketing managers to justify the total size of the
and achieve understanding by the public. The PR department budget each year.
will also have the task of putting forward the company’s view
on incidents that might be damaging to image or reputation. Effectiveness of Marketing can be assessed by
1. Sales performance before and after promotion: the
Sales Promotion and Advertising are not the same daily and weekly sales during and after the
campaign some conclusions could be drawn. The
Branding: the strategy of differentiating products from results of this comparison could then be used to
competitors by creating an identifiable image and clear calculate the promotional elasticity of demand.
expectations about a product. Aims of Branding include: 2. Consumer awareness data: each week market
consumer recognition, making the product distinctive from research agencies publish results of consumer
competitors, giving the product an identity or personality ‘recall’ or awareness tests based on answers to a
that consumers can relate to. Benefits of Brand Identity series of questions concerning the advertisements
include: increase chances of brand recall by consumers, they have seen and responded too.
clearly differentiate the product, allow establishments of 3. Consumer panels: useful for giving qualitative
closely associated products with same brand name, reduce feedback on the impact of promotions and the
price elasticity of demand, increase consumer loyalty to the effectiveness of advertisements.
brand 4. Response rates to advertisements: record number of
hits and video sharing on websites. Number of tear-
Brand Extension: a strong brand identity can be used as a off slips in newspapers and magazines.
means of supporting the introduction of new or modified
products
Benefits of Promotional Expenditure Channels depend on:
Informs people about new products and helps Should it be sold directly to consumers?
increase competition Should it be sold through retailers?
Helps create mass markets and assist in reducing How long should the channel be?
average costs of production through economies of Where should the product be available?
large-scale production Should internet be the main channel?
Generates income for TV, radio and more that help How much will it cost to keep stocks?
to keep prices lower How much control does the business want over
marketing mix?
Drawbacks of Promotional Expenditure How will the distribution channel support other
Waste of resources (could be used to lower prices components of marketing mix?
instead)
Encourage consumer to buy goods that are not Place is about how and where the product is to be sold to
needed a customer – transportation is about how the product is to
Promotes consumerism (people judged by quantity be physically delivered.
of goods owned)
Encourages consumption (need to conserve limited
resources)
Functions of Packaging
Protect and contain the product
Gives information about contents, ingredients,
instructions and more
Support the image created by other aspects of
promotion
Recognition of the product
Channels of Distribution: chain of intermediaries a product Advantages of Direct Selling: No markup/profit margin taken
passes through from producer to final consumer by other businesses, complete control over marketing mix,
It is important because quicker, fresher food products, direct contact with
Consumers may need easy access to the firm’s consumers allow useful market research.
product to allow them to try before making a Disadvantages of Direct Selling: storage and stock costs, no
purchase and return of goods retail outlets limit chances of consumers to see and buy, not
Needs outlets for their products that give a wide be convenient for consumers, no advertising or promotion
market coverage paid and no after sale services, expensive to deliver.
Retailers sell producer’s good but it will demand a
mark-up to cover their costs Advantages of One Intermediary: retailer holds stock and
pays, retailer has product displays and after sale services,
Supply Chain: all businesses involved in getting products to retailer close to consumers, producers can focus on
the final consumer production.
Disadvantages of One Intermediary: intermediary takes profit
markup and could make product more expensive, producers
lose control over marketing mix, retailers sell products of
competitors too, producers have delivery costs to retailers.
Advantages of Two Intermediary: wholesalers hold goods and Viral Marketing: use of social media sites or text messages to
buy in bulk from producer, reduces stock holding costs, pays increase brand awareness or sell products
for transport costs to retailers, breaks bulk by bulking large Marketing managers try to identify influencers and create
quantity and selling to retailers in small quantities, best way viral messages that appeal to them and have a high chance of
to enter foreign markets where producers have no direct being passed on to people who may be impressed that the
contact with retailers. ‘influencer’ has the product
Disadvantages of Two Intermediary: markup for another
intermediary, producer loses control over marketing mix, Benefits of Internet Marketing and E-Commerce
slows down the distribution chain. Inexpensive compared to ratio of cost and number
of potential consumers reached
Factors influencing Distribution Channel Reach worldwide audience for small proportion of
Industrial products tend to be sold more directly traditional promotion budgets
Geographical dispersion of target markets Consumers leave important data on websites
Level of service expected by consumers Accurate records can be kept (number of clicks or
Technical complexity of the product different web promotions)
Unit value of the product Computer ownership and usage are increasing
Number of potential consumers Lower fixed costs than traditional retail stores
Dynamic pricing (different prices to different
Trends in Distribution Channel consumers)
Increase use of the internet
Large supermarket chains perform functions of all Drawbacks of Internet Marketing and E-Commerce
intermediaries Low speed internet connection and less ownership
Increasing variety of different channels Consumers cannot touch, smell, feel or try tangible
Increasing integration of services where complete goods
package is sold to consumer Products may return if consumers dissatisfied with Kommentar [KM11]: What? Page 297
their purchase
Internet Marketing: refers to advertising and marketing Cost and unreliable postal services may increase
activities that use the Internet, email and mobile costs
communications to encourage direct sales via electronic Website must be kept up-to-date and user-friendly
commerce and can be expensive to develop
Worries about internet security may reduce future
Marketing Impact over the Internet growth potential
Selling of goods directly to consumers (B2C) or other
businesses (B2B) as orders are placed online (e- Integrated Marketing Mix: key marketing decisions
commerce) complement each other and work together to give customers
E-Commerce: buying and selling of goods and a consistent message about the product
services by businesses and consumers through an
electronic medium Effective Marketing Mix Decisions
Advertising using the company’s own website. Based on marketing objectives and affordable with
Adverts can be targeted at potential consumers marketing budget
Sales contacts are established by visitors leaving Integrated and consistent with each other and
their details and the company can use that data to targets correct consumers
attempt to make a sale through communication
Collecting market research data by encouraging
visitors to their website and provide important data
to aid in development of new products
Dynamic pricing using online data about consumers
to charge different prices to different consumers
over the internet
Unit 4: Chapter 22
Operations or Operations Management is concerned with the The formula for Labour Productivity is
use of resources called inputs (land, labour and capital) to Labour Productivity = Total Output in Given Period / Total
produce the output in forms of goods and services Workers Employed
The formula for Capital Productivity is
Operations Managers are concerned with Capital Productivity = Output / Capital Employed
Efficiency of Production: keeping costs low with
competitive advantage Rising Productivity Levels
Quality: suitable for the purpose intended 1. Improve training of staff to raise skills: skilled staff
Flexibility and Innovation: need to develop and should be more productive efficiently. However, it
adapt to new processes can be expensive and time consuming and highly
qualified staff could join competitors.
Added Value (creating value): the difference between the cost 2. Improve worker motivation: due to motivation If the
of purchasing raw materials and the price the finished goods increase productivity without an increase in labour
are sold for pay is seen then unit costs will fall.
3. Purchase more technologically advanced
Factors for Added Value equipment: it should allow increased output with
Design of the product: customers are prepared to fewer staff.
pay higher that offer better quality. 4. More efficient managers.
Efficiency: reducing wastes and increasing
productivity will reduce costs per unit. Input It is possible for a business to achieve an increase in labour
resources are combined and managed efficiently. productivity but to reduce total output too. If demand for the
Convince Customers to pay more: price is set more product is falling, it might be necessary to reduce the size of
than the cost to make it and customers are prepared the workforce
to pay it.
Is raising productivity always good?
Stages before Selling If product is unpopular then productivity will not
Converting a consumer need into product efficiency guarantee success as product is unprofitable no
Organizing operations so that production is efficient matter how efficiently it is made.
Deciding suitable production methods Great effort from workers to increase productivity
Setting quality standards and checking they are can lead to increase in high wages demands.
maintained There is a difference between efficiency (measured
by productivity) and effectiveness.
Resources
Land: important of business location and the site chosen for a Efficiency: producing output at the highest ratio of output to
business’s operations on the success of firms. input.
Labour: quality of the labour input will have a significant Effectiveness: meeting the objectives of the enterprise by
impact on the operational success of a business. The using inputs productively to meet customers’ needs.
effectiveness of labour can usually be improved by training in
specific skills. Labour Intensive: involving a high level of labour input
Capital: tools, machinery, computers and other equipment compared with capital equipment.
that businesses use to produce the goods and services they Capital Intensive: involving a high quantity of capital
sell. Efficient operations depend on capital equipment and equipment compared with labour input.
the more productive and advanced the capital the greater the
chance of business success. Which approach to choose?
Nature of the product and product image that the
Intellectual Capital: intangible capital of a business that firm wishes to establish.
includes human capital (skilled employees), structural capital Prices of the two inputs (if labour costs are high then
(databases and information systems) and relational capital using capital equipment is justifiable)
(good links) Size of the firm and its ability to afford expensive
capital equipment.
Productivity: the ratio of outputs to inputs during production.
How efficiently inputs are converted into outputs.
Production: process of converting inputs into outputs.
Level of Production: the number of units produced during a
time period.
Unit 4: Chapter 23
Economies of Scale
1. Purchasing Economies: bulk buying. Suppliers will
offer substantial discounts for large orders. This is
because it is cheaper for them to process and deliver
one large order rather than several smaller ones.
2. Technical Economies: large firms are more likely to
be able to justify the cost of flow production lines. If
these are worked at a high-capacity level then they
offer lower unit costs than other production
methods. The latest and most advanced technical
equipment (computer systems) is expensive and can
usually only be afforded by big firms.
Avoiding Diseconomies of Scale:
Management by Objectives: assist in avoiding
coordination problems by giving each division and
department agreed objectives to work towards to
the aims of the business.
Decentralization: gives divisions a considerable
degree of autonomy and independence. They will
now be operated more like smaller business units,
as control will be exercised by managers ‘closer to
the action’. Only really significant strategic issues
might need to be communicated to the centre.
Reduce Diversification: less-diversified businesses
concentrate on ‘core’ activities may reduce
coordination problems and some communication
problems.
Unit 4: Chapter 24
Requirements of Finance
Start-Up Capital: the capital needed by an Internal Sources of Finance
entrepreneur to set up a business Retained Profit: if the company is trading profitably
Working Capital: the capital needed to pay for raw then tax is taken by the government and some is
materials, day-to-day running costs and credit paid to the owners or shareholders. If profit remains
offered to customers. The formula is Working then it is kept (retained) and becomes source of
Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities finance for future activities.
Expansion requires finance to increase the capital Sale of Asset: established companies find that they
assets held by the firm have assets that are no longer fully employed. These
Expansion can happen while taking over another could be sold to raise cash. Some businesses will
business and finance is needed to buy out the sell assets that they still intend to use but which
owners they do not need to own. For these assets might be
Pay for research and development of new products sold to a leasing specialist and leased back by the
or investing in new market strategies company. It will raise capital but there will be
additional fixed costs in the leasing and rental
Capital Expenditure: the purchase of assets that are expected payment.
to last for more than one year Reduction in Working Capital: when stock levels
Revenue Expenditure: spending on all costs and assets other increase and trade receivables are incurred working
than fixed assets (less than one year) capital can be reduced to finance these. However,
cutting back on current assets by selling inventories
Illiquid: unable to pay its immediate or short-term debts. or reducing debts may reduce firm’s liquidity.
Liquidity: the ability of a firm to be able to pay its short-term
debts. External Sources of Finance
Liquidation: when a firm ceases trading and its assets are Bank Overdraft: bank agrees to a business
sold for cash to pay suppliers and other creditors. borrowing up to an agreed limit as and when
required. It is the most flexible of all sources.
No businesses can survive without inventories, accounts Amount raised can vary from day to day. The
receivables and cash in the bank overdrawn amount should always be agreed in
advance and always has a limit beyond which the
firm should not go. It carries high interest charge.
Trade Credit: by delaying the payment of bills for
goods or services received a business can obtain
finance. Discounts are given for quicker pay and
supplier confidence will both be lost.
Debt Factoring: selling of claims over trade
receivables to a debt factor in exchange for
immediate liquidity only a proportion of the value of
the debts will be received as cash. When a business
sells on credit it creates trade receivables and the
longer the time allowed to pay up the more finance
is needed to carry on trading.
Two more important types of accountants are financial and Income Statement: records the revenue, costs and
management accountants. Financial Accountants prepare profit (or loss) of a business over a given period of
the published accounts of a business with legal time. Less detailed summary will appear in the
requirements. They create a collection of daily transactions published accounts for external users as they are
and prepare reports and accounts (statement of financial available to competitors and detailed data could
position, income statement and cash statement). This give them insight into strengths and weakness.
information is used by external groups and is prepared once Detailed income statement is produced for internal
or twice a year. Management Accountants prepare detailed users
and frequent information for internal use by managers who Sections of Income Statement:
need financial data to control the firm and take decisions. o Trading Account: shows gross profit (or
They analyse internal accounts and this information is only loss) made from trading activities. Revenue
made available to the managers (internal users). is not the same as cash received. Revenue
(sales turnover): the total value of sales
Why stakeholders need accounting information? made during the trading period. The
How much did we buy from Managers and Suppliers formula for revenue is Revenue = Selling
supplies and have been Price * Quantity Sold. Gross Profit: equal
paid? to sales revenue less cost of sales. Only the
How much profit did we Managers, Shareholders, goods used and sold during the year will be
made last year? Tax Authorities recorded in cost of sales. Cost of Sales: this
Is the business able to Managers and Banks is the direct cost of the goods that were
repay loans? sold during the financial year. The formula
Did we pay wages last Managers and Workers for cost of sales is Cost of Sales = Opening
week? Stock + Purchases – Closing Stock.
What is the value of profit Managers and Shareholders o Profit and Loss Account: calculates
after all expenses which is operating profit and profit for the year.
available for dividends? Operating Profit (net profit): gross profit
minus overhead expenses. Profit for the
Double Entry Principle: there are always two sides of a Year (profit after tax): operating profit
transaction and this means the accounts of the business minus interest costs and corporation tax.
must include it twice to ensure accounts are balanced o Appropriation Account: final section of the
Accruals: arise when services have been supplied to a income statement that shows how the
business but have not yet been paid for at that time. If no profit of the year is distributed between
adjustments have been made for accrued expenses then the owners in the form of dividends and
profits have been overstated retained earnings. Dividends: the share of
Money Measurement Principle: all accounting data are the profits paid to shareholders as a return
converted into money hence only items and transactions that for investing in the company. Retained
can be measured in monetary terms are recorded in the Earnings: the profit left after all deductions
business accounts including dividends have been made. This
Prudence Concept (Conservatism): trained to be realistic is ‘ploughed back’ into the company as a
about the values. This concept states that accountants source of finance.
should record losses as soon as they are anticipated and
profits should not be recorded until they have been realized Uses of Income Statement
Realization Concept: all revenues and profits should be Measure and compare performance of the business
recorded when the transaction has taken paid. Sales are not over time and ratios can be used to help this form of
recorded when an order is taken or when the payment is analysis, actual profit data can be compared with
made but when the services/goods have been provided the expected profit level, bankers and creditors will
need this information to help decide whether to
Income Statement (profit and loss account): shows the gross lend money, prospective investors may asses the
and operating profit of the company. Details of how the value of putting money from the profit levels. Low
operating profits is split up between dividends to Quality Profits: one-off profit that cannot easily be
shareholders and retained earnings (profit) repeated or sustained. Just a fluke. High Quality
Statement of Financial Position (balance sheet): shows the Profits: profit that can be repeated and sustained.
net worth or equity of the company. Difference between the Slowly grows overtime and increases and stays for a
value of what the company owns (asset) and what it owes while.
(liabilities)
Cash-Flow Statement: where cash was received from and
what it was spent on
The titles of both accounts are important. Income
statement covers the whole financial year, financial
position is a statement of the estimated value of the
company at one moment of time (end of financial
year) Kommentar [KM15]: Page 458 explain
Cash Flow: the sum of cash payments to a business (inflows) Causes of Cash Flow Problems
less the sum of cash payments (outflows) Lack of Planning: these help in predicting future
Liquidation: when a firm ceases trading and its assets are cash problems.
sold for cash to pay suppliers and other creditors. Poor Credit Control: department keeps a check on
Insolvent: when a business cannot meet its short-term debts. customer’s accounts and if it inefficient then trade
receivables can lead to bad debts not being
It is vital because: new businesses are offered much less time identified. Credit Control: monitoring of debts to
to pay suppliers than large businesses, banks and lenders ensure that credit periods are not exceeded. Bad
may not believe new owners as they have no trading record Debts: unpaid customers’ bills that are now very
(they will expect payment at the agreed time), finance is tight unlikely to ever be paid.
so not planning accurately is significant Allowing Customers too long to pay Debts:
customers will go for credit terms because it
It is common for profitably businesses to run out of cash. This improves their cash flow. Allowing customers too
shows that cash and profit are not the same long to pay means reducing short-term cash inflows
which could lead to cash-flow problems.
Cash Inflows: payments in cash received by a business or Expanding Rapidly: pay for expansion, wages,
from the bank materials and more. Overtrading can lead to cash
Cash Outflows: payments in cash made by a business flow shortages. Overtrading: expanding a business
rapidly without obtaining all of the necessary
Forecasting Cash Flows: trying to estimate future cash finance so that a cash-flow shortage develops.
inflows and outflows. Unexpected Events: unforeseen increases in cost
Forecasting Cash Inflows: owners own capital injection bank could lead to negative net monthly cash flows.
loan payments (agreed by the bank in amount and timing),
customer’s cash purchases, trade receivables payments. Two ways to improve cash flow: increase cash inflows and
Forecasting Cash Outflows: lease payment for premises, reduce cash outflows
annual rent payment, utilities bills, labour cost payments,
variable cost payments. Increasing Cash Inflows
Overdraft Interest rates can be high
Cash Flow Forecast: estimate of a firm’s future cash inflows Short-Term Interest costs have to be paid and loan must
and outflows. Loan be repaid by due date
Net Monthly Cash Flow: estimated difference between Sale of Assets Selling quickly can be low in price, assets
monthly cash inflows and cash outflows. might be required later for expansion and
Opening Cash Balance: cash held by the business at the start assets could be used as collateral for future
of the month. loans
Closing Cash Balance: cash held at the end of the month Sale and Leasing costs add to annual overheads, loss
becomes next month’s opening balance. Leaseback of potential profits if assets rise in price,
assets could be used as collateral for future
Cash Flow Forecasts Sections loans
1. Cash Inflows: records the cash payments to the Reduce Credit Customers may purchase from firms that
business Term offer extended credit terms
2. Cash Outflows: records the cash payments made by Debt Only 90% to 95% will be paid by debt
the business Factoring factoring company (Reduces Profit)
3. New Monthly Cash Flow and Opening and Closing
Balance: net cash flow for the period and the cash
Reducing Cash Outflows
balances at the start and end of the period
Delay payment to Reduce discount offered with purchase,
creditors demand cash on delivery or refuse to
Limitations of Cash Flow Forecasting
supply if risk is great
Mistakes can be made in preparing the revenue and Delay spending Efficiency may fall if outdated and
cost forecasts
capital equipment inefficient equipment is not replaced
Unexpected cost increases can lead to major and expansion becomes difficult
inaccuracies in forecasts
Use leasing Asset is not owned by the business;
Wrong assumptions can be made in estimating sales
leasing charges include interest that
of business
adds to annual overheads
Cut overhead Future demand may be reduced by
spending that failing to promote the product/service
don’t directly effectively
affect output
Increasing range of goods/services bought on credit:
unpaid creditors may reduce to supply and this may
cause production hold ups and discounts might be
lost.
Extend period to pay: improves working capital.
Suppliers may be reluctant to supply
products/services.