၁၀ တန်း (MyanmarLibrary) Grade 10 Physics-1

GRADE – 10 PHYSICS|1
WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)



Chapter – 1
Work Done and Power
 Weight (w)
The weight of a body is defined as the attracting force of the earth acting on the
body.
w = mg
w = weight, m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity
 Force (F)
The force is defined as the product of the mass and its acceleration.
F = ma
F = force, m = mass, a = acceleration
 Work Done (W)

Work done may be defined as the product of the force applied and
displacement.
W = Fs (or) W = mgh
= ma s (F = ma)
= mg s (a = g) a = g
= mg h (s = h) F s = h
W = Fs cos d
F cos
W = work done, F = force, s = distance moved, m = mass, h = height,
g = acceleration due to gravity,
F cos = component of force in the direction of the motion

GRADE – 10 PHYSI C S|5
 Power (P)
The rate of doing work is defined as power.
P= (or) P = Fv
= (W = mgh)
= F. (F = mg)
= Fv (v = )
P = power, W = work done, t = time taken, F = force, v = velocity
British engineering system, the unit of power is horse power (hp)
 1hp
If the work done in one second is 550 feet pound, the power is 1 hp.
1 hp = 550 ft. lbs
= 746 × 10 ergs
= 746 W
 Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Kinetic Energy (KE = ) and Potential Energy (PE = mgh)
 1 W / 1 erg / 1 ft-lb
If the work done in 1 second is 1 joule, the power is 1 W.
If the work done in 1 second is 1 erg, the power is 1 erg .
If the work done in 1 second is 1 ft-lb, the power is 1 ft-lb .
 Simple Machine
A machine is an appliance that enables work to be done. There are three types
of simple machine. They are -
(i) the lever (eg. a crowbar) ကုတ္
(ii) the inclined plane (eg. a screwjack) ျပင္ညီေစာင္း
(iii) the hydraulic press (eg. brake system of a car) အရည္သုံးဖိစက္

 Lever
An appliance which is pivoted about some point, and which generates a turning
effect when a force is applied at some point other than the pivot.
 Hydraulic System
A system that transfers force from place to place using fluids is called a
hydraulic system.
 Mechanical Advantage (MA)

The mechanical advantage of the machine is defined as the ratio of a load (W)
to an effort (P).
( )
MA =
( )
MA = mechanical advantage, W = load, P = effort
 Velocity Ratio (VR)

The ratio of the distance per second moved steadily by the effort to that of the
load is called the velocity ratio of the machine.
VR =
effort
load
distance moved ----
by effort distance moved
----- by load
(input work) (output work)

 Efficiency
The ratio of output work to input work is defined as the efficiency of the
machine.
efficiency = × 100% (or) efficiency = × 100%
 Input Work
The work done on the machine by the effort is called input work.
Input work = effort × distance moved by effort
 Output Work
The work done on the load by the machine is called output work.
Output work = load × distance moved by load
 Elasticity
Within the elastic limit whenever the load is removed, the spring returns to its
original length and form. The ability to retain the original form is called
elasticity.
eg. spring, threads and rubber bands have elastic property.
 Elastic Limit
There is a limit beyond which if the spring or any other elastic object is
stretched, it will not return to its original form. Such a limit is called the elastic
limit.
 Stress (F)
The applied force on an elastic body is called stress.
 Strain (x)
The elongation of the elastic body due to stress is called strain.
 Pulley
A pulley is a wheel pivoted so that it can rotate freely about an axis through its
center.

 Hooke’s Law
As long as the elastic limit of a body is not exceeded; the strain produced is
proportional to the stress causing it.
F∝x
F = kx
F = applied force(stress), x = elongation(strain), k = constant
spring (strain) x
------------------------------------
x (elongation)
------------------------------------
F(load) (stress) F
 Physical Quantity and Standard Form

Standard form ဟူသည္
ကိန္းျပည့္တစ္လုံးရိွရမည္။
F = 10 N unit ၄င္းေနာက္တင
ြ ္ ဒသမရိွရမည္။
physical
quantity value
(+)(ဘယ္) (.) (ညာ)(-) (ထပ္ညန

ြ း္ ပုစ
ံ ေ
ံ ျပာင္းျခင္း)
(ထပ္ညြန္းပုံစံေျပာင္းျခင္း) (standard form)
103.112 1.03112× 10 1.03× 10
0.002435 2.435× 10 2.4× 10
(-)(ေရွ့) (.) (ေနာက္)(+) (ထပ္ညန

ြ း္ ကိျု ဖန္.ျခင္း)
(ျဖန္.ျခင္း)
4.32142× 10 4321.42
2.46521× 10 0.000246521

Chapter (1) Physical Quantity and Its Units
No Symbol Physical Quantity F.P.S C.G.S M.K.S(SI)
1 W Work done ft-lb erg J(joule)
2 m Mass sl(slug) g kg
3 g/a Gravity fts cms ms
4 h/s Height/distance ft cm m
5 F Force lb dyne N(newton)
6 P Power ft-lbs ergs Js (W)
7 v Velocity fts cms ms
8 t Time taken s s s
9 MA/VR Mechanical advantage/ - - -

Velocity ratio
10 load/effort Load/effort lb dyne N
11 d /d Distanced moved by load ft cm m

/effort
12 efficiency Efficiency % % %
13 F(Hooke’s) Force applied(stress) lb dyne N
14 x(Hooke’s) Elongation(strain) ft cm m
15 k(Hooke’s) Hooke’s constant lbft dynecm Nm
(micro) = 10
m (mili) = 10
c (centi) = 10
k (kilo) = 10
M (mega) = 10
GRADE – 10 P H Y S I C S | 10
Note:
 Force is same as (weight, load, effort, upward thrust, tension)

 The unit of energy is same with work done.
 Power is not the same as energy.
 The SI unit of power is watt (W).
 Power is not a fundamental concept like energy but it is a very important
concept for engineering works.
 The unit of power in British engineering system is horse power (hp).
 Force is vector but work done, energy and power are scalar.
 The unit joule (J) is the same as newton meter (Nm)
 MA is always greater than 1.
 The mechanical advantage of a machine depends on the friction present.
 Velocity ratio is always greater than one because effort is greater than load.
 The velocity ratio does not depend on the friction present. (VR > 1)
 If the efficiency of a machine is 100%, this machine is called perfect machine.
 Perfect machine (input work = output work (or) MA = VR).
 Effort is smaller than load but the effort distance is greater than the load
distance. Therefore the input work is greater than the output work.
 The efficiency is always less than 100% because input work is always greater
than output work.
 Input work and output work are the work done.
 The elastic limit is different for different elastic bodies.

Short Question!
1. Power is not a fundamental concept like energy but it is a very important
concept for engineering works. Explain why power is a useful concept in
practical works.
- Car engines, water pumps, air-conditioners, electric lamps, etc., have the rated
powers.
- A suitable machine can be chosen for the practical works according to its rated
power.
- Therefore, power is a very important concept for engineering works and
power is useful in practice.
2. Which is more advantageous: to pay wages according to the amount of work

done or according to power?
- The power can give only the rate of work done.
- Wage must be paid according to the amount of work done.
- To pay wages according to the amount of work done is more advantageous.
3. Choose the correct answer from the following:

(a)When a larger power machine and a smaller power machine are operated for
the same period of time, the larger power machine consumes less fuel.
(b)A lot of work can be done only if a large power machine is used.
(c)A lot of work can be done by operating a small power machine for as long as
necessary.
Give explanation to support the chosen answer.
- Correct answer is (b)
- Power is the amount of work done per unit time.
- If a small power machine is operated for as long as necessary, it becomes too
hot and it will break down.
4. Can the efficiency of a machine be greater than 100%? Why?

- The efficiency of a machine cannot be greater than 100% because the input
work always greater than the output work due to friction present.

5. Is it possible to build a machine having 100% efficiency? Explain.

- No, it is not possible to build a machine having 100% efficiency because input
work is always greater than output work due to friction present.
6. Can the velocity ratio be usually less than one? Does a machine depend on the
friction present?
- No, the velocity ratio cannot be usually less than one.
- Yes, a machine depends on the friction present.
7. How many type of simple machine are there?

- There are three types of simple machine. They are -
(i) the lever (eg. a crowbar)
(ii) the inclined plane (eg. a screwjack)
(iii) the hydraulic press (eg. brake system of a car)
8. What is the unit of power in British engineering system? What are the units of
power which are larger than watt?
- The unit of power in British engineering system is horse power (hp).
- The units of power which are larger than watt are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt
(MW).

4 / 8 Marks Problems
1. A water pump is pumping up water from a well which is 250 m deep. How
much work must be done by the pump to raise 1 kg of water? (15 local)
Ans: 2500 J
2. A 80g man is running up the stairs which is 5m high in 4s. How much work is
done by the man? What is the power exerted by the man? (13 ygn)
Ans: 4 J, 1 W
3. A 80kg man is running up the stairs which is 3m high in 2s. What is the power
exerted by the man? (16 foreign)
Ans: 1200 W
4. A water pump is pumping up water from a well which is 100 m deep. What is
the power output of the pump if it pumps up water at the rate of 20kgmin ?
Ans: 326.7 W (15 foreign)
5. A water pump is pumping up water from a well which is 200 m deep.

(i)How much work must be done by the pump to raise 1 kg of water?
(ii)What is the power output of the pump if it pumps up water at the rate of 10
kgmin ? (13 ayeyawady)
Ans: 2000 J, 333.33 W
6. A water pump is pumping up water from a well which is 20 m deep.

(i)How much work must be done by the pump to raise 1 kg of water?
(ii)What is the power output of the pump if it pumps up water at the rate of
600kghr ? (11 shan)
Ans: 200 J, 33.33 W
7. A school girl lifts her school bag of mass 3 kg from the floor and run with the
velocity of 5ms . What is the kinetic energy of her?
Ans: 37.5 J

8. A school girl lifts her school bag of mass 3 kg from the floor on to her lap
through a height of 0.5m. What is the gravitational potential energy gained by
the bag? (08 ygn)
Ans: 15 J
9. How much work is done in moving a body of mass 1kg from an elevation of 2m
to an elevation of 20m? (05 bago)
Ans: 180 J
10.In a tug-of-war A-team is leading B-team. The rope is moving towards A-team
at a regular rate of 0.02ms . If the tension of rope is 4000N what is the power
output of A-team? (12 rakhine)
Ans: 80 W
11.The power output of the motor of the crane is 2500W. With what speed can the
machine lift a 1500kg load? (11 sagaing)
Ans: 0.167
12.The power output of the motor of the crane is 2.5kW. With what speed can the
machine lift a 800kg load? (11 bago)
Ans: 0.3125
13.A crane is lifting a 550 lb piano with a velocity of 1.5fts . Express the power
of the crane in hp. (13 bago)
Ans: 1.5 hp
14.A crane is lifting a 500 kg car with a velocity of 0.1ms . Express the power of
the crane in hp. (12 magway)
Ans: 0.67 hp
15.A steam engine generating 5hp is raising a load weighing 2000lb. How high
will the load be raised in 10s? (08 mon)
Ans: 13.75 ft

16.The rate of doing work for the first worker is twice that of the second worker.
But the working hours per day of the second is two and a half times that of the
first. Who is a better worker? (08 rakhine)
Ans: The second worker is a better worker.
17.By using a block and tackle a man can raise a 72 kg load by an effort of 200N.
Find the mechanical advantage of the method. (08 mdy)
Ans: 3.6
18.A machine with a velocity ratio of 9 requires 800J of work to raise a load of
400N through a vertical distance of 1m. Find the efficiency and the mechanical
advantage of the machine. (13 mdy)
Ans: 50%, 4.5
500N through a vertical distance of 1m. Find the efficiency and the mechanical
advantage of the machine. (12 bago)
Ans: 50%, 4
20.A system of levers with a velocity ratio of 25 overcomes a resistance of 3000N

when an effort of 150N is applied to it. Calculate the mechanical advantage of
the system and its efficiency. (13 maway)
Ans: 20, 80%
21.A system of levers with a velocity ratio of 25 overcomes a resistance of 3000N

when an effort of 160N is applied to it. Calculate the mechanical advantage of
the system and its efficiency. (13 rakhine)
Ans: 18.75, 75%
300N through a vertical distance of 200cm. Find the efficiency of the machine.
Ans: 75% (16 local)

23.If a load L is raised by a machine when an effort E is applied, what is the

mechanical advantage? Has it any units? Is it a scalar or a vector?
24.Draw the graph of stress and strain. When an applied force is 10lb and the
elongation of a spring is 2 in, what is the constant k? (06 sagaing)
Ans: 5
25.A spring is loaded by stages and its length noted each time. The results are
shown in the table. Draw (i) a rough graph of the results, plotting ‘load’ across
the page and ‘length of spring’ up the page. (ii) What will be the length of the
spring when a load of 1.1N is applied to it? (iii) What is the length of the
unstretched spring? (load = 0) (iv) What load will produce an extension of
20cm? (02 ygn)
Load(N) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Length of spring(cm) 36.0 41.5 48.5 54 60

Chapter – 2
Pressure
 Pressure (p)
Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area.
p=
p = pressure, F = force, A = area
 1 Pascal
A force of 1 N is acting normally on a surface area of 1 m , the pressure is
called 1 Pa.
 Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted on a body by the atmosphere, due
to the weight of the atmosphere. At the surface of the earth atmospheric
pressure is 100 kNm (100 kPa).
 Normal Atmospheric Pressure (Ordinary Atmospheric Pressure)

The atmospheric pressure at sea level is measured many times for many days
and the average value is taken as normal atmospheric pressure.
1 atm = 1.013 × 10 Pa
= 14.7 lbin
= 1.01 b
= 760 torr (or) mmHg
 Barometer (Mercury Barometer)

A device for measuring atmospheric pressure is called a barometer.
Torricellian vacuum
--- h = 760 mm
mercury
air pressure air pressure

 Density ( )
The density of a substance is defined as the ratio of its mass to volume.
=
= density, m = mass, V = volume
 Standard Atmospheric Pressure

A pressure of 760 mmHg is known as standard atmospheric pressure or 1atm.
F=w
= mg (w = mg)
F = Vg (m = V)
 Pressure in a Liquid
The pressure in liquids depends on the depth under the surface of the liquid.
The pressure exerted by a liquid at the bottom surface is,
p=
= (F = Vg)
.
= (V = Ah) water
p = gh (liquid pressure) gh
= + gh
= total pressure, = atmospheric pressure
 Manometer
A glass tube, open at both ends and bent into a U-shape, serve as a sensitive
device for measuring pressure when filled with coloured water or light oil. Such
a device is called a manometer. A manometer is a sensitive device for
measuring pressure.
air
A ----------------- B

 Sucking
The action of sucking increases the volume of the lungs and reduces the air
pressure in the lungs and the mouth. The atmospheric pressure on the surface of
the liquid will be greater than the pressure in the mouth. Thus, the liquid will
rise up the straw to the mouth.
 Syringe
To draw liquid into the syringe, the piston of the syringe is drawn upwards.
This decreases the pressure inside the cylinder. The atmospheric pressure acting
on the liquid drives the liquid into the cylinder through the nozzle.
cylinder piston
atmospheric pressure
liquid nozzle
 Buoyancy
When bodies are immersed in a liquid there is loss in weight. This is because of
a property of liquids called buoyancy.

 Archimedes’ Principle
The upward thrust acting on a body which is immersed in a liquid is equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
the upward thrust = the weight of liquid displaced
the pressure at the top surface is,

p =p + gh
the pressure at the bottom surface is, p
p =p + g (h + H)
h
the downward force F = Ap H
the upward force F = Ap
the upward thrust F = F – F
= Ap – Ap
= A [p – p ]
= A [p + g (h + H) – (p + gh)]
= A [p + gh + gH – p – gh]
= A gH
= Vg (∵ V = AH)
= mg (∵ m = V)
F=w (∵ w = mg)
∴ the upward thrust = the weight of liquid displaced
 Immersed Volume
the upward thrust F= V g
the weight of the body w = Vg
F = w (when the body is floating) V
V g = Vg V
= V
V = volume of the body, = immersed volume

 Uses of Archimedes’ Principle

The densities and volumes of various substances can be obtained by using
Archimedes’ principle.
 Hydrometer
The hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the density or relative density of
liquids.
 Normal Weight and Loss Weight

= Vg (normal weight)
= ( - )Vg (loss weight) w = 10N
loss weight
( )
=
w = 7N
=
 Gas Balloon
= + +T w
Vg = g + Vg + T w
F T
 Pascal’s Law
When a fluid completely fills a vessel and a pressure is applied to it at any part
of the surface, that pressure is transmitted equally throughout the whole of the
enclosed fluid.
P =P F A F A
= P P

1 p Pressure lbin dynecm Nm (Pa)
2 l, b, d, r Length, breath, depth, ft/in cm m

radius, diameter
3 A Area ft /in cm m
4 V Volume ft /in cm m
5 Density slft gcm kgm
6 w Weight lb dyne N
7 T Tension lb dyne N
= 1.29 kgm
= 1 gcm (or) 1000 kgm
π = 3.14 (or)
× 10
g kg
× 10
A = πr /A = πdl (filament စက္လံုး လုံးရွည္ ဧရိယာ) / A = πd (စက္၀ိုင္း ဧရိယာ)

Note:
 The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm.

 The atmosphere consists of masses of gases so that it has weight.
 In mercury barometer, the force exerted by the atmosphere balanced the weight
of the mercury column.
 The vertical height of the mercury barometer depends only on the pressure
outside of the tube and it does not depend on the tilt of column.
 Atmospheric pressure acts on all living and non-living thing on the earth.
 The surface area of the body of an average person is about 2m .
 The magnitude of force acting on the person is 200kN or 20 tons.
 The atmospheric pressure at the earth’s surface is about 100kNm .
 We are able to withstand atmospheric pressure because our inside blood
pressure is little more than outside air pressure.
 The atmospheric pressure changes locality and time.
 The atmospheric pressure acting on the field is greater than that on the hill.
 Liquid pressure depends on the depth of under water or sea.
 The pressure exerted by the liquid is directly proportional to the height of the
liquid column and density.
 The pressure of liquid increases when the density of the liquid increases.
 Archimedes’ principle is true for not only liquids but also gases.
 Pressure at any point inside a liquid is the same in all directions.
 The body will float in a liquid if the weight of the body is equal to the upward
thrust.
 The electrical pressure sensors are now used in the place of manometers.
 The body will sink if the weight of the body is greater than the upward thrust.
 If the hydrometer floats higher, it indicates that the liquid has a higher density.
 The hydrometer sinks in the liquid until the weight of the liquid displaced is
equal to the weight of the hydrometer.
 The hydraulic press, the hydraulic brake and the hydraulic lift are based on
Pascal’s law.

Short Question!
1. “Although Pascal’s Law is not a fundamental law, it is a very useful law for
practical purposes.” Is this statement correct? Discuss.
- Yes, this statement is correct.
- Pascal’s law, unlike the laws of conservation of momentum and energy, is not
a fundamental law.
- But it is very useful for practical purposes.
- The construction of hydraulic brakes, hydraulic presses and hydraulic lifts are
based on Pascal’s law.
2. Why are you able to withstand atmospheric pressure?

- We are able to withstand atmospheric pressure because the blood pressure
inside our body is little more than the atmospheric pressure.
3. Mention any two uses of Pascal’s law.

- Two uses of Pascal’s law: (i) the construction of hydraulic press and (ii) the
construction of hydraulic brake.
4. What will be the effect, if any, on the mercury column if the glass tube used has
(a) a smaller internal diameter and (b) a slightly bigger internal diameter?
- The pressure exerted by liquid depends on density and height of the liquid.
- So there will be no effect for both cases.
- The mercury column will remain at 76cm.
5. Will the mercury column be higher or lower than 76cm when the whole up of
the barometer is taken to a high mountain top?
- The mercury column will be lower than 76cm because the pressure of the
surrounding air is less than that at sea level.
6. Why is mercury used in a barometer rather than water?

- The density of mercury is 13.6 greater than that of water.
- If mercury is used in the barometer, the height of mercury column is 0.76m.
- If water is used in the barometer, the height of water column is 10.336m.

- Water column is very long therefore mercury should be used in the barometer.
7. What is the effect on the vertical height of the mercury column in a barometer
of (i) using a wider glass tube (ii) pushing the tube further into the bowl (iii)
tilting the glass tube at an angle (iv) taking the barometer to the top of the
mountain?
- (i) No effect on wider glass tube (ii) No effect pushing the tube further into the
bowl (iii) No effect on tilting(iv) The vertical height will be lower.
8. Explain why the thickness of the dam increases downwards.
land water dam
- The thickness of the wall of the dam increases downwards because the deeper
it is, the greater the water pressure.
- A thicker wall is required to withstand a greater pressure.
9. A beaker containing water and placed on a pan is balanced by the weight which
is in the other pan of the balance. Explain what will happen if a man immerses
his finger in the water without touching the beaker.
- If a man immersed his finger in the water, there would be upward thrust which
is equal to the weight of liquid displaced.
- This weight increased will show unbalance of the balance.
10.An ocean liner was loaded at the port of Yangon. Would the ocean liner sink
deeper or not when it reached the ocean?
- The ocean liner will float more when it reached the ocean because the larger
liquid density produces more upward thrust.
11.Steel will float in liquid (mercury) but sink in water. So how does a steel ship
manage to float in water?
- There is more air in a ship than steel, because a ship is hollow and contains
air.
- So the average density of the ship is less than that of water. Thus a ship floats
in water.
12.Why is it easier to float in the sea than in a swimming pool?

- The density of sea water is larger than that of fresh water.
- The larger liquid density produces more upward thrust.
- So it is easier to float in the sea than in a swimming pool.
13.Where are hydraulic brakes and hydraulic presses used?

- Hydraulic brakes are used in cars and hydraulic presses are used for shaping
steel and metal sheets.
14.What are the uses of Archimedes’ principle?

- The densities of various substances can be found by using Archimedes’
principle.
15.Which liquid must be filled in a manometer and a barometer?

- Mercury must be filled in a manometer and a barometer.
16.Explain why the density of sea water is greater than that of fresh water.
- Various salts dissolved in sea water and no dissolve in fresh water.
- So the density of sea water is greater than that of fresh water.
17.What factors does the pressure in a liquid depend?

- The pressure in a liquid depends to the density and height of the liquid.
18.Mention two simple applications using atmospheric pressure in our daily life.
- Sucking and syringe are the two simple applications using atmospheric
pressure in our daily life.
19.How is normal atmospheric pressure taken? For what purpose the barometer is
used?
- The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is taken as 760 mmHg or 1 atm.
- Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure.

20.Why is the weight of the body lost when it is immersed in a liquid?

- The weight of the body is lost when it is immersed in a liquid because the
liquid has buoyancy.
21.Under what condition can a body float in a fluid?

- The body will float in a liquid if the weight of the body is equal to the upward
thrust.
22.How is the nose bleeding related to the atmospheric pressure?

- Nose bleeding occurs at a place of low atmospheric pressure since the blood
pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure.

1. Express 3 atm pressure in mmHg and bars. Find the force due to the atmosphere
which is acting on 3m area on the earth’s surface. (08 mon)
Ans: 2280 mmHg, 3.03 b, 300 kN
2. Determine the pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury 76 cm high. The

density of mercury is 13.6× 10 kgm . (10 sagaing)
Ans: 1.013× Pa
3. Compare the atmospheric pressures and forces acting on a man and a child who
are standing side by side. (10 yakhine)
4. Find the pressure on a diver who is at a depth of 10 m below the surface of the
water. The density of water is 1000 kgm . (11 kachin)
Ans: 2.01× Pa
5. Find the pressure on a diver who is at a depth of 450 cm below the surface of
the water. The density of water is 1000 kgm . (16 local)
Ans: 1.46× Pa
6. At what depth will the pressure exerted on a man be twice that of the pressure at
the surface of water? (05 ygn)
Ans: 10.13 m
7. The total pressure at the bottom of a tank is 3 atm. To what height has the water
has been filled in the tank? (14 ygn)
Ans: 20.2 m
8. Calculate the height of a column of water which could be supported by the

atmosphere at sea level. Ans: 10.1m (12 mdy)
9. The density of sea water is 1025 kgm . How many times is the pressure at the
depth of 3km under the sea surface greater than the atmospheric pressure?
Ans: 305.5 (15 local)
10.The density of sea water is 1200 kgm . How many times is the pressure at the
depth of 3km under the sea surface greater than the atmospheric pressure?
Ans: 357.4 (12 foreign)
11.The pressure at the height of 1m from the floor is the normal atmospheric
pressure is 1.013× 10 Pa. If the temperature is 0℃, what is the difference
between the pressure on the floor and the pressure at 1m height?
Ans: 12.6 Pa (08 mon)
12.What is the height of a column of turpentine what would exert the same
pressure 6 cm of the mercury? (Density of turpentine = 0.87 gcm and density
of mercury = 13.6 gcm ) (13 kachin)
Ans: 93.8 cm
13.Show that “the upward thrust = the weight of liquid displaced”. The weighted
rod in figure floats with 5cm of its length under water. What length is under the
surface when the rod floats in brine? (Density of brine = 1200 kgm )
Ans: 4.167 cm (09 bago)
5 cm
water
14.Write down the expression for true pressure at the depth ‘h’ in a liquid of
density ‘ ’. (09 sagaing)
15. A cube with sides 3cm long is made from a material of density 9 gcm . What
is the mass of cube? (08 ygn)
Ans: 243 g
16.The density of 1m cubical ice block is 0.9 gcm . What portion of the floating
ice block will be above the water surface? (12 shan)
Ans: 0.1

17.The density of the ice is 920 kgm and the density of the sea water is 1025
kgm . What portion of a big block of ice will be immersed in sea water? Find
the direction of the force needed to press the block to immerse it totally.
Ans: 0.897V (the direction of the force needed is downward) (12 ygn)
18.A block of wood floats in water with two-thirds of its volume submerged. In
oil, the block floats with 0.9 of its volume submerged. Find the density of the
wood and the oil. (07 shan)
Ans: 666.67 kg (in water), 740.74 kg (in oil)
19.The density of the lead block is 11.5 gcm and it is floating in mercury of
density 13.6 gcm . (i)What portion of the lead block is immersed in mercury?
(ii)What force is needed to press the block to immerse it totally if the mass of
the lead block is 11.5 kg? (07 bago)
Ans: (i) 0.85, (ii) 21N
20.The weight of a body in its normal condition is 400N and the weight is 300N
when it is immersed in water. Find the density and volume of the body.
Ans: 4000 kg , 0.01 (11 ayeyawady)
21.The weight of a metal block of unknown volume is 10N. The apparent weight
of the metal block is only 8N when it is immersed in water. Find the density of
the metal. (02 bago)
Ans: 5000 kg
22.A 25 kg balloon is filled with 100m of hydrogen. What force is needed to hold
the balloon to prevent it from rising up? (density of hydrogen is 0.09 kgm )
Ans: 960 N (10 bago)
23.The total mass of gas which fills a meteorological balloon is 40 g. The balloon
string is tied to a post which is fixed to the earth. Find the tension in the string if
the volume of the balloon is 110m and the density of air is 1.3 kgm .
Ans: 1429.6 N (13 rakhine)

24.A balloon is designed to support a load of 1200 kg. If the balloon is filled with
helium gas what should its volume be? The mass of helium is not included in
the net load of 1200 kg. The density of air is 1.3 kgm and the density of
helium gas is 0.2 kgm . (12 bago)
Ans: 1091
25.The areas of the pistons of a hydraulic press are 2 in and 10in . How much
effort should be applied on the small piston to produce an upward thrust of 400
lb on the larger piston? (13 magway)
Ans: 80 lb
26.The radii of the small and the large piston of the hydraulic press are 3 in and 9
in respectively. Find the upward thrust on the large piston when 30lb effort is
applied to the small piston. (11 rakhine)
Ans: 270 lb
27.A hydraulic press consists of 2cm and 20cm diameter pistons. What force must
be applied on a small piston so that the large piston will be able to raise 100N
load? (11 ygn)
Ans: 1 N

Chapter – 3
Transfer of Heat
 Heat
Heat is defined as the amount of energy transferred from one object to another
because of a difference in temperature.
Units of Heat – British thermal unit(Btu), calorie(cal), kilocalorie(kcal), joule(J)
 1 kcal
Heat required to change the temperature of 1 kg mass of water by 1 kelvin is
called 1 kilocalorie.
1 kcal = 4184 J
 Temperature (T)
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
 Thermometer
Thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a body.
TK= T℃ + 273 T℃ = (T℉ - 32)
TK=kelvin temperature, T℃= celsius temperature, T℉= fahrenheit temperature
 Transfer of Heat
There are three different modes by which heat may be transferred from one
place to another. They are –
(i) Heat conduction ( ) (solid) Unit of =
(need medium, not move) (တစ္ေနလို့ တစ္ေနလို့ ကယ္ပါ။)
Unit of =
(ii) Heat convection ( ) (liquid/gas) (21 ရိုက္ေနတုန္း Q
ွ ueen တက္လာ။)
(need medium, move) Unit of =
(iii) Heat radiation ( ) (၂ခါေလးခ်စ္မိတာ ေကာက္ေကာက္ပါ။)
(no need medium)

(can pass through vacuum)

 Heat Current (H)

The rate of heat flow is called heat current.
∆
= ∆ = mL (L = latent heat)
∆
= heat current, ∆ = amount of heat, ∆ = time taken
 Heat Conduction
Heat conduction is one mode of energy transfer. The individual parts of a
medium do not move as a whole in heat conduction.
( )
H= A A
T heat T
l
 Heat Convection
Heat convection is one mode of energy transfer in which heat is carried by the
motion of the fluid itself.
H = q A( − )
fire
 Heat Radiation
Heat radiation is a form of energy transfer in which heat is transferred by means
of electromagnetic radiation.
H=e A Sun
electromagnetic radiation
(vacuum)
Earth
 Temperature Gradient
Temperature gradient is the change in temperature per unit length.
[ ]
 Thermal Conductivity ( )
Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat conduction per unit area per unit
temperature gradient.

 Black Body (e = 1)
An object which can absorb all the electromagnetic radiations falling upon it is
called a black body.
 The Best Absorber

The best absorber is defined as the object which can absorb all the
electromagnetic radiations falling upon it.
 Total Emissive Power ( )

The total emissive power is defined as the total radiant energy of different
wavelengths emitted from unit area of a surface of a body in one second.
=
= total emissive power, H = the rate of heat radiation, A = area
 Emissivity (e)
The ratio of the emissive power of a body to that of a black body is called
emissivity of the body.
e= [e = 1 (black body) / e < 1 (other body)]
= total emissive power of other body, = total emissive power of black body
e = emissivity
 Stephan – Boltzmann’s Law

The total emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth
power of absolute temperature.
=
= total emissive power of black body, T = absolute temperature,
= Stephan’s constant
*( = - )

 Kinetic Theory of Gases

The kinetic energy of the molecule is directly proportional to the temperature of
the gas.
K.E ∝ T
K.E = m = kT
m = mass of an average molecule of a gas, v = average speed
k = Boltzmann’s constant (k = ) (1.38 × 10 JK )
R = gas constant mole (8.3143 JK mole )
N = Avogadro’s Number (6.025 × 10 molecules mole )
 Energy Packet Formula

∆E = ℏ = =
∆E = the energy absorbed or released, = Planck’s constant, = = frequency
of radiation, = angular frequency
ℏ=
 Brownian Motion
The irregular movement of the visible particles (of graphite or smoke) may be
explained as being due to an uneven bombardment of the particles by the
invisible molecules of water (fluid) or air (gas) is known as Brownian motion.
invisible molecules visible particles
random motion uneven bombardment of even bombardment

of bright specks particles by molecules forces on the particle
(particles) produces an unbalanced are balanced out and
force which results in erratic hence there is no
motion motion

1 H Heat current ft-lbs ergs Js (W)
2 ∆Q Amount of heat Btu cal kcal(J)
3 T Temperature ℉ ℃ K(kelvin)
4 κ Thermal conductivity - - Wm K
5 q Heat convection constant - - Wm K
6 Stephan’s constant - - Wm K
7 ε Total emissive power - - Wm
8 K.E/P.E Kinetic/ Potential energy ft-lb erg J
9 k Boltzmann’s constant - - JK

Note:
 Heat is a form of energy.

 The amount of heat is measured by calorie. (1kcal = 4184J)
 The rate of heat flow is directly proportional to the cross sectional area (A) and
temperature difference(T − T ).
 The value of can differ by quite a large amount depending on material.
 Metals are good conductors and non-metals are insulators.
 Air is one of the most important insulators.
 Heat conduction takes place in solids.
 Body tissue is also a good insulator of heat because the body temperature
remains quite uniform when the environment gets warm or cold.
 Heat convection takes place in liquids and gases.
 Three examples of heat convection are (i) boiling of water (ii) heating of rooms
by fire (iii) creation of weather condition.
 The flow of warm blood is the major factor in body heat transport (convection).
 In cold regions where rooms are heated by fire, heating is done by convection
process.
 Some weather conditions are created by heat convection. Because the weather
is fair at the base of mountain ranges, at the sea coast, lakes and ponds is that
the hot air in those regions rises and is placed by cooler air.
 A black body is perfect absorber and perfect emitter.
 The sun is the major source of heat for earth.
 Heat transfer from the sun to the earth by the method of heat radiation.
 Every object emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
 Thermal radiation or infrared radiation is form of electromagnetic radiation.
 The range of thermal radiation wavelength is about 1 m to 100 m.
 Electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum.
* Difference between (conduction/convection/radiation) ေတြေမးလာပါက

Definition ေရးျပီး ပုဆ
ံ ဲေ
ြ ပးပါ။

Short Question!
1. Is the following statement correct?
“The reason why we feel warm when wearing wool and down clothes is that
wool and down are very good insulators.”
- The statement is not correct.
- We feel warm when wearing wool and down clothes because air is trapped
inside the woolen fibres.
- This trapped air acts as an insulator which prevents heat transfer so that we
feel warm.
2. Explain the reason why a person feel warm when wearing wool sweater in cold
regions. What is the major factor in body heat transport?
- When wearing woolen sweater, air is trapped inside the woolen fibres.
- This trapped air acts as an insulator which prevents heat transfer so that the
person feels warm.
- Heat convection is the major factor in body heat transport.
3. One end of a poker is placed in fire. After some time the other end becomes hot.
Explain how heat is transferred along the poker. Name the method of heat
transfer.
- At first, the end of the poker is placed in the fire gains heat energy.
- Then the other end becomes hot by successive distribution of heat energy
among the adjacent parts.
- The method of heat transfer is conduction.
4. If a tea spoon is put into a very hot cup of tea, the spoon handle becomes hot.
Explain how heat is transferred along the spoon. Name the method of heat
transfer.
- At first, the end of the spoon is placed in the hot cup of tea gains heat energy.
- Then the other end becomes hot by successive distribution of heat energy
among the adjacent parts.
- The method of heat transfer is conduction.

5. A silver spoon and a wooden spoon are at room temperature. The silver spoon
feels cool when it is touched. Why?
- Silver is a good conductor and thermal conductivity of silver spoon is greater
than wooden spoon.
6. If a person wearing ordinary clothes travels out into space, the liquid in the
body will boil. Why? Explain how a space suit can prevent this effect.
- In the space the pressure is very low and the boiling point will be lower.
-Thus, if a person wearing ordinary clothes travels out into the space, the liquid
in the body will boil.
- To prevent this effect, a space suit is well designed to produce pressure which
is the same pressure on the earth surface and to make sure there is no heat
transfer.
7. A kettle on an electric stove is shown in the figure. Mark a point A where the
heat is conducted to water. Mark a point B where the heat convection is
occurring. Mark a point C where heat is radiating. Mark a point D where an
insulator ought to be used.
A = heat conduction D
B = heat convection C
C = radiating
D = insulator B
A
C
+ −
8. In cold regions it is seen that birds on the branches of trees often ruffle their
feathers. Explain the reason why the birds feel warm by ruffling their feathers.
- By ruffling their feathers, air can enter through the feathers and is trapped
inside feathers.
- This trapped air acts as an insulator which prevents heat transfer so that the
birds feel warm.

9. How does a blanket wrapped round your body keep you warm on a cold day?
- The blanket has fibres and the air is trapped inside the blanket fibres.
- This trapped air acts as an insulator which prevents heat transfer so that we
feel warm.
10.Which of the heat transfer processes discussed in this chapter are involved in a
vacuum flask?
- Heat conduction, convection and radiation are involved in a vacuum flask.
11.What processes of heat transfer are involved in the working of a car radiator?
- Heat conduction, convection and radiation are involved.
12.Explain with a diagram why a person sitting in the middle of the upper room
feels warm when a furnace is placed at the ground floor in winter.
air
furnace
- Heat energy is transferred to the upper room by conduction through floor and
radiation by floor.
- Air is carrying the heat energy by convection.
13.Light waves are electromagnetic waves which can travel in vacuum with the
speed of light and obey Maxwell’s theory of electricity and magnetism. Is the
heat radiation a form of electromagnetic waves? Does it need a medium for
propagation? What is its speed? Can heat radiation be explained by Maxwell’s
theory of electricity and magnetism?
- Yes, heat radiation is a form of electromagnetic waves.
- No, it does not need a medium for propagation. Its speed is 3× 10 m .
- Yes, heat radiation can be explained by Maxwell’s theory of electricity and
magnetism.
14.Explain with a diagram why an air conditioner should be best positioned high,
near the ceiling of a room.
ceiling
air conditioner
warm air
room
cool air
- The rotary fan inside an air conditioner forces cool dry air out into the room.
- The cool air, being denser, sinks while the warm air below, being less dense,
rises and is drawn into the air conditioner where it is cooled.
- In this way, the air is recirculated and the temperature of the air falls to the
value present on the thermostat.
15.How is heat transmitted from the sun to the earth?

Heat is transmitted from the sun to the earth by radiation.
16.How are weather conditions created by heat convection process?

- Some of the weather conditions are created by heat convection process.
- Because the weather is fair at the base of mountain ranges, at the sea coast,
lakes and ponds is that the hot air in those regions rises and is placed by cooler
air.
17.Why is the weather fair in coastal regions?

- The weather is fair in coastal regions because the hot air in those regions rises
and is placed by cooler air.
- This process occurs due to the heat convection process.
18.Why is the body tissue either a good insulator or a poor conductor?

- Body tissue is not only a good insulator but also a poor conductor, because the
interior of the body can be kept warm in a cold environment.

19.If the absolute temperature of a black body is double, how is the total emissive
power affected?
e = 1 (black body)
ε = σT (before changing the temperature)
ε = σT (after changing the temperature)
T = 2 T (the absolute temperature of a black body is double)
ε =σ T
= σ (2T )
= 16 σT
= 16
1. An ice box taken along on a picnic contains 1.3kg of water and 0.6kg ice. If
35.564J of heat enters through the insulator each second. How long does it take
for all the ice to melt? (L = 3.35× 10 Jkg ) (14 ygn)
Ans: 5626.5 s (1h 33min 46s)
2. An ice box taken along on a picnic contains 1.3kg of water and 0.8kg ice. If
36.654J of heat enters through the insulator each second. How long does it take
for all the ice to melt? (Latent heat for ice = 3.225× 10 Jkg ) (09 ygn)
Ans: 7039 s (1h 57min 19s)
3. How much heat per second is conducted through a wooden wall of area 30m
and thickness 0.05m if the temperature inside is 25℃ and the temperature
outside is - 8℃? The thermal conductivity of wood is 8.37× 10 Js m K .
Ans: 1657 J (16 local)
4. The area and thickness of a glass plate of a window are 0.5m and 4mm
respectively. The temperature of the inside surface of glass plate is 25℃ and its
outside surface temperature is 29℃. Find the amount of heat that passes through
the glass plate in one hour. Thermal conductivity of glass is 0.6276 Wm K .
Ans: 1129680 J (14 sagaing)

5. How much heat in 1min is conducted through a wooden wall of area 30m and
thickness 8cm if the temperature inside is 30℃ and the temperature outside is
20℃? The thermal conductivity of wood is 8.37× 10 kJs m K .
Ans: 18832.5 J (13 kachin)
6. A person walking at a regular speed generates the amount of heat 252J in one
hour. If the surface area of the body is 1.5m and heat is to be generated 0.03m
below the skin, what should be temperature difference between the skin and
interior of the body if the heat is to be conducted to the surface of the skin?
Ans: 0.07 W, 28 K (κ = 5× 10 Wm K ) (14 bago)
7. The area and thickness of a glass plate of a window are 0.25m and 4× 10 m.
The temperature of the inside surface of glass plate is 25℃ and its outside
surface temperature is 26℃. If the amount of heat that passes through the glass
plate in one hour is 1.412× 10 J. Find the thermal conductivity of glass.
Ans: 0.6276 (14 foreign)
8. In warm room, an animal’s body has a skin temperature of 35℃. If the room
temperature is 30℃ and the surface area of the body is 1.5m , what is the rate
of heat loss due to the convection? Assume q = 1.7× 10 Wm K .
Ans: 0.01275W (13 mdy)
9. In warm room, an animal’s body has a skin temperature of 32℃. If the room
temperature is 29℃ and the surface area of the body is 1.5m , what is the rate
of heat loss due to the convection? Assume q = 1.7× 10 Wm K .
Ans: 7.65× W (12 ygn)
10.The surface area of a black body is 200cm . Find the rate of heat energy
radiation from that body at temperature 727℃. ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
Ans: 1137 W (14 magway)
11.An animal’s body has a skin temperature of 33℃. If the emissivity is 0.5 and
the body surface area is 2m , find the rate of heat due to radiation.
Ans: 498.4 W ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K ) (13 sagaing)

12.If the rate of energy radiation from a black body of area 200cm is 50W, find
the temperature of the body. What is radiated energy in one day? (13 shan)
Ans: 457.9 K, 4320000 J ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
13.If the rate of energy radiation from a black body of area 300cm is 107W, find
the temperature of the black body. ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K ) (15 local)
Ans: 500.5K
14.The temperature of the filament is 2500K when the bulb is switched on. The
diameter of the filament is 0.1mm and it is made of metal of emissivity 0.35. If
the emissive power is 40W. Find the length of the filament. (14 mdy)
Ans: 0.1638 m ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
15.The temperature of the filament is 3000K when the bulb is switched on. The
diameter of the filament is 0.2mm and it is made of metal of emissivity 0.38. If
the emissive power is 50W. Find the length of the filament. (14 shan)
Ans: 0.0455 m ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
16.The filament of a 75W electric bulb is made of tungsten. The emissivity of

tungsten is 0.5 and its length is 0.2m. Find the diameter of the filament if it
temperature is 3000K when the bulb is switch on. (14 ayeyawady)
Ans: 5.184× m ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
17.The filament of a 60W electric bulb is made of tungsten. The emissivity of

tungsten is 0.3 and its length is 0.15m. Find the diameter of the filament if it
temperature is 3000K when the bulb is switch on. (13 foreign)
Ans: 9.215× m ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
18.In a warm room, an animal’s body has a skin temperature of 33℃. If the room
temperature is 28℃ and the surface area of the body is 2m . If the emissivity is
1, find the rate of heat loss due to radiation. ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
Ans: 63.9 W (12 ayeyawady)

19.In a warm room, an animal’s body has a skin temperature of 32℃. If the room
temperature is 28℃ and the surface area of the body is1.5m . If the emissivity
is 1, find the rate of heat loss due to radiation. ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
Ans: 37.95 W (12 sagaing)
20.Compare the rates of energy radiation of a black body at temperatures 427℃

and 77℃. If the absolute temperature of a black body is doubled, how is the
total emissive power affected? Ans: 16 (16 foreign)
21.Compare the rates of energy radiation of a black body at temperatures 600 K

and 400 K. Ans: 5.0625 (11 kachin)
22.The sun is radiating energy at a rate of 65.5 MWm . Assuming that the sun is
emitting energy as a black body, find the temperature of surface of the sun. Is
heat transmitted from the sun to the earth? ( = 5.685× 10 Wm K )
Ans: 5826 K (15 local)
23.Compare the total emissive powers of a black body at temperatures 177℃ and
27℃. (09 ayeyawady)
Ans: 5.0625
24.If the absolute temperature of a black body is doubled, how is the total emissive
power affected? (07 kachin)
Ans: 16
25.Matching the following table: (02 bago)

The rate of heat flow (conduction)
The total emissive power of black body [ − ]
The total emissive power of other body qA( − )
The net radiation per unit area A ( − )⁄
The rate of heat flow (convection)

Chapter – 4
Vibration of Strings, Resonance and Air Columns
 Progressive Waves
Sound waves which travel in air when we speak and water waves which travel
on the water surface when a stone is dropped are called progressive waves.
eg. sound wave, water wave
(sound wave)
source
 Stationary Waves (Standing Waves)

The waves produced in hollow tubes such as flutes and in stringed musical
instruments such as violins and mandolins are called stationary waves.
eg. the waves produced in flutes, violins and mandolins.
N N N N
A A A
 Production of Stationary Waves

A stationary wave is obtained when two waves having equal amplitudes and
velocities travelling in opposite directions are superposed on each other.
Electric Bell hand

stationary waves
 Nodes (N)
The points marked (N) in the stationary wave are always stationary. These
points are called nodes.
 Antinodes (A)
The mid-points between successive nodes have the largest amplitudes and are
called antinodes.

The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes =
The distance between a node and the nearest antinode =
 Harmonics
The waves that are formed on the string are called harmonics.
 Frequency (f)
The rate at which some regular disturbance takes place. For a wave this
represents the number of complete oscillations per second.
 Hertz (Hz)
A unit of frequency of vibrations. 1 hertz is equivalent to one oscillation per
second.
 Fundamental Frequency or First Harmonic ( )

The longest wave vibrating in one single segment is called the fundamental
frequency or the first harmonic.
 Overtones
The second and higher harmonics are called overtones.
 Wavelength ( )
The distance between any consecutive wave crests is called the wavelength.
v=f
= velocity, = frequency, = wavelength
 Amplitude (A)
The maximum displacement of an oscillation from its mean position.
 Wave Intensity (I)

The intensity of a wave is the power transported across a unit cross-sectional
area.

The intensity of a wave is directly proportional to the square of its amplitude.

I∝
I = intensity of a wave, A = amplitude
 Beat Frequency
When two sound waves of equal intensity (amplitude) but slightly different
frequencies interfere, the resultant wave is a pulsed disturbance with a beat
frequency. The number of beats per second or beat frequency equals the
difference in frequency between the two sources.
= -
= beat frequency, / = frequencies of the two sources
 Resonance Frequency
The amplitude of the motion reaches a maximum when the frequency of driving
force equals the natural frequency (f ) of the system. ‘f ’ is called the resonance
frequency.
 Noise Exposure Limit

Noise exposure limit is 120 dB. Exposure levels of 140 to 150 dB can rupture
eardrums and cause permanent hearing loss.
 Oscillation
One complete to-and-fro motion of a vibrating object.
 Transverse Wave
A wave in which the oscillations are at right angles to the direction in which the
wave transfers energy.
eg. light wave, wave in a vibrating string
 Longitudinal Wave
An energy-carrying wave in which the movement of the particles is in line with
the direction in which the energy is being transferred.
eg. sound wave

 The First Four Harmonics of the Vibrating String
l
N N
λ = 2l -------------------------- A ------------------------- 1 st harmonic
N N N
λ = ----------- A -------------------------- A ----------- 2 nd harmonic
N N N N
λ = -------- A ---------------- A -------------- A ------- 3 rd harmonic
N N N N N
λ = ----- A ---------- A ---------- A ----------- A ------ 4 th harmonic
= (where n = 1, 2, 3, ……)
v = f λ
f =
= (∵ λ = )
= f = f : f : f = f : 2f : 3f
: : =1 :2 :3
f = =2f
f = =3f

f =
T
= (v= )
μ
(μ=m l)
T
f = m⁄
l
= (n = 1, 2, 3, 4,…) (or) = (for string and open organ pipe)

⁄
( ) ( )
= (n = 1, 2, 3, 4,...) (or) = (for closed organ pipe)
⁄
 Open Organ Pipe
f = A N A 1st harmonic
f = A N A N A 2 nd harmonic
f = A N A N A N A 3 rd harmonic
f = A N A N A N A N A 4th harmonic

 Closed Organ Pipe
f = A N 1 st harmonic
f = A N A N 3 rd harmonic
f = A N A N A N 5 th harmonic
f = A N A N A N A N 7 th harmonic
1 f Frequency Hz Hz Hz
2 λ Wavelength ft cm m
3 l Length ft cm m
4 μ Mass per unit length slft gcm kgm
5 I Intensity - - Wm
6 A Amplitude ft cm m

Note:
 Sound is a form of energy.

 Sound wave cannot travel through vacuum.
 Every wave carries energy and momentum.
 The velocity of sound in air is about 340 .
 The velocity of sound is very much smaller than the velocity of light.
 The unit of the intensity level of a sound is the decibel (dB).
 Fundamental frequency is longest wave with one single segment.
 Fundamental frequency is also called 1st harmonic.
 1st overtone is also called 2nd harmonic (for string and open gran pipe).
 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic are also called 1st overtone and 2nd overtone (for
closed organ pipe).
 The noise exposure limit for a person is 120 dB.
 Sound with very high intensities above 120 dB can be dangerous.
 The energy provided by the light from the sun makes life possible on our planet.
 Ocean waves can transform the shape of coast lines.
 Intense sound waves can crack window glasses.
Difference between a progressive wave and a stationary wave
Progressive Wave Stationary Wave

- Progressive waves spread out. - Stationary waves do not spread out.
- They do not remain in the region - They remain in the region in which
in which they are produced. they are produced.
- They have no nodes and - They have nodes and antinodes.
antinodes.
* v = 332 + 0.6 (T – 273)

= 2( − )

Short Question!
1. How does the velocity of a stationary wave formed in a string, with both ends
firmly fixed, depend on the tension and mass per unit length of the string?
v=
- The velocity of a stationary wave is directly proportional to the square root of
tension and inversely proportional to the square root of mass per unit length.
2. Which of the following graphs correctly describes the relation − √ for the
stretched string? (n = frequency of the string, T = tension in the string)
(a) (b) (c)
n n n
√ √ √
- The correct graph is (a)
3. Write down the equation for frequency of the harmonic of the vibrating
string, with both ends firmly fixed. Sketch a graph showing the relation − √ .
(f = frequency of the string, T = tension in the string)
T
f = m⁄ f
l
4. Are sound waves transverse or longitudinal waves? Are they mechanical or

electromagnetic waves? Can they travel through vacuum? Can they travel faster
than light?
- Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
- They are mechanical waves
- No, they cannot travel through vacuum.
- No, they cannot travel faster than light.

5. There are always points that do not move in stationary waves.

(a) What are those points called?
(b) How is the distance between two successive points related to the
wavelength?
- Those points are called nodes.
- The distance between two successive points related to the wavelength is of
the stationary wave.
6. Describe how stationary wave can be produced.

- See the definition.
7. Describe how stationary waves can be produced in a closed organ pipe.

- A vibrating tuning fork is placed near the open end of a closed organ pipe.
- Air column in the pipe will vibrate and sound of resonance will be heard.
- A stationary wave is produced in the closed organ pipe.
8. A vibrating turning fork is placed over the top end of a glass tube, almost full of
water, as shown in the figure. Explain what will happen if the water surface in
the glass tube is lowered when the water tap is opened.
water
tap
- At a certain height of the water, the loud sound of resonance will be heard
from the tube. In fact, the resonant sound will be heard at several different
heights.
9. What do the waves carry from one place to another?

- The waves carry energy and momentum from one place to another.

1. If the distance between two consecutive nodes of a stationary wave in a
stretched string is 0.8m, (i) find the distance between two successive antinodes
and (ii) find the distance between a node and the nearest antinode. (09 ygn)
Ans: 0.8 m, 0.4 m
2. The distance between two successive nodes of stationary waves produced in a

stretch string is 50 cm. Find the wavelength of that stationary wave. If the
frequency is 110 Hz, what is the velocity of the wave in the string?
Ans: 1m, 110 (12 kachin)
3. The velocity of the wave in a string is 330ms and the frequency is 100Hz.
Find the wavelength of that stationary wave and calculate the distance between
two successive nodes of stationary waves. (13 sagaing)
Ans: 3.3m, 1.65m
4. The velocity of the wave in a string is 330ms and the frequency is 100Hz.
Find the wavelength of that stationary wave. (13 sagaing)
Ans: 3.3 m
5. Find the first two harmonics which will be formed in an open organ pipe of
length 0.5m. Velocity of sound in air is 340ms . (14 mon )
Ans: 340 Hz, 680 Hz
6. Find the frequencies of the first three harmonics of the longest string in a grand
piano. The length of the string is 200cm and the velocity of the wave in the
string is 130ms . (12 ygn)
Ans: 32.5 Hz, 65 Hz, 97.5 Hz
7. Find the three harmonics which will be formed in a closed organ pipe of length
50cm. Velocity of sound in air is 320ms . (11 kachin)
Ans: 160 Hz, 480 Hz, 800 Hz

8. What is the beat frequency of two tones with the frequencies 288Hz and
292Hz? (10 shan)
Ans: 4 Hz
9. A violist with a perfectly tuned a string (f=440Hz) plays an A note with another
violist, and a beat frequency 2Hz is heard. What is the frequency of the tone
from the other violin? Is there only one possibility? (09 ayeyawady)
Ans: 442 Hz or 438 Hz
(No, there is not only one possibility)
10.Two waves, one of frequency 50 Hz and the other of 1000 Hz, are travelling
with the same speed. Compare their wavelengths. (05 ygn)
Ans: 20
11.The wave velocity in the highest frequency violin string is 450ms , and its
length (l) is 0.3m. If a violin player lightly touches the string at a point which is
at a distance from one end, a node is formed at that point. What is the lowest
frequency that can now be produced by the string? (11 mon)
Ans: 2250 Hz
12.The wave velocity in the highest frequency violin string is 435ms , and its
length (l) is 0.33m. If a violin player lightly touches the string at a point which
is at a distance from one end, a node is formed at that point. What is the
lowest frequency that can now be produced by the string? (11 rakhine)
Ans: 1977.3 Hz
13.The tuning fork is struck and placed over the open end of a resonance tube with
adjustable air column. If resonances occur when the air column is 17.9cm and
51.2cm long, find the velocity of sound from these values. Frequency of tuning
fork is 512 Hz. (11 shan)
Ans: 341

14.The tuning fork is struck and placed over the open end of a resonance tube with
adjustable air column. If resonances occur when the air column is 18cm and
56.5cm long, find the velocity of sound from these values. Frequency of tuning
fork is 440 Hz. Ans: 338.8 (13 rakhine)
15.At room temperature (25℃), a closed organ pipe has a fundamental frequency
of 256 Hz. What is the length of the pipe? (14 rakhine)
Ans: 0.3389 m
16.At room temperature (30℃), a closed organ pipe has a fundamental frequency
of 218 Hz. What is the length of the pipe? (velocity of sound = 350 ms )
Ans: 0.4014 m (09 mdy)
17.If the mass of the string of 0.5m length is 0.15g and its tension is 48N, find the
fundamental frequency of the string. Ans: 400 Hz (14 ayeyawady)
18.If the mass of the string of 1m length is 0.2g and its tension is 50N, find the
frequencies of the first three harmonics of the string. (13 shan)
Ans: 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 750 Hz
19.What is the tension required for a violin string to vibrate at fundamental

frequency of 400 Hz? The length of the violin string is 30 cm and the mass per
unit length of the string is 6.8× 10 kgm . (11 sagaing)
Ans: 39.17 N

frequency of 440 Hz? The length of the violin string is 0.3m, its diameter is
0.04cm and the density of the material of which the string is made is 3.5× 10
kgm . Ans: 30.67 N (13 mdy)

frequency of 400 Hz? The length of the violin string is 0.3m, its diameter is
0.05cm and the density of the material of which the string is made is 3.5× 10
kgm . Ans: 39.6 N (09 mon)

22.The speed of a wave on a string is 170ms when the tension is 120N. To what
value must the tension be increased in order to raise the wave speed to
180ms ? (07 shan)
Ans: 134.6 N
23.The highest and lowest frequency strings of a piano are tuned to fundamentals
of = 4186Hz and = 32.8 Hz. Their lengths are 0.051m and 1.98m
respectively. If the tension in these two strings is the same, compare the masses
per unit length of the two strings. (11 mdy)
Ans: 10.81
24.The highest and lowest frequency strings of a piano are tuned to fundamentals
of = 4100Hz and = 32.8 Hz. Their lengths are 0.05m and 2m respectively.
If the tension in these two strings is the same, compare the masses per unit
length of the two strings. (09 bago)
Ans: 9.766




Chapter – 5
Introduction to Light
 Light
Light is a form of energy which stimulates our sense of vision.
 Two Nature of Light

Light has both particle and wave nature.
 Two Theories about the Nature of Light

Two theories about the nature of light were introduced by the middle of 17 th
century. They are Newton’s corpuscular theory and Huygens’ wave theory.
 Newton’s Corpuscular Theory

Newton suggested that light was made up of a stream of tiny particles known as
corpuscles.
(By using this corpuscular theory, Newton could explain the phenomena of
reflection and refraction of light.)
 Huygens’ Wave Theory

Huygens suggested that like water waves and sound waves, light also has wave
nature.
(The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization could be explained
by using Huygens’ wave theory.)
* Today, it is generally accepted that light has wave-particle duality. Therefore,

the corpuscular theory and wave theory of light are not contradictory but are
complementary to each other.
 Velocity of Light (c) (c = 3× )

The velocity of light is expressed by the symbol of “c” and its velocity is
greater than others.

 Energy of a photon
Albert Einstein has shown that the energy released E from an atom is given by
E=m
E = energy released, m =mass, c = velocity of light
 Method for Measuring Velocity of Light
(1)Galileo’s Method (by the middle of 17th century)

- Galileo measured the time taken by light to travel the distance between two
hilltop with one lamp and his assistant on another hilltop with a similar lamp.
(2)Roemer’s Method
- Roemer was the first to successfully measure the velocity of light.
- Four of twelve small satellites or moons moving around Jupiter could be
observed with a moderately good telescope.
- The velocity of light was found to be 130,000 miles per second or
2.1× 10 .
(3)Fizeau’s Method
- Fizeau was the first to successfully determine the velocity of light from purely
terrestrial measurements. (c = 3.1× 10 )
*The most precise measurement of velocity of light was made by Michelson.

His method will not be presented here. It is (c = 3× 10 )
 Law of Reflection
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
NO = the normal
A N B AO = the incident ray
OB = the reflected ray
i = the angle of incidence
i r r = the angle of reflection

 Refraction of Light
When light passes through two media of different optical densities, the direction
of light changes in passing from the first to the second medium. This
phenomenon is called the refraction of light.
*Velocity of light (c) depends on the optical density in a medium.
(နီးစပ္) - သိပ္သည္းဆ (နည္း) ရာမွာ့ (မ်ား) ရာသို. သြားလွ်င္ normal ဘက္သို. အလင္းယိုင္မည္။
(ေ၀းကြာ) - သိပ္သည္းဆ (မ်ား) ရာမွာ့ (နည္း) ရာသို. သြားလွ်င္ normal ႏွင့ေ
္ ၀းရာဘက္သို. အလင္းယိုင္မည္။
A N A N
နီးစပ္ ေ၀းကြာ
i i
x less x more
y O more y O less
r r
N N B
B
 Angle of Incidence (i)

The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
 Angle of Refraction (r)

The angle of refraction is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.
 Refractive Index (n) (using velocity of light)

The ratio of the velocity of light in air to the velocity of light in a particular
medium is called the refractive index of the medium.
n=
n = refractive index, c = velocity of light in air, v = velocity of light in medium
 Relation of Refractive index, Velocity of light and Wavelength of light

In ‘x’ medium, In ‘y’ medium,
n = n =
c = n v c = n v
∴ =

When the light travels one medium to another it does not change its frequency
but wavelength must be changed.
n v = n v
n f = n f (v = f )
∴n = n
 The Law of Refraction

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
For a particular wavelength of light and for a given pair of media, the ratio of
the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant. (The second law is called Snell’s law)
incident ray i
xny = x
xny = refractive index y
i = the angle of incidence r
r = the angle of reflection
refracted ray
 Refractive Index (n) (defined by Snell’s Law)

For a particular wavelength of light and for a given pair of media, the ratio of
the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant. This constant is the refractive index of the medium through which the
refracted ray passes.
n=
i = the angle of incidence, r = the angle of reflection, n = refractive index
 Some Values of Refractive Index
Substance Air Ice Water Ethyl Oleic Glycerin Quartz Glass Diamond
Alcohol Acid
Refractive 1 1.31 1.33 1.36 1.46 1.47 1.54 1.5 to 2.42
Index 1.9

 Relation between xny and ynx

N N
i i
x x
y y
r r
N N
xn y = ynx =
x ny . ynx = .
xn y . ynx = 1
xny =
 Relation between Angle of Incidence and Angle of Emergence for a Ray

passing through a Glass Slab with Parallel Sides
A N AO = incident ray
i OP = refracted ray
a PQ = emergent ray
O g i = angle of incidence
r i = angle of emergence
N N t t = thickness of glass
r
g
P a
i
N Q
For 1st refraction, For 2nd refraction,

an g = gn a =
ang . gna = . = 1
sin i = sin i
i =

 Refraction through Three Parallel Media
i x
z
i x
For 1st refraction, xny =

r1
r1
For 2nd refraction, ynz =
r2
r2
For 3rd refraction, znx =
i′
r1 r2
xny . ynz . znx = . .
r1 r2 i′
ynz =
.
ေရွ.ကေကာင္က
ynz = ေအာက္စက
ို ္
ynz =

 Refraction of Light through A Glass Slab with Parallel Sides

A N
i AO = incident ray
a OP = refracted ray
O g PQ = emergent ray
r i = angle of incidence
N N t i = angle of emergence
r t = thickness of glass
d g d = lateral displacement
P a
i
N Q
In ∆OPN , cos r =
cos r = ( t = ON )
OP =
In ∆OPR, ∠POR = i – r
sin (i – r) =
sin (i – r) = (OP = )
.
sin (i – r) =
.
sin (i – r) = (PR = d)
. ( – )
∴ d =

 Refractive Index related to Real and Apparent Depths

Eye I
r
R O
r i i
Q P x x
r y P Q y
i I r
i R
O Eye
Fig. Apparent depth when viewed Fig. Apparent depth when viewed
from a less dense medium from a denser medium
( ) ( )
refractive index(n) = refractive index(n) =
( ) ( )
* (ေရထဲမွာ့ငါးကို ေလထဲမွျကည့္ျခင္း) *(ေလထဲမွာ့ငွက္ကို ေရထဲမွျကည့္ျခင္း)
 Critical Angle ( )
When light passes from a medium to a less optically dense medium, the angle
of incidence corresponding to the angle of refraction 90 is called the critical
angle.
By Snell’s Law, N
ynx = r = 90° less (x)
i more (y)
When i = i , r = 90° N
ynx =
°
ynx = sin i ( sin 90 = 1 )
xny = ( xn y = )

 Total Internal Reflection

The light in one medium does not enter the optically less dense medium and is
reflected back into the first medium for all angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
x P Q r R 90° S
y i i i r
O total internal reflection
 Prism
A prism is a transparent object usually made of glass. It has two plane surfaces
inclined to each other.
A A = angle of prism
BC = base of prism
D OP = incident ray
i P Q i PQ = refracted ray
r r QR = emergent ray
O S R D = angle of deviation
B C
From Figure, From ∆PQD, D = ∠QPD + ∠PQD

A + ∠PSQ = 180° (A = ∠BAC) = (i - r ) + (i - r )
(r +r ) + ∠PSQ = 180° (A = r +r ) = (i + i ) − (r +r )
When D = D , i =i ,r =r = 2i − 2r
A = r +r When D = D , D = 2i − 2r
A = r +r = 2i − A
A = 2r i =
r = By Snell’s Law, n =
( )
n =
( )

 Deviation of Light by a Prism

The direction of the incident ray changes after passing through a prism. This is
called the deviation of light by a prism.
* The ray of light is refracted towards the base of the prism.
 Angle of Deviation (D)

The angle of deviation is the angle between the direction of incident ray and the
direction of emergent ray.
 Angle of Minimum Deviation ( )

When the angle of incidence is increased gradually, the angle of deviation(D)
decreases gradually. D reaches to a minimum value and then increases.
It is shown in the figure by i-D graph and can be obtained from i-D graph.
D
maximum deviation
minimum
deviation
90° i
 Total Reflecting Prism

The total internal reflection can occur in the 90°-45°-45° prism. This prism is
called the total reflecting prism. 100% of the light is reflected in it.
The total reflecting prisms are used in periscopes and binoculars.
(Hypotenuse – surface) (Side – surface)
(90° deviation) (180° deviation)
45° 45°
A 45°
45°
45° 45°

 Formation of Image by a Totally Reflecting Prism

(Hypotenuse – surface) (Side – surface )
(90 deviation) (180 deviation)
I I
O 45° O 45°
O
O I
45° 45° I
 The Light Pipe

When a ray enters one end of a glass rod or a transparent plastic rod and the
total internal reflection occurs in the rod, the ray will emerge from the other
end. Such a transparent rod is called a light pipe.
It is used to examine objects which are normally difficult to see. They are used
to see the wall of the stomach.
 The Optical Fibres

The optical fibres are very thin strands of pure optical glass in which total
internal reflection can occur.
 Spectrum
When a narrow pencil of white light passes through a prism, it is split into
bands of different colours. Such a band of different colours is called a spectrum.

 Dispersion of Light by a Prism

Splitting of white light into different colour-bands is called dispersion of light.
(least deviated)
sun light white red orange
yellow
hole green
prism blue
violet indigo
(most deviated)
 Thin Prism
A prism whose angle is very small is called a thin prism.
D = (n-1)A
D = angle of deviation, n = refractive index, A= angle of prism
 Primary Light Colours

Red, green and blue are primary light colours. By mixing these colours of light
any other colour can be produced. Combining them equally produces white
light.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
-rays X-rays Ultra Visible Infrared Radar Radio

violet light ray (microwave) wave
400 nm 700 nm
Increasing Wavelengths
Note:
 Light is essential for life on earth and light can travel through vacuum.
 Light cannot have both natures at the same time.
 Nowadays, we receive the light as wave particle nature.
 Light waves are electromagnetic waves and photons.
 The wavelength of light is very much shorter than those of water waves and
sound waves. Therefore, the bending of light waves cannot be observed.

 When light passes from one medium to another, its wavelength changes but its
frequency does not change.
 In the refraction of light, both the magnitude and direction of the velocity of
light change.
 The direction of light changes because the velocity of light changes.
 The wavelength of light is between 400nm and 700nm.
 The velocity of light depends on the optical density of the medium.
 v = f λ can be used for any waves.
 When light passes through from less to more dense medium, light is refracted
towards the normal.
 When light passes through from more to less dense medium, light is refracted
away from the normal.
 In the refraction of light, the incident ray and the refracted ray are in the
different media.
 The real depth and the apparent depth are measured from the boundary.
 If i < , the ray will emerge from the more dense medium. Total internal
reflection will not occur.
 If i > , the ray will not emerge from the more dense medium. Total internal
reflection will occur.
 Total internal reflection is used in a light pipe, an optical fibre (a cluster of glass
fibres) and total internal reflecting prisms.
 The ray of light is refracted towards the base of the prism.
 The angle of minimum deviation can be obtained when the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of emergence.
 For a prism the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence when the
angle of deviation is minimum. ( i = i , D = D )
 The refractive index of violet is the largest.
 The refractive index of red is the smallest.
 The wavelength of red is longer than that of violet.
 The total reflecting prisms are used in periscopes and binoculars.
 The total reflecting prism is used to cut the facets of diamond for its brightness.
 Totally reflecting prism showing 180° deviation cases is used in binoculars and
periscopes.
 Light pipes are used to examine objects which are normally difficult to see.
 Light pipes are used to see the wall of the stomach.

Short Question!
1. Write down the names of the two theories concerning the nature of light that
were introduced by the middle of seventeenth century. How do they differ?
- The two theories are Newton’s corpuscular theory of light and Huygens’ wave
theory. (Difference ကို note တြင္ ရွာေရးပါ။)
2. What are the optical phenomena that cannot be explained by Newton’s

corpuscular theory?
- Newton’s corpuscular theory cannot explain interference, diffraction and
polarization.
3. Why did the majority of scientists hesitate to accept Huygens’ wave theory of
light when it was first introduced?
- The majority of scientists hesitated to accept Huygens’ wave theory of light
when it was first introduced because the bending of light cannot be ordinary
observed.
4. Why can the bending of light not be seen although the bending of water waves
can be seen?
- The bending of light cannot be seen although the bending of water waves can
be seen because the wavelength of light is very much shorter than that of water
waves.
5. Write down the names of the two theories concerning the nature of light. Are
they contradictory? Why can the bending of light not be ordinarily observed?
- The two theories are Newton’s corpuscular theory of light and Huygens’ wave
theory.
- No, they are not contradictory. They are complementary.
- The bending of light cannot be ordinarily observed because the wavelength of
light is very short.
6. Explain the statement “the refractive index of glass is 1.5”.

- The statement means that the ratio of the velocity of light in air to the velocity
of light in glass is 1.5.

7. Explain the statement “the refractive index of diamond is 2.42”.

- The statement means that the ratio of the velocity of light in air to the velocity
of light in diamond is 2.42.
8. Are the incident ray and the refracted ray in the same plane and in the same
medium?
- The incident ray and the refracted ray are in the same plane but they are not in
the same medium.
9. Write out the refractive index of the medium in which an object is placed in
terms of the real and apparent depths.
( )
refractive index(n) =
( )
10.Why is the smaller the velocity of light ‘v’ in a medium, the greater its
refractive index ‘n’? Is it true that nv = constant? What is the value of this
constant?
n=
- The refractive index is inversely proportional to the velocity. Thus the greater
the refractive index the smaller is the velocity of light.
- Yes, it is true that nv = constant.
- The value of this constant is c = 3× 10 .
11.In the electromagnetic wave spectrum visible light waves lie between 400nm
and 700nm. Where will you place the UV and IR in the electromagnetic
spectrum? (UV stands for ultraviolet and IR stands for infrared)
Electromagnetic spectrum
UV Visible light IR
400 nm 700 nm
increasing wavelength
12.Compare and contrast the law of reflection and law of refraction of light.
(Law of reflection and Law of refraction ၂ခုကိုျခားေရးလိုကပ
္ ါ။)

13.Write two conditions necessary for total internal reflection to take place.
- Two conditions are necessary for total internal reflection to take place are
(i) light must travel from more dense medium to less dense medium and
(ii) the angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
14.What is a thin prism? Describe the expression for the angle of deviation “D” of
a thin prism and explain the symbols used. State the condition for which the
angle of deviation of a thin prism is constant.
- A prism whose angle is very small is called a thin prism.
D = (n-1)A
where, D = angle of deviation of a thin prism
n = refractive index of thin prism
A= angle of prism
- The angle of deviation of a thin prism is constant for very small angles of
incidence.
15.Discuss the important role of light pipe.

- Light pipe is very useful in practical work.
- It is used to examine objects which are normally difficult to see.
- They are used to see the wall of the stomach.
16.What type of prism can be used as a total reflecting prism?

- A prism having 90°, 45°, 45° angles can be used as a total reflecting prism.

1. If the velocity of light in a medium is 2.3× 10 , find the refractive index
of the medium. (c = 3× 10 ) (09 shan)
Ans: 1.304
2. If the velocity of light in a medium Z is 2× 10 , find the refractive index

of the medium Z and what is the name of the medium? (c = 3× 10 )
Ans: 1.5 (It is glass) (04 mdy)
3. If the velocity of light in a medium is 1.5× 10 , find the refractive index

of the medium. With what velocity will that ray pass through glycerine?
(refractive index of glycerine is 1.47, c = 3× 10 ) (11 magway)
Ans: n = 2, = 2.04×
4. The wavelength of a ray of light in air is 7× 10 m and the velocity in a

medium is 2.7× 10 . Find the refractive index of that medium. What is
the wavelength of that ray in that medium? (c = 3× 10 ) (14 magway)
Ans: n = 1.11, = 6.3×
5. The wavelength of a ray of light in air is 5.5× 10 m. With what velocity will
that ray pass through water whose refractive index is 1.34? Find the wavelength
of that ray in water. (c = 3× 10 ) (10 foreign)
Ans: v = 2.24× , = 4.105×
6. A ray of light in water has a wavelength of 7.2× 10 m. What is the

wavelength of that ray while passing through the glass whose refractive index
of 1.52? The refractive index of water is 1.33. (13 rakhine)
Ans: 6.3×
7. A ray of light in water has a wavelength of 4.42× 10 cm. What is the

wavelength of that ray while passing through the ice whose refractive index of
1.31? The refractive index of water is 1.33. (12 ygn)
Ans: 6.3×

8. A ray of light in water has a wavelength of 4.42× 10 m. What is the

wavelength and velocity of that ray while passing through the ice whose
refractive index of 1.31? The refractive index of water is 1.33. (13 ygn)
Ans: 4.487× , 2.29×
9. The velocity of sound in air is 330ms . A man hears a thunderclap 6s after

seeing a lighting flash. How far away is the source of thunder from that man?
Ans: 1980 m (08 sagaing)
10.Radio and light waves travel at a velocity of 3× 10 in air. Calculate

(i)the wavelength of radio waves in air when they are transmitted at a frequency
of 150MHz, and (ii) the velocity of light in glass of refractive index 1.5.
Ans: 2 m, 2× (07 sagaing)
11.The angle of incidence of a ray of light passing from air to a transparent

medium ‘X’ is 35° and the refractive index of medium of ‘X’ is 1.54. Find the
angle of refraction. (13 sagaing)
Ans: 21° 52′

medium ‘X’ is 60° and the angle of refraction is 30°. If another ray is incident at
35° on that medium and find the angle of refraction. (13 shan)
Ans: n = 1.732, r = 19° 20′

medium ‘X’ is 30° and the angle of refraction is 19° 28′. If another ray is
incident at 33° on that medium and find the angle of refraction. (14 mdy)
Ans: n = 1.5, r = 21° 17′

medium ‘X’ is 30° and the angle of refraction is 11° 55′. If another ray is
incident at 35° on that medium and find the angle of refraction. What is the
name of medium ‘X’? (14 mon)
Ans: n = 2.42, r = 13° 42′ (It is diamond)

15.The refractive index of glycerine is 1.47 and that of quartz is 1.54. What is the
refractive index of quartz with respect to glycerine? If a ray of angle of
incidence is 30° enters from glycerine to quartz find the angle of refraction.
Ans: r = 28° 31′ (13 kachin)
16.The refractive index of a liquid is 1.32 and that of glass is 1.5. If a ray of angle
of incidence 30° enters from liquid to glass, find the angle of refraction.
Ans: r = 26° 6′ (12 shan)
17.The refractive index of water is 1.33 and that of quartz is 1.54. If a ray of angle
of incidence 35° enters from water to quartz, find the angle of refraction.
Ans: r = 29° 42′ (12 bago)
18.When a drop of ink at the bottom of a glass slab 8cm thick is viewed from
above, it is seen at a spot 1.85cm above the bottom. Find the refractive index of
glass. (12 mon)
Ans: 1.3
glass. (14 ygn)
Ans: 1.6
glass. (11 sagaing)
Ans: 1.416
21.Find the critical angle of diamond of refractive index 2.42. (12 mdy)
Ans: 24° 25′
22.Find the critical angle of water of refractive index 1.33. (12 sagaing)
Ans: 48° 45′

23.Find the refractive index of diamond of critical angle 24.45°. (08 mdy)
Ans: 2.416
24.A transparent material has refractive index of 2. Calculate the critical angle. If
the refractive index were less than 2, would the critical angle be greater or
lesser than before? (08 shan)
Ans: 30° (If n is less than 2, the critical angle would be greater than the
refractive index of that medium.)
25.A cube of ice of refractive index 1.31 is placed on a glass slab of refractive
index 1.6. If a ray of light passing from the glass slab to the ice has an angle of
incidence of 35° will the ray enter the ice? (13 ayeyawaddy)
Ans: 54° 58′ (the ray will enter the ice)
26.In the figure, the refractive index of glass prism is 1.5. Will the ray emerge
from the hypotenuse surface of the prism? (09 bago)
Ans: 45° 45°

(No, the ray will not emerge.)
45°
27.A cube of ice of refractive index 1.31 is placed on a glass slab of refractive
index 1.5. If a ray of light passing from the glass slab to the ice has an angle of
incidence of 45° will the ray enter the ice? (14 ayeyawaddy)
Ans: 60° 51′ (the ray will enter the ice)
28.The path of a ray of light through one corner of a block of ice is shown below.
Find the refractive index of ice and critical angle of ice. Determine whether the
ray will emerged from the ice block. (14 kachin)
Ans: n = 1.432, A 20° air B
= 44° 18′ 131° ice
(the ray will not emerge)

29. Consider a photon of light that travels a distance of 3m in 10ns. (1ns = 10 s)

in air (OQ) and a distance of m in the same interval of time (i.e. 10ns) in X
.
medium (NP); find the critical angle of X. (02 mon)
Ans: n = 1.35, = 47° 48′
30.The speed of light in air is 3× 10 . Calculate the velocity of light in

diamond of refractive index 2.42. Calculate the wavelength of the light (i) in air
(ii) in diamond if the frequency of the light is 6.0× 10 Hz. (09 magway)
Ans: v = 1.24× , = 5× , = 2.067×
31.When a ray of light is incident on the surface of glass slab, both reflection and
refraction of light take place. If the angle of incidence of the ray is 60° and the
refractive index of glass is 1.6, find the angle of refraction and the angle
between the refracted ray and the reflected ray. (14 magway)
Ans: r = 32° 46′, = 87° 14′
refractive index of glass is 1.6, find the angle of refraction and the angle
between the refracted ray and the reflected ray. (14 bago)
Ans: r = 21°, = 124°
refraction of light take place. If the angle between the incident ray and the
reflected ray is 60° and the refractive index of glass is 1.66, find the angle
between the refracted ray and the reflected ray. (13 foreign)
Ans: r = 17° 32′, = 132° 28′
angle between the refracted ray and the reflected ray is 130°, find the refractive
index of glass. (11 ygn)
Ans: 1.462

35.A beam of photons is incident on the surface of a slab of material ‘X’ making
an angle of incidence 37°. Both reflection and refraction of light take place. If
the angle between the reflected ray and the refracted ray is123°, find the
refractive index of ‘X’. Draw a ray diagram to illustrate your answer. What is
the critical angle of medium ‘X’? (14 sagaing)
Ans: n = 1.759, = 34° 39′
36.If the refractive index of glass is 1.6 and the angle of prism is 60°, find the
angle of minimum deviation. (13 mon)
Ans: 46° 18′
37.The angle of a glass prism is 60° and the angle of minimum deviation is 39°.
Find the refractive index of glass. (11 mdy)
Ans:1.521
38.A ray of light in air enters a prism, having an angle of 60°, from one surface and
emerges into air from the other surface. If the emergent ray lies in the surface of
the prism, find the angle of incidence. (The refractive index of prism is 1.6)
Ans: 35° 34′ (12 ayeyawady)
39.A ray of light in air enters a prism, having an angle of 60°, from one surface and
emerges into air from the other surface. If the emergent ray lies in the surface of
the prism, find the angle of incidence. (The refractive index of prism is 1.51)
Ans: 28° 41′ (11 sagaing)
40.A ray of light in air is incident on the surface of a glass slab 3 cm thick at an
angle of 45°. It emerges from the slab and travels into the air from the other side
of the glass slab. If the refractive index of the glass is 1.52, find the lateral
displacement between the incident ray and the emergent ray. (13 rakhine)
Ans: 1.0065 cm

Chapter – 6
Refraction, Diffraction and Interference of Light
 Lens
A lens is a transparent material which can converge or diverge the rays of light.
A lens has at least one curved surface.
-e ခြက္ -x ခုးံ
 Two Type of Lens
(i) Convex lens (converging lens)
(ii) Concave lens (diverging lens)
 Convex Lenses (Converging Lenses)

A convex lens is a lens which can converge the rays of light.
A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges.
bi-convex (convex lens) plano-convex converging meniscus
 Concave Lenses (Diverging Lenses)
bi-concave (concave lens) plano-concave diverging meniscus
 Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass is a convex lens of short focal length.

 Principal Axis of a Lens

The line joining the centres of curvature of two surfaces of a lens is called the
principal axis of a lens.
 Centre of a Lens (P)

A point in the middle of a lens on the principal axis is called the centre of a
lens.
 Principal Focus of A Convex Lens (F)

The rays parallel to the principal axis are converge at a point on the principal
axis after passing through a convex lens. This point is called the principal focus
of convex lens. (It is a real focus.)
ထူရင္ စုတယ္
P F
 Principal Focus of A Concave Lens (F)

The rays parallel to the principal axis are divergent after passing through a
concave lens. Those divergent rays appear to come from a point on the principal
axis. This point is called the principal focus of concave lens.
(It is a virtual focus.) ပါးရင္ ကားတယ္
F P
 Focal Length of Convex / Concave Lens (f)

The distance between the centre and the focus of convex / concave lens is called
the focal length of convex / concave lens.

 Real Image
An image formed by the convergence of real rays of light and which can be
displayed on the screen.
 Virtual Image
An image formed by the apparent convergence of virtual (non- real) rays of
light and which cannot be displayed on a screen.
 Three Principal Rays for the Lenses
Convex Lens Concave Lens

(i) The rays parallel to the principal (i) The rays parallel to the principal
axis passes through F axis appears to come from F
2F F P F 2F 2F F P F 2F
* အျပိဳင္လာရင္ F ကို ျဖတ္
(ii) The ray passing through F emerges (ii) The ray towards F on the other side
parallel to principal axis emerges parallel to principal axis
* F ကို ျဖတ္ရင္ အျပိဳင္ျပန္
(iii) The ray passing through the centre (iii) The ray passing through the centre
emerges in the same direction emerges in the same direction
* P ကို ျဖတ္ရင္ ဒီအတိင

ု း္ သြား

 Object is Placed at Different Positions on the Convex Lens
(at infinity)
(beyond 2F) (at 2F) (bet: 2F and F) (at F) (bet: F and P)
∞
2F F P
 Formation of Images by a Convex Lens
(i) At infinity
When the object is at infinity,
the image is
(1) at F I
(2) real 2F F P F 2F
(3) inverted I
(4) smaller than the object
(ii) Beyond 2F
When the object is beyond 2F,
the image is O
(1) between F and 2F O I
(3) inverted I
(iii) At 2F
When the object is at 2F,
the image is O
(1) at 2F O I
(3) inverted
(4) same size as the object I

(iv) Between 2F and F

When the object is between 2F and F,
the image is O
(1) beyond 2F O I
(3) inverted
(4) larger than the object I
(v) At F
When the object is at F,
the image is O
(1) at infinity O
2F F P F 2F
(vi) Between F and P I

When the object is between F and P,
the image is O
(1) behind the object I O
(2) virtual 2F F P F 2F
(3) erect
(4) larger than the object
(vii) Concave Lens
the image is O
(1) on the same side as the object O I
(2) virtual 2F FI P F 2F
(3) erect

 Brief about the Rays Diagrams

When the object is ----------- ,
the image is
(1) infinity F
beyond 2F between 2F and F
2F 2F
(2) real inverted

virtual erect
(3) 2F ကို ဗဟိုယခ

ူ ါ size တြက္သည္။
(convex အတြက္ object ကို 2F တြင္ထားလွ်င္ same size ေပၚခါ ထို object သည္ 2F
မွာ့ lens သို.နီးလာေလ size ပိုျကီးေလျဖစ္ျပီး ေ၀းေလ size ပိုေသးေလျဖစ္သည္။)
(concave တြင္ image သည္ object ထက္ေသးသည္။)
(OO = height (size) of the object, II = height (size) of the image)
 Sign Conventions for Lens
Convex Concave Real Virtual

f/P + − v + −
u / OO + + II /m − +
 Lens Formula
O
O u
2F F f P F 2F I
v I
(i) + =
(ii) = ( n -1) ( ) (Lens-maker’s equation)

u = object distance, v = image distance, f = focal length
R = radius of curvature, n = refractive index of medium

 Power of a Lens (P)

The power of a lens is inversely proportional to its focal length.
P= (or)
( ) ( )
 One Dioptre (1D)

If a lens has a focal length 1m it has a power 1 dioptre.
 Magnification (m)
The linear magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of
the object.
m= (or) −
 Refraction
Refraction is the deviation of waves when they cross the boundary between two
different media and there is a change in both the wavelength and speed.
 Diffraction
Diffraction is the deviation of waves (electromagnetic waves, x-rays, water
waves, sound waves) in a single medium by a narrow aperture or obstacle and
there is no change wavelength or speed.
 Interference
When two beams of light across each other, modification of intensity obtained
by superposition of two or more beams of light is called interference.
 Thin Lens
A lens whose thickness is negligible compared to the distance to the principal
focus and any object or image distance.

 Refraction at a curved surface

θ A
θ
l
O α β γ I
n V n C
R
u v
From Snell’s Law, 1n 2 =
=
n sin θ = n sin θ
Since the angles are small,
sin θ ≈ θ and sin θ ≈ θ
n θ = n θ
In ∆OAC, θ = α + β and In ∆IAC, β = θ + γ ( = - )

n (α + β) = n (β - γ)
n α+n β = n β - n γ
n α+n γ = n β - n β
n α + n γ = β (n - n )
But α = tan α , β = tan β , γ = tan γ

Then, α = , β= , γ=
l l
(n × ) + (n × ) = × (n - n )
u v
n1 n2 ( )
+ =
u v
If the first medium is air, n = 1. Let n = n.

( )
+ =

Note:
 A lens has at least one curved surface.

 The radii of curvature of two surfaces of a lens may not equal. If the radii of
two surfaces of a lens are equal the lens is said to be symmetric.
 A convex lens can be used as a magnifying glass because it can form a virtual
image larger than object.
 u, v, f are measured from the lens.
 A convex lens can form both real and virtual images.
 A concave lens can form only virtual image smaller than the object.
 A real image is formed on the opposite side of the object.
 A virtual image is formed on the same side of the object.
 A convex lens is used in telescope, spectacles, camera, microscope, slide
projector and photograph enlarger.
 A concave lens is used in telescope and spectacles.
 If the surface is convex toward the object, R is positive (+).
 If the surface is concave toward the object, R is negative (-)
Differences between Real and Virtual Images
Real image Virtual image

(1) Real image is inverted. (1) Virtual image is erect.
(2) Real image can be formed (2) Virtual image cannot be formed on
on a screen. a screen.
(3) Real image is formed by the (3) Virtual image is formed by the reflected
reflected rays or refracted rays rays or refracted rays that appear to come
that actually pass through it. from it but do not actually pass through it.
Distinguish between Convex Lens and Concave Lens
Convex lens Concave lens

(1) It converges the rays of light. (1) It diverges the rays of light.
(2) It is thicker in the middle than (2) It is thinner in the middle than
at the edges. at the edges.
(3) It can produce both real and (3) It can produce only virtual image.
virtual images.

Short Question!
1. Determine the nature of the images formed in the mirrors and the lens for the
magnifications given below.
(a) magnification is between -1 and 0
(b) magnification is between 0 and +1
(c) magnification is greater than 1.
- (a) The image is real, inverted and smaller than the object.
(b) The image is virtual, erect and smaller than the object.
(c) The image is virtual, erect and larger than the object.
2. Can reflection and refraction take place at the same time?

- Yes, reflection and refraction can take place at the same time.
3. The concave lens cannot be used as magnifying glass? Why?

- Concave lens cannot be used as magnifying glass because it always gives a
smaller virtual image.
4. When a lens is immersed in water, does its focal length change?

- When a lens is immersed in water, its relative refractive index become smaller
and its focal length increases.
5. How does an increase in the index of refraction affect the focal length of the
lens?
- If the index of refraction increases, the focal length of the lens will be shorter.
6. What is the major difference between real and virtual image?

- The real image can be formed on a screen and the virtual image cannot be
formed on a screen.

1. How far must the object be placed from a concave lens of focal length 20cm to
obtain an image 4cm from the lens? (10 sagaing)
Ans: +5cm
2. How far must the object be placed from a concave lens of focal length 10cm to
obtain an image 4cm from the lens? Is the image real or virtual? (11 rakhine)
Ans: +6.67cm / the image is virtual
3. The virtual image of an object is formed 40cm from the lens of focal length
10cm. Find the distance between the object and the lens? (11 ygn)
Ans: +8cm
4. An object is placed 20cm from the concave lens of focal length 10cm. Find the
position of its image. Is the image real or virtual? (09 mdy)
Ans: - 6.67cm / the image is virtual
5. The virtual image of an object is 10cm from the lens is formed on the same side
as the object. If the image is 10cm from the object, find the focal length of the
lens. (07 ygn)
Ans: +20cm (convex lens)
6. A magnifying glass of focal length 9cm is used to produce an image which is

three times the size of an object. How far must the magnifying glass be placed
from the object? Ans: +3cm (14 ygn)
7. An image which is five times the size of the object is formed on the wall by a
convex lens of focal length 10cm. How far is the object from the lens? How far
is the wall from the lens? (14 bago)
Ans: +12cm/ +60cm (real image)
8. How far should a magnifying glass of focal length 10cm be held from an object
to produce an erect image three times larger? (08 ayeyawady)
Ans: +6.67cm

9. An image of an object is formed 5cm from a concave lens of focal length10cm.

Find the object position and magnification. (09 chinn)
Ans: +10cm / +0.5 (virtual image)
10.An object is placed 12cm from a concave lens of focal length 6cm. Find the
position of its image and the magnification. Is the image inverted or erect?
Ans: -4cm / +0.33 / the image is erect (14 mon)
11. An object 3cm tall is 30cm from a concave lens of focal length 10cm. Find the
image distance and the size of its image. (14 foreign)
Ans: -7.5cm / +0.75cm
12.An object 3cm tall is 45cm from a concave lens of focal length 15cm. Find the
image distance and the size of its image. (11 ayeyawady)
Ans: +22.5cm / -1.5cm
13.When a pencil 10cm long is placed vertically 100cm from the lens of focal
length +50cm, find the image position and size of the image. (11 mdy)
Ans: +100cm / -10cm
14.An object is placed 10cm from a concave lens of focal length 20cm. Find the
power of the lens and position of its image. (13 magway)
Ans: -6.67cm / -5D
15.An object is 30cm from a lens and its image is formed 12cm on the same side as
the object from the lens. Find the type of the lens and its focal length. (13 mon)
Ans: -20cm / -5D / it is a concave lens
16.An object is 40cm from a lens and its image is formed 20cm on the same side as
the object from the lens. Find the power of the lens. (12 magway)
Ans: -40cm / -2.5D
17.If the power of a lens is -4D, what is its focal length? Is it concave lens or
convex lens? Ans: -25cm / it is a concave lens (09 foreign)

18.The image of an object which is 8cm from a lens is formed on the same side as
the object. If the image is 8cm from the object, find the type of the lens and its
focal length. Also find the power of the lens. (16 local)
Ans: +16cm / convex lens / +6.25D
19.An image which is five times the size of an object is to be produce by a convex
lens of power +5D on the same side as the object. How far should the object be
placed from the lens? (15 foreign)
Ans: +20cm / + 16cm
20.An image which is four times the size of an object is formed on the wall by a
lens of focal length 20cm. How far should the object be placed from the lens?
How far is the wall from the lens? (14 shan)
Ans: +25cm / +100cm
21.The virtual image of an object is formed 24cm from a lens of focal length 8cm.
(i) Find the distance between the object and the lens.
(ii) How far must the object be placed from the lens to obtain a real image of
the same size as the virtual image obtained previously? (13 ygn)
Ans: +6cm, +10cm
22.When an object is placed 12cm from a convex lens a real image formed is three
times the size of the object. If a real image which is nine times the size of the
object is required, how far must the object be moved? (14 magway)
Ans: +2cm
23.An object 4cm tall is 24cm from a convex lens of focal length 12cm. Find the
image distance and the size of its image. If the object is moved 6cm closer to
the lens, how far does the image moved? (10 bago)
Ans: +12cm
24.A student bought a lens whose power is +5D. He then performs an experiment
using this lens by placing an object at a distance “u” from the lens. He finds that
an image is formed at a distance 60cm from the lens on the other side of the
lens. What is the magnification of the lens? Keeping the object distance the

same he repeats the experiment with a lens whose power is -5D, find the image
position. Ans: -2 / -12cm (02 shan)
25.An object is placed 32cm from a screen. Where must a lens of focal length 6cm
be placed between the screen and the object to produce an image on the screen?
Ans: +8cm (or) +24cm (16 foreign)
26.An object is placed 60cm in front of a screen. Is it possible to obtain a sharp

image larger than the size of an object on the screen by placing a convex lens of
focal length 15cm somewhere between the screen and the object? Answer this
by doing the necessary calculation. What changes can occur when the object
and the screen are interchanged. (14 bago)
Ans: -1(it is impossible) / changes cannot occur because u = v = 30cm
27.An object is placed 18cm in front of a screen. Is it possible to obtain a sharp

image larger than the size of an object on the screen by placing a convex lens of
focal length 4cm somewhere between the screen and the object? Answer this by
doing the necessary calculation. What changes can occur when the object and
the screen are interchanged. (10 kachin)
Ans: +6cm (or) +12cm / -2 (v = +12cm) / it is possible
28.An object 1.08cm tall is 80cm away from the screen and the size of its image on
the screen is 0.36cm. Find the position and focal length of the lens. What
changes can occur when the object and the screen are interchanged? (08 mdy)
Ans: +60cm / +20cm / +15cm / -3.24cm / the size of image will be larger
29.Determine the nature of the image formed by a lens for the magnification -1.
What is the type of lens? An object 0.4cm tall is 80cm away from the screen
and the size of its image on the screen is 1.2cm. Find the position and focal
length of the lens. Ans: +20cm / +60cm / +15cm (14 ayeyawady)
30.An object is 1.5cm tall is 18cm away from the screen and the size of its image
on the screen is 0.75cm. Find the position, focal length and type of the lens.
Ans: +12cm / +6cm /+4cm (14 foreign)




Chapter – 7
The Electric Field
 Electric Charges
There are two kinds of electric charges, positive charge and negative charge.
eg. positive charge (+q, +Q) and negative charge (-q,-Q)
 Nature of Electric Charges

Like charges repel one another.
Unlike charges attract one another.
 Structure of an Atom
An atom contains a nucleus at its centre. The electrons move around the nucleus
in the allowed orbits. A nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
- An electron has a negative charge. (q = e = -1.6 × 10 C)
- A proton has a positive charge. (q = +1.6 × 10 C)
- A neutron has no charge. (q = 0)
- A nucleus has a positive charge.
- A normal atom has no charge. (electrically neutral)
- An electron and a proton have equal magnitude of electric charge.
- = mass of electron, = mass of proton, = mass of neutron
= 9.1× 10 kg nucleus
= 1840 electron
≈ Atom
 Conductors
Materials which have plenty of free electrons and very low electrical resistance
are called conductors.
eg Metals (gold, silver copper, iron, aluminium, etc.,) are conductors.

 Insulators
Materials which have no or very few free electrons and very high electrical
resistance are called insulators.
eg Non-metals (glass, wax, quartz, etc.,) are insulators.
 Four Fundamental Forces

Four fundamental forces are gravitational force, weak interaction,
electromagnetic force and nuclear force.
* Gravitational force and electromagnetic force are the long range forces.
Weak interaction and nuclear force are the short range forces.
 Coulomb’s Law
The electric force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
F=K
F = electric force, K = constant, and = electric charges,
r = distance between two charges
 Newton’s Gravitational Law

F=G
F= gravitational force, G = gravitational constant, and = masses
r = distance between two masses
 The Value of the Constant (K)

The value of the constant (K) depends on the nature of the medium in which the
charges are located.
K= = 9× N (charges are in vacuum)
= permittivity of vacuum = 8.85×
K= (charges are in a medium)
= permittivity of the medium

 Direction of Electric Forces between Two Charges

F F
F F
F F
 Inverse Square Law

The electric force between two charges is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. Coulomb’s law is an inverse square law.
F ∝
F = K
Fr = K
=
 Electric Field
An electric field is a region where electrical forces act.
 Electric Field Intensity ( )

The electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is the electric force
acting upon a unit positive charge placed at that point.
= electric field intensity, = electric force, q = electric charge
 Calculation of Electric Field Intensity from Coulomb’s Law

Q q F
r
the charge +q is in the electric field of +Q
the electric force on +q, F= K
E=
the electric force on +1C, E= K

the direction of E is away from the charge +Q

 Electric Field Intensity (using Coulomb’s Law)

The electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is directly proportional
to the charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the point and the charge.
E= K
E = electric field intensity, Q = electric charge, r = distance, K = constant
 Resultant Electric Field Intensity at a Point

If E , E , E , … are the electric field intensities at a point,
the resultant (total) electric field intensity E is
= + + +…
 Electric Line of Force

An electric line of force is a path such that the tangent drawn at any point on it,
indicates the direction of electric field at that point.
E tangent
tangent B E
A
electric line of force
 Electric Line of Force around the charges

(a) Electric line of force around (b) Electric line of force around
a single positive a charge a single negative a charge
+Q -Q

(c) Electric lines of force around (d) Electric lines of force around
two opposite charges two equal charges
 Lightning Conductor
A lightning conductor is a metal rod which is used to prevent the buildings from
the lightning discharge. Copper rods are used as lightning conductors because
copper has higher conductivity.
 The use of Lightning Conductor

- A lightning conductor is fixed to the outside wall of a building.
- The pointed end reaches above the highest part of the building.
- The other end is connected to the copper plate buried in the earth.
- A thunder cloud may contain both positive and negative charges of particles of
water.
- When the thundercloud passes over the building, it induces an opposite charge
in the lightning conductor.
- The charge is concentrated at the pointed end and it leaks of gradually and
neutralizes the charge in the cloud.
- In this way, the lightning discharge can be prevented.
- If the lightning occurs the electric discharge passes to the earth through the
lightning conductor harmlessly.
- Therefore, the lightning does not strike the building.
negatively charged cloud
lightning conductor
copper plate

 Non-uniform Electric Field

The electric field intensity varies from point to point in the electric field around
a charge. Such an electric field is called a non-uniform electric field.
a region of low electric field
a region of high electric field
 Uniform Electric Field

If the electric field intensity at every point in a certain region of space is the
same in magnitude and direction, the electric field in that region of space is
called a uniform electric field.
 Uniform Electric Field between Two Parallel Metal Plates

The electric field between two parallel metal plates having opposite charges of
equal magnitude is a uniform electric field.
+Q E -Q


1 F Coulomb force lb dyne N
2 Q/q Electric charge C (coulomb)
3 ε Permittivity C N m
4 E Electric field intensity NC
5 r Distance ft cm m
6 K Coulomb’s constant Nm C
Note: (Calculation)
 Coulomb’s Law
F=K (K = ) (for vacuum)
F=K (K = ) (for other medium)
 Inverse Square Law

F r = F r
 Compare Gravitational and Electrical Forces
 Electric Field Intensity

E=
E= K

 F (midway)
* r တန္ဖိုး တစ္၀က္ျဖင့္တက
ြ ပ
္ ါ။
F ကိုရွာပါ။ (direction ေရး)
F ကိုရွာပါ။ (direction ေရး)
Resultant F = F +F
Magnitude F = see (F / F ) directions [ တူ (+) / မတူ (−) ]
 E (midway)
* r တန္ဖိုး တစ္၀က္ျဖင့္တက
ြ ပ
္ ါ။
E ကိုရွာပါ။ (direction ေရး)
E ကိုရွာပါ။ (direction ေရး)
Resultant E = E +E
Magnitude E = see (E / E ) directions [ တူ (+) / မတူ (−) ]
 E=0
မ်ိုးတူ အတြင္း
မ်ိုးမတူ အျပင္
* နည္းတဲ့အနားကပ္
E = E (x တန္ဖိုးရွာပါ။)
* လွ်ပ္စစ္စက္ကြင္းျပင္းအား (E) ၏ direction ရွာလိုေသာအမွတ္တြင္၊ လွ်ပ္စစ္ဖို (+1C) ကို
စိတ္ကးူ ျဖင့္ထားျကည့္ပါ။ ၄င္း လွ်ပ္စစ္ဖိုေရြ.သည့္ ဘက္သည္ (E) ၏ direction ျဖစ္သည္။
 Electric Potential (Chapter 8)

V = Ed
V = ×
 Linear Motion (Grade 9)

v = v + at
v = v + 2as
s = v t + at

Note:
 The electrical forces bind electrons and nuclei to form atoms. These forces hold
atoms to form molecules, liquids and solids.
 There is an electric field around (in the vicinity of) the electric charges.
 The electric field intensity is a vector quantity.
 The concept of electric lines of force is used to visualize an electric field.
 Electric lines of force do not really exist. They are only imaginary lines.
 Electric lines of force are perpendicular to the surface of charged body.
 Electric lines of force do not intersect one another. If they intersect, the point of
intersection will have two directions of electric field intensity. The electric field
intensity at a point has only one direction. Therefore, they do not intersect.
 When a charge is given to a conducting object of any shape, the charges are
distributed only on the outer surface of the object.
 When a charge is given to a hollow metal sphere, the charges are uniformly
distributed only on the outer surface of the sphere.
 The more curved parts of the object have the greater concentration of charge
than the less curved parts.
 The greatest concentration of charge appears at the pointed portion of the
object.
 The electric field exists only outside the charged conducting object.
 There is no electric field inside a charged conductor.
 The electric field is zero inside a charged conducting object of any shape.
 The electric lines of force which represent the non-uniform electric field are not
parallel. They have different directions.
 The electric field around a positive or negative charge is a non-uniform electric
field.
 The electric lines of force which represent a uniform electric field are parallel.
They have the same direction. They are equally spaced and they have the same
length.
 A thundercloud contains both positive and negative charges.
 The electric field intensity is zero at infinity from a charge.
 The electric field intensity is zero at mid-point between two equal charges.
 The earth is a good conductor of electricity.

Similarity between Newton’s Gravitational Law and Coulomb’s Law

Both laws are (1) inverse square laws
(2) universal laws and
(3) laws for long-range forces.
Difference between Newton’s Gravitational Law and Coulomb’s Law

Newton’s Gravitational Law Coulomb’s Law
- For attractive force only. - For both attractive force and

repulsive force.
- For the force between two masses. - For the force between two charges.
- The force does not depend on the - The force depends on the nature
nature of medium. of medium.
- For object of any size. - For point charges only.
Difference between the electric lines of force which represent non-uniform

electric field and those which represent a uniform electric field
Electric lines of force for Electric lines of force for
non-uniform electric field uniform electric field
- The electric lines of force are not - The electric lines of force are
parallel and not equally spaced. parallel and equally spaced.
- They have different directions. - They have same directions.

Short Question!
1. What does the value of variation constant of Coulomb’s law depend upon?
(OR) What factors does the constant ‘K’ depend?
- The value of variation constant of Coulomb’s law depends upon
(1) the units of F, Q , Q and r
(2) the nature of medium in which the charges are located.
2. Why Coulomb’s law is also called an inverse square law?

- The force (F) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance ( )
therefore Coulomb’s law is also called an inverse square law.
3. What is Coulomb’s also called? What law does it remind you of?
- Coulomb’s law is also called an inverse square law.
- Coulomb’s law reminds me of Newton’s gravitational law.
4. How many fundamental forces are there? Which forces are long-range forces
and which are short-range forces? Which is the strongest?
- There are four fundamental forces.
- They are (i) gravitational force (ii) weak interaction (iii) electromagnetic force
and (iv) nuclear force.
- Gravitational force and electromagnetic force are long-range forces.
- Weak interaction and nuclear force are short-range forces.
- Nuclear force is the strongest.
5. Why don’t the electric lines of force intersect one another?

- The electric lines of force never intersect because the electric field intensity at
any point can have only one direction and only one electric line of force can
pass through that point.
6. Are electric lines of force real or imaginary lines? Do they intersect each other?
Where do they start and where do they end?
- Electric lines of force are imaginary lines.
- They do not intersect each other.
- They start from a positive charge and end on a negative charge.

7. An insulation rod has a positive charge at one end and a negative charge of the
same magnitude at the other. This rod is placed in a uniform electric field.
(i) How would the rod behave when the direction of the electric field is parallel
to the rod?
(ii) How would the rod behave when the direction of the electric field is
perpendicular to the rod?
Answer by drawing suitable diagrams.
E E F F
F F F F E E
F F
The force on = F = +qE

The force on = F = −qE
The net force on the rod is F = F + F = 0
Thus the rod will be stationary.
The two forces form a couple and the rod will be rotating. (clockwise or
anticlockwise depending on how the rod is placed)
8. Explain why the electric field intensity is zero everywhere inside a charged
sphere (conductor).
- The electric fields due to the individual charges of the surface of the charged
conductor all cancel out inside the conductor. Therefore the electric field
intensity is zero everywhere inside a charged sphere (conductor).
9. What is lightning conductor? Give two reasons why a lightning conductor is

made of copper rather than iron.
- Lightning conductor definition (see at note)
- A lightning conductor is made of copper rather than iron because
(i) the conductivity of copper is higher than that of iron.
(ii) copper cannot be magnetized easily like iron.

10. Why is the electric field intensity a vector quantity?

- The electric field intensity is measured by the force acting upon a unit positive
charge.
- Since the force is a vector quantity, the electric field intensity is also a vector
quantity.
11.When a plastic comb is run through dry hair for a long time the comb becomes
a charged body and attaches small pieces of paper, although the plastic comb is
negatively charged, the pieces of paper are initially uncharged. Explain why the
comb can attract the pieces of paper.
- The plastic comb is a negatively charged body.
- The pieces of paper is an uncharged body which means it has equal amount of
positive and negative charge.
- When the negatively charged plastic comb is placed near the pieces of paper,
the positive charges in the paper are induced by the negative charges in the
comb.
- Therefore the comb can attract the small pieces of paper.
12.Explain how it can prevent from lightning discharge when a charged cloud
passes over a building.
- See at note.
13.Explain the distribution of charges on a conductor and explain why a pointed

conducting rod is very useful as a lightning conductor.
- When a positive charge (+Q) is given to a hollow metal sphere, the charges
are uniformly distributed only on the outer surface of the sphere.
- When a charge is given to a conducting object of any shape, the charge is not
uniformly distributed.
- The more highly curved parts of the objects have greater concentration of
charge than the less curved parts.
- Charges are highly concentrated at the pointed portion of the object.
- The charge concentration at the pointed end is so large that some of the
charges leak off into the air.
- This makes a pointed rod very useful as a lightning conductor.

1. Find the force between two charges of 1C each that are 1m apart. (08 bago)
Ans: 9 × N
2. Find the force between two charges of -3 C and -2 C when they are 0.3m in
apart. (12 sagaing)
Ans: 0.6N
3. Find the force between two charges of 4 C each that are 1m apart.
Ans: 1N (07 ygn)
4. Calculate the values of two equal charges if they repel one another with a force
0.1N when situated 30cm apart in vacuum. (14 shan)
Ans: C
5. Calculate the values of two equal charges if they repel one another with a force
0.1N when situated 40cm apart in vacuum. (13 magway)
Ans: 1.333 × C
6. A positive charge of 4× 10 C exerts a force of attraction of 7.2N on a second

charge 0.1m away. What is the sign and magnitude of the second charge?
Ans: 2× C (the sign of second charge is negative) (14 kachin)
7. A positive charge of 5 C exerts a force of repulsion of 7.5N on a second

charge 0.3m away. What is the sign and magnitude of the second charge?
Ans: 1.5× C (the sign of second charge is positive) (12 mdy)
8. A hydrogen atom is composed of a proton and an electron at a distance of 5.3×

10 m from each other. The magnitude of the charge on each particle is 1.6 ×
10 C. Compute the attractive force between them. (14 rakhine)
(proton charge is +1.6× 10 C and electron charge is -1.6 × 10 C)
Ans: 8.2× N

9. Two metal spheres of same size, one with a charge +2× 10 C and the other
with a charge of -4× 10 C are 10cm apart. The two spheres are brought into
contact, and then separated again to 10cm. What is the force between them?
Ans: 0.9N (13 mdy)
10.To perform a process of charging by induction, a charged rod is placed near two
uncharged metal spheres of the same size which are initially in contact, then the
spheres are separated while the rod is still in position. They are found to attract
each other with a force of 18× 10 N when 10cm apart. How many electrons
moved from one sphere to the other during the process of charging by
induction? (e = 1.6× 10 C) (11 sagaing)
Ans: 8.84× electrons
11.How far apart are two electrons if the force each exerts on the other is equal to
the weight of an electron? (11 rakhine)
Ans: 5.032m
12.Calculate the values of two equal charges if they repel one another with a force
0.1N when situated 20cm apart in a liquid whose permittivity is 10 times that of
vacuum. (10 kachin)
Ans: 2.11× C
13.Two charges, +1× 10 C and -1× 10 C are 20cm apart. A particle carrying a
charge of +5× 10 C is located halfway between them. If all charges lies on
the straight line, find the force acting on the charge located halfway between
them. (14 foreign)
Ans: 9000N (towards )
14.Find the force on the centre charge ‘q’ in the figure shown below.
( =+4× 10 C , q = -5× 10 C , = +9× 10 C) (08 ygn)
Ans: 0N
F q F
2m 3m

15.Two charges of unknown magnitudes are observed to attract each other with a
force of 0.2N when they are 5cm apart. Find the attractive force when they are
10cm apart and 2.5cm apart. (11 kachin)
Ans: 0.8N
16.Two charges attract each other with a force of 4N when they are 0.4m apart.
When their separation is increased to 0.8m, what is the force between them
now? (08 sagaing)
Ans: 1N
17.An electron has a mass of 9.1× 10 kg and an electric charge of -1.6×

10 C. The gravitational force between two bodies of mass m and M, a
distance ‘d’ apart is F = G , where G = 6.6× 10 Nm kg .
Compare the gravitational and electrical forces between two electrons.
Ans: 2.372 × (14 ygn)
18.A proton has a mass of 1.67× 10 kg and an electric charge of +1.6× 10 C.

The gravitational force between two bodies of mass m and M, a distance ‘d’
apart is F = G , where G = 6.6× 10 Nm kg .
Compare the gravitational and electrical forces between two protons.
Ans: 7.99 × (10 magway)
19.What is the electric field intensity at a point 0.6m from a charge of +15 C?
Ans: 3.75× (11 kachin)
20.An electron is accelerated to 10 by an electric field. What is the

magnitude of the electric field intensity? The mass of electron is 9.1× 10 kg.
Ans: 5.6875× (14 ygn)
21.A body whose mass is 10 kg carries a charge +2× 10 C. If the body is

suspended in equilibrium at a point above the ground by an electric field, find
the magnitude of the electric field. (12 mon)
Ans: 5

22.A body whose mass is 0.001g carries a charge +2 C. If the body is suspended
in equilibrium at a point above the ground by an electric field, find the
magnitude and direction of the electric field. (12 ygn)
Ans: 5 ( the direction of is upward)
23.An electron of charge 1.6× 10 C is situated in a uniform electric field of

intensity 1.5× 10 NC . Find the force on the electron. Find the acceleration of
the electron. (mass of electron = 9.1× 10 kg) (14 mdy)
Ans: 2.4× N / 2.637×
24.A uranium nucleus has a charge of +92e. Find the electric field intensity at a
point 10 cm from the nucleus. Find the magnitude and direction of the force
on an electron placed at that point. (14 magway)
Ans: 1.325× / 2.12 × N (toward the nucleus)
25.An electron is accelerated by a uniform electric field from rest to a velocity of

10 ms . If the accelerating region is 0.1m long, find the magnitude of the
electric field. (mass of electron = 9.1× 10 kg) (14 ayeyawady)
Ans: 2.844 ×
26.An electron of charge 1.6× 10 C is situated in a uniform electric field of

intensity 1.2× 10 NC . Find the acceleration of the electron. How long does
the electron take to travel a distance 20mm from rest? (12 sagaing)
Ans: 2.11× / 1.37× s (mass of electron = 9.1× 10 kg)
27.If the magnitude of the electric field intensity at a point 5m from a charge +Q is
3× 10 NC , find the magnitude of charge +Q. Also find the magnitude of the
electric field intensity at a point 10m from charge +Q. (13 mon)
Ans: 8.333× C / 750
28.If the magnitude of the electric field intensity at a point 9m from a positive
charge is 2× 10 NC , find the magnitude of charge. Also find the magnitude
of the electric field intensity at a point 20m from that charge. (12 bago)
Ans: 18× C / 405

29.The electric field intensity 2cm from a certain charge has a magnitude of
10 NC . Find the value of electric field intensity is 1cm and 4cm from a
charge. (12 rakhine)
Ans: 4× / 2.5×
30.Two charges of +4 C and -5 C are 6m apart. Find the electric field intensity at
the point P midway between them. (13 magway)
Ans: 9× (towards )
31.Two charges of +9 C and +18 C are 2m apart. Where is the electric field
intensity midway between them? (13 shan)
Ans: 8.1× (towards )
32.Two charges of +2 C and -4 C are 8m apart. Find the electric field intensity at
the point P midway between them. (13 foreign)
Ans: 3.38× (towards )
33.Two charges of +2 C and +8 C are 3m apart. What is the electric field

intensity at a point 1m from +2 C between them? (08 sagaing)
Ans: 0
34.Two charges -16× 10 C and -4× 10 C are 2m apart. Where is the electric
field intensity in their vicinity equal to zero? (10 kachin)
Ans: 1.333m
35.Two charges -2× 10 C and -8× 10 C are 2m apart. Where is the electric
field intensity in their vicinity equal to zero? (12 magway)
Ans: 0.667m
36.Two charges -20× 10 C and +5× 10 C are 3m apart. Where is the electric
field intensity in their vicinity equal to zero? (15 foreign)
Ans: 3m

37.Two charges -2× 10 C and +8× 10 C are 1m apart. Where is the electric
field intensity in their vicinity equal to zero? (14 sagaing)
Ans: 1m
38.A uranium nucleus has a charge of +92e. Find the electric potential and
magnitude of electric field intensity at a point 3× 10 m from the nucleus.
(e = 1.6× 10 C) (13 rakhine)
Ans: +441.6V / 1.472×
39.A carbon nucleus has a charge of +6e. Find the electric potential and
magnitude of electric field intensity at a point 2× 10 m from the nucleus.
(e = 1.6× 10 C) (11 mdy)
Ans: +43.2V / 2.16×
40.A charge +1.6× 10 C lying between two parallel metal plates are 8cm apart
experiences a force of 0.5× 10 N. What is the potential difference between
the plates? (11 bago)
Ans: 2500V

Chapter – 8
Electric Potential
 Electric Potential Energy
Electric potential energy of a positive charge ‘q’ at a point in an electric field is
the work done in bringing that charge against the electric force from infinity to
that point.
 Electric Potential (V)

The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in bringing
a unit positive charge against the electric force from infinity to that point.
V=
V = electric potential, W = work done, q = electric charge
+Q +q F = qE ∞
B A
 Electric Potential Difference (V)

The electric potential difference between two points in an electric field is the
work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to another against
electric force.
= − (the electric potential difference between A and B)
+Q B A ∞
b
a
 1V (the Unit of Electric Potential Difference)

The electric potential difference between two points in an electric field is 1V if
the work done is 1J in bringing +1C from one point to another against electric
force.

 Electric Potential at a Point

The electric potential at a point due to a point charge +Q is given below.
V=K (or) V =
V = electric potential at a point, K = constant, Q = charge, r = distance
Q r V
 Electric Potential of the Body

A body with zero charge has zero electric potential. (Q = 0, V = 0)
A body with a positive charge has a positive electric potential. (Q = +, V = +)
A body with a negative charge has a negative electric potential. (Q = −, V = −)
 Direction of Motion of Electric Charge

A positive charge moves from a point of higher potential to a point of lower
potential.
A negative charge moves from a point of lower potential to a point of higher
potential.
metal plates
+Q −Q
+V −V
 The Path of the Charge and the Work Done

V = and V =
>
∴V > V
V = V − V (the electric potential difference between A and B)
V =[ ]−[ ]
= [ − ]

The work done does not depend on the path taken by the charge in moving it
from one point to another. It depends only on the electric potentials at the end
points A and B.
B
+Q 2
1
 Equipotential Surface
In an electric field the points at the same potential are usually represented by a
surface. Such a surface drawn through the points at the same potential is called
an equipotential surface.
electric lines of force
A
B
+Q
equipotential
surfaces
Fig:1 Equipotential surfaces Fig:2 Electric lines of force are perpendicular

to equipotential surfaces
 No Work Done in moving a Charge on the Equipotential Surface

The points on the equipotential surface have the same potentials.
V= (Potential difference between two points V = 0)
W=V q
W=0×q=0
Therefore, no work is done in moving a charge from one point to another on the
equipotential surfaces.

 Electric Potential of the Earth taken as Zero

The earth is a good conductor. The number of electrons gained or lost by the
earth is very small compared to the size of the earth. The net charge of the earth
does not change and its electric potential does not change. Therefore, the
electric potential of the earth can be taken as zero. (The electric potential of a
conductor connected to the earth is zero)
electron
electron
insulator
(a) earth (b)

(zero potential)
 Potential Difference between Two Parallel Charged Plates

A unit positive charge (+1C) is brought from the negative plate to the positive
plate.
W = Fd
W = E q d (∵ F = Eq) A B
W = E d (∵ q = +1C) (1)
V = +Q E −Q
W = Vq
W = V (∵ q = +1C) (2)
d
From (1) and (2)
V = Ed electric line of force
+Q E −Q
equipotential surfaces
Fig: Equipotential surfaces between two parallel plates


1 F Coulomb force lb dyne N
2 Q/q Electric charge C (coulomb)
3 W Electric potential energy ft-lb erg J (joule)
4 E Electric field intensity NC / Vm
5 r Distance ft cm m
6 V Electric potential V (volt)
Note: (Calculation)
 Electric Potential
V=
V= K (or) V = (Q လကၡဏာ ထည့္တြက္ပါ။)

V = Ed
 V=0
“ x ” တန္ဖိုး ၂ခါရွာ V =V −V
အတြင္းထား (−)ျခင္း V = [ − ]
အျပင္ထား (+)ျခင္း
V = 0 (* နည္းတဲ့အနားကပ္) Parallel Plate ပုစာၦ၏ အကြာအေ၀း
V +V =0 အားလံုးကို “d” ျဖင့္တြကပ
္ ါ။
V = −V
 V (midway)
V , V ကိုရွာ
V = V + V (လကၡဏာ ထည့္တြကပ
္ ါ။)

Note:
 Electrical potential (V) is a scalar because it is work done and the work done is
a scalar.
 Equipotential surfaces around a charge +Q are spherical surfaces centered about
+Q.
 Equipotential surface is perpendicular to the electric lines of force.
 The potential difference between two points on the equipotential surface is zero.
 The earth is a good conductor.
 The electric potential of a conductor connected to the earth is zero.
 The electric potential of the earth is zero.
 The electric potential at infinity from a charge is zero.
 The work done in moving a charge does not depend on the path taken by the
charge. It depends only on the electric potentials at the end points.
 The unit of volt (V) is the same as joule per coulomb (JC )
 The signs of Q and V are the same.
 In an equipotential surface, the charges are stationary.
 The surfaces of charged conductors of any shapes are equipotential surfaces.
Distinguish electric field intensity (E) and electric potential (V) at a point in an
electric field
Electric field intensity Electric potential
- The electric field intensity at - The electric potential at a point in an
a point in an electric field is the electric field is the work done in bringing
electric force acting upon a unit a unit positive charge against the electric
positive charge placed at that point. force from infinity to that point.
- It is a vector quantity. - It is a scalar quantity.
Show that 1 =1 .
1 NC = 1 NC =
= × = (∵ 1V = 1 JC )
= (∵ 1J = 1Nm) ∴1 = 1
×

Short Question!
1. (a) Why is electric potential a scalar quantity? What is its practical unit?
(b) Can electrons be themselves move from point of lower electric potential to a
point of higher electric potential?
(a) - Electric potential is the work done and the work done is a scalar quantity.
- Therefore, electric potential is a scalar.
- Its practical unit is the volt (V).
(b) - Yes, they move in the direction of electric force acting on them.
2. Explain how work is done in carrying a unit positive charge from a point of
higher electric potential to a point of lower electric potential and how work is
done in carrying a unit positive charge from a point of lower electric potential
to a point of higher electric potential.
- Work is done by the electric field in carrying a unit positive charge from a
point of higher electric potential to a point of lower electric potential.
- Work is done against electric field in carrying a unit positive charge from a
point of lower electric potential to a point of higher electric potential.
3. If the electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is zero, is the electric
potential at that point necessarily zero?
- No, the electric field intensity at a point midway between two equal charges is
zero.
- But the electric potential at that point is not zero.
4. Why can the earth be regarded as a body having zero electric potential?
Illustrate your answer by means of diagrams for a negatively charged body and
positively charged body connected to the earth.
- See at note (Electric Potential of the Earth taken as Zero )
5. Is the electric potential of the earth taken as zero? Why?

- See at note (Electric Potential of the Earth taken as Zero )
6. What is the sign of the electric potential at a point near a negative charge?
- The sign of the electric potential at a point near a negative charge is negative.

1. Find the electric potential at a point 3cm from a point charge of +6× 10 C.
(K = 9× 10 Nm C ) (11 sagaing)
Ans: +1800V
2. Find the electric potential at a point 4m from a point charge of −2× 10 C.

Ans: −4.5V (10 mon)
3. The electric potential difference between two parallel plates which are 0.5cm
apart is 500V. Find the force on an electron located between the plates.
(e = 1.6 × 10 C) (14 kachin)
Ans: 1.6× N
4. A charge +1× 10 C lying between two parallel metal plates which are 1cm
apart with a force of 10 N. What is the potential difference between them?
Ans: 1000V (13 mdy)
5. A neon nucleus has a charge of +10e. Find the electric potential at a point
10 cm from the nucleus. (e = 1.6 × 10 C) (12 ayeyawady)
Ans: +144V
6. A uranium nucleus has a charge of +92e. Find the electric potential at a point
10 m from the nucleus. (e = 1.6 × 10 C) (14 shan)
Ans: +1325V
7. A carbon nucleus has a charge of +6e. Find the electric potential and electric
field intensity at a point 10 cm from the nucleus. (e = 1.6 × 10 C)
Ans: +86.4V / 86.4 × (away from nucleus) (13 foreign)
8. What is the radius of an equipotential surface of 40V surrounding a point

charge of +1.5× 10 C? (12 ygn)
Ans: 0.3375m

9. What is the radius of an equipotential surface of 40V surrounding a point

charge of +2× 10 C? Find the electric field intensity at a point on that
equipotential surface. (13 sagaing)
Ans: 450m / 0.0889 (away from +Q)
10.Two parallel metal plates are 9.6cm apart. If the force on an electron between
the plates is 2× 10 N, what is the potential difference between them?
(e = 1.6 × 10 C) (13 ayeyawady)
Ans: 12000V
11.Two parallel metal plates are 6cm apart. If the force on an electron between the
plates is 2× 10 N, what is the potential difference between them?
Ans: 7500V (e = 1.6 × 10 C) (13 ygn)
12.A 6V battery is connected to two parallel metal plates. The electric field
intensity between the plates is 300V . How far are the plates apart? Find the
work done in carrying an electron from one plate to the other. (14 ygn)
Ans: 0.02m / 9.6 × J
13.A 6V battery is connected to two parallel metal plates. The electric field
intensity between the plates is 200V . How far are the plates apart? Find the
work done in carrying an electron from one plate to the other. (13 magway)
Ans: 0.03m / 9.6 × J
14.A 6V battery is connected to two parallel metal plates. The distance between
the plates is 2cm and the electric field intensity between them is 300V . If
an electron is placed on the negatively charged plate what is the velocity of the
electron when it strikes the positively charged plate? (16 local)
(e = 1.6 × 10 C , mass of an electron = 9.1 × 10 kg)
Ans: 1.453 ×
15.The electric potential and the magnitude of the electric field intensity at a point
at some distance from a point charges are 600V and 100NC . How far is the
point from the charge? Ans: 6m (10 shan)

16.The electric potential and magnitude of the electric field intensity at a point at
some distance from a point charge are 300V and 120NC respectively. How
far is the point from the charge? What is the magnitude of the charge?
Ans: 2.5m / 8.33× C (14 mdy)
17.The electric potential and magnitude of the electric field intensity at a point at
some distance from a point charge are 300V and 150NC respectively. How
far is the point from the charge? What is the magnitude of the charge?
Ans: 2m / 6.67× C (14 sagaing)
18.How much work is done in moving an electron from one point to another point
on an equipotential surface of 200V? (10 rakhine)
Ans: 0J
19.How much work is done in moving a charge of 1.6 × 10 C from one point
to another point on an equipotential surface of 200V? (09 rakhine)
Ans: 0J
20.Find the electric potential at a point 9m from a point charge of +4× 10 C.

What is the work done in bringing an electron from infinity to that point?
Ans: +40V / 6.4× J (11 magway)
21.If the points A and B are at distance of 0.6m and 1.2m respectively from the
charge +5× 10 C, find the electric potential difference between them.
Ans: +37500V (15 local)
22.If the points A and B are at distance of 0.4m and 1m respectively from the
charge +4× 10 C, find the electric potential difference between them.
Ans: +540V (14 foreign)
23.If the points A and B are at distance of 30cm and 90cm respectively from the
charge +91 C. How much work is done when the charge 1 C is brought from
B to A?
Ans: +1.82× V / 1.82 J (12 kachin)

24.Find the total electric potential at the point P in the diagram given below. The
value of q is +4× 10 C. (10 foreign)
Ans: 0.1697m q 12cm q
8121.4V
12cm 12cm
q 12cm P
25.Will the work be done in carrying a unit positive charge from one point to
another on an equipotential surface? Find the total electric potential at the point
P in the given diagram. The value of the charge q is +4× 10 C.
Ans: 0.05m q 4cm P (09 bago)
2.82× V
3cm 3cm
q 4cm q
26.Two point charges of +0.01 C and −0.15 C are 3m apart. Find the electric
potential midway between the two charges. (14 magway)
Ans: −840V
27.Two point charges of +4 nC and −3 nC are 2m apart. Find the electric potential
at point P midway between the two charges. (11 kachin)
Ans: +9V
28.Two point charges of +4× 10 C and −3× 10 C are 2m apart. Find the
electric potential at P midway between the two charges. Find the work done in
bringing a charge +3× 10 C from infinity to P. (15 foreign)
Ans: +90V / 2.7× J
29.Two point charges of +6× 10 C and −3× 10 C are 20cm apart. Find the
electric potential at P midway between the two charges. Find the work done in
bringing a charge +3.2× 10 C from infinity to P. (14 rakhine)
Ans: +2.7× V / 8.64× J

30.Two charges of +4× 10 C and −3× 10 C are 1m apart. Find the points on
the line joining the two charges where the electric potential equal to zero.
Ans: x = 0.57m (from ) / x = 3m (from ) (14 ayeyawady)
31.Two charges of +4× 10 C and −9× 10 C are 50cm apart. (a) Find the
point where the electric field intensity is zero. (b)Find the points on the line
joining the two charges where the electric potential equal to zero. (Text No.16)
Ans: = 1m (from ) / x = 0.346m (from ) / x = 0.4m (from )
32.An electron is accelerated by a uniform electric field from rest to a velocity of

10 ms . If the accelerating region is 0.2m long, find the magnitude of the
electric field. (mass of electron = 9.1× 10 kg) (Text No.20)
Ans: 14.21

Chapter – 9
Capacitance
 Capacitor
A capacitor is an electrical device that stores electrical energy in the form of an
electric field.
*Capacitors are used in radio, television, electric circuits and electrical
appliances.
 Capacitance (C)
The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge to the potential
difference between two conductors of that capacitor.
C=
C = capacitance of the capacitor, Q = charge of the capacitor,
V = potential difference of the capacitor
 1 Farad (1 F)
If the potential difference of the capacitor is 1 V when it is given a charge 1 C,
its capacitance is 1 CV or 1 F.
+
Symbol for a capacitor Symbol for a battery
 Electric Capacity of the Conductor

The amount of charge given to a conductor to change its potential by one unit is
called the electric capacity of the conductor.
 Parallel Plate Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor is the simplest capacitor. It consists of two parallel
metal plates separated by air or other insulating material. The plates of a
capacitor are connected to a battery. They have opposite charges of the same
magnitude.
Charging a parallel plate capacitor

capacitor
+Q −Q +Q −Q
battery
 Capacitance Formula for the Parallel Plate Capacitor
Surface Charge Density

The magnitude of the charge per unit area of the plate is called the surface
charge density.
σ = =
E =
ε = permittivity of insulating medium (dielectric), σ = surface charge density
E = d
E =
∴ = +Q dielectric Q
= ε
C = (∵ C = )
C = (∵ ε = κε ) V
( = 8.85× 10 C N m ) Fig: Effect of a dielectric between
the plates of a capacitor
E = electric field intensity between the plates,
V= potential difference, = dielectric constant,
d = distance between the plates

 Dielectric Constant ( )
The ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with an insulating material between
its two conductors to the capacitance of that capacitor with vacuum between its
two conductors is called the dielectric constant of that insulating material.
=
C = the capacitance of a capacitor with an insulating material
= the capacitance without an insulating material
= 1(vacuum) and > 1 (other media)
 Energy of a Capacitor
A capacitor stores electrical energy in the form of an electric field.
Before a capacitor is charged each of its conductors has no charge, and the
potential difference between two conductors is zero.
( charge = 0 and V =0)
When the capacitor is charged, the charge (Q) is transferred gradually from a
conductor at lower potential to a conductor at higher potential.
After charging capacitor,
( charge = Q and V =V)
Average potential difference, V = = =
Work has been done for the transfer of charge from a conductor at lower
potential to a conductor at higher potential.
If the work done for transferring charge of Q between the two conductors is
W = V Q (∵ V = )
W = VQ
This work done is electrical energy stored by the capacitor.
W = C V (∵ Q = CV)
W = (∵ V = )

 Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel there is a different amount of charge
deposited on its plates of each capacitor, but the potential difference is the same
across each of the parallel capacitors. The equivalent capacitance is equal to the
sum of the individual capacitance.
Three capacitors (having different capacitances) are connected in parallel.

All the capacitors have the same potential difference (V). But they carry
different amount of charges (Q).
Q C Parallel ဆို
V တူျပီး Q ကြဲသည္။ ူ
A Q C B
Q C
V
C =
C =
C =
If Q is the total charge on the three capacitors, then
Q = Q +Q +Q
Q = C V+C V+C V
Q = V(C +C +C )
= C +C +C (1)
C= (2)
From (1) and (2),
C= + +
If ‘n’ capacitors having capacitances C , C , C , . . . . . . , C and charges Q ,
Q , Q , . . . . . , Q , are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance ‘C’ is
C = + + +......+

 Capacitors in Series
When capacitors are connected in series each capacitor has the same charge on
its plates. The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of each capacitor.
A +Q -Q B +Q -Q C +Q -Q
C C C
V V V
V
C =
Series ဆို
C = Q တူျပီး V ကြဲသည္။
C =
the potential difference between A and D is
V = V + V +V
= + +
= + +
If ‘n’ capacitors having capacitances C , C , C , . . . . . . , C , are connected in
series, the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor ‘C’ is
= + + +........+


1 C Capacitance F (farad)
2 σ Surface charge density Cm
3 κ Dielectric constant - - -
4 ε Permittivity C N m
5 A Area ft cm m
6 d Distance ft cm m
SI Prefixes:
Symbol Prefix Factor Symbol Prefix Factor
Y yotta 10 y yocto 10
Z zetta 10 z zepto 10
E exa 10 a atto 10
P peta 10 f femto 10
T tera 10 p pico 10
G giga 10 n nano 10
M mega 10 μ micro 10
k kilo 10 m mili 10
h hecto 10 c centi 10
da deca 10 d deci 10

Note:
 Capacitors are used in radio, television, electric circuits and electrical
appliances.
 The capacitance depends on the shape and the size of capacitor and on the
nature of insulator between two conductors of a capacitor.
 Dielectric constant for air and vacuum is 1 and other medium is greater than 1.
 When the capacitors are connected in series each capacitor has the same charge
(Q) and different potential difference (V).
 When the capacitors are connected in parallel each capacitor has the same
potential difference (V) and different charge (Q).
 To increase capacitance, the capacitors must be connected in parallel.
 To decrease capacitance, the capacitors must be connected in series.
Question:
In an experiment with a capacitor, the charge which was stored was measured for
different values of charging potential difference. The results are tabulated below:
Charge stored (μC) 7.5 30 60 75 90
Potential difference (V) 1.0 4.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
(i) Plot a graph of charge stored in the Y-axis against potential difference on
X-axis.
(ii) Use the graph to calculate the capacitance of the capacitor used in the
experiment.
(i) 100
90
80
70 Z
Charge stored (Q)
60
50
40
30
X Y
20
10 Potential Difference (V)
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
(ii) From ∆ XYZ, C = = = = 7.5 μF

Short Question!
1. (a) What electrical device is a capacitor?
(b) When an insulating material is inserted between the conductors of a
capacitor in a vacuum, does its capacitance increase or decrease? Explain.
(a) A capacitor is an electrical device that stores electrical energy in the form of
an electric field.
(b) When an insulating material is inserted between the conductors of a
capacitor in a vacuum, its capacitance increases.
C = 8.85× 10
(k = 1 for vacuum and k > 1 for other insulating material)
2. (a) When the charge on a capacitor is increased, does its capacitance increase?
Explain.
(b) What must be done to increase the capacitance of a capacitor?
(a) When the charge on a capacitor is increased, its capacitance does not
change. When the charge is increased, the potential difference increases
proportionally. Therefore the capacitance of a capacitor is constant.
(b) C = 8.85× 10
- To increase the value of capacitance, the surface area (A) must be increased,
the distance between two plates (d) must be decreased and the insulating
material of greater dielectric constant (k) must be used.
3. What does the capacitance of a capacitor depend on?

- The capacitance of a capacitor depends on (i) the size and the shape of the
capacitor and (ii) the nature of the insulator between its two conductors.
4. What are the uses of capacitors?

- Capacitors are used in radio, televisions and other electrical appliances.
5. How much energy can be stored by a capacitor of capacitance (C) and potential
difference (V)?
- The stored energy, W = CV

6. When the distance between the two parallel plates of a capacitor is doubled, by
what percent does its capacitance change?
C = , C =
But d = 2d , =
= ×
∴C = C
= × 100 %
= 50 % will be reduced.
7. (a) Is there any kind of material that, when inserted between the plates of a
capacitor, reduces its capacitance?
(b) The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance C are moved apart to
double their original separation. What is the new capacitance?
(a) No. There is no such material.
(b) C = , C =
But d = 2d , =
= ×
∴C = C
8. (a) In which connection of capacitors has each capacitor the same charge?
(b) In which connection of the capacitors is the potential difference of each
capacitor the same?
(a) When the capacitors are connected in series, each capacitor has the same
charge.
(b) When the capacitors are connected in parallel, the potential difference of
each capacitor is the same.

9. If you want to get more capacitance, how do you connect the capacitors and less
capacitance, how do you connect the capacitors?
- To get more capacitance, capacitors are connected in parallel.
- To get less capacitance, capacitors are connected in series.
10.Why does the capacitance of a capacitor increase when an insulating material is

inserted between the plates?
- The capacitance of a capacitor increases because the dielectric constant of
insulating material is always greater than that of vacuum.
11.When the distance between the two parallel plates having the charges of equal
magnitude and opposite signs is reduced, what will happen to the potential
difference between the plates?
C = , C ∝ when ‘d’ is reduced, ‘C’ increases
C = , C ∝ when ‘C’ increases, ‘V’ decreases
12.The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance C are brought together to

a third of their original separation.
The capacitance is now (a) C (b) C (c) 3C (d) 9C. Why?
C= , C =
But d = d , =
= ×
∴C = 3C [ The correct answer is (c) 3 C ]
13.Express the sub – multiple units of farad are used for practical purpose.
Does a capacitor store electrical energy?
- The sub – multiple units of farad are
1 microfarad ( 10 F ) , 1 nanofarad ( 10 F ) and 1 picofarad ( 10 F)
- Yes, a capacitor stores electrical energy.

14. The parallel plate capacitor remains connected to a battery. Is the charge on the
plates increased or decreased when sheet of glass is substituted for the air
separating them?
If the dielectric constant for glass is 5, how many times does the capacitance
increase or decrease?
- The charge on the plates does not change.
- For air, k =1 , the capacitance is C = =
For glass, k = 5, the capacitance is C = =
C = 5C
- The capacitance is increased by 5 times.
15. What is the resultant capacitance when ‘n’ equal capacitors having capacitance
‘C’ are connected in parallel?
For capacitance in parallel,
C = C +C +C +......+C
C = nC
C = equivalent capacitor
C = capacitance of one capacitor
n = number of capacitors
16. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is increased 3 μF to 18 μF when a

sheet of glass is inserted between its plates? What is the dielectric constant of
glass?
C = 3 μF, C = 18 μF , κ = ?
κ = = = 6
17.What happens when the charge Q on a capacitor is increased?

When a charge Q is increased, the potential difference will increase but the
capacitance remains the same.

18. Derive the formula for the electrical energy store by a capacitor.
Average potential difference, V = = =
If the work done for transferring charge of Q between the two conductors is
W = V Q (∵ V = )
W = VQ
This work done is electrical energy stored by the capacitor.
W = C V (∵ Q = CV)
W = (∵ V = )
19. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is given the charge Q and then
disconnected from the circuit. How much work is required to pull apart the
plates of this capacitor to twice their original separation?
- Initial energy, W = and C =
- After separation, d = 2d and C = = =
- Final energy, W = and C =

- Required work = W – W
= ( )–( )
= ( – )
= ( – ) (∵ C = )
20. One plate of the capacitor carries a positive charge and the other is earthed.
Explain why the earthed plate carries a negative charge.
- The earthed plate carries a negative charge because the positive plate induces
the electrons from the earth.

1. When the distance between the two parallel plates of a capacitor is doubled, by
what percent does its capacitance change? (13 bago)
Ans: See at note.
2. (a) Is there any kind of material that, when inserted between the plates of a
capacitor, reduces its capacitance?
(b) The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance C are moved apart to
double their original separation. What is the new capacitance?
Ans: See at note.
3. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance C are brought together to

a third of their original separation. (12 shan)
The capacitance is now (a) C (b) C (c) 3C (d) 9C. Why?
Ans: See at note.
4. When a parallel –plate capacitor is connected to a 50V battery each plate

receives a charge of magnitude 0.002C. Find its capacitance. (example 1)
Ans: 0.4× F
5. A capacitor has a capacitance of 5μF. How much of the charge should be

removed in order that the potential difference between its plates decreases by
40V? (exercise 7)
Ans: 200 C
6. A 6V battery is connected to two parallel metal plates. The electric field

intensity between the plates is 200Vm . How far are the plates apart? Find the
work done in carrying an electron from one plate to another. (12 rakhine)
Ans: 0.03m / 9.6× J
7. What potential difference must be applied across an 8 μF capacitor if it is to

have an energy content of 1J? What is the charge on either plate?
Ans: 500V / 4× C (16 local)

8. When a parallel plate capacitor is connected to a 12V battery, each plate

acquires a charge of magnitude 0.0024C. Find its capacitance and the energy
store by this capacitor. If the capacitor is connected to 24V battery, will its
capacitance increase? Why? Is the charge still the same? (14 foreign)
Ans: 2× F / 0.0144J (No, the capacitance does not depend on
potential difference. Capacitance is constant.)
9. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 1m in area and 3mm apart. If the
dielectric constant of the material inserted between the plates is 6 and the
potential difference between them is 20,000V, find the capacitance of the
capacitor. (ε = 8.85× 10 C N m ) (10 ayeyawady)
Ans: 17.7× F
10.The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 4m in area and 5mm apart. If the
dielectric constant of the material inserted between the plates is 2, find the
capacitance of the capacitor. (ε = 8.85× 10 C N m ) (09 ygn)
Ans: 1.416× F
11.The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 40cm in area and 4mm apart. What
is it capacitance? When the capacitor is connected to a 24V battery, what is the
energy of the capacitor? (ε = 8.85× 10 C N m ) (16 foreign)
Ans: 8.85× F / 2.549× J
12.The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 2m in area and 0.4cm apart. If the
potential difference between the plates is 10000V and the dielectric constant of
the material inserted between them is 2, (i) the capacitance of the parallel plate
capacitor (ii) the magnitude of the charge on each plate (iii) the electric field
intensity between the plates and (iv) the energy stored by the capacitor?
(ε = 8.85× 10 C N m ) (13 foreign)
Ans: (i) 8.85× F / (ii) 8.85× C / (iii) 2.5× V /
(iv) 0.4425 J

13.The parallel plate capacitor remains connected to a battery. Is the charge on the
plates increased or decreased when sheet of glass is substituted for the air
separating them?
If the dielectric constant for glass is 5, how many times does the capacitance
increase or decrease? (06 magway)
Ans: See at note. (The capacitance increased by 5 times.)
14. How much energy can be stored by a capacitance of a capacitor C and potential
difference V? A parallel-plate capacitor has a capacitance of 10 μF when air is
between its plates and 60 μF when this space is filled with a sheet of glass. Find
the dielectric constant of glass. What potential difference must be applied
across a 10 μF capacitor if it is to have an energy content of 1J? (13 magway)
Ans: The stored energy, W = C / = 6 / 447.2V
15.If three capacitors having capacitances C , C , C and charges Q , Q , Q

respectively, are connected in parallel, derive the equivalent capacitance.
Ans: See at note. (10 kachin)
16.Find the capacitance that can be obtained by combination of three 10 μF

capacitors in series and in parallel? (10 foreign)
Ans: 3.33 F (in series) / 30 F (in parallel)
17.Find the equivalent capacitances when 6 μF and 12 μF capacitors are connected

in series and in parallel. (12 rakhine)
Ans: 4 F (in series) / 18 F (in parallel)
18. Three capacitors have capacitances of 3 μF, 10 μF and 15 μF. How should they
be connected to obtain the equivalent capacitances of 9 μF and 12.5 μF?
(14 sagaing)
19.Three capacitors have capacitances of 6 μF, 20 μF and 30 μF. How should they
be connected to obtain the equivalent capacitances of 4 μF, 18 μF and 25 μF?
(14 rakhine)

20. Find the capacitances that can be obtained by combining three 1 μF capacitors
in all possible ways. (13 mdy)
Ans: 3 F / 0.33 F / 0.67 F / 1.5 F
21.Three capacitors of capacitances 3 μF, 12 μFand 15 μF are connected in series

with 120V battery. What is the charge and the potential difference on each
capacitor? (15 local)
Ans: 2.07× F / 2.484× C / 82.8V / 20.7V / 16.56V
22.Three capacitors of capacitances 3 μF, 10 μFand 15 μF are connected in series

with 120V battery. What is the equivalent capacitance of this connection? What
is the charge and the potential difference on each capacitor? (13 shan)
Ans: 2× F / 2.4× C / 80V / 24V / 16 V
23. A 45 μF capacitor is needed, but only 10 μF capacitors are available. How

should a minimum number of 10 μF capacitors be connected so that the
combination has a capacitance of 45 μF? Explain. (15 foreign)
Ans: The minimum number of (10 F) capacitor is 5.
24. A 25 μF capacitor is needed, but only 10 μF capacitors are available. How

should a minimum number of 10 μF capacitors be connected so that the
combination has a capacitance of 25 μF? Explain. (13 mon)
Ans: The minimum number of (10 F) capacitor is 4.
25.If two capacitors having the capacitances of 4 μFand 12 μF are connected in

series, find the equivalent capacitance of the combination of the two capacitors.
If the potential difference of the combination is 100V, find the potential
difference of the 12 μF capacitor. Ans: 3 F / 300 C / 25V (14 mdy)
26. If two capacitors having the capacitances of 4 μFand 12 μF are connected in

series, find the equivalent capacitance of the combination of the two capacitors.
If the potential difference of the combination is 200V, find the potential
difference on each capacitor. (14 bago)
Ans: 3 F / 600 C / 150V / 50V

27. Capacitors C and C are in parallel and connected to another capacitor C in

series. The potential difference across the combination is given 240V.
If C = 1μF, C = 5μF and C = 6μF, find the potential difference and the charge
of each capacitor. (04 mon)
Ans: = 120V / = 120V / = 720 C / = 120 C / = 600 C
28. A capacitor having a capacitance of 4μF, and a charge of 2000μC is connected

in series with another capacitor whose capacitance 2μF and a charge of
1600μC. Find the potential differences of the individual capacitors before
connection and after connection. (13 rakhine)
Ans: = 500V and = 800V (before connection) /
= 433.3V and = 866.7V (after connection)
29. Derive the formula for the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor when three
capacitors are connected in series.
Derive the formula for the capacitance of the equivalent capacitor when three
capacitors are connected in parallel.
Ans: See at note.
30. The equivalent capacitance is 8 μF when ‘n’ identical capacitors are connected
in parallel and 0.5 μF when they are connected in series. Determine ‘n’.
Ans: 4 (09 mon)
31. The equivalent capacitance is 10 μF when ‘n’ identical capacitors are

connected in parallel and 0.4 μF when they are connected in series. Determine
‘n’. (05 ayeyawady)
Ans: 5
32. If the plates are 4mm apart and potential difference between them is 12000V,
find the electric field intensity between the plates. (09 kachin)
Ans: 3× V

33. In the arrangement of the capacitors shown below C = 3 μF, C = 5 μF, C =

8 μF, C = 4 μF and V = 320V. Find the resultant capacitance of the capacitors.
C (10 magway)
C C
C
V
Ans: 16 F / 3.2 F
34. In the electric circuit diagram C = 4 μF, C = 12 μF and C = 8 μF.

(a) Find the capacitance of the electric circuit.
(b) Find the charge on each capacitor.
(c) Find the potential difference of the C capacitor.
(d) Find the potential difference across the parallel combination.
C (exercise 22)
C
C
200V
Ans: (a) C = 5.33 F / (b) = 1066 C / = 266.52 C / = 799.2 C /
(c) 133.25V / (d) 66.63V
35. Find the equivalent capacitance between A and B of the arrangement of

capacitors shown below. (exercise 23)
A 5 μF
2 μF
2 μF 3 μF
6 μF
B 45 μF
Ans: 4.25 F

36. Find the equivalent capacitance between A and B of the arrangement of the
capacitors shown in the figure. (07 shan)
A 2 μF
2 μF 3 μF
3 μF
2 μF 3 μF
B
Ans: 1 F
37. Express the value of the equivalent capacitance C in terms of the capacitances
C , C and C . (04 shan)
C
C

Chapter – 10
Current and Electric Circuits
 Electric Current (Q: What is an electric current?)
An electric current is a flow of electrons from a place of lower potential to a
place of higher potential.
A B conductor
E A B
V >V
V current (I) V
V V
electron wire electron
Fig: Moving charges constitute the electric current
 Direction of Electric Current

The direction of current is opposite to the direction of motion of electrons. (It is
a convention.) The electrons move from a point of lower potential to a point of
higher potential. Therefore, the current flows from a point of higher potential to
a point of lower potential.
 Electric Current (I) (*Define electric current.)

An electric current is defined as the amount of charge passing through a cross-
sectional area of a conductor in one second.
I=
I = electric current, Q = electric charge, t = time taken
 Electron Current
The actual current in a circuit, it is a flow of electrons from a position of low
potential to one of high potential.
 Conventional Current
A flow of positive charges in a circuit from a position of high potential to one

of low potential.
 One Ampere (1A)

If the amount of charge 1C passes through a cross-sectional area of a conductor
in 1s, the electric current is 1A.
* 1 Cs is called 1 ampere (A) in honor of the French physicist, Andre Marie
Ampere.
 Electric Current and the Number of Electrons

Q = ne (or) I =
Q = total charge, n = number of electrons, e = magnitude of charge of electron
 Three Main Effects of Electric Current

When an electric current is passed through substances it can produce three main
effects.
(1) Heating effect (eg. electric iron, electric stove and fuse)
(2) Chemical effect (eg. charging battery, purifying metals, electroplating and
manufacture of aluminium by chemical method)
(3) Magnetic effect (eg. electromagnets, the electromagnets are used in the
electric bell, telephone and electric motor)
 Heating Effect
A small bulb glows when a battery is connected to it. As electric current flows
through a tungsten wire in the bulb the wire becomes hot and emits light. Thus,
a metal conductor produces heat energy when a current passes through it.
Practical application of the heating effect of current is utilized in electrical
application such as electric stove, electric iron and immersion heater.

 Chemical Effect
When a current is passed through copper sulphate solution with copper plates A
and C dipping into it, some copper is seen deposited on the plate C (negative
plate) after some time. Electric current produces chemical effect. The chemical
effect of current is used in charging batteries, purifying metals, electroplating
and in the manufacture of aluminium by chemical methods.
 Magnetic Effect
When a current flows through a coil of insulated wire which is wound round a
bar of soft iron, the bar becomes a magnet and attracts steel pins. The electric
current produces magnetic effect. The magnetic effect of current is used in
electromagnets. Electromagnets are used in electrical devices such as electric
bell, telephone and electric motor.
 Ohm’s Law
If a conductor is kept at a constant temperature, the current flowing through it,
is directly proportional to the potential difference between its ends.
I∝V (or) V = IR
V = potential difference, I = electric current, R = resistance of conductor
conductor I R
I R
R
V V t
I – V graph R – t graph

 Resistance (using Ohm’s Law)

If a conductor is kept at a constant temperature, the ratio of the potential
difference between its ends to the current flowing through it, is the resistance of
the conductor.
 Resistance
A property of materials which resist the flow of electric current through them to
some greater or lesser degree.
 1 Ohm
The unit of electrical resistance. 1 ohm is the resistance of a sample of
conducting material across which a potential difference of 1 volt causes a
current of 1 ampere to flow.
 Relation of Resistance, Length and Cross-sectional Area of a Conductor

The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area.
R∝ (or) R =
= resistance, = resistivity of conductor, l = length, A =cross-sectional area
 Resistivity ( )
The resistivity of the conductor is defined as the resistance of a conductor
having one unit cross-sectional area and one unit length.
=
 Resistivity is more Fundamental than Resistance

conductor
R / ρ A particular conductor has only one value of resistivity.
A That conductor can have many values of resistance
l according to the shape of conductor by the above
R = formula. Therefore, the resistivity is more fundamental
than resistance for a conductor.

 Temperature Dependence of Resistance

The resistance of a conductor depends on the temperature of the conductor by
the following formula.
= (1 + t)
= resistance at t℃, = resistance at 0℃, t = temperature (℃),
= temperature coefficient of resistance (℃ )
=
.
 Temperature Dependence of Conductor and Semiconductor

- Resistances of most conductors increases with increasing temperature.
- Resistances of three substances, carbon, semiconductor and electrolyte,
decrease with increasing temperature.
 Resistor
A resistor is a circuit component which is made from a substance having
resistance.
R R R
fixed resistor variable resistor variable resistor (rheostat)

There are two types of resistors, fixed resistors and variable resistors.
 Series Circuit
A circuit in which each element of the circuit is connected to an adjacent
element of the circuit such that the same amount of charge flows through each
and every circuit element. For resistive circuit, the current is the same through
each resistor.
 Parallel Circuit
A circuit in which the circuit elements are connected in such a way that the
potential difference across all the elements of the circuit is the same. For a
resistive circuit, the potential differences across the resistors are equal.

 Resistors in Series
When resistors are connected in series, each resistor has the same current but
different potential differences.
A R R R B
I I
V V V
V
R
By Ohm’s law,
V = IR , V = IR , V = IR
V =V +V +V series ဆို I တူျပီး
V = IR + IR + IR V ကြဲသည္။
V = I (R + R + R ) ------------ (1)
If the equivalent resistance of the combination of the resistors is R the potential

difference across the combination is,
V = IR --------------- (2)
from equation (1) and (2),

IR = I (R + R + R )
R= + +
If n resistors of resistances R , R , R , ………, R are connected in series and
the equivalent resistance is R, then
R= + + + ………. +
The equivalent resistance of the resistors in series is equal to the sum of the
resistances of the individual resistors.

 Resistors in Parallel
R
I
A I R B I
I R
Parallel ဆို V တူျပီး
V I ကြဲသည္။
When resistors are connected in parallel, each resistor may have different
currents but they have the same potential difference.
By Ohm’s law,
V=I R ,V= I R ,V= I R
I=I +I +I
I= + +
I = V( + + ) ------------- (1)
If the equivalent resistance of the combination of the resistors R , R and R is

R and the potential difference between A and B is V, then
V = IR (or) I = ------------- (2)
from equation (1) and (2),

V( + + ) =
= + +
If n resistors of resistances R , R , R , ………, R are connected in parallel and
the equivalent resistance is R, then
= + + + ……… +

 Source of Electromotive Force

- A source of e.m.f. converts some other forms of energy into electrical energy.
- A battery and a generator are the sources of e.m.f..
- A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
- A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
- A source of e.m.f. has a positive terminal and a negative terminal.
- The main function of the source is to send the negative charges from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal within the source.
- Work is done by the source to do so.
 Electromotive Force (e.m.f.) (E)

The electromotive force of a source before its terminals are connected to an
external circuit is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from its
negative terminal to the positive one.
* The e.m.f. of a source connected to an external circuit is the work done in
moving a unit positive charge round the complete circuit.
 Unit of Electromotive Force

If 1 joule (1 J) of work is done in moving a unit positive charge from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal of a source, then the electromotive
force of that source is 1 volt (1 V).
 Internal Resistance (r)

The resistance inside a source of e.m.f. is called the internal resistance.
E r E,r
Fig: symbol for battery
 A battery connected to an external circuit

R E = IR + Ir
E = I (R + r)
I I = (circuit equation)
E,r E = e.m.f. , I = current, r = internal resistance
R = total resistance (outside battery)

 Available Voltage (V)

The potential difference across the terminals of a battery connected to an
external circuit is called the available voltage of that battery.
E = IR + Ir
E = V + Ir (∵ V = IR)
V = E – Ir
V = available voltage, E = e.m.f. , I = current, r = internal resistance
* If r = 0 , V = E – I (0)
V = E
(Therefore, if a battery has no internal resistance, the e.m.f. is equal to the
available voltage.)
 Ammeter
An ammeter is a device which is used to measure the electric current.
 Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a device which is used to measure the potential difference.
Fig: symbol of ammeter Fig: symbol of voltmeter
R R
R V=V +V R
Fig: Connection of ammeter Fig: Connection of voltmeter

in a circuit in a circuit

 Batteries in Series
When two or more sources of e.m.f. are connected in series, the resultant e.m.f.
is the algebraic sum of the individual e.m.f.s.
(a) Series Aiding

When two batteries are connected in series and the currents leaving the
batteries are in the same direction, such a connection is called series aiding.
(a) series aiding (b) series opposing
(b) Series Opposing

When two batteries are connected in series and the currents leaving the
batteries are in the opposite directions, such a connection is called series
opposing.
R R
I R
E ,r E ,r E ,r E ,r
series aiding series opposing

E = E + E E = E − E (if E > E )
r = r + r r = r + r
I = = I = =

 Batteries in Parallel
Batteries of the same e.m.f. must be connected in parallel.
total e.m.f. (E) = e.m.f. of one battery
E,r
+
E,r
If two batteries have the same internal resistance,

( )
total (r) =
If batteries have different internal resistances,

= +
I I
2 E,r I
I
2 E,r
Resultant e.m.f. = E , total r =
I = =


1 I Electric current A(ampere)
2 R Resistance Ω (ohm)
3 ρ Resistivity Ωm
4 E (e.m.f.) Electromotive force V (volt)
5 α Temperature coefficient of ℃ K
resistance
6 V Available voltage V (volt)
Note:
 An electric current is a scalar quantity.
 1 ampere (A) is equal to 1 Cs .
 Current flows from a place of higher potential to a place of lower potential.
 The current flows in the opposite direction of motion of electrons.
 To increase resistance, resistors must be connected in series.
 To decrease resistance, resistors must be connected in parallel.
 The ammeter has very low resistance. It must be connected in series with
resistor.
 The voltmeter has very high resistance. It must be connected in parallel with
resistor.
 If a battery has no internal resistance, its e.m.f. is equal to the available voltage.
 A battery, a cell and a generator are the sources of e.m.f..
 When batteries are connected in series aiding, the total e.m.f. increases.
 When batteries are connected in series opposing, the total e.m.f. decreases.
 Batteries of the same e.m.f. must be connected in parallel.
 When batteries are connected in parallel, the total e.m.f. is equal to the e.m.f. of
one battery.
 Milliammeters and microammeters are used to measure very small currents.

Difference between the e.m.f. of a battery and the potential difference across
its terminals and under what condition are they the same?
- The e.m.f. of a battery connected to an external circuit is the work done in
- The potential difference across the terminals of a battery connected to an external
circuit is the available voltage of the battery.
V = E − Ir
If r = 0, V = E
- If a battery has no internal resistance, the e.m.f. of the battery is equal to the
potential difference across its terminals.
Difference between the resistance and the resistivity of a conductor

Resistance Resistivity
- If a conductor is kept at a constant - The resistivity of the conductor is
temperature, the ratio of the potential the resistance of a conductor having
difference between its ends to the one unit cross-sectional area and
current flowing through it, is the one unit length.
resistance of the conductor.
- Resistance of a conductor increase - Resistivity of a conductor varies
with increasing temperature. slightly with temperature.
- It depends on the conductor’s - It does not depend on the
dimensions. conductor’s dimensions.
Draw the electric circuit for measurement of current (I) and voltage (V).
rheostat
V
A B
A
resistance (R)

Short Question!
1. What is an electric current? How is an electric current defined?
- See at note.
2. Is the electric current a scalar quantity? Why?

- The electric current is a scalar quantity.
- Because it has only magnitude and it is the ratio of electric charge to time.
3. Can you use Ohm’s law in electronics?

- No. Ohm’s law cannot be used in electronics.
4. Which is more fundamental, the resistance or the resistivity? Explain.

- A particular conductor has only one value of resistivity.
- That conductor can have many values of resistance according to the shape of
conductor by the above formula.
- Therefore, the resistivity is more fundamental than resistance for a conductor.
5. When the length of a wire is doubled and its diameter is halved will the
resistance of the wire be the same as before?
- No. R and A d (∵ A = )
- Since (l) increases and (A) decreases the resistance (R) of the wire increases.
- Therefore the resistance of the wire will not be the same before.
6. Choose the correct answer from the following.

A certain piece of copper is to be shaped into conductor of minimum resistance.
Its length and cross-sectional area should be (a) l and A, (b) 2l and (c) and
2A and (d) can assume any value so long as the volume of copper remains the
same.
- The correct answer is (C). R
- To obtain minimum resistance, the length must be reduced and cross-sectional
area must be enlarged.

7. When the parallel combination of two resistors having different resistances is

connected to a battery, which resistor will draw a greater current?
- According to the Ohm’s law,
V = IR and I ∝ ( V = constant for parallel combination)
- The resistor having smaller resistance will draw a greater current.
8. Describe the resistivity of a conductor of length l and area A in symbols. If a

current “I” flows through the conductor find the voltage across the two ends of
the conductor of resistance R in terms of the resistivity ρ .
- The resistivity of a conductor is ρ =
- Voltage across the two ends of conductor is V = IR
V = I (R= )
9. On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?

- The resistance of a conductor depends on the cross-sectional area, length and
temperature of the conductor.
10.Explain the statement “the resistance of a conductor is 1Ω.”

- If the potential difference between two ends of the conductor is 1V and the
current flowing through it is 1A, then the resistance is 1Ω.
11.If the potential difference between two ends of a conductor is increased, does its
resistance increases? Why?
- No, resistance does not change.
- When the potential difference (V) is increased, the current (I) also increases
proportionally.
- But the resistance (R) is constant according to the equation, R = .
12. What are the sources of e.m.f.? Explain converted energies for these sources.
- A battery and a generator are the sources of e.m.f..
- A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
- A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

13. What are the three main effects of electric current and their uses?
- See at note.
14. Describe the dependence of resistance (i) on length and area (ii) on
temperature. What is the unit of constant in each dependent?
- (i) The resistance is directly proportional to length and inversely proportional
to area. The unit of constant (r) is ohm-meter.
- (ii) The resistance is directly proportional to temperature. The unit of constant
α is per ℃ .
15. How many definitions are there for the electromotive force? State the
definitions of e.m.f. using circuit diagrams.
- There are two definitions for e.m.f..
(* ပုက
ံ “ a battery connected to an external circuit” ပုဆ
ံ ဲပ
ြ ါ။)
EMF of a source before connected to an external circuit

The electromotive force of a source before its terminals are connected to an
external circuit is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from its
negative terminal to the positive one.
EMF of a source connected to an external circuit

The e.m.f. of a source connected to an external circuit is the work done in
16. Explain what is meant by an e.m.f. of 6.0 V?

- “The e.m.f. of a source is 6.0V” means that the work done in moving +1C
from its negative terminal to the positive one is 6J when the source is not
connected to an external circuit.
17. How do the resistance of carbon, silicon, germanium and electrolytes vary with
increasing temperature?
- The resistance of carbon, silicon, germanium and electrolytes decrease with
increasing temperature.

18. Find the current through the equivalent resistance for the case of two resistors
(R , R ) connected in parallel.
Answer:
R and R are in parallel,
= + R
=
.
.
R = R
I =
( )
I =
.
19. The circuit given below contains three ammeters (A , A and A ) and three
variable resistors (R , R and R ). The value of which resistor must be
increased in order to increase the reading of the ammeterA ? Explain.
I E
I R
I R
I R
Answer:
R and R are in parallel. They have the same V.
V = I R and V = I R
therefore, I R = I R
I =
- To increase the reading of the ammeter A , I must increase.
- Therefore, to increase I , the value of R must be increased.

20. How must a voltmeter be connected in a circuit to measure the potential

difference?
- The terminals of a voltmeter must be connected to two points between which
the potential difference is to be measured.
- For such a connection the positive terminal of a voltmeter must be connected
to the higher potential point of the two.
21. How must an ammeter be connected in an electric circuit to measure the

electric current?
- An ammeter must be placed in a circuit in 88888isuch a way that the current
to be measured flows through it.
- The current must enter the ammeter from its positive terminals.
- The ammeter must be in series with the resistor.
22. What is meant by charging a battery? How much the external electrical energy
required for unit positive charge? Estimate the potential difference between the
terminals, in charging a battery.
- Charging a battery means supplying it with electrical energy from some
external source.
-This means the chemical energy of the battery which has been used up is now
supplied back by external electrical energy.
- The external electrical energy required for unit positive charge is equal to the
e.m.f. of the battery plus the energy per unit positive dissipated in the battery,
the potential difference between the terminal is V = E + Ir.
23. A copper wire and silver wire have the same length and the same size. Do they
have the same resistance value? Why?
- No, they do not have the same resistance.
- Because they have different resistivities.

1. A charge of 9C passes through a cross-sectional area of a conductor in 3s.
(a) Find the current flowing through the conductor. (b) How many electrons
pass through that area in 1s? (13 ygn)
Ans: (a) 3A / (b) 1.875× electrons
2. A charge of 6C passes through a cross-sectional area of a conductor in 2s.

(a) Find the current flowing through the conductor. (b) How many electrons
pass through that area in 1s? (11 rakhine)
Ans: (a) 3A / (b) 1.875× electrons
3. A current of 3A flows through a conductor of resistance 20Ω for 5min. (a) How
much charge will pass through a cross-sectional area of the conductor? (b) How
many electrons will pass through that area? (e = 1.6× 10 C) (15 local)
Ans: (a) 900C / (b) 5.625× electrons
4. A current of 4A flows through a conductor of resistance 20Ω for 5min. (a) How
much charge will pass through a cross-sectional area of the conductor? (b) How
many electrons will pass through that area? (e = 1.6× 10 C) (exercise 3)
Ans: (a) 1200C / (b) 750× electrons
5. A number of electrons 1.875× 10 passing through the cross sectional area of

a conductor in 1s. What is the current in the conductor? What is the amount of
charge pass through it in 2s? (e = 1.6× 10 C) (11 magway)
Ans: 3A / 6C
6. A current of 3A flows through a conductor when the potential difference

between its ends is 12V. If the potential difference is reduced to 8V how much
does the value of current drop? (15 foreign)
Ans: 4 / 1A
7. A current of 1A flows through a conductor when the potential difference

between its ends is 6V. If the potential difference is reduced to 3V how much
does the value of current drop? (11 shan)

Ans: 6 / 0.5A
8. A rectangular silver slab has dimensions 1cm × 1cm × 200cm. What is the
resistance between its two square surfaces? The resistivity of silver is 1.62×
10 Ωm. (14 mon)
Ans: 3.24×
9. A rectangular silver slab has dimensions 1cm × 1cm × 300cm. What is the
resistance between its two square surfaces? The resistivity of silver is 1.62×
10 Ωm. (12 shan)
Ans: 4.86×
10.A tungsten wire has a resistance of 5Ω at 100℃. What is the resistance of the
wire at 150℃ if the temperature coefficient of tungsten is 5.8× 10 ℃
Ans: 5.92 (12 bago)
11. A tungsten wire has a length of 200m, a diameter of 2mm and a resistivity of
4.8× 10 Ωm. Find its resistance. (14 foreign)
Ans: 3.06
12.A tungsten wire has a length 2m and its resistance is 0.5 Ω . The resistivity of
tungsten wire is 4.8× 10 Ωm. Find the diameter of the wire. (13 mon)
Ans: 4.944× m
13.A copper wire has a length of 100m, a diameter of 2mm and a resistivity of
1.72× 10 Ωm. Find its resistance. (12 bago)
Ans: 0.547
14.A current of 5A flows through a wire of length 314.2m, diameter of 4mm and a
resistivity of 4.8× 10 Ωm. Find the resistance of the wire and the voltage
across two ends of the wire. (14 ayeyawady)
Ans: 1.2 / 6V

15.When a platinum resistance thermometer is placed in a mixture of ice and water

at 0℃ its resistance is 20Ω. When it is placed in a furnace of unknown
temperature its resistance is 120Ω. If the temperature coefficient of platinum is
0.0036℃ , find the temperature of the furnace. (12 sagaing)
Ans: 1389℃
16.When a platinum resistance thermometer is placed in a mixture of ice and water

at 0℃ its resistance is 8Ω. When it is placed in a furnace of unknown
temperature its resistance is 100Ω. If the temperature coefficient of platinum is
0.0036℃ , find the temperature of the furnace.
Ans: 3194.4℃ (13 rakhine)
17.If the ratio of the resistances of a tungsten wire at 70℃ and 120℃ is what is
the temperature coefficient of the wire? (16 local)
Ans: 0.0125 ℃
18.If the ratio of the resistances of a tungsten wire at 100℃ and 150℃ is what is
the temperature coefficient of the wire? (14 bago)
Ans: 0.005 ℃
19.A wire of 25 Ω is stretched to double its original length. If the resistivity and
density of the wire do not change, find its resistance after stretching.
Ans: 100 (13 bago)
20.A wire of 10Ω is stretched to triple its original length. If the resistivity and
density of the wire do not change, find its resistance after stretching.
Ans: 90 (12 ygn)
21.A wire length 50m is made of silver of resistivity 1.62× 10 Ωm, and has a
radius of 1mm. (a) Find the resistance of the wire. (b) A second wire is made
from the same mass of silver but has double the radius. Find its resistance.
Ans: (a) 0.258 / (b) 0.0161 (14 sagaing)

22.A wire length 200m is made of silver of resistivity 1.62× 10 Ωm, and has a
radius of 0.5mm. (a) Find the resistance of the wire. (b) A second wire is made
from the same mass of silver but has double the radius. Find its resistance.
Ans: (a) 4.125 / (b) 1.031 (13 kachin)
23.A copper wire and a silver wire have the same length and the same potential
differences across their ends. If the currents through the wire are the same, find
the ratio of the radii of the wires. The resistivity of copper is 1.72× 10 Ωm
and that of silver is 1.62× 10 Ωm. (15 local)
Ans: 1.031
24.An aluminium wire and a silver wire have the same length and the same
potential differences across their ends. If the currents through the wire are the
same, find the ratio of the radii of the wires. The resistivity of copper is
1.72× 10 Ωm and that of aluminium is 2.82× 10 Ωm. (13 shan)
Ans: 1.28
25.If a copper wire and an iron wire have the same volume and the same
resistance, compare their lengths. Assume that resistivity of iron is four times
that of copper. (10 shan)
Ans: 2
26.(a) A silver wire 2m long is to have a resistance of 0.5 Ω. What should its
diameter be? The resistivity of silver is 1.62× 10 Ωm.
(b) A 2 Ω resistor is to be made from 100cm of copper, of resistivity
1.7× 10 m. If the copper is drawn into a wire of circuit cross-section, what is
its diameter? (13 ygn)
Ans: (a) 2.872× m / (b) 1.088× m
27.A 4 Ω resistor is to be made from 200cm of silver. The resistivity of silver is

1.62× 10 Ωm. If the silver is drawn into a wire of circuit cross-section, what
is its radius? (09 rakhine)
Ans: 5.352× m

28.When a battery is connected to a 2 Ω resistor it drives a current of 0.6A through

the resistor. When it is connected to a 7 Ω resistor it drives a current of 0.2A
through the resistor. Find the e.m.f. and the internal resistance of the battery.
Ans: 0.5 / 1.5V (14 bago)
29.Two batteries each having an e.m.f. of 10V and an internal resistance of 4 Ω are
connected. (a) in series and (b) in parallel. Find the current in each case when
the batteries are connected to a 2 Ω resistor. (15 foreign)
Ans: (a) 2A / (b) 2.5A
30.Two batteries each having an e.m.f. of 6V and an internal resistance of 2 Ω are

connected. (a) in series and (b) in parallel. Find the current in each case when
the batteries are connected to a 1 Ω resistor. (example 9)
Ans: (a) 2.4A / 0A (b) 3A
31.A cell has an e.m.f. of 2V and an internal resistance of 1 Ω and is connected to

3 Ω and 4 Ω resistors in series. Find the current in the electric circuit.
Ans: 0.25A (11 bago)
32.A cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5V and an internal resistance of 1 Ω and is connected to
6Ω and 3 Ω resistors in parallel. Find the currents in each resistor.
Ans: 0.167A / 0.333A (12 sagaing)
33.A cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5V and an internal resistance of 1 Ω and is connected to
2 Ω and 3 Ω resistors in series. Find the current in the electric circuit and the
potential difference across the ends of each resistor. (exercise 14)
Ans: 0.25A / 0.5V / 0.75V
34.A battery has an e.m.f. of 12V and an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω and is
connected to 1.5 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in series. Find the current in the electric
circuit and the potential difference across the ends of each resistor.
Ans: 1.5A / 2.25V / 9V (14 magway)

35. A battery has an e.m.f. of 12V and an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω. How many
batteries are necessary to pass a current of 1A through a 23 Ω resistor in an
electric circuit? (13 foreign)
Ans: 2
36.A battery has an e.m.f. of 6V and an internal resistance of 1 Ω. How many

batteries are necessary to pass a current of 1A through a 20 Ω resistor in an
electric circuit? (16 foreign)
Ans: 4
37.If a battery has an e.m.f. of 6V and an internal resistance of 0.2 Ω. What is

ammeter showing when the 1.3 Ω resistor is used? Which is more fundamental,
the resistance or the resistivity? (14 mdy)
Ans: 4A (The resistivity is more fundamental.)
38.A 6V battery with an internal resistance of 1 Ω is connected to a 5 Ω resistor.

Find the rate of production of heat in a battery. (1J = 4.2Jcal ) (11 sagaing)
Ans: 0.238
39.A resistor is in series with an ammeter in an electric circuit. The reading on the
ammeter is 0.2A when the potential difference across the resistor is 5V. A
second resistor is joined in parallel with the first, the current rising to 0.4A and
the potential difference dropping to 2.5V. What are the resistances of the
resistors? (09 sagaing)
Ans: 25 / 0.1A / 0.3A / 8.333
40. A resistor is in series with an ammeter in an electric circuit. The reading on the
ammeter is 0.1A when the potential difference across the resistor is 3.5V. A
second resistor is joined in parallel with the first, the current rising to 0.2A and
the potential difference dropping to 3.15V. What are the resistances of the
resistors? (exercise 16)
Ans: 35 / 0.09A / 0.11A / 28.64

41. When two 6V batteries, having the same internal resistance and connected in
series, are connected to a 5 Ω resistor, the current in the circuit is 2A. When
these batteries are in parallel, a current of 1.5A flows through when connected
to another resistor. Find the resistance of the resistor. (14 mon)
Ans: 0.5 / 3.75
42.When two 6V batteries, having the same internal resistance and connected in
series, are connected to a 4 Ω resistor, the current in the circuit is 1.5A. When
these batteries are in parallel, a current of 1A flows through when connected to
another resistor. Find the resistance of the resistor. (12 magway)
Ans: 2 / 5
43.When a 12V battery of negligible internal resistance is connected to a resistor, a

current of 3A flows through it. When another battery of e.m.f. 6V is in the
circuit in series with the first one, the current flowing through the resistor
remains at 3A. Find the internal resistance of the second battery. (exercise 18)
Ans: R = 4 / r = 2
44.Which of the following resistances can be obtained by connecting a 6 Ω resistor

with a 12 Ω resistor? Explain. (exercise 21)
(a) 0.25 Ω (b) 0.50 Ω (c) 2.0 Ω (d) 4.0 Ω (e) 9.0 Ω
Ans: (d) 4
45.(a) Draw diagrams to show that resistance of 20 Ω and 12.5 Ω can be obtained
by using one 10 Ω resistor and two 5 Ω resistors. (b) What resistances can be
obtained by using three 1 Ω resistors? (c) When the parallel combination of two
resistors having different resistances is connected to a battery, which resistor
will draw a greater current? (exercise 13)
Ans: (a) 12.5 / (b) 3 (series) / 0.33 (parallel) (c) 0.67 / (d) 1.5
46.Find the equivalent resistance when two 4 Ω resistors are connected (i) in series
and (ii) in parallel. What are the currents through 4 Ω resistors when a battery of
6V is connected to each combination? The internal resistance of the battery is
1 Ω. (13 magway)

Ans: (i) 0.667A (in series) / 2A (in parallel) / (ii) 1A
47.Find the equivalent resistance when three 6 Ω resistors are connected (a) in
series and (b) in parallel, (c) find the equivalent resistance when two resistors in
parallel are connected to the remaining resistor in series. (example 6)
Ans: (a) 18 / (b) 2 / (c) 9
48.Find the equivalent resistance that can be obtained by combination of three 1 Ω

resistors in all possible ways. (11 ayeyawady)
Ans: 3 (all in series) / 0.33 (all in parallel) / 0.667 / 1.5
49.What resistances can be obtained by using three 10 Ω resistors in all possible

ways? (16 foreign)
Ans: 30 (all in series) / 3.33 (all in parallel) / 15 / 6.67
50. How should one 10Ω resistor and two 5Ω resistors be connected to obtain 2Ω
and 12.5Ω? (13 mdy)
Ans: 2 (all in parallel) / 12.5 (two 5 in parallel and one 10 in series)
51. Find the equivalent resistance when three 3 Ω resistors in parallel are connected
to one 6 Ω resistor in series. (12 kachin)
Ans: 7
52.Find the equivalent resistance when two 6 Ω resistors in parallel are connected
to the 10 Ω resistor in series. (12 shan)
Ans: 3 / 13
53.What are the maximum and minimum resistances can be obtained by

combinations of three resistors with resistances of 0.5 Ω, 1 Ω and 1.5 Ω?
Ans: 3 (maximum) / 0.273 (minimum) (08 shan)
54.The equivalent resistance is 0.5 Ω when “n” identical resistors are connected in
parallel and 18 Ω when they are connected in series. Find n and the resistance of
the resistor. (12 foreign)

Ans: 6 / 3
55.The equivalent resistance is 2 Ω when “n” identical resistors are connected in

parallel and 50 Ω when they are connected in series. Determine n.
Ans: 5 (07 rakhine)
56.What is the equivalent resistance between A and B in the figure shown below?
If the potential difference between A and B is 12V, find the current flowing
through 3 Ω and 4 Ω respectively. (12 ayeyawady)
6 Ω
4Ω
12 Ω
A B
3Ω 5Ω
Ans: 4 / 1.5A
57.Find the current flowing through each resistor and the potential difference
across the 1 Ω resistor in the circuit diagram given below. (14 foreign)
R
I R R =4Ω
R R =6Ω
I R =1Ω
I E = 12 V
r = 0.6 Ω
E,r
Ans: 3A / 1.8A / 1.2A / 3V
58.Find the current flowing through R resistor and the potential difference across
the R (1 Ω) resistor in the circuit diagram given below. (10 magway)
R = 4 Ω / R = 4 Ω / R = 1 Ω / E = 12 V / r = 1 Ω (same figure at no.57)
Ans: 3A / 3V

59. In the electric circuit shown below, find the reading of the ammeter A when the
switch is (a) open (b) closed (neglect the internal resistance of the battery).
12V (14 ayeyawady)
4Ω switch
2Ω
4Ω
A
Ans: (a) 2A / (b) 4 / 3A
60.In the electric circuit shown below, find the reading of the ammeter A when the
switch is (a) open (b) closed (neglect the internal resistance of the battery).
2Ω switch (12 mdy)
2Ω
2Ω
A
15 V
Ans: (a) 3.75A / (b) 3 / 5A
61.What will be the reading of the ammeter when the switch is (i)open (ii)closed?
12V (07 ayeyawady)
A
switch 4Ω 4Ω
4Ω
Ans: (i) 1.5A / (ii) 2 / 2A
62. Find the readings of the ammeter A in the electric circuits shown below.
6V 6V 6V
A A A
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
Ans: (i) 1.5A / (ii) 3A / (iii) 6A (14 sagaing)

63.In the circuit shown below, find the reading of the ammeter A, when all the
resistors have the same resistance R. (exercise 22)
R
R A
R
3A
I
E
Ans: 2A
64.In the circuit shown below, find the readings of the ammeters A and A . Which
resistor has greater resistance? (08 ygn)
R
R
4A
1A
I E
Ans: 3A / 4A / >
65.In the circuit shown below, find the readings of the ammeters A and A .
R 1A (exercise 25)
R 3A
R 2A
I E
Ans: 4A / 6A

66. In the circuit shown below, find the readings of the voltmeters V and V .
What is the value of e.m.f. (E)? (12 rakhine)
2Ω 1Ω
5A A
I E
Ans: 10V / 5V / 15V (e.m.f.)
67.In the circuit given below, find the readings of the voltmeter V and the
ammeter A and the values of the resistors R and R . (exercise 27)
6V
3A R
4Ω R
4A
R
E
Ans: 1A / 12V / 1.5 Ω / 12 Ω

Chapter – 11
Electrical Energy and Power
 Electrical Energy (W)
The work done by a battery in bringing a charge through a resistor in a circuit is
the electrical energy supplied by the battery.
A R B
E
The point A has a higher potential than the point B. The current I flows from A
to B.
W = QV
W = VIt (∵ Q = It )
W = Rt (∵ V = IR )
W = t (∵ I = )
W = electrical energy, V = potential difference, I = electric current,

R = resistance, t = time taken, Q = electric charge
 One Unit of Electricity / Electrical Energy

The electrical energy 1kWh is taken as one unit of electricity.
1 kWh = 1000 W × 1h
= 1000 Js × 3600 s
= 3.6 × 10 J
* The SI unit of electrical energy is the joule (J).
The practical unit of electrical energy is the kilowatt hour (kWh).

 Electrical Power (P)

The electrical power is the rate of doing work.
P =
P = VI
P = R
P =
P = electrical power, W = electrical energy, t = time taken
 Joule’s Law of Electricity and Heat

The amount of heat produced in a resistor due to a current flowing through it is
directly proportional to the square of the current, the value of resistance and the
time taken by the current to pass through the resistor.
H = ( J = 4.2 Jcal )
H = amount of heat, I = electric current, R = resistance, t = time taken,
J = Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat
 Relation between Work (W) and Heat (H)

Work done can produce to heat and heat also can produce work.
H = (OR) W = JH
H =
H =
H =
 Some Applications of the Heating Effect of Current

- Electrical energy can be transformed into other useful forms of energy.
- A resistor converts most of the electrical energy supplied to it into heat.
- The heating effect of electric current has special application in homes.
- Electric stoves, electric cookers, electric irons and immersion heaters all
change electrical energy into heat energy.

 Fuse
A fuse is made of tin-lead alloy. When a current flowing through a fuse is
greater than the maximum current it can carry, the fuse melts and breaks the
circuit. Therefore, fuses are used to prevent the damage to the electrical
appliances.
For example, if a 3A fuse is used in the circuit, and when a current greater than
3 A flows in the circuit, the fuse becomes so hot that it will melt and break the
circuit. Thus the current stops flowing and the electrical appliance in the circuit
is not damaged.
*The 3A to 15A fuses are widely used. Generally 3 A fuses are used in record
players, 13 A fuses are used in electric cookers and fuses from 3 A to 15 A are
used in fuse boxes.
 Electrical Power of Some Electrical Appliances
(i) Tape recorder 50W

(ii) Reading lamp 40W – 100W
(iii) Refrigerator 100W
(iv) Radio, Television receiver 150W
(v) Electric iron 750W – 1000W
(vi) Electric stove 1200W

Note:
 Electrical energy can be transformed into a wide variety of other useful forms
of energy.
 The transformation of electrical energy to heat energy is very useful and
important.
 The work done by the battery is transformed into heat energy in the resistor.
 When a current flows through a resistor, heat is produced because the electrons
collide with the atoms in the resistor when they pass through it.
 Hence the atoms acquire additional energy and therefore heat energy is
produced.
 If an electric source is connected to a motor, the electrical energy transforms
into mechanical energy.
 Electricity meters installed in homes and buildings read kilowatt-hour directly.
 If one 1 kW electric lamp is used for 1 h, the meter shows an increase of 1 unit.
 If one 2 kW electric lamp is used for 1 h, the meter shows an increase of 2units.
 The payment for using electricity is made according to the cost of electricity per
unit and the total number of units utilized.
 The horse power (hp) unit is used in expressing the power of machines.
 The watt is a very small unit and is not convenient for use. The more
appropriate unit is the kilowatt (kW).
 Heat energy is produced by the resistor when a current passes through it.
* Electrical Energy (W) / Cost / Payment ကိုတက

ြ လ
္ ွ်င္ (kWh) ျဖင့္တြက္ပါ။
Calories / kilocalories ကိုတြက္လ်ွ င္ (second) ျဖင့္တြက္ပါ။

Short Question!
1. Why is electrical energy transformed into heat energy when a current flows
through a resistor?
- Electrical energy is transformed into heat energy when a current flows through
a resistor because the electrons collide with the atoms in the resistor when they
pass through it.
- Hence the atoms acquire additional energy and therefore heat energy is
produced.
2. Give a circuit diagram for conversion of electrical into heat energy. Describe
how the conversion takes place. What happens if instead of a resistor R, for
example, one has an electric motor?
- See figure at “Electrical Energy”.
- If an electric motor is connected instead of resistor R in the circuit, the
electrical energy transforms into mechanical energy.
3. If two unequal resistors are connected in parallel, which resistor develops heat
at the greater rate?
- Since H = and V is constant.
- Thus a resistor with smaller resistance develops heat at the greater rate.
4. Fuses are used in electric circuit, why?

- Fuses are used in electric circuit to prevent the electrical appliances from
serious damage.
5. Explain the work function of an electric fuse in an electric circuit with an

example.
- If a 3A fuse is used in the circuit, and when a current greater than 3 A flows in
the circuit, the fuse becomes so hot that it will melt and break the circuit.
- Thus the current stops flowing and the electrical appliance in the circuit is not
damaged.

1. If a current of 2A flows through a 60Ω resistor for 30 min and find the amount
of electrical energy dissipated in the resistor. (14 mdy)
Ans: 0.12 kWh
2. If a current of 5A flows through a 60Ω resistor for 15 min and find the amount
of electrical energy dissipated in the resistor. (14 rakhine)
Ans: 0.375 kWh
3. A current of 10A flows through a 42Ω resistor for 30 min and find the amount
of electrical energy dissipated and the amount of calorie produced of the
resistor. (J = 4.2 Jcal ) (14 magway)
Ans: 2.1 kWh / 18× cal
4. An electric lamp of 60Ω connected to a 220V mains line is used for 90 min.
(a)Find the amount of electrical energy dissipated in the lamp, (b)find the cost
of using it if electricity costs 25kyats per unit. (14 sagaing)
Ans: (a) 1.21 kWh (b) 30.25 kyats
5. An electric lamp of 80Ω connected to a 240V mains line is used for 60 min.
(a)Find the amount of electrical energy dissipated in the lamp, (b)find the cost
of using it if electricity costs 25kyats per unit. (10 bago)
Ans: (a) 0.72 kWh (b) 18 kyats
6. If a 25W electric lamp is connected to a 120V mains line find the current in the
lamp and the amount of heat produced by the filament in 2min. (14 shan)
Ans: 0.21A / 714.3 cal
7. If a 60W electric lamp is connected to a 240V mains line find (a) the current in
the lamp (b) the resistance of tungsten wire of the lamp (c) the amount of
charge passing through the filament in 1min and (d) the amount of heat
produced by the filament in 1 min. (J = 4.2 Jcal ) (13 ayeyawaddy)
Ans: (a) 0.25A (b) 960Ω (c) 15C (d) 857.14 cal

8. If 100W electric lamp is connected to a 240V mains line, find the current in the
lamp and the resistance of tungsten wire of the lamp. (09 mon)
Ans: 0.417A / 576Ω
9. If 60W electric lamp is connected to a 240V mains line, find the current in the
lamp, the resistance of tungsten wire of the lamp and the amount of charge
passing through the filament in 1min. (10 mdy)
Ans: 0.25A / 960Ω / 15C
10.If a 1200W electric iron is used for 100 min, by how many units does the meter
reading increase? Calculate the payment if one unit of electricity costs 30 kyats.
Ans: 2kWh / 60 kyats (16 foreign)
11.If a 1000W electric iron is used for 45 min, by how many units does the meter
reading increase? Calculate the payment if one unit of electricity costs 35 kyats.
Ans: 0.75kWh / 26.25 kyats (12 ygn)
12.(a) How many kilowatt hours of electrical energy does a 80W light bulb use
during 24 hours of operation? (b) If a 1000W electric iron is used for 1h, by
how many units does the meter reading increase? Calculate the payment if one
unit of electricity costs 35 kyats. (13 ygn)
Ans: (a) 1.92 kWh / (b) 1kWh / 35 kyats
13.A 4A fuse is used in a circuit which contains a source of 240V. Find the
maximum power which can be consumed. (15 local)
Ans: 960W
14.A 3A fuse is used in a circuit which contains a source of 240V. Find the
maximum power which can be consumed. (example 6)
Ans: 720W
15.If a 70W electric lamp is connected to a 210V mains line, find the current in the
lamp. (15 foreign)
Ans: 0.333A

16.An electric circuit installed in a house contains a 5A fuse and the voltage is
230V. Find the maximum electrical power which can safely be used.
Ans: 1150W (09 rakhine)
17.An electric iron draws a current of 3A when it is connected to a 230V main line.
What is the resistance of the electric iron? How many calories of heat are
produced per min? (J = 4.2 Jcal ) (14 mon)
Ans: 76.67Ω / 9857cal
18.An electric iron draws a current of 3A when it is connected to a 240V mains

line. How many kcal of heat are produced per min? (exercise 5)
Ans: 10.29 kcal
19.An electric iron draws a current of 5A when it is connected to a 240V mains

line. How many kcal of heat are produced per hour? (13 sagaing)
Ans: 1028.6 kcal
20.An electric stove of 1200W is connected to a 240V main line. (a) Find its
resistance. (b) Find the current flowing through it. (c) Find the number of
calories produced in one second by it. (d) Find the electrical power produced by
it when the voltage of the mains line drops to 200V. (14 foreign)
Ans: (a) 48Ω (b) 5A (c) 285.8cal (d) 833.33W
21.When an electric stove is connected to a 220V mains line it draws a current of

6A. The electric stove is used for 15min. (a) Find the amount of heat produced
by it. (b)Calculate the electric energy. (15 local)
Ans: (a) 282900 cal / (b) 0.33 kWh
22.When an electric stove is connected to a 220V mains line it draws a current of

5A. The electric stove is used for 10min. (a) Find the amount of heat produced
by it. (b)Calculate the cost of using it if the electric energy costs 25 kyats per
unit. (14 ayeyawaddy)
Ans: (a) 1.571× cal / (b) 0.1833 kWh / 4.58 kyats

23.Compare the amount of heat produced by each resistor when the 3Ω and 6Ω
resistors are connected in series to a 12V battery and when they are connected
in parallel to that battery. (12 foreign)
Ans: 0.5 / 2 / 0.11 / 0.44
24.Compare the amount of heat produced by each resistor when the 2Ω and 3Ω
resistors are connected in series to a 12V battery and when they are connected
in parallel to that battery. (exercise 6)
Ans: 1.5 / 0.67
25.Calculate the amount of heat produced by 3Ω resistor in 15 min, when 1Ω and

3Ω resistors are connected in series to a 6V battery. (10 magway)
Ans: 1446.4 cal
26.An electric circuit installed in a house contains a 5A fuses and the voltage is
240V. Can twenty-two 60W electric lamps be used at the same time in that
circuit? (13 kachin)
Ans: 1200W (No. Twenty-two 60W electric lamps cannot be used…)
27.An electric circuit installed in a house contains a 5A fuses and the voltage is
230V. Can eighteen 60W electric lamps be used at the same time in that circuit?
Ans: 1150W (Yes. Eighteen 60W electric lamps can be used…) (14 foreign)
28.An electric circuit installed in a shop contains a 10A fuse and the voltage is
230V. Ten 100W electric lamps, two 150W refrigerators and two 200W
washing machines are being used there. Can these appliances be used at the
same time in that circuit? Find the cost of using all appliances for 10h if the
electricity costs 20 kyats per unit. (16 local)
Ans: 2300W / 1700W (It can be used) / 17kWh / 340 kyats
29.An electric circuit installed in an office there are twenty 60W electric lamps and
five 100W electric lamps are being used. If the electricity cost is 100 kyats per
unit, find the cost of using all lamps for 10h. (14 magway)
Ans: 17 kWh / 1700 kyats

30.An electric circuit installed in a house contains a 5A fuse and the voltage is
220V. Ten 40W electric lamps and a 600W iron are being used there. Find the
cost of using all the lamps and an iron for 12h. Assume that electricity costs 50
kyats per unit. Ans: 12 kWh / 600 kyats (13 mon)
31.An electric circuit installed in an office contains a 5A fuse and the voltage is
230V. Five 100W electric lamps and two 150W refrigerators are being used
there. Find the maximum number of 35W electric lamps which can safely be
used in addition. Ans: 1150W / 800W / 350W / 10 lamps (13 mon)
240V. Five 100W electric lamps and two 750W air conditioners are being used
used in addition. Find the cost of using all the lamps and two air conditioners
for 12h. Assume that the electricity costs 35 kyats per unit. (14 sagaing)
Ans: 2400W / 2000W / Remaining Power = 400W / 6lamps / 2360W /
28.32 kWh / 991.2 kyats
220V. Ten 75W electric lamps and two 180W refrigerators are being used
used in addition. Find the cost of using all the lamps and two refrigerators for
10h. Assume that the electricity costs 35 kyats per unit. (14 ayeyawaddy)
Ans: 2200W / 1110W / Remaining Power = 1090W / 10lamps / 2110W /
21.1 kWh / 738.5 kyats
34.What is the maximum potential difference that must be applied across a 5Ω

resistor of power 0.5W? (08 ygn)
Ans: 1.581V
35.The resistors 5 Ω, 10 Ω and 15 Ω are connected in parallel. If each resistor has

an electrical power of 0.5W, find the maximum potential difference which may
be supplied to the parallel combination and the current in each resistor.
Ans: 1.58V / 0.32A / 0.16A / 0.11A (13 bago)

36.The series resistors 2Ω, 3 Ω and 6 Ω are supplied by battery of e.m.f. 12V
battery and internal resistance 1.0 Ω. Find the rate of production of heat by this
circuit. (J = 4.2 Jcal ) (14 ygn)
Ans: 1A / 12Ω / 2.857
37.A battery of e.m.f. 12V and an internal resistance of 1 Ω are connected in series
with resistors of resistances 3 Ω and 2 Ω. Calculate the rate of production of
heat in the battery. (14 bago)
Ans: 5 Ω / 2A / 0.9524
38.Find the number of calories produced per second by a 3Ω resistor in the circuit
diagram shown below. (J = 4.2 Jcal ) (13 mon)
Ans: 3A / 6.429 cal 3Ω
12V , 1Ω
39.Find the amount of heat produced in 10 min by a 8.2Ω resistor in the circuit
diagram shown below. (13 foreign)
Ans: 4685.7 cal 12V, 1 Ω
6V, 0.5 Ω 2V, 0.3 Ω
8.2 Ω
40.Find the rate of production of heat by the 2Ω, 3Ω and 6Ω resistor respectively
in the circuit diagram shown below. [e.m.f. of battery is 12V and its internal
resistance is 1ohm.] (exercise 9)
Ans: 2.743 3Ω
1.829 2Ω
0.914 6Ω
E, r

41.Find the rate of production of heat by a battery in the circuit diagram shown
below. (exercise 11)
12V, 2 Ω 1.5 Ω
1Ω
Ans: 2 Ω/ 3A / 4.285 1Ω
42.Find the amount of heat produced in 10min by a 2Ω resistor in the circuit

diagram shown below. (10 foreign)
Ans: 5.5 Ω/ 2A / 1142.86 cal 6Ω
2Ω 6Ω 1.5 Ω
6Ω
12V, 0.5 Ω
43.Find the rate of production of heat in the battery in the circuit diagram shown
below. (08 ygn)
24V, 1.5Ω 1.5Ω

6Ω
6Ω
6Ω
Ans: 3.5Ω / 4.8A / 8.229

Chapter – 12
Electromagnetism
 Magnet
A substance which has the property of attracting small pieces of iron in its
vicinity is called a magnet.
- The magnetic iron oxide is a natural magnet.
- The magnet used in devices such as electric bells and telephones are
man-made magnets or artificial magnet.
 Magnetic Field
The region where a magnetic force is exerted is called a magnetic field.
- The stationary charge and the magnetic field do not affect each other.
- A moving charge or an electric current and the magnetic field affect each
other or they have mutual effect between them.
- The electric and magnetic phenomena are related.
 Magnetic Line of Force

A magnetic line of force is a path such that a tangent drawn at any point on it,
indicates the direction of the magnetic field at that point.
 A Bar Magnet
A bar magnet has two poles. The one at the north-seeking end is called the
north pole, and the other at the south-seeking end is called the south pole. The
poles of a magnet have a greater power of attraction than its central portion.
Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
 Magnetic Lines of Force around A Bar Magnet

The magnetic lines of force are used to represent the magnetic field. They leave
the north pole and enter the south pole.
S N

 Oersted’s Experiment
When a straight wire carrying a current was placed above a compass needle, the
needle was deflected. When the wire was placed below the compass needle, the
needle was deflected in the opposite direction. The deflection of the needle is
due to the magnetic force acting on it. Therefore, there is a magnetic field
around the wire carrying an electric current.
- The magnetic effect of an electric current was discovered by Oersted in 1820.

- The direction of the magnetic field due to the current flowing through the wire
can be found by using the right-hand rule.
 Right-hand Rule
Imagine the wire to be grasped in the right hand with the thumb pointing along
the wire in the direction of the current. The direction of fingers will give the
direction of the magnetic field. The north pole of a compass needle indicates the
direction of the magnetic field.
- As an electric field is represented by drawing electric lines of force and a

magnetic field can also be represented by magnetic lines of force.
- The magnetic lines of force are closed circular loops around the current
carrying wire and they are in the plane perpendicular to the wire.
- If the current flowing through the wire is reversed, the direction of the
magnetic field will also be reversed.
- However, the magnetic lines of force will still be closed circular loops.

 Solenoid
A solenoid is a cylindrical coil of wire. A solenoid has a magnetic field around
it when the current flows through it.
 A Solenoid to be considered as a Bar Magnet

The magnetic field of a current-carrying solenoid is identical with the magnetic
field of a bar magnet. Therefore, a current-carrying solenoid can be considered
as a bar magnet. One end of a solenoid is a north pole and the other end is a
south pole.
 South Pole and North Pole of a Solenoid

View one end of the solenoid. If the current is seen flowing in a clockwise
direction, that end is the south pole. If the current is seen flowing in an
anticlockwise direction, that end is the north pole.
 Fleming’s Left-hand Rule

Place the forefinger, second finger, and the thumb of the left hand mutually at
right angles to one another. If the forefinger points in the direction of the field
and the second finger in the direction of the current, then the thumb will point
in the direction of the motion along which the force acts.
F (thumb) = direction of force / motion

B (forefinger) = direction of magnetic field
I (second finger) = direction of current
F, B and I are perpendicular to one another.
- Right-hand rule gives the direction of magnetic field due to the current.
- Fleming’s left-hand rule gives the direction of magnetic force on a charged
particle or on a wire carrying current.

- When a current flows perpendicular to the magnetic field, there is a force

which is perpendicular to both the direction of current and that of magnetic
field.
- When a current flows parallel to the magnetic field, there is no force.
 Magnetic Force on a Charged Particle moving in a Magnetic Field

When a charged particle moves across a magnetic field, a magnetic force exerts
on it.
(A positive charge (+q) is moving in a magnetic field.)
F (thumb) = direction of magnetic force on particle

B (forefinger) = direction of magnetic field
v (second finger) = direction of velocity of particle
F, B and v are perpendicular to one another.
 Torque on a Coil in Magnetic Field
- A rectangular coil of wire abcd carrying a current I is placed in a uniform

magnetic field B between the poles of a magnet.
- The sides ab and cd are perpendicular to the field B and the sides ad and bc
are parallel to B.
- Only the sides ab and cd will experience a force.
- As the current flowing along ab is opposite to that flowing along cd with
respect to the field B, the forces acting on these sides will be equal and
opposite.
- The directions of these forces can be found by applying Fleming’s left-hand
rule.

- These two forces are called a couple.

- The moment of a couple is the product of one of these forces and the
perpendicular distance between them.
- The moment of a couple is also called a torque.
- These forces exert a torque on the coil so that it rotates about an axis OO'.
- The current can be found from the angle of rotation and the current is directly
proportional to the angle of rotation.
 Torque
The moment of a couple is called a torque.
 Couple
Two forces having equal magnitude and opposite directions which make an
object rotate are called a couple.
 Permanent Magnet
When a large current flows through the solenoid the steel bar placed inside the
solenoid becomes magnetized permanently. Such a magnet is called a
permanent magnet.
 Electromagnet
A soft iron bar is placed inside the solenoid of insulated wire. When a current
flows through the solenoid, the bar becomes magnetized. When the current
stops, it is demagnetized. The soft iron bar becomes a magnet only when the
current is flowing. Such a magnet is called an electromagnet or a temporary
magnet.
- The electromagnets are used in electric bell, telephone and electric motor.

 Permanent Magnets and Temporary Magnets

- Electromagnets are the artificial magnets and they are temporary magnets.
- A soft iron bar can be used to make an electromagnet, but not a permanent
magnet.
- A steel bar can be used to make a permanent magnet but not an electromagnet.
 Electric Bell
P = switch
S = spring
T = soft iron armature
A = hammer
G = gong
- The soft iron armature T is mounted on a spring S.

- A small metal plate attached to the armature acts as a contact.
- When the switch is pressed, the current flows through the circuit and the soft
iron bars become magnetized.
- As they attracts the armature T, the hammer A attached to it strikes the gong
G.
- At that moment the metal plate and the end of the screw are separated so that
the current stops.
- The magnetism of the soft iron bars disappear and the armature is returned by
the spring to its original position.
- Contact is now remade and the action repeated.
- Consequently, the armature vibrates and the hammer attached to it strikes the
gong G.
 Ammeter (or) Moving Coil Ammeter

An ammeter is a current-measuring instrument. A moving-coil galvanometer
functions as an ammeter when a shunt is connected in parallel with the
galvanometer.
 Shunt
A wire of low resistance which is placed in parallel with the galvanometer is
called a shunt.

*The components are (i) permanent magnet (ii) moving coil (iii) iron core and
(iv) shunt.
V = iR , V = (I – i)r
(I – i) r = iR
r =
( – )
I = current in the instrument (ammeter), i = current in the coil (Galvanometer)

= resistance of galvanometer, r = resistance of shunt
 Voltmeter (or) Moving Coil Voltmeter

A moving coil galvanometer functions as a voltmeter when a wire of high
resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer.
*The components are (i) permanent magnet (ii) moving coil (iii) iron core and
(iv) a wire of high resistance.
V = V + V
V = iR + iR
R = –
V = potential difference of voltmeter, i = current in volmeter,
= resistance of galvanometer, R = resistance of wire

 Induced Current
A current that is induced in a conductor due to the relative motion of the
conductor and a magnetic field.
 Electromagnetic Induction
The generation of an induced electric current when a conductor is moved
through a magnetic field. The transfer of electrical power from one circuit to
another (as in the case of transformers).
 AC Generator
An electromagnetic device that transforms mechanical energy into electrical
energy which is in the form of an alternating output voltage.
 Generator
An electrical device that transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Alternating Current (ac)

Electric current whose direction alternates (changes) at regular intervals.
 Direct Current (dc)

The flow of charge through a circuit in one direction only.

Note:
 Naturally occurring magnets were found some 2500 years ago.
 The magnetic field is represented by the magnetic lines of force.
 If a tangent is drawn at any point on a magnetic line of force its direction is the
same as the direction of the magnetic field intensity at that point.
 The magnetic lines of force leave the north pole and enter the south pole
 The best method of making a magnet is to use the magnetic effect of an electric
current.
 When a current flows through a solenoid of insulated wire a magnetic field is
set up everywhere inside.
 If the solenoid consists of many turns and a very large current flows through it a
powerful magnetic field is obtained.
 Electromagnetic devices used in construction work and industry consist of
electromagnets.
 Ammeter and voltmeter are electrical instruments whose constructions are
based upon the principle of a moving-coil galvanometer.
 A coil in a magnetic field rotates when a current flows through it. The effect of
rotation of a coil is used in the construction of a moving-coil galvanometer.
Difference between an Ammeter and a Voltmeter

Ammeter Voltmeter
- Ammeter measures electric current. - Voltmeter measures potential difference.
- Ammeter has very low resistance. - Voltmeter has very high resistance.
- Ammeter must be connected in series - Voltmeter must be connected in parallel

with resistor to measure the current with resistor to measure the potential
in it. difference across it.
- A moving coil galvanometer - A moving coil galvanometer functions

functions as an ammeter when as a voltmeter when a wire of high
a shunt is connected in parallel with resistance is connected in series with
the galvanometer. the galvanometer.

Short Question!
1. (a)Why is a compass needle placed a current-carrying wire deflected?
Explain this effect of electric current by drawing diagrams.
Who discovered it in 1820?
(b)What is the difference between the magnetic lines of force around a bar
magnet and those around a current carrying wire? Draw their figures.
(a) There is a magnetic field around every wire carrying an electric current.
The magnetic force acts on the compass needle therefore it is deflected.
Draw “ Oersted’s Experiment ” at note.
Oersted discovered it in 1820.
(b) (i) The magnetic line of force around a bar magnet are curved lines.
They leave the north pole and enter the south pole.
(ii) The magnetic lines of force around a current carrying wire are the closed
circular loops around the wire.
They are in the plane perpendicular to the wire.
* Figures: (Magnetic Lines of Force around A Bar Magnet) and (Middle Figure
of Right-hand Rule)
2. What effect was discovered by Oersted? Who discovered the reverse effect of
that discovered by Oersted? Name the two devices which use the
electromagnet.
- The magnetic effect of an electric current was discovered by Oersted in 1820.
- The reverse effect was discovered by Faraday.
- The two devices are electric bell and telephone.
3. What is the difference between the discovery of Oersted and that of Faraday?
State the law which gives the magnitude of an induced e.m.f.?
- The effect discovered by Faraday is the reverse of that discovered by Oersted.
- Oersted discovered the production of a magnetic field by an electric current
flowing through a wire.
- Faraday discovered the production of an electric current with the help of a
magnetic field.
- Faraday’s law which gives the magnitude of an induced e.m.f.

4. What is a solenoid? Why can a current carrying solenoid be considered as a

magnet? What kind of field exists in its vicinity when a current flows through
it? Does one need a current to flow through it for it to become a bar magnet.
- See at note. (A Solenoid to be considered as a Bar Magnet)
- A solenoid has a magnetic field in its vicinity when a current flows through it.
- Yes, one needs a current to flow.
5. Draw a solenoid together with its magnetic field. Is it different from that of a
bar magnet? Are solenoids used in simple electromagnets? When a solenoid has
a magnetic field?
- See figure at note. (A Solenoid to be considered as a Bar Magnet)
- No, it is not different from that of a bar magnet.
- Solenoids are used in simple electromagnets.
- A solenoid has a magnetic field in it vicinity when a current flows through it.
6. How would you know which is the north and which is the south pole of a
current carrying solenoid? (OR)
Discuss how the magnetic poles can be found at a solenoid when it is carrying a
current.
- See “South Pole and North Pole of a Solenoid” at note.
7. Discuss how a powerful magnetic field can obtain for a solenoid and how can
make a permanent magnet.
- The best method of making a magnet is to use the magnetic effect of an
electric current.
- When a current flows through a solenoid of insulated wire a magnetic field is
set up everywhere inside.
- If the solenoid consists of many turns and a very large current flows through it
a powerful magnetic field is obtained.
- See “ Permanent Magnet ” at note.
8. What is an electromagnet? Write down the name of three devices which use the
electromagnet. Describe, with a diagram, a function of a device consisting of an
electromagnet.
- See at note.

9. Name an electrical device using magnetic effect of current. Is it true that

magnetic field is produced by only magnet?
- Electric bell is a device using magnetic effect of current.
- No, it is not true because a current carrying wire produces a magnetic field in
its vicinity.
10.Which one is more useful: electromagnet or permanent magnet? Why? Can a

soft iron be made a permanent magnet?
- An electromagnet can be turned on and off by controlling the current in the
coil.
- This makes the electromagnet more useful than permanent magnet.
- No, a soft iron cannot be made a permanent magnet.
11.How do you find the direction of magnetic field from the magnetic line of force.
- If a tangent is drawn at any point on a magnetic line of force its direction is
the same as the direction of the magnetic field intensity at that point.
12.Describe the basic principle of the construction of a moving coil galvanometer.

Is magnetic field intensity a vector quantity?
- A coil in a magnetic field rotates when a current flows through it.
- The effect of rotation of a coil is used in the construction of a moving-coil
galvanometer.
- Yes, magnetic field intensity is a vector quantity.
13.What are the electrical instruments whose constructions are based upon the
principle of moving coil galvanometer?
- Ammeter and voltmeter are electrical instruments whose constructions are
based upon the principle of a moving-coil galvanometer.
14.How must a moving coil galvanometer be modified to convert it into voltmeter

and ammeter?
- A moving coil galvanometer functions as a voltmeter when a wire of high
resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer.
- A moving coil galvanometer functions as an ammeter when a shunt is
connected in parallel with the galvanometer.

15.Why is it necessary for the shunt of an ammeter to have very low resistance?
- The greater part of the current must flow through the shunt and a smaller part
of the current must flow through the coil.
- Therefore, it is necessary for the shunt of an ammeter to have very low
resistance.
16.What is meant by “a.c. and d.c.”?

What type of current is produced by the following?
(a) Lawpita generator, (b) a dry cell, (c) a storage battery
- See at note.
- (a) a.c. (b) d.c. (c) d.c.
17.What is voltmeter? Does it have a low or high resistance? How must a wire of
resistance R be connected with the coil of resistance R to convert the
galvanometer into a voltmeter?
- See at note. (Voltmeter)
- It has a high resistance.
- To convert the galvanometer into a voltmeter, a wire of resistance R must be
connected in series with the coil of resistance R .
18.Explain how to measure the current and the voltage in the circuit.
- To measure the current ammeter must be connected in series in the circuit.
- To measure the potential difference a voltmeter must be connected in parallel
with the circuit.

1. A galvanometer has a resistance of 1Ω and gives a full-scale deflection when a
current of 2 mA flows through it. How can it be converted for use of an
ammeter reading up to 10A? (14 ayeyawaddy)
Ans: 2× Ω
2. A galvanometer has a resistance of 10 Ω and gives a full-scale deflection when

a current of 1 mA flows through it. How can it be converted for use as (i) an
ammeter reading up to 10A and (ii) a voltmeter reading up to 50 V?
Ans: 0.001 Ω / 49990 Ω (13 bago)
3. The resistance of a moving coil galvanometer is 30 Ω and the current required

for a full scale deflection is 0.02A. Find the resistance to be used to convert it
into an ammeter reading up to 3A and a voltmeter reading up to 200V.
Ans: 0.2 Ω / 9970 Ω (16 foreign)
4. The resistance of a moving coil galvanometer is 30Ω and the current required
for a full scale deflection is 1 mA. Find the resistance to be used to convert it
into (a) an ammeter reading up to 10A and (b) a voltmeter reading up to 50V.
Ans: (a) 0.003 Ω / (b) 49970 Ω (14 magway)
5. A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 20Ω gives a full-scale

deflection when a current of 5 mA flows through it. What modification must be
made to it so that it will give a full scale deflection for (a) a current of 1A and
(b) a potential difference of 100V? (15 foreign)
Ans: (a) 0.1 Ω / (b) 19980 Ω
6. When an ammeter is connected in parallel with a current carrying resistor it

reads 5A. When the ammeter and a 10 Ω resistor are joined in series and the
combination is connected in parallel with the first resistor the ammeter reads
4.0A. What is the potential difference across the first resistor?
Ans: 200 V (13 sagaing)

7. When an ammeter is connected in parallel with a current carrying resistor it

reads 5A. When the ammeter and a 10 Ω resistor are joined in series and the
combination is connected in parallel with the first resistor the ammeter reads
3.0A. What is the potential difference across the first resistor?
Ans: 75 V (11 kachin)
8. A 150 V voltmeter has a resistance of 20000 Ω. When it is connected in series

with a resistor across a 120 V mains line it reads 6V. What is the resistance of
the resistor? (16 local)
Ans: 3× A / 114V / 38× Ω
9. A 150 V voltmeter has a resistance of 10000 Ω. When it is connected in series

with a resistor across a 120 V mains line it reads 5V. What is the resistance of
the resistor? (14 rakhine)
Ans: 5× A / 115V / 23× Ω




Chapter – 13
Modern Physics
 Thermionic Emission
 Edison Effect
 Explanation of Edison’s Effect by Richardson
 Thermionic Emission
 Edison Effect
- A small metal plate is mounted near a filament in an evacuated glass bulb.

- When the metal plate is connected to the positive terminal of a battery, a small
current flows through the galvanometer G.
- But no current flows when the metal plate is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery.
- This finding is known as the Edison effect.
Note
- In 1883, an American scientist, Thomas Edison, an inventor of the electric
light bulb observed a strange phenomenon from his experiment.
- Since the filament was not in contact with the plate, no current could be
expected to pass through the galvanometer.
- But Edison found that the galvanometer showed the existence of a small
current and he could not explain this effect.

 Explanation of Edison’s Effect by Richardson

- Richardson discovered that the hot bodies emitted electrons.
- When a current flows through the filament it becomes hot.
- When the filament is at a high temperature, it liberates electrons.
- These electrons are attracted by the metal plate (the positive plate) which is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
- The drift of electrons from the filament to the plate means the flow of current
from the plate to the filament.
- A small current flows through the galvanometer although the filament is not in
contact with the plate.
 Thermionic Emission
- The emission of electrons from the surface of metal at high temperature is
called thermionic emission.

 Semiconductor
 Semiconductor
 Positive Hole
 Number of Valence Electrons
 n – type Semiconductor
 p – type Semiconductor
 Charge Carriers (Majority Carriers)
 Conductivity of Semiconductor
 Semiconductor
- Materials which have an electrical resistance between the high resistance
values of insulators and the low resistance values of conductors are called
semiconductors.
eg. germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are commonly used semiconductors.
Note
- The resistances of insulating materials are of high values.
- The resistances of conductors are of low values.
- The resistance values of semiconductors are neither high nor low.
- In metals, electrons are the charge carriers.
- In semiconductors, both electrons and positive holes are the charge carriers.
 Positive Hole
- A positive hole is a vacancy which is left with the atom by an electron.
- It has a positive charge (+e) and the electron has a negative charge (−e).
 Number of Valence Electrons

- An indium (In) atom has 3 valence electrons.
- A germanium (Ge) atom has 4 valence electrons.
- An arsenic (As) atom has 5 valence electrons.

 n – type Semiconductor
- When arsenic atoms having five valence electrons are added to the pure
germanium atoms having four valence electrons the conductivity of germanium
increases and the n-type semiconductor is obtained.
- In the n-type semiconductor electrons are the majority carriers of electric
current.
 p – type Semiconductor
- When indium atoms having three valence electrons are added to the pure
germanium atoms having four valence electrons and the p-type semiconductor
is obtained.
- In the p-type semiconductor positive holes are the majority carriers.
 Charge Carriers (Majority Carriers)

- In a conductor, electrons are the charge carriers.
- In semiconductors, both electrons and positive holes are the charge carriers.
- In the n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers.
- In the p-type semiconductor positive holes are the majority carriers.
 Conductivity of Semiconductor
- At the normal temperature the pure semiconductors (Ge and Si) have equal
numbers of electrons and positive holes. Therefore they have poor conductivity.
- The conductivity of semiconductors increases when a few impurity atoms are
added to them.
- Arsenic, aluminium and indium atoms are used as the impurity atoms.

 Diode
 Diodes
 Vacuum Diode
 Function of a Vacuum Diode
 Vacuum Diode Circuit and Diode Characteristics
 p – n Junction
 p – n Junction Diode
 Forward Biased (given to p – n junction diode by a battery)
 Reverse Biased (given to p – n junction diode by a battery)
 Diodes
- A diode is an evacuated glass bulb which consists of a metal filament
surrounded by a metal cylinder.
- There are two types of diodes and they are the vacuum diode and the p-n
junction diode.
Note
- In 1904, Fleming invented a diode using the principle of thermionic emission.
- Di = 2 and odes = electrodes.
- The filament in the diode shown in figure is used as a source of electrons.
- In the commonly used diodes, the filament is used as a heater.
 Vacuum Diode
- A vacuum diode is an evacuated glass bulb which consists of two electrodes

called cathode and anode (plate).
- The filament is surrounded by the metal cylinder.
- The filament is cathode and the metal cylinder is anode.

 Function of a Vacuum Diode

- A vacuum diode consists of cathode and anode.
- Cathode emits electrons and anode attracts electrons when it is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery.
- The current flows from anode to cathode in one direction only.
- When anode is connected to the negative terminal of a battery, no current
flows.
 Vacuum Diode Circuit and Diode Characteristics

- The characteristic of a diode is a graph which shows the relation between the
plate current (I ) and the potential difference (V ) between anode and cathode.
- The I − V graph is not a straight line.
- I is not directly proportional to V therefore the vacuum diode does not obey
Ohm’s law.
 p – n Junction
- By a special melting process, p-type and n-type semiconductors can be made
in contact so that a boundary or junction is formed between them.
- This junction is called a p-n junction.
 p – n Junction Diode
- A device which consists of a p-n junction is called a junction diode or a p-n
junction diode.

Note
- In the figure the arrow indicates the direction of the current.
- A p-n junction diode is a crystal diode.
- It is very much smaller than a vacuum diode.
- Nowadays, a p-n junction diode is used instead of vacuum diode.
- The cathode in a vacuum diode has to be heated to use.
- It is not necessary to heat a crystal diode.
 Forward Biased (given to p – n junction diode by a battery)

- When a battery is joined with its positive terminal to the p-type semiconductor
and its negative terminal to the n-type semiconductor, a current flows through
the p-n junction diode.
- The p-n junction diode is said to be forward-biased.
 Reverse Biased (given to p – n junction diode by a battery)

- When a battery is joined with its negative terminal to the p-type
semiconductor and its positive terminal to the n-type semiconductor, only a
very small current flows through the p-n junction diode.
- The p-n junction diode is said to be reverse-biased.
Note
- In a p-n junction diode, the holes move from the p-type to n-type
semiconductor and the electrons move from the n-type to p-type semiconductor.
- Therefore, a diode can be used as a rectifier.
- Diodes do not obey Ohm’s law. (V = IR cannot be used for diodes)

 Triode
 Triode
 Function of a Triode
 Triode Circuit and Triode Characteristics
 Triode
- A triode is an evacuated glass bulb which consists of three electrodes called
cathode, anode and grid.
- The grid is between cathode and anode but it is kept nearer to the cathode.
Note
- In 1907, De Forest invented a vacuum tube called a triode.
- Tri = 3 and odes = electrodes
- When a triode is used, a lower voltage is applied to the grid than the cathode.
- If the same voltage is applied, the grid does not work at all and the tube
behaves like a diode.
- If the cathode potential is zero, then the grid potential must be negative.
 Function of a Triode
- A triode consists of cathode, anode and grid.
- Cathode emits electrons and anode attracts electrons when it is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery.
- The grid controls the number of electrons passing through it.
- The grid is a helix of wire or wire mesh and it is kept nearer to the cathode
than the anode.

- The grid must have lower voltage than cathode.
 Triode Circuit and Triode Characteristics

- The characteristic of a triode is a graph which shows the relation between the
plate current (I ) and the potential difference (V ) between anode and cathode.
- Each curve represents for each grid voltage.
- The I − V graph is not a straight line.
- I is not directly proportional to V therefore the triode does not obey Ohm’s
law.

 Rectifier
 Rectifier
 Half – wave Rectifier
 Full – wave Rectifier
 Rectifier
- A rectifier is a device which converts an alternating current (ac or AC) into a
unidirectional current or direct current (dc or DC).
 Half – wave Rectifier

- There is only one diode in the half-wave rectifier.
- During the first half of the cycle, ‘a’ is at a higher potential than ‘b’, so that a
current flows in the circuit.
- During the second half of the cycle, ‘a’ is at a lower potential than ‘b’, so that
no current flows in the circuit.
- The current (I) flows in the circuit only when ‘a’ is at a higher potential than
‘b’.
- As the current (I) flows in the diode for every first half of the cycle of a.c
voltage.
- Therefore, this device is called a half-wave rectifier.

 Full – wave Rectifier

- There are two diodes in the full-wave rectifier.
- During the first half of the cycle, ‘a’ is at a higher potential than ‘b’.
- Therefore the current ( ) flows in the diode ( ) and no current flows in the
diode ( ).
- During the second half of that cycle, ‘b’ is at a higher potential than ‘a’.
- Therefore the current ( ) flows in the diode ( ) and no current flows in the
diode ( ).
- As the current flows through the resistor (R) for both half-cycles of the a.c
voltage.
- Therefore, this device is called a full-wave rectifier.
Note
- Diodes can be used as rectifiers because the current flows in one direction
only from anode A to cathode K.
- Rectifiers can also be constructed by using vacuum diodes but the circuits
must be modified property.
- There are two types of rectifiers and, they are half-wave rectifier and full-
wave rectifier.

 Transistor
 Transistor
 pnp Transistor
 npn Transistor
 Transistor Biasing Circuit
 Current Amplifier
 Power Amplifier
 The Advantages of Transistors over the Vacuum Tubes
 Transistor
- A transistor is a semiconductor device which works as an amplifier.
- It is made of three of three layers of n-type and p-type semiconductors.
Note
- Transistor was discovered by three American scientists Shockley, Bardeen
and Brattain in 1949.
- Transistor means transfer resistor.
- There are two common kinds of transistors; the pnp and the npn transistors.
- From that time onwards various kinds of electronic equipment which employ
transistors were designed and constructed.
 pnp Transistor
In a pnp transistor, a thin layer of n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between
two layers of p-type semiconductors.
 npn Transistor
In an npn transistor, a thin layer of p-type semiconductor is sandwiched
between two layers of n-type semiconductors.

Note
- An electrode is attached to each layer.
- There are three electrodes in a transistor; the emitter (E), the base (B) and the
collector (C).
- In the symbols for the transistors the arrows show the directions of the current
flowing between the emitter E and the base B.
- The direction of current is the same as that of the positive holes.
- The electrons flow in the direction opposite to that of positive holes.
- A transistor consists of two junctions; emitter junction (EB junction) and
collector junction (CB junction).
- When a transistor is in use, the emitter junction must be forward-biased and
the collector junction must be reverse-biased.
 Transistor Biasing Circuit

 Current Amplifier
(*How to use a transistor as a current amplifier?)
- The emitter junction is forward-biased, the positive holes which are majority
carriers flow across the junction from E to the base B.
- The base is very thin about 10 cm, the majority of positive holes flow across
the base to the collector which is reverse-biased.
- A current I flows in the collector circuit.
- The remainder of positive holes flows into the base so that a current I is
obtained there.
- If I is a current which flows across the emitter, then I = I + I .
- However the base is so thin that I ~ 0.02 I and I ~ 0.98 I .
(I ~ I and I << I )
- The small base current I can control a very large collector current I .
- Because of this property, a transistor can be regarded as a current amplifier.
 Power Amplifier
(*How to use a transistor as a power amplifier?)
- The resistance of forward-biased emitter junction (R ) is small and that of

reverse-biased collector junction (R ) is large.
Power P = I R , P = I R
- But I is nearly equal to I ( I ~ I ) but R >> R therefore P >> P .
- The power of the emitter side is small and the power of the collector side is
large.
- Therefore the transistor can be used as a power amplifier.
 The Advantages of Transistors over the Vacuum Tubes

(*Why do people use transistor instead of vacuum tubes?)
- They do not deteriorate with time, whereas vacuum tubes do.

- They are physically much more robust than vacuum tubes.
- They waste much less electrical power than vacuum tubes.
- There is no warm-up period after switching on to a transistor.
- Transistors are very much smaller than vacuum tube but they perform a
similar function.

 Electronic Circuits and Electronic Logic Gates
 Electronic Circuits
 Integrated Circuit
 Electronic Logic Gate
 Universal Gates
 A Simple Circuit which has the same Effect as AND gate
 About AND Gate
 Symbols and Truth Tables for Five Logic Gates
 Combination of Gates
 Application of Logic Gates
 Electronic Circuits
- An arrangement whereby connections of electronic components such as
resistors, capacitors and transistors are made is called an electronic circuit.
- There are three groups of electronic circuits and they are -

(i) vacuum tube circuit, (ii) transistor circuit and (iii) integrated circuit (IC).
 Integrated Circuit
- In the integrated circuit all the electronic components and connections
required for an electronic circuit are all made on one single semiconductor
crystal (eg. a silicon crystal)
Note
- By 1950, various electronic equipments which make use of transistors were
widely used.
- These equipments are small and light, they can be used quite conveniently.
- Integrated circuits are so small that about 200 000 electronic components can
be fitted into one cubic inch or of less space.
- In the integrated circuit (IC), the resistor, capacitor, diode and transistors are
made by using the process of diffusion.
- Other components are made by employing films deposited on crystal layers.
- Integrated circuits are used in televisions, computers and advanced electronic
equipments.

 Electronic Logic Gate

- An electronic logic gate is an electronic device which takes in information
from the environment; makes a decision based on that information and then
gives out the result.
-There are five common logic gates and they are the AND, NAND, OR, NOR
and NOT (inverter) gates.
 Universal Gates
- NAND gates and NOR gates are called universal gates because they alone can
be used to build up all other types of gates.
Note
- Different types of logic gates can be built from different arrangements of
electronic components.
- Logic gates can be built up using resistors and transistors, but nowadays it is
far more convenient to use small integrated circuits (ICs).
- Each circuit has all the necessary electronic components already connected
together on a tiny piece of silicon.
 A Simple Circuit which has the same Effect as AND gate

(A Simple AND Gate)
- If switch A is opened, the lamp will not light.

- If switch B is opened, the lamp will not light.
- If both switches A and B are opened, the lamp will not light.
- If both switches A and B are closed, the lamp will light.

 About AND Gate

- The reference number for four (QUAD) AND gates IC is TTL 7408.
- TTL stands for Transistor Transistor Logic.
- TTL 7408 needs a 5 V power supply.
- Pin 14 of the IC is connected to positive terminal of the supply.
- Pin 7 of the IC is connected to negative terminal of the supply.
- When the input signals are fed into the pin 13 and 12 of TTL 7408.
- The output system (protective resistor and LED) is connected between pin 11
and pin 7.
- When leads A and B are both connected to negative supply (low voltage, logic
0), there is no output.
- If A is connected to the positive supply (high voltage, logic l), and B remains
at logic 0, then again there is no output (low voltage, logic 0).
- When B is at logic 1 and A is at logic 0 there is still no output (logic 0).
- But when both A and B are at logic 1 there is a high voltage (logic 1) at the
output and the LED which serves as an indicator lights up.
- Obviously, the only way that the LED will light up (output is high or logic 1),
is when both input A AND input B are at logic 1.
- This is why it is called an AND gate.

 Symbols and Truth Tables for Five Logic Gates

( Low voltage = logic 0 and High voltage = logic 1 )
AND gate - The output is high only when both A and B are high.
NAND gate - The output is not high when both A and B are high.
OR gate - The output is high when either A or B or both are high.
NOR gate - The output is not high when either A or B or both are high.
NOT gate - The output is high when the input is not high. Whatever the
input, the gate inverts it.

 Combination of Gates

 Application of Logic Gates
(1) A Security Lock
- A security lock is designed using a two-switch system.

- If a hidden switch is turned on first, turning on the main switch will open the
door lock.
- However, if the hidden switch is not turned on, turning on the main switch
will turn on an alarm instead.
(2) A Fire Alarm
- If smoke or heat is detected; the fire alarm will turn on.

- If both smoke and heat are detected, the fire extinguisher will also be set to
operate.

 Cathode Ray
 Cathode Rays
 Properties of Cathode Rays
 Electric Discharge Tube
 Electric Discharges
 Cathode Ray Tube
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
 Functions of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 The uses of CRO
 Cathode Rays
- Streams of electrons moving at high speed are called cathode rays.
 Properties of Cathode Rays

- Cathode rays travel in straight line.
- Cathode rays have momentum and kinetic energy.
- Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles.
- Cathode rays can be deflected by electric field and magnetic field because
they are negatively charged particles.
Note
- When electrons strike the fluorescent screen; fluorescence takes place with a
green light.
- Under normal conditions air is an insulator and no electric discharge can occur
in it.
- It is known from experiments that a voltage of 30,000 V is required for the
electric discharge between two plates in air which are 1 cm apart.
- The lower the pressure of the air the lesser is the voltage required for the
electric discharge.
- Crookes first studied the electric discharge through air at low pressure.
- The metal electrodes are sealed at the ends of a glass tube about 15 cm long.

 Electric Discharge Tube

- To apply a high voltage between the electrodes they are connected to an
induction coil.
- The tube is connected to a vacuum pump through a side tube to pump the air
out of the tube.
- The electrode at a higher voltage is called an anode and the other one is called
a cathode.
- A voltage higher than 1000 V is applied between the cathode and the anode
while the air inside the tube is slowly pumped out.
 Electric Discharges
(i) At 20 mmHg Pressure
- The first electric discharge appears in the tube at about 20 mm Hg pressure.

- This first discharge consists of thin violet streamers.
(ii) At 5 mmHg Pressure
- At 5 mm Hg pressure a dark region appears near the Cathode.

- That dark region is called the Faraday dark space.

- A blue negative glow appears between the cathode and the Faraday dark
space.
- The pink positive column appears between the anode and the Faraday dark
space.
(iii) At 0.05 mmHg Pressure
- At 0.05 mm Hg pressure the positive column shrinks towards the anode and
begins to break up into striations.
- The Faraday dark space and the negative glow increase in length, and another
dark region appear between the cathode and the negative glow.
- That dark region is called the Crookes dark space.
(iv) At 0.01 mmHg Pressure
- When the pressure reaches 0.01 mm Hg the positive column and the negative
glow disappear.
- At this stage the Crookes dark space extends to fill the whole of the tube and
the walls of the tube show a green fluorescence.
- This is due to the invisible rays, from the cathode, striking the walls of the
tube.
- These invisible rays emanating from the cathode are called "cathode rays".
- The name was given by Crookes.

 Cathode Ray Tube

- A cathode ray tube is an evacuated glass tube which mainly consists of an
electron gun and a fluorescent screen.
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

- A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) consists of a cathode ray tube to which is
connected an appropriate electronic circuit.
- The cathode ray tube is an evacuated glass tube which is the principal part of
the CRO.
- The essential parts of a CRO are (i) the electron gun (ii) the deflection system,
and (iii) the fluorescent screen.
 Functions of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

- The filament-cathode emits electrons which are accelerated by an anode called
the accelerating electrode.
- The control electrode and the focusing electrode converge and concentrate the
electrons into a fine beam.
- When the potential difference is given to the horizontal Y plates and the
vertical X plates, the electron beam is deflected vertically by the Y plates and
horizontally by the X plates.
- When the electron beam strikes the screen which is coated with phosphor, a
bright spot is produced.
 The uses of CRO

- It is a primary component of the television set.
- It is used for studying the current and voltage waveforms in various electric
circuits.
- It is used for checking laboratory electric and electronic equipments, radios
and televisions.

 X-ray
 X-ray
 Properties of X-rays
 X-rays Tube
 Production of X-rays
 Two Types of X-rays
 Uses of X-rays
 X-ray
- X-rays are electromagnetic waves like light but they have much shorter
wavelengths than those of light.
 Properties of X-rays
- X-rays are electromagnetic waves like light.
- The wavelengths of x-rays are much shorter than those of light.
- X-rays can penetrate solid material including metals.
- A few millimeters of aluminium will stop most x-rays.
- X-rays can cause ionization by stripping electrons from the atoms.
Note
- In 1895, William Roentgen discovered x-rays by observing that some crystals
glowed brightly near a working cathode ray tube.
- He also found that wrapped photographic plates were fogged as if exposed to
light.
- The tube evidently emitted some rays which affected the photographic plates.
- These rays are now called x rays.
- X-rays are emitted when electrons strike the target, which is made of tungsten
to withstand high temperatures.

 X-rays Tube
 Production of X-rays (*How are x-rays produced?)

- X-rays are produced by accelerating electrons through a potential drop, V of
about 10 to 100 kV in a high vacuum.
- These electrons are stopped suddenly in a target of some dense material.
 Two Types of X-rays

- There are two types of x-rays and they are (i) characteristic x-rays (intense
sharp lines) and (ii) continuous x-rays (white x-rays).
(i) Characteristic X-rays

- High energy electrons emitted from the cathode in bombarding the target may
knock an electron completely out of its atom.
- Electrons from orbit having higher energy will fall back into the vacant
position emitting the characteristic x-rays.

(ii) Continuous X-rays

- When an electron passes through the atoms of the target material; it will suffer
a series of deflections in the Coulomb field of the nuclei of the target.
- Each time the electron is deflected, it is given a brief acceleration which
produces a small burst of radiation.
- This gives rise to the continuous spectrum.
 Uses of X-rays
(i) Soft X-rays

- X-rays with low penetrating power are called soft x-rays.
- Soft x-rays can penetrate flesh easily but not bones.
- Soft x-rays are used to take x-ray photographs of some parts of human body
for medical diagnosis.
(ii) Hard X-rays

- X-rays with high penetrating power are called hard x-rays.
- Hard x-rays are used to destroy cancer cells.
- Hard x-rays are used in industries for finding defects in welded joints and
metal castings.
(*Extreme care is necessary in this treatment because x-rays can also damage
normal cells.)

 Radioactivity
 Radioactivity
 Radioactive Material
 Radioactive Isotopes
 Alpha Rays
 Properties of Alpha Rays
 Beta Rays
 Positron
 Properties of Beta Rays
 Gamma Rays
 Properties of Gamma Rays
 Similarities between X-rays and Gamma Rays
 Radioactive Decay
 Activity
 Half-Life
 Radioactivity
- Radioactivity is the emission of some or all of alpha ray, beta ray and gamma
ray from the nucleus of an atom.
 Radioactive Material
- Any material which can emit radiations is said to be radioactive material.
 Radioactive Isotopes
- Any isotope which can emit radiations is said to be radioactive isotopes.
eg. U and U are radioactive isotopes.
Note
- In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted radiations
which affected photographic plates and cause ionizations.
- This effect is called radioactivity and uranium is said to be a radioactive
material.
- Marie Curie discovered two radioactive elements polonium and radium.
 Alpha ( ) Rays
- Alpha rays consist of positively charged particles and are helium nucleus.

 Properties of Alpha Rays

- Alpha rays consist of positively charged particles.
- Alpha rays can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
- Alpha rays have the most strongly ionizing power of the three rays.
- Alpha rays are the least penetrating of the three rays.
- Alpha rays can be stopped by a thick sheet of paper.
 Beta ( ) Rays
- Beta rays consist of electrons or positrons with varying speeds.
 Positron
- A positron has the same mass as an electron but it has a positive charge.
- A positron is a positive electron.
 Properties of Beta Rays

- Beta rays of electrons carry negative charge and beta rays of positrons carry
positive charge.
- Beta rays can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
- Beta rays are much less ionizing than alpha rays but have more penetrating
power.
- They can be stopped by a few millimeters of aluminium.
 Gamma ( ) Rays
- Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves like light and x-rays but they have
much shorter wavelengths.
- They are high energy photons.
 Properties of Gamma Rays

- Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves like light and x-rays but have much
shorter wavelengths.
- Gamma rays have the least ionizing power of the three rays.
- Gamma rays are the most penetrating of the three rays.
- Their intensity is greatly reduced by several centimeters of lead but they are
never completely stopped.

 Similarities between X-rays and Gamma Rays

- They are electromagnetic waves.
- They have very much shorter wavelengths than light.
- They travel with the speed of light.
- They have low ionizing power.
- They have high penetrating power.
- They cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Note
- Gamma rays are also produced when electrons collide with positrons (a
process called electron-positron annihilation).
- The frequency of gamma ray is very high. Energy of photon is directly
proportional to its frequency. (E = hv = hf)
- Radioactive substances such as radium and polonium occur in nature.
- Radioactive substances can also be made artificially.
- Nuclear reactors, cyclotrons and other accelerators are used for the production
of artificial radioactive samples.
- Radioactive isotopes find wide and varied applications in medicine,
agriculture, industry and in other areas.
 Radioactive Decay
- Radioactive atoms of an element change into atoms of other elements when
alpha or beta particles are emitted.
- Such change of radioactive atoms is called radioactive decay.
 Activity
- The rate of decay of a radioactive sample is called its activity.
Note
- The SI unit for activity is the becquerel (Bq) (1 Bq = 1 events )
- In practice, activities are quite high so that larger units; MBq (10 Bq) and
GBq (10 Bq), are used.
- The unit of activity is the curie. (1 curie = 3.7 × 10 events = 37 GBq)
- The rate of decay is unaffected by temperature but is a characteristic of the
radioactive atoms, which is described by its half-life.
- Radioactive substances are unstable and they decay at different rates.
- All elements are not radioactive.

 Half-Life
- The half-life is the time for half the atoms in radioactive sample to decay.
(*What is meant by “Radium has a half-life of 1620 years”?)

- Radium has a half-life of 1620 years.
- This means that if we start with N atoms (of radium), then only atoms will
remain after a time of 1620 years has elapsed.
- After another 1620 years the number remaining will be .
- And it goes on decaying at that same rate.
- After each half-life period the number of atoms is reduced to one half of the
number present at the beginning of the period.

 Models of the Atom
 Atom
 Thomson’s Atomic Model
 Rutherford's Atomic Model
 Alpha ( ) Particle
 Alpha ( ) Particle Scattering Experiment of Rutherford
 Difficulties of Thomson’s Model
 Explanation of α-particle Scattering
 Explanation by Rutherford’s Model
 Instability (or) Difficulties of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
 Bohr’s Atomic Model (or) Rutherford – Bohr’s Atomic Model
 Bohr’s Basic Assumptions
 Usefulness of Bohr’s Atomic Model
 Structures of Some Atoms According to Bohr’s Atomic Model
 Energy of the Hydrogen Atom using Bohr’s Theory
 Energy Level Diagram of the Hydrogen Atom
 Wave number (k), Momentum (p) and Energy (E) in Quantum Theory
 Bohr Condition for Bohr’s Orbit or Electron Orbit
 Diagrams of Waves in Allowed Orbits
 Symbol for An Atom, An Element and A Nucleus
 Atomic Number (Z)
 Mass Number (A)
 Isotopes
 Fundamental Particle
 Atom
- Matter is composed of atoms. These atoms were once assumed to be the
smallest elementary particles or indivisible particles.
Note
- In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered that cathode rays were negatively charged
electrons.
-The mass of an electron was very much smaller than that of the lightest atom.
- Almost all the mass of an atom must be due to the total mass of the positively

charged particles.
- Normally, an atom is electrically neutral.
- An atom consists of negatively charged electrons and it must also consist of
positively charged particles.
 Thomson’s Atomic Model

- Thomson proposed a model of an atom.
- In this model, the positive charge was supposed to be uniformly distributed
throughout a sphere in which the electrons were embedded.
- A normal atom is electrically neutral and hence the sum of the positive and
negative charges is zero.
 Rutherford's Atomic Model

- Rutherford’s atomic model, the positive charge should not be spread
throughout the atom.
- It should be concentrated in a small volume at the centre of the atom.
- This positively charged volume is called the nucleus and which is surrounded
by electrons.
 Alpha ( ) Particle
- An alpha particle is a helium nucleus ( He).
- It has a positive charge +2e. (e = 1.6× 10 C)
 Alpha ( ) Particle Scattering Experiment of Rutherford

- Rutherford and his co-workers investigated the scattering of α- particles by a

thin gold foil by bombarding it with α- particles.
- They found that most α-particles were scattered through very small angles.
- However, some α-particles were scattered through much larger angles.
- Occasionally an α-particle was stopped and thrown back along its original
path.
- This was a very strange phenomenon.
 Difficulties of Thomson’s Model

(*Why was Thomson’s model unacceptable?)
- According to Thomson's atomic model, the positive charge of an atom is
distributed uniformly over its volume so that the magnitude of the repulsive
force exerted upon the positively charged α-particle should be very small.
- In addition, the magnitude of the attractive force exerted upon the α-particle
by the electrons distributed in the atom should also be very small.
- Therefore, most of the α-particle should pass almost straight through the very
thin gold foil.
- This means that the α-particles could be scattered through very small angles.
- That did not agree with the experiment.
- Therefore, Thomson's atomic model became an unacceptable model.
 Explanation of -particle Scattering

- The scattering of α-particle in the atomic models are shown below.

 Explanation by Rutherford’s Model

(*Why was Rutherford’s model acceptable?)
- The positive charge should not be spread throughout the atom but it should be
concentrated in a small volume at the centre of the atom.
- The positively charged nucleus exert repulsive force upon the α-particles.
- When the α-particle travels directly toward the nucleus experiences a strong
repulsive force.
- Hence the α-particle is stopped near the nucleus and is thrown or scattered
back along its original path.
- This explanation is an acceptable one.
- Thus, Rutherford's atomic model became an acceptable atomic model.
 Instability (or) Difficulties of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
- If the electrons in an atom were assumed to be stationary, they would fall into
the nucleus because they would be attracted by the nucleus.
- If the electrons were assumed to move around the nucleus they would have
centripetal acceleration.
- The accelerated electrons would radiate energy according to electromagnetic
theory.
- As a result they would lose energy gradually and its orbit would get smaller
and smaller.
- Finally electrons would fall into the nucleus and the atom could no longer
exist.

 Bohr’s Atomic Model (or) Rutherford – Bohr’s Atomic Model
- Rutherford’s atomic model, the positive charge should not be spread

throughout the atom.
- It should be concentrated in a small volume at the centre of the atom.
- This positively charged volume is called the nucleus.
- In this model, electrons are moving around the nucleus in circular orbits.
 Bohr’s Basic Assumptions

- Bohr made the following basic assumptions.
- The electrons which are moving around the nucleus should be restricted to
allowed orbits.
- If an electron is moving in a certain orbit, it does not absorb or radiate energy.
- But it may absorb or radiate energy when it jumped from one orbit to another.
 Usefulness of Bohr’s Atomic Model

(*Why is Bohr’s atomic model a useful model?)
- Bohr’s model can be used for hydrogen atom and hydrogen-like atom.
- Therefore, Bohr’s model is a useful model.
 Structures of Some Atoms According to Bohr’s Atomic Model
Note
- The space inside an atom is mostly empty.
- All the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
- An atom has no charge. (electrically neutral)
- The atoms have neutrons in the nucleus except the hydrogen atom.

 Energy of the Hydrogen Atom using Bohr’s Theory

- Using his assumptions, Bohr obtained a formula to calculate the energy of
hydrogen atom or the energy of electron in the hydrogen atom.
.
=− eV (eV =electron volt)
= energy of the hydrogen atom, n = 1,2,3,…, ∞ (infinity)
n = 1 (ground state) , n = 2 (1st excited state) , n = 3 (2nd excited state), …

The unit of energy is the electron volt (eV). (1eV = 1.6× 10 J)
 Energy Level Diagram of the Hydrogen Atom

.
=− eV (n = 1,2,3,…, ∞)
For the ground state (n = 1st orbit), E = − 13.6 eV

.
For the 1st excited state (n = 2nd orbit), E = − = −3.4 eV (or) E =
.
For the 2nd excited state (n = 3rd orbit), E = − = −1.51 eV (or) E =
.
For the n = ∞ orbit , E =− =0
Using the energy values, the energy level diagram of the hydrogen atom can be
drawn shown below.

 Wave number (k), Momentum (p) and Energy (E) in Quantum Theory
- Light has both particle and wave nature.
- Particles have both particle and wave nature.
- Wave number k= ( = wavelength)
- Momentum of a particle p = ℏk = (ℏ = )
- Energy packet formula E = ℏ = h v (ω = 2 )
( = angular frequency, v = frequency, h = Planck constant)
 Bohr Condition for Bohr’s Orbit or Electron Orbit

For an electron to be in an allowed orbit, the angular momentum of the electron
must be equal to an integral multiple of ℏ.
mvr = nℏ
m = mass of electron, v = velocity of electron, r = radius of electron orbit
(OR)
For an electron to be in an allowed orbit, the Bohr’s orbit or the electron orbit
must contain an integral number of wavelength ( ).
2 r=n
= radius of electron orbit, = wavelength, n = 1, 2, 3,……
 Diagrams of Waves in Allowed Orbits
 Symbol for An Atom, An Element and A Nucleus
X = atom or element or nucleus, Z = atomic number, A = mass number

 Atomic Number (Z)

The number of protons or the number of electrons in an atom.
 Mass Number (A)

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
 Isotopes
The atoms of the same element that have different masses.
eg. two isotopes of copper, Cu and Cu
three isotopes of hydrogen, H (hydrogen), H (deuterium), H (tritium)
six isotopes of uranium, U, U, U, U, U, U
 Fundamental Particle
- Electrons are fundamental particles which have no internal structure.
- Protons and neutrons are not regarded as fundamental particles.
- They are made up of more basic blocks of matter called quarks.
- A proton is composed of three quarks ( u u d ) and a neutron is composed of
three quarks ( d d u), where u and d represent up and down quarks.
Note
- Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties because they
the same electron distribution.
- Isotopes have different physical properties because they have different masses.
- Over 1000 isotopes are known thus far, the most abundant one in the entire
universe is the hydrogen isotope.
- All of the known isotopes are not found in nature; many of them are made
artificially.

 Uses of Radioactivity
 Radioisotopes
 Production of Artificial Radioisotopes
 Some Practical uses of Radioisotopes
 Tracers
 Uses of Radioisotopes as Tracers
 Some Practical uses of Radioisotopes as Tracers
 Artificial Radioisotopes with Short Half-lives used as Tracers
 Two uses of Gamma Radiation
 Two Medical uses of Radioisotopes
 Thickness Monitoring (the use of beta rays (or) beta source)
 Radioactive Dating
 Carbon Dating (using Carbon-14)
 Dating Rocks
 Radioisotopes
Radioactivity isotopes are called radioisotopes (or radio nuclides).
 Production of Artificial Radioisotopes

(*How are artificial radioisotopes produced?)
- Artificial radioisotopes are produced when nuclei absorb neutrons or gamma
radiations.
- They can be produced using the nuclear reactors, cyclotrons and other
accelerators.
eg. If cobalt-59 absorbs a neutron, it becomes cobalt-60, which is radioisotopes.
 Some Practical uses of Radioisotopes

(*What are some practical uses of radioisotopes?)
- Some practical uses of radioisotopes are -
(i) Tracers (ii) Radiotherapy (iii) X-ray photography (iv) Thickness monitoring
and (v) Radioactive dating

 Tracers
Radioisotopes can be detected in very small (and safe) quantities, so they can be
used as tracers- their movements can be tracked.
 Uses of Radioisotopes as Tracers

(*Why can radioisotopes be used as tracers?)
- Radioisotopes can be detected in very small (and safe) quantities, so they can
be used as tracers- their movements can be tracked.
- Therefore, they can be used as tracers.
 Some Practical uses of Radioisotopes as Tracers

(i) Checking the function of body organs.
(ii) Tracking a plant’s uptake of fertilizer from roots to leaves by adding a tracer
to the soil water.
(iii) Detecting leaks in the underground pipes by adding a tracer in the liquid in
the pipe.
 Artificial Radioisotopes with Short Half-lives used as Tracers

(* Why are artificial radioisotopes with short half-lives used as tracers?)
- Since they have short half-lives there is no detectable radiation after a few
days and no danger of radiation.
- Therefore, artificial radioisotopes with short half-lives are used as tracers.
 Two uses of Gamma Radiation

(1) Radiotherapy
- Cobalt-60 is a strong gamma emitter.
- Gamma rays can penetrate deep into the body and kill living cells.
- So a highly concentrated beam from a cobalt-60 source can be used to kill
cancer cells in a tumour.
- Treatment like this is called radiotherapy.
(2) Testing for Cracks

- Gamma rays have the same properties as short- wavelength X-rays, so they
can be used to photograph metal to reveal cracks.

- A cobalt-60 gamma source is compact and does not need electrical power like
an X-ray tube.
 Two Medical uses of Radioisotopes

(1) Tracers
- Iodine-123 is a gamma emitter.
- It is used as a tracer to check the thyroid function.
(2) Radiotherapy
- Cobalt-60 is a strong gamma emitter.
- A highly concentrated beam from a cobalt-60 source can be used to kill cancer
cells in a tumour.
 Thickness Monitoring (the use of beta rays (or) beta source)

- The band of tyre cord passing through the rollers move between a beta source
and a detector.
- If the cord becomes too thin, more beta radiation reaches the detector.
- The detector sends the signals to the control unit, which adjusts the gap
between the rollers.
- Thus a steady thickness of material can be matained.
 Radioactive Dating
- Radioactive dating is a technique for estimating the age of an object by
measuring the amounts of various isotopes in it.

 Carbon Dating (using Carbon-14)

- There is carbon in the atmosphere (in carbon dioxide) and in the bodies of
animals and plants.
- A small proportion is radioactive carbon-14 (half-life 5730 years).
- Although carbon-l4 decays, the amount in the atmosphere changes very little
because more is continually being formed as nitrogen in the upper atmosphere
is bombarded by the cosmic radiation from space.
- While plants and animals are living, feeding and breathing, they absorbed and
give out carbon, so the proportion of carbon-14 is gradually reduced by
radioactive decay.
- By measuring the activity of a sample, the age of the remains can be
estimated. This is called carbon dating.
- It can be used to find the age of organic materials.
- However it assumes that the proportion of carbon-14 in the atmosphere was
the same hundreds or thousands of years ago as it is today.
 Dating Rocks
- When rocks are formed, some radioisotopes become trapped in them.
- For example, potassium-40 is trapped when molten material cools to form
igneous rock.
- As the potassium-40 decays, more and more of its stable decay product,
argon-40 is created.
- Provided none of this argon gas has escaped, the age of the rock (which may
be hundreds of millions of years) can be estimated from the proportions of
potassium-40 to argon-40.
- Igneous rock can also be dated by the proportion of uranium to lead isotopes -
lead being the final, stable product of a series of decays that starts with
uranium.

 Nuclear Energy
 Nuclear Reaction
 Nuclear Energy
 Fission (or) Nuclear Fission
 Chain Reaction
 Nuclear Reactor
 Fission in a Nuclear Reactor
 Nuclear Waste
 Danger of Nuclear Waste (Fission Products)
 Energy and Mass
 Nuclear Reaction
- Whenever a particle penetrates and changes a nucleus, this is called a nuclear
reaction.
 Nuclear Energy
- When alpha or beta particles are emitted by a radioactive isotope, they collide
with surrounding atoms and make them move faster.
- The temperature rises as nuclear energy, potential energy stored in the
nucleus, is transformed into thermal energy (heat).
 Fission (or) Nuclear Fission

- When a neutron strikes and penetrates a nucleus of uranium-235, the nucleus
becomes highly unstable and splits into two lighter nuclei, shooting out two or
three neutrons as it does so.
- The splitting process is called fission and the fragments are thrown apart as
energy is released.

 Chain Reaction
- In the fission of a uranium – 235 nucleus, two or three neutrons are released.
- If these neutrons split other uranium – 235 nuclei and so on, a chain reaction
occurs.
- A large energy is released rapidly.
- In present-day nuclear weapons, plutonium – 239 is used for fission.
 Nuclear Reactor
- A nuclear reactor is a device in which a chain reaction of nuclear fission can
be initiated, maintained and controlled.
- The essential components of a nuclear reactor are fissionable nuclear fuel,
moderator, shielding, control rods and coolant.
 Fission in a Nuclear Reactor

- In a nuclear reactor at a nuclear power station, a controlled chain reaction
takes place.
- Thermal energy (heat) is released at a steady rate.
- The energy is used to make steam for the turbines in a conventional power
station.
- Uranium dioxide is used as the fissionable nuclear fuel.
- A moderator is a material which can slow down the neutrons.

- Graphite and water are used as moderators.

- A control rod is a material which can control the rate of reaction.
- Boron and cadmium are used as control rods since they can absorb neutrons.
 Nuclear Waste
- After a fuel has been used in a nuclear reactor for three or four years it must
be removed and replaced.
- There is no further use and that fuel is called a nuclear waste.
 Danger of Nuclear Waste (Fission Products)

- The nuclear wastes (or) the fission products are radioactive and dangerous.
- They should not be released in the environment.
- Some fissionable products are:
(1) Strontium-90 and iodine-131 which are easily absorbed by the body.
Strontium becomes concentrated in the bone and iodine in the thyroid gland.
(2) Plutonium-239 which is produced when uranium-238 is bombarded by
neutrons. It is itself a nuclear fuel and is used in nuclear weapons. It also
highly toxic. Breathed in as dust, the smallest amount can kill.
 Energy and Mass

- According to Albert Einstein (1905), energy itself has mass.
- If an object gains energy, its mass increases.
- If it loses energy, it mass decreases.
- The mass change (m) is linked to the energy change (E) by this equation:
E = m
E = energy change, m = mass change, c = velocity of light (c = 3× 10 ms )

Appendix: A Glossary of Nuclear Terms





၁၀ တန်း (MyanmarLibrary) Grade 10 Physics-1

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GRADE – 10 PHYSICS|1

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

 Work Done (W)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

(ii) the inclined plane (eg. a screwjack) ျပင္ညီေစာင္း

(iii) the hydraulic press (eg. brake system of a car) အရည္သုံးဖိစက္

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

 Mechanical Advantage (MA)

 Velocity Ratio (VR)

(input work) (output work)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

 Physical Quantity and Standard Form

(+)(ဘယ္) (.) (ညာ)(-) (ထပ္ညန

(-)(ေရွ့) (.) (ေနာက္)(+) (ထပ္ညန

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

Chapter (1) Physical Quantity and Its Units

No Symbol Physical Quantity F.P.S C.G.S M.K.S(SI)

1 W Work done ft-lb erg J(joule)

3 g/a Gravity fts cms ms

5 F Force lb dyne N(newton)

6 P Power ft-lbs ergs Js (W)

7 v Velocity fts cms ms

9 MA/VR Mechanical advantage/ - - -

10 load/effort Load/effort lb dyne N

11 d /d Distanced moved by load ft cm m

13 F(Hooke’s) Force applied(stress) lb dyne N

15 k(Hooke’s) Hooke’s constant lbft dynecm Nm

 Force is same as (weight, load, effort, upward thrust, tension)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

2. Which is more advantageous: to pay wages according to the amount of work

3. Choose the correct answer from the following:

4. Can the efficiency of a machine be greater than 100%? Why?

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

5. Is it possible to build a machine having 100% efficiency? Explain.

7. How many type of simple machine are there?

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

5. A water pump is pumping up water from a well which is 200 m deep.

6. A water pump is pumping up water from a well which is 20 m deep.

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

20.A system of levers with a velocity ratio of 25 overcomes a resistance of 3000N

21.A system of levers with a velocity ratio of 25 overcomes a resistance of 3000N

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

23.If a load L is raised by a machine when an effort E is applied, what is the

Load(N) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Length of spring(cm) 36.0 41.5 48.5 54 60

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

 Normal Atmospheric Pressure (Ordinary Atmospheric Pressure)

 Barometer (Mercury Barometer)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

 Standard Atmospheric Pressure

= total pressure, = atmospheric pressure

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

the upward thrust = the weight of liquid displaced

the pressure at the top surface is,

V = volume of the body, = immersed volume

WAI PHYO (Nautical Science)

 Uses of Archimedes’ Principle