Physics: Autonomous Educational Organization Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools

AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION
«NAZARBAYEV INTELLECTUAL SCHOOLS»
NAZARBAYEV INTELLECTUAL SCHOOL OF PHYSICS AND

MATHEMATICS IN TALDYKORGAN
PHYSICS
(GRADE 12)
BIZHANOV YERALI
Taldykorgan, 2019
Prepared by Yerali Bizhanov, NIS Taldykorgan
«On the decision of the methodical department

meeting is recommended to publish»
Reviewers:
1. Mozhanov Zh.U. Nazarbayev intellectual school of chemistry and biology in
Almaty, candidate of pedagogic sciences.
2. Imanbaeva Zh.Z. Nazarbayev intellectual school of physics and mathematics in
Taldykorgan, teacher expert.
Author: Bizhanov Yerali

Physics (grade 12) / Bizhanov Y.- 49 p.
2
INTRODUCTION
This booklet summarizes the 12th Grade Physics curriculum of Nazarbayev Intellectual
School. Its content includes the following Cambridge International Examination strands-
electromagnetic oscillations and waves, alternating current, charged particles, quantum physics,
nuclear physics and quantum field theory. The key ideas per topic are emphasized through both
texts and diagrams with references to various AS and A level materials.
This is compiled to help students easily prepare for class work, summative and eventually,
external exams. Furthermore, it can be used by teachers during class instructions as a quick
reference or even as a resource for differentiation.
3
ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
1 Periodic changes in the time of electric charge, current or voltage are called electromagnetic
oscillations.
2 Free electromagnetic oscillation. An oscillation taking place in an ideal (zero resistance) LC circuit
without any external energy source is called a free electromagnetic oscillation.
A combination of a charged capacitor The oscillating value of the stored charge in the capacitor
and an inductor (an LC circuit).
Period of free EM oscillations: Angular frequency of free EM oscillations:

√
L= inductance (H); C = capacitance (F) √
The time dependence of charge of the capacitor The time dependence of the current in free
in free oscillations: oscillations:
The relationship between the maximum values of charge and current:
The conservation of energy in free LC
oscillations:
3 Forced electromagnetic oscillations.
Undamped forced electromagnetic oscillations
will occur in oscillating circuit containing R, L
and C in the case in this circuit to enter the
electromotive force (EMF) varies as a sine or
cosine.
ω = the angular frequency of the driving force.
4 The sources of electromagnetic oscillations are elements of the oscillatory circuit (tuning or coupling
capacitor), a high-frequency transformer, high-frequency power transmission lines from the oscillatory
to the working circuit, the operating circuit (induction coil, working capacitor). When using ultrahigh-
frequency installations, the sources of radiation are the emitters themselves, the antenna devices.
5 The nature of electromagnetic (EM) waves:
 EM waves are produced by accelerating
electric charges.
 EM waves consist of chaning electric and
magnetic fields. There are two fields are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction
of travel of wave. Each field vibrates at the same
frequency, the frequency of the wave.
 All EM waves travel at the same speed in
vacuum, c = 3×108 m/s.
 EM waves do not require a material medium.  The electric and magnetic fields oscillate in
phase.
 EM waves are tranverse waves.
4
6 Generation, properties and uses of EM radiation.

Type Examples of generation Main properties and uses
Radiowaves Electrical oscillations Radio communication
Microwaves Klystrons and Magnetron, Radar. Telemetry.
Masers Electron spin resonanse.
Infrared Atomic transitions, Produces heating.
Molecular vibrations Used in ―night sights‖.
Visible Atomic transitions (discharge tubes, Stimulates the retina.
(λ= 760 nm ’ incandescent lamps, lasers, flames) Affects photographic film.
380 nm) Initiates photosynthesis.
Ultraviolet Atomic transitions Promotes chemical reactions. Affects
(in carbon arc, mercury vapour, photographic film. Produces photoelectric effect.
the Sun) Absorbed by glas. Disinfects.
X -rays Rapid deceleration of fast electrons (X- They penetrate matter. Penetration is least with
ray tubes). materials high density. They can produce
Atomic transitions involving fluorescence, photoelectric effect. In medicine:
innermost electron orbits locate bone fractures, destroy cancer cells.
γ -rays Radioactive decay. Nuclear fission and Very penetrating.
fusion. Interactions between elementar Treats cancer.
particles. Kills people
7 Modulation is the variation of either the amplitude or the frequency of the carrier wave in synchrony
with displacement of information signal.
Why we need modulation?
- enables shorter aerial; - longer transmission range; - less interference/more than one radio station can
operate in same region; - less attenuation; - less distortion; - less power required
8 Amplitude modulation (AM). In AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave varies in synchrony with the
displacement of the information signal. Frequency of the carrier wave remains constant.
For the carrier wave, there
are 10 complete waves in
100 µs. Hence: time for one
complete carrier wave,
T = 10 µs = 1 × 10−5 s.
fc= 105 Hz.
For the signal, there is one
complete wave in 100 µs.
fs = 104 Hz.
A radio wave of 105 Hz is in
the long wavelength, low-
frequency region of the radio
electromagnetic spectrum. A
sound frequency of 104 Hz is
a very high frequency note
but is audible.
Note: AM is not the same as superposition. Superposition involves the addition of displacements
whereas AM is achieved through the multiplication of displacements.
9 Frequency modulation (FM). In FM, the frequency of the carrier wave varies in synchrony with the
displacement of the information signal. Amplitude of the carrier wave remains constant.
The size of the input signal at any instant causes the frequency of the modulated wave to change.
When the input signal is positive, the frequency of the modulated wave is increased so that it is larger
than the frequency of the carrier wave. The larger the signal, the greater is the increase in the
frequency. When the signal is negative, the frequency of the modulated wave is less than the frequency
of the carrier wave.
5
Worked example
A carrier wave of frequency 300 kHz and
amplitude 5.0 V is frequency modulated by a
sinusoidal signal of frequency 6 kHz and
amplitude 2.0 V. The frequency deviation of
the carrier wave is 30 kHz V−1. Describe the
modulated carrier wave produced.
Step 1: Consider the amplitude of the
modulated signal. The amplitude of the carrier
wave is unchanged at 5.0 V during frequency
modulation. The signal alters the frequency of
the carrier wave, not its amplitude.
Step 2: Now consider how the signal will
modify the carrier frequency. The frequency
shift produced by the signal is ±2×30=± 60
kHz, so the carrier wave varies frequency
between 240 kHz and 360 kHz. This variation
in frequency occurs 6000 times every second
as the signal varies at this frequency.
10 Sidebands and bandwidth. A carrier wave

contains only one frequency, the carrier
wave frequency . When the carrier wave
is modulated in amplitude by a single
frequency , then the carrier wave is found
to contain two more frequencies, known as
sideband frequencies, one at a frequency
( ) and the other at ( ). The
bandwidth is the range of frequencies
occupied by the amplitude-modulated
waveform.
This bandwidth is equal to . The frequency spectrum of a carrier wave modulated in
amplitude by a signal of one frequency
11 Comparing AM and FM transmissions.
AM transmissions: FM transmissions:
 AM radio transmitter can serve a large area  FM transmissions have a range of only about 30 km
(AM transmissions travel large distances). and this range by line-of-sight. Consequently, many
 AM transmitters and receivers are much transmitters are required to broadcast over a large area.
simpler, electronically, than those for FM. It  FM transmissions are more expensive than AM and
is, therefore, cheaper to broadcast and receive the area covered by one FM transmitter is much
AM. smaller.
 AM signal, the interference will add to the  FM signal is based on changes of frequency, not
displacement of the AM signal and will displacement. Interference is not picked up by the
appear as noise in the output of the radio. aerial of the FM radio because the interference does
 The bandwidth needed for each AM not alter the frequency of the signal. The quality of the
transmission is less than for FM transmission reception of FM is generally better than of AM, since
and this means that more stations can be there will be less noise or interference.
included in any given frequency range of the  FM transmissions produce greater bandwidth and a
electromagnetic spectrum. better quality of sound.
6
12 Analogue signal. An information signal that has the same variations with time as the information itself
is known as an analogue signal. For example, the voltage signal generated by a microphone is an
analogue signal; the output voltage from the microphone can have any value, within limits, and is an
exact representation of the pressure variation in a sound wave.
Much of the information that we wish to transmit and communicate is analogue in nature (speech,
music, television pictures, etc.). When any signal is transmitted over a long distance, it will pick up
noise. Noise is the random, unwanted signal that adds to and distorts a transmitted signal. Noise is not
just unwanted sound, but any unwanted random signal that adds to the signal that is being transmitted.
Also, the power of the signal becomes less; that is, the signal is attenuated. For long-distance
transmission, the signal has to be amplified at regular intervals. The problem is that, on amplification of
an analogue signal, the noise is also amplified. The signal becomes distorted or ―noisy‖.
13 A digital signal is series of pulses between discrete levels. Digital signal consists of a series of ―0‖ and
―1‖.
Transmitting information in digital rather than analogue form
Advantages Disadvantages
 Noise can be eliminated because pulses can be regenerated  Extra circuitry (ADC, DAC etc.)
 Error checking because extra data can be added  Sampling Error
 More secure because it can be encrypted  Digital communications require
 Much greater information carried because greater greater bandwidth than analogue to
bandwidth transmit the same information.
Unlike an analogue signal, a digital signal can be transmitted over a long distance with regular
regenerations without the signal becoming degraded. An additional advantage of digital systems is that
extra information, or data, can be added to the transmissions. These extra data are a code for the
receiving system so that the transmitted signal may be checked and corrected before the signal is
finally reproduced.
Other advantages of using digital
signals are:
- digital signals are compatible with
modern technology and can be stored
and processed more easily, for example
in a computer or on a compact disc
Analogue and digital signals (CD); - digital electronic systems are,
in general, more reliable and easier to
design and build; - digital signals build
in safeguards so that if there is an error
in reception it is noticed and parts of
the signal can be sent again.
Weakened and noisy signals
14 Binary number. A binary number is a
number that has the base 2, whereas a
decimal number has the base 10. A binary
number consists of a number of digits, or
bits. Larger numbers would require digital
numbers with more bits. When reading a
digital number, the bit on the left-hand side
of the number is called the most significant
bit (MSB). This bit has the highest value.
The bit on the right-hand side has the least
value and is known as the least significant
Binary and decimal numbers
bit (LSB).
The binary number 1101 corresponds to decimal number 1×23+1×22+0×21+1×20 = 8+4+0+1=13
The decimal number 11 corresponds to binary number 1×23+0×22+1×21+1×20 1011
7
15 The transmission of a signal. In an analogue signal, such as speech or music, the generated voltage
signal varies continuously. For digital transmission, this analogue signal must be converted into a
digital signal. This is achieved using an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).
In an analogue-to-digital converter, the analogue voltage is sampled at regular intervals of time, at
what is known as the sampling frequency or sampling rate. The value of the sample voltage measured
at each sampling time is converted into a digital (binary) number that represents the voltage value.
Principles involved in the analogue-to-digital conversion of the signal and its transmission:
1) signal sampled at regular time intervals 2) sampled signal is converted to a binary number
3) transmitted as a series of groups of pulses 4) pulses could be IR pulses in optic fibre
The process is illustrated in figure on
the right-hand side where 4-bit binary
numbers are produced.
When the time t = 0 the numerical
value of the voltage signal is 9 as a
decimal number. When converted into
binary, this number is 1001. When t =
100 µs the voltage is 10 as a decimal
number and 1010 as a binary number.
When the output is sampled every 100
µs, a set of binary numbers is
produced: (1001) then (1010) then
(1001) then (1000) then (1000) and so
on.
Note that when sampling, the number
representing the sample would be
whole number below the actual value
of the sampled voltage. If the signal
were to be sampled as 8.3 V,then 4–
bit number would be 1000. A
sampled signal of 8.8 V would also be
1000. Analogue to digital conversion
After this digital signal had been transmitted, it is converted back into an analogue signal using a
digital-to-analogue converter (DAC). In a digital-to-analogue converter, a digital signal is converted
into an analogue signal. Function of the parallel-to-serial converter: receives bits all at one time and
transmits the bits one after another
The size of steps, and hence the faithfulness
of the reproduction of the initial analogue
signal, can be improved by using more
voltage levels (more bits) and sampling at a
higher frequency: - increasing number of
bits reduces step height; - increasing
sampling frequency reduces step width.
The number of bits in each digital number
limits the number of voltage levels. In this
example, there are four bits and 24=16
levels. In practice, eight or more bits would
be used for sampling. An eight-bit number
would give 28=256 levels.
The choice of sampling frequency also
determines the amount of information that
can be transmitted. Nyquist showed that, in
order to recover an analogue signal of
frequency f, then the signal must be sampled Digital to analogue conversion
at a frequency greater than 2f.
8
16 Comparison of different chanells of communication.

a Wire pairs. High-frequency electrical signals lose their energy over short dictances in wire-pairs- the
signals have a high attenuation. A signal going any distance in a wire-pair must be amplified at regular
intervals along the length of the wires. Each wire acts as an aerial, picks up unwanted electromagnetic
waves and these unwanted signals will distorts the signal. Wire-pairs close to one another pick up each
other‘s signals. This effect is called cross-talk or cross-linking and means that wire-pairs give rise to
poor security since the signals can be ―tapped‖ easily.
A wire-pair is the cheapest transmission medium
but it does have some disadvantages:
 are used mainly for short-distance
communication
 cause high attenuation of a signal
 easily pick up noise
 suffer from cross-linking and are of low
security
 have limited bandwidth (about 500 kHz)
 energy is also lost in the wire due to electrical
heating in the resistance of the wires Twisted wire-pairs in a computer network
b Coaxial cables. Attenuation is reduced when Comparison of wire-pairs and coaxial cable
compared to wire-pairs. Consequently, repeater
amplifiers can be further apart on coaxial cables.
Much more information can be carried along a
coaxial cable than along a wire-pair. Coaxial
cable is used to connect, for example, an aerial
and a television. To summarise, comparing a
wire-pair and a coaxial cable, the coaxial cable:
 is more costly;
 causes less attenuation;
 is less noisy and is more secure;
 has a larger bandwidth (about 50 MHz).
The coaxial cable consist the copper core and the
finely woven copper wire (braid) are the two
conductors that transmit the signal. The braid is
usually connected to earth, so, ideally, the
potential of this wire does not change.
Electromagnetic waves do not pass easily through
metal and so the braid provides a screen or barrier
that reduces the interference that reaches the
copper core. An ideal coaxial cable also prevents
any emission of EM waves at radio frequencies
and has less attenuation than a wire-pair
Coaxial cable
c Radio waves and microwave links. Surface (ground) waves travel close to the surface of the Earth.
Lower frequencies, up to 3 MHz, diffract around the surface of the Earth because of their long
wavelengths; this gives them a long range of up to 1000 km. Sky waves are waves above 3 MHz in
frequency which are diffracted only a little by the Earth and travel almost in straight lines. Some waves
at these frequencies travel for a short distance as surface waves, but they can only travel about 100 km
in this way. Sky waves that travel in the atmosphere may be reflected from a layer of charged particles,
known as the ionosphere. When these refl ected waves reach the Earth‘s surface they may be refl ected
back to the ionosphere. Trough multiple reflections by the ionosphere and the ground, sky waves can
travel for large distances around the Earth. Because the density of charged particles in the ionosphere is
constantly changing, the reflection of sky waves is not reliable.
9
Space waves are sky waves with a frequency

greater than 30 MHz which pass through the
ionosphere. The transmission is line-of-sight
so, if the receiver and transmitter are on the
Earth‘s surface, there must be a clear line
between the receiver and the transmitter (not
blocked by hills or mountains). Microwaves
are able to pass through the ionosphere to
reach satellites in space. Bluetooth technology
and Wi-Fi use microwaves for communication
around the home. Using Wi-Fi, microwaves
link your laptop to the main computer in your
home.
The bandwidth of a microwave links is of the order of 1GHz. This large bandwidth means that the
microwave beam has a large capacity for transmitting information. To summarise the information
about radiowaves and microwaves:
 these are EM waves a wide range of frequencies
 have high bandwidth and can carry a large amount of information
 their mode of use and range depend on frequency
 security is achieved only by encoding the information
 are line-of-sight and often use a satellite or microwave link
Data for radio and microwaves
d Optic fibres. Pulses of light or infra-

red radiation travel along the fibre as a
result of total internal reflection. These
pulses carry digital information along
the fibre. When used for
communication, an electrical signal
causes a laser or a light-emitting diode
(LED) to emit pulses of light or
infrared, with a frequency of the order
of 2×1014 Hz or 2×108 MHz. Because
the frequency is so high, the potential
bandwidth available is also very high.
The core of the fibre is made as narrow as possible because all rays to have same path length to prevent
(multipath) dispersion.
The advantages of optic fibres are summarised below:
 large bandwidth, giving rise to large transmission capacity;
 much lower cost than metal wires;
 has less signal attenuation, so repeater and regeneration amplifiers can be further apart;
 is impossible to tap, making the data it carries more secure;
 does not suffer from electrical interference and cross-talk.
10
e Communication satellites. A satellite is an object

that travels around the centre of the Earth in a
circular path. Using high frequency modulated
radio waves to transmit digital information would
be an attractive possibility if it were not the fact
the transmitter and receiver must be in direct line
of contact with each other (line of sight).
Therefore, to communicate over long distances, a
chain of transmitters and receivers must be
constructed. An alternative is to use a satellite to Signal transmitted from antenna to antenna and the
transfer the signal as in figure. alternative route via a satellite
A carrier wave of frequency fUP is sent from
a transmitter on Earth to a satellite. The
satellite receives the greatly attenuated
signal. The signal is amplified and the
carrier frequency is changed to a lower
value, fDOWN. The carrier wave is then
directed back to a receiver on Earth. The
carrier wave frequencies fUP and fDOWN are
different so that the very low power signal
received from Earth is not swamped by the
high power signal that is transmitted back to
Earth. A satellite system
Values of the ―uplink‖ and the ―downlink‖ frequencies might be 6GHz and 4GHz respectively (6/4
GHz band). Other bands are 14/11 GHz and 30/20 GHz.
Here are some advantages of communication by satellite rather than by sky wave:
 The concentration of ions in the ionosphere is constantly changing and reflection of the sky wave is
not always possible; sometimes layers in the ionosphere even absorb radio frequencies.
 The satellite boosts the signal for its return to Earth and provides a stronger signal than is obtained
by reflection from the ionosphere.
 Satellite communication uses higher frequencies, which have higher bandwidth and can carry more
information per second.
17 Geostationary satellite. The features of a geostationary satellite are:
 the satellite rotates with a period of 24 hours (same period as the Earth);
 the satellite is in orbit above the equator at height about 36000 km from the Earth’s surface;
 the satellite rotates in direction from west to east.
One advantage of geostationary satellites is that these aerials can be fixed in position since the satellite does not
have to be tracked. Geostationary satellites are in equatorial orbits. This means that communication in polar
regions may not possible because a satellite will not be in line-of-sight. A further problem results because of the
height of the orbit. Between transmission and receipt of the signal, the wave must travel at least twise the
distance between satellite and Earth; that is, 72000 km. For the wave travelling at 3.0×108 m/s, the time taken
0.24 s. The reply from the other person also takes 0.24 s and so there always seems to be a delay of at least 0.48
s in the conversation. This delay would be increased where several satellites are involved, and would not be
acceptable during a telephone conversion. To avoid these problems, geostationary satellites may be used in
conjuction with optic fibres.
11
18 Polar satellites are satellites that have low orbits and pass over the poles.
The orbital period of polar satellites is about 100 minutes. Since the Earth rotates below such satellites,
then in any period of 24 hours the satellite will pass over every region. Continuous communication
with a single polar satellite is not possible. However, information may be transmitted to the satellite
while it is overhead. The data can be stored in the satellite and then transmitted back to Earth when
then the satellite is over appropriate area. Continuous communication is possible using a number of
polar satellites in orbits that are inclined to one another so that at least one satellite is always above the
transmitter and receiver. In this case, the aerials must track the satellites in their orbits. The advantage
of using such satellites is that their orbital height is only of the order 100 km and thus delays in
telephone conversations are not noticed. Since polar satellites pass over the whole of the Earth in any
24-hour period, they are used for remote sensing. Such uses include military espionage, geological
prospecting and weather forecasting. The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses the signals from a
number of satellites that are not in geostationary orbits.
Compared to a geostationary
satellite, a satellite in polar orbit:
 travels from pole to pole, with
an shorter period of orbit;
 is at a smaller height above the
Earth and can detect objects of
smaller detail;
 is not always in the same
position relative to the Earth and
so dishes must be moved;
 have smaller delay times.
19 Signal attenuation. When a signal passes along a wire or a fibre, it loses power. This loss of power is
referred to as attenuation. The amount of attenuation increases as the distance that the signal travels
increases. In the case of an electrical signal in a metal wire, signal power is lost as heating of the wire.
In optic fibres, light power is lost as a result of absorption in impurities in the glass and also scattering
due to imperfections. A beam of electromagnetic waves travelling through air also loses power as a
result of absorption and scattering.
When a microwave signal is sent from Earth to a satellite, the signal power may be reduced by a factor of
12
10 . It can be seen that, in comparing power levels, the ratio of two numbers is involved and that this ratio can
be very large or very small. In order to condense the scale of such variations and to make the numbers more
manageable, the power levels are compared on a logarithmic scale. The result of this comparison gives the ratio
in a unit known as the bel, which has the symbol B.
( ) OR ( )
where P2 and P1 are two powers that are being compared.
It should be noted that if P2 is greater than P1, the dB number is positive and there has been amplification.
Attenuation produces a negative number of decibels; for example, an attenuation of −30 dB means that the
received signal is 1000 times less than the signal transmitted.
In long-distance cables, the attenuation is given as attenuation per unit length, with units such as
dB/km. The attenuation is found from the equation:
( )
When a signal travels along a cable, the level of the noise is important. The signal must be distinguishable
above the level of the noise. The signal-to-noise ratio, measured in decibels, is given by the expression:
12
Transmitter circuit
Receiver circuit
13
Block diagram of a mobile-phone handset
14
ALTERNATING CURRENT
1 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: ε = Induced electromotive force (e.m.f) (V)
The magnitude of the induced EMF is ΔФ = Change of magnetic flux (Vb)
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic t = change of time (s)
flux linkage N = number of turns
N× ΔФ = change of magnetic flux linkage (Vb)
2 Lenz’s law: The direction of the induced current is such as to cause effects to oppose the change of
magnetic flux producing it.
а) As the magnet moves towards the stationary conducting loop the flux through the loop will
increase. b) The induced current produces its own flux to the left to counteract the increasing
external flux to the right.
3 Generation of alternating current (AC). The device that produces alternating current is called an
AC generator. The basic principle of the AC generator is a direct consequence of Faraday‘s Law of
electromagnetic induction. In the generator below, a coil is rotated in a magnetic field. This induces
an EMF in the coil, so current flows. The current keeps changing direction as the coil faces first one
way and then the other: it is alternating current.
Φ= Magnetic flux through coil;

A= Area of the coil/loop;
B= magnetic flux density;
ω = angular frequency of the
coil; N = number of turns
= max. value of the induced
e.m.f; = induced e.m.f. in the
rotating coil.
15
4 Characteristics of alternating currents.

If the polarity of an electromotive force (EMF)
changes with time, it is known as an alternating
EMF. The current that such an EMF causes to
flow repeatedly changes its direction and is
known as alternating current (AC). An
alternating current or voltage reverses its
direction regularly and is usually sinusoidal.
DC – Direct current AC –alternating current

The time period (T) of an The frequency (f) of an alternating current or p.d. is the
alternating current or p.d. is the number of complete cycles per second. The unit of frequency
time taken for one complete cycle.
is the hertz (Hz). ;
The peak value of an alternating current or p.d. is the greatest value of the current or p.d. in a cycle.
5 An equation for AC
I = value of the current at any time.

I0= peak value of the AC (amplitude of
the varying current)
ω = angular frequency of the supply
(rad/s).
A graph on the right to represent a sinusoidal
AC. From the graph we can see that, peak
value of the current I0 = 2 A and time period
T = 20 ms.
An equation for alternating voltages
V = value of the voltage at any time.

V0 = peak value of the voltage (amplitude of
the varying voltage)
ω = angular frequency of the supply (rad/s).
Note that the current has the same frequency as the

EMF that produces it.
Worked example: An alternating voltage V is a) Peak voltage: V0 = 311 V

represented by the equation b) r.m.s voltage:
√
where V is measured in volts
and t is in seconds. Determine the peak c) frequency:
voltage, r.m.s voltage and frequency.
16
6 The root-mean-square (r.m.s) value (or effective value) of the alternating current or voltage is that
value of the direct current or voltage which would produce the same power in a resistor.
The r.m.s value of the alternating current The r.m.s value of the alternating voltage
√ √
The power generated in a resistance or For steady (DC) current:
. because I = const.
I0 and R are constants, the average value of power
(P) will depend on the average value of sin2ωt, So
which is ½. So the average power of the √
alternating current Paver is delivered to the

resistor is or = √
or
7 The average power supplied to a
resistor in AC circuit is the average
value of power over one complete cycle
8 Transformers. Transformers are used to change an alternating voltage. The voltage is stepped up or
down in proportion to the turns ratio of the transformer.
A simple iron-cored tranformer Principle of operate: When alternating current
flows through the primary coil, it sets up an
alternating magnetic field in the core and,
therefore, in the secondary coil. This changing
of magnetic field induces an alternating
voltage in the secondary coil.
The turns-ratio equation for a transformer:
Why core made of iron? To prevent flux losses / improve flux linkage because iron is
ferromagnetic material.
Why the core is a continuous loop? To improve flux linkage with secondary coil / prevent loss of
magnetic flux.
Why the core is laminated? To reduce eddy current, hence reduces losses of energy in the core.
Why thermal energy is generated in the core when the transformer is in use? When
transformers are used the magnetic flux in core is changing hence e.m.f. / current induced in core.
Induced current in core causes heating.
17
Why the voltage across secondary

coil and the e.m.f of the supply
(voltage in primary coil) are not in
phase?
Magnetic flux in the core in phase
with the e.m.f/current in primary coil.
Induced e.m.f in the secondary coil
proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux ( , hence
e.m.f of supply not in phase with
voltage across secondary coil. (Figure
on the right side )
9 Step up and Step down transformers

STEP UP TRANSFORMER STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
 Secondary coil has more windings than in the  Secondary coil had less windings than in the
primary coil. primary coil.
 Greater voltage output, lower current.  Lower voltage output, higher current
10 Power through an
ideal transformer input current × input voltage = output current× output voltage
In practice, the transformer will not be 100% efficient due to power losses.
Some of sources of these losses are:
- loss of magnetic flux between the primary and secondary coils. The core is designed for maximum
flux linkage. The iron core forms a closed loop and the primary and secondary coils are wound on
each other;
- resistive heating in the primary and secondary coils. The coils are made of a low resistivity metal;
- heating of the core due to eddy currents;
- heating of the core due to repeated magnetization and demagnetization.
18
11 Why use AC for electricity supply? Step 1: Using I = P/V , calculate the current flowing
There are several reasons for preferring in each case:
alternating voltages for a national electricity for 50 kV: I = 10×106 W / 5×104 V = 200 A
supply system. The most important reason is for 250 kV: I = 10×106 W / 25×104 V = 40 A
that AC can be transformed to high voltages, Step 2: Using P = I2R , calculate the power losses
so that the current flowing is reduced, and in each case:
this leads to lower power losses in the for 50 kV: P = 2002×10 = 4×105 = 400 kW
transmission lines. for 250 kV: P = 402×10 = 1.6×104 = 16 kW
Worked example: A power station generates We have shown that, by increasing the voltage by a
electrical power at a rate of 10 MW. This factor of 5, we have reduced the power losses by a
power is to be transmitted along cables whose factor of 25.
total resistance is 10 Ω. Calculate the power
losses in the cable if the power is transmitted
at 50 kV and at 250 kV. V= transmitted voltage; R= resistance of the cable
Electric power transmission
Economic savings. The resistive heating of power lines is a waste of money, in two ways. Firstly, it
costs money to generate power because of the fuel needed. Secondly, more power stations are
required, and power stations are expensive. The use of transformers to transform power to high
voltages saves a few per cent of a national bill for electrical power, and means that fewer expensive
power stations are needed.
12 Resistors in an AC circuit. A simple AC circuit consisting of a resistor and an AC generator is
shown in figure (a). The voltage across the resistor changes periodically according to the equation
given by . We can apply Ohm‘s law to find the equation for current in the resistor.
The current is in phase with the voltage
19
Graphical representations of the phase relationships between current and voltage are often useful in
the analysis of AC circuits. Such representations are called phasor diagrams.
(a) The phasor diagram representing the current through the resistor; (b) The phasor diagram
representing both current and voltage.
13 Capacitors in an AC circuit. When a DC current source is connected to a circuit having a
capacitor, current begins to flow, but after a certain time it stops. But if a capacitor is connected to
an alternating source of voltage, an alternating current will flow continuously. This can happen
because when the AC voltage is first turned on, charge begins to flow and one plate acquires a
negative charge and the other a positive charge. But when the voltage reverses itself, the charges
flow in the opposite direction. Thus, for an alternating applied voltage, an AC current is present in
the circuit continuously.
The current leads the voltage by rad (C I V I L)
(a) A capacitor connected across an AC generator.

(b) The current through the capacitor and the voltage across the capacitor.
Voltage across the capacitor:
Current through the capacitor:
Capacitive reactance: ; Has units of Ohm‘s (Ω).
The quantity is known as the capacitive reactance of the capacitor or the opposition of a
capacitor to a change in current.
A relationship between applied voltage and the current in a capacitor can be written
OR (for peak or RMS values)
For DC conditions, f = 0 and becomes infinite, as it should because a capacitor doesn‘t pass DC
current.
20
The phasor diagram for the capacitor.

The current phasor leads the voltage phasor by
rad as they both rotate with the same angular
frequency.
The average power dissipated in capacitor is

zero, because the current and voltage are out of
phase. Thus only a resistance will dissipate
energy as thermal energy in an AC circuit.
14 Inductors in an AC circuit. If an alternating EMF is applied to an inductor having zero resistance
(that is, R), a self-induced EMF is generated across the inductor since the current passing through it
changes continuously.
The voltage leads the current by rad ( C I V I L)
(a) An inductor connected across an AC generator.

(b) The current through the inductor and the voltage across the inductor.
Voltage across the inductor:
Current through the inductor:
Inductive reactance: ; Has units of
Ohm‘s (Ω).
The quantity XL is known as the inductive
reactance of the inductor or the opposition of an
inductor to a change in current.
A relationship between applied voltage and the current

in a inductor can be written
OR
(for peak or RMS values, not at any instant)
Because the current and voltage in an inductor are

out of phase by 900, the product I×V = power is as
often positive as it is negative. So no energy is
transformed in an inductor on the average; and no
energy is dissipated as thermal energy.
The phasor diagram for the inductor.
21
15 The RLC series circuit. An RLC

series circuit contains all three
elements: resistor, inductor and
capacitor which are connected in
series across an AC source. All
three elements are connected in
series, hence current passing
through each element is same:
i(t) = Imax sin(ωt)
The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is ―in-phase‖ with current; The instantaneous
voltage across a pure inductor, VL ―leads‖ the current by 90o; The instantaneous voltage across a
pure capacitor, VC ―lags‖ the current by 90o; Therefore, VL and VC are 180o ―out-of-phase‖ and in
opposition to each other.
Maximum voltage : Individual voltage vectors
VRO = peak voltage across

resistor;
VLO = peak voltage across
inductor;
VCO = peak voltage across
capacitor;
Impedance: √ √
Phase difference between current and
voltage: √
OR √
cosφ is referred to as the power factor of the
circuit When XL = XC circuit in resonance
22
17 Rectification. Converting alternating current to the direct current is called rectifying the current.
Diodes are used for this purpose because they pass current in one direction only. Many electrical
appliances work with alternating current. Some, like electrical heaters, will work equally well with
DC or AC. However, there are many appliances such as electronic equipment which require DC For
these; the alternating mains must be converted to DC by the process of rectification.
18 Half-wave rectification. Half-wave
rectification of AC requires a single diode.
We know that the diode allows current to
flow in one direction only. This means that
the output voltage across the resistor will
consist only of the positive half-cycles of
the input voltage.
We will see that the output voltage is
always positive, but it goes up and down.
This is still technically direct current,
because the current only flows in one
direction. For one half of the time the
voltage is zero, and this means that the
power available from a half-wave rectified Half-wave rectification of AC with the single diode
supply is reduced.
19 Full-wave rectification. Full-wave
rectification can be achieved by using an
arrangement of four rectifiers known as
a bridge rectifier. This consists of four
diodes connected across the alternating
voltage, as shown in figure. The
resulting output voltage across the load
resistor R is full-wave rectified.
In the full-wave rectification more
output power available as compared with
half-wave rectification. The rectification
efficiency of full-wave rectifier is double
of that of a half-wave rectifier, but it
requires four diodes and more
complicated than half wave rectifier.
During the first half of the AC cycle, terminal In the second half of the cycle, terminal B is
A is positive. Current flows through diode 2, positive. Current flows through diode 4, downwards
downwards through R and through diode 3 to through R, and through diode 1 to terminal A.
terminal B. In this half of the cycle, current Diodes 2 and 3 do not conduct because they are
cannot flow through diodes 1 or 4 because pointing the wrong way.
they are pointing the wrong way.
23
20 Smoothing. The process of reduce the fluctuations in the unidirectional output voltage is called
smoothing. In order to produce steady DC from the ‗pulsating‘ DC that results from rectification, a
smoothing capacitor must be incorporated in the circuit, in parallel with the load resistor R.
At points such as A the voltage Smoothing of the half-wave rectification voltage
across load resistor has just reached
its maximum value. If the capacitor
were not present, the voltage would
start to fall to zero along the broken
curve. However, as soon as the
voltage across the load starts to fall,
it becomes less than that across the
capacitor and the capacitor starts to
discharge through the load. Since
the charging process causes plate X
to be positive, the discharge drives
current through the load in the same
direction as it flowed during
charging. If the time constant of the
capacitor-load combination is
suitable large, the voltage across the
load falls by only small amount C×R is known as the time constant of the circuit and is the
before it starts to rise again. The time taken for the charge on the capacitor to fall to 1/e of its
result is an output voltage with initial value.
‗ripple‘.
24
CHARGED PARTICLES
1 Theory of Millikan’s experiment. Millikan established the quantization of electric charge.
Millikan‘s results obtained from measurements on many droplets showed that
 charge is quantized (charge was always a integral multiples of 1.6×10-19 C, and he concluded
that electric charge can never exist in fractions of this amount).
 magnitude of the elementar charge e = 1.6×10-19 C.
The principle of Millikan‘s experiment is to measure terminal velocity of a small oil drop falling
under gravity, and then to oppose its motion with an electric field in such a way that it remains
stationary.
Main principles of the determination of the charge on an oil drop by Millikan‘s experiment:
- oil drop charged by friction OR x rays;
- between charged parallel metal plates electric field is uniform (E=const);
- plates are horizontal because electric field should be is vertical;
- adjustable potential difference between plates until oil drop is stationary;
- when oil drop is stationary:
where m = mass of oil drop (kg) ; g = acceleration of free fall (g=9.81ms-2); V = potential
difference between charged parallel metal plates (V) ; d = separation between paralel metal plates
(m) ; q = charge of the oil drop (C)
- oil drop viewed through microscope
- mass of the oil drop (m) is determined from terminal speed of drop when between plates not
electric field (when p.d. is zero)
When there is no electric field: (motion with terminal When an electric field has been applied such that the
velocity a = 0) drop is stationary:
Weight = Upthrust due to air + Viscous drag Weight = Upthrust due to air + Electric force
Viscous drag = 6πrηυ (Stokes‘ law) ; Electric force = qE ;
Millikan measured E and υ and did a separate experiment to find η. He was not able to measure r directly.
The apparatus is shown in figure above. There are two metall plates which are accurately parallel to each
other. (In Millikan‘s apparatus the plates had a diameter of 20 cm and separation of 1.5 cm.) An atomizer is
used to create a fine mist of oil drops in the region of the small hole in the upper plate. The drops are charged,
either positively ir negatively, as a result of losing or gaining electrons through frictional effects on emerging
from atomizer. Some of the drops fall through the holes and observed by reflected light through low-power
microscope. The eyepiece of the microscope incorporates a calibrated graticule so that the terminal velocity υ
of any particular oil drop can be determined by timing its fall through a known distance. An electric field
(~105V/m) is applied at this stage and is adjusted so that the drop whose velocity has just been determined is
held stationary. The strength E of this field is given by E=V/d, where V is PD between the plates and d is their
separation.
25
2 Deflection of charged particles in

uniform electric field. Oscilloscopes, as
well as some computer monitors and
television sets, make use of beams of
electrons. Electrons are moved about
using magnetic and electric fields and the
result can be a rapidly changing image on
the screen.
In an electric field electron experiences
force, given by F=q×E
Where q = 1.6×10-19 C.
Since electrons are negatively charged,
the force is in the opposite direction to
the field.
Acceleration of electrons: a=qE/m
Initial y-component of velocity is zero. The construction of an electron beam tube
Vertical displacement:
( )
( )
Horizontal displacement:
(in OX axis υ=const)
Eliminating t between equations
gives
( )
This is the equation of a parabola, i.e. the path of the electron whilst in the electric field is parabolic.
Kinetic energy of the electrons is increased.
3 Deflection of charged particles in a uniform
magnetic field.
The magnetic force on a moving charge:
F  q   B  sin 
F = The magnetic force on a moving charge (N);
B = magnetic field strength (T) (also called
magnetic flux density)
q = charge of the particle (C);
υ = speed of the particle (m/s);
The path of a charged particle is curved in
α = angle between speed and magnetic field. a magnetic field
Fleming’s left-hand rule, applied to a moving  The magnetic field does not change the
positive charge kinetic energy of the charged particle i.e
work done by magnetic force is equal zero,
because velocity of the particle and
magnetic force is always perpendicular.
26
Charged particle motion in a magnetic field:

(if α=900 )
- faster-moving particles move in bigger circles (r∝ υ);

- particles with greater masses also move in bigger
circles (they have more inertia: r ∝ m);
- a stronger field makes the particles move in tighter
circles (r ∝ 1/B ).
Period of rotation:
(а) if the initial motion of charged particle is parallel to the

external magnetic field, then there is no effect (c) if the initial motion of charged particle is
(b) if the initial motion of charged particle is perpendicular to at an angle to an external magnetic field, the
the external magnetic field, the charge is deflected in a charge deflects in a circular motion that will
circular arc. form a helical path.
4 Crossed fields. If a
uniform electric field and
a uniform magnetic field
are perpendicular to each
other in such a way that
they produce deflections
in opposite senses, they
are known as crossed
fields. If the forces
exerted by each field are
of the same size, then
Balancing of the effects of electric and magnetic fields is also used in a device
called a velocity celector. This is used in devices such as mass spectrometers
where it is desired to produce a beam of charged particles all moving with the
same velocity. A velocity selector – only particles with the correct
combination of charge, mass and velocity will emerge through the slit S.
5 Determination of the specific charge (e/m) of the electron. One the form of apparatus used to
determine e/m is shown in the figure below. Electrons which have been emitted thermionically from
the cathode are accelerated towards the cylindrical anode and pass through it. Two small holes on
the axis of the anode confine the electrons to a narrow beam. When both fields (E and B) are zero
the electrons reach the screen without deflect and produce flourescence there.
If the velocity of the electrons on emerging from the anode is υ, then
i.e. (1) where Va = the accelerating voltage, e = charge of electron.
If magnetic field switched on, hence beam of electrons deflected.
27
The electric field is switched on and is adjusted until the beam is again return original point. The
forces being exerted by each field must now be of equal size, and therefore
i.e.
Substistuting for υ in equation (1) gives
The value E is found from E=V/d; where V = the PD between deflecting plates; d = their separation.
The magnetic field is normally produced by a pair of Helmholtz coils, in which case the value of B
can be found from the current through them, their radius and the number of turns. The value of Va is
read off directly from the voltmeter.
Cathode ray tube
28
QUANTUM PHYSICS
1 Wave theory of the light – the theory that light is transmitted as waves. The reflection and
refraction of light are satisfactorily explained on the basis of light being a wave motion. Futhermore,
light can be diffracted and can produce interference effects-convincing evidence that it behaves as a
wave motion. Light can be polarized; it is therefore a transverse wave motion. Towards the end of
the nineteenth century Maxwell showed, on entirely theoretical grounds, that electromagnetic waves
could propogate through space; the velocity of these waves is exactly the same as that of light.
2 Photoelectric effect. Photoelectric emission is the release of
electrons from the surface of a metal when electromagnetic
radiation is incident on its sufrace. The phenomenon is
called the photoelectric effect.
Investigations the photoelectric effect to leaded to the
following conclusions (evidence for a particulate nature of
EM radiation):
 If photoemission takes place, it does so instantaneously.
There is no delay between illumination and emission.
 Photoemission takes place only if the frequency of the incident radiation is above a certain
minimum value called the threshold frequency.
 Whether or not emission takes place depends only on whether the frequency of the radiation used
is above the threshold for that surface. It does not depend on the intensity of the radiation.
 The intensity of the radiation has no effect on the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons.
 Increasing the frequency of the incident radiation increases the kinetic energies of the emitted
electrons and, in particular the maximum kinetic energy. The emitted electrons have various kinetic
energies, ranging from zero up to some maximum value, because maximum kinetic energy
correspods to electron emitted from surface, with other electrons interaction may be below surface,
so energy required to bring electrons to surface.
 For a given frequency, the rate of emission of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
intensity of the radiation.
 Differrent metalls have different threshold frequency.
 A single photon can only interact, and hence exchange its energy, with a single electron (one-to-
one interaction)
3 Wave theory of light does not support photoelectric effect, because according to wave theory,
- electron should “collect” energy contuinuously;
- electron will always be emitted;
- electron will be emitted at all frequencies after a sufficiently long delay
Classical wave theory predicts that when an electromagnetic (EM) wave (that is, light) interacts with
an electron, the electron will absorb energy from it. So, if an electron absorbs enough energy, it should be
able to escape from the metall. We know, that the energy carried by a wave depends on its amplitude and
its frequency. Thus, even if we have a low-frequency wave, its energy can be boosted by increasing the
amplitude (by increasing brightness of the light). So according to wave theory, we ought to able to cause
photoemission using any frequency of light, provided we make it bright enough. Alternatively, we could
use less bright light and shine it on the metal for a longer time, until enough energy to cause emission has
been delivered. But this does not happen. According to results of the experiments, if frequency of EM
wave below the threshold frequency, no matter how intense or for how long it is used, does not produce
photoelectrons. The classical wave theory of EM radiation leads to the following predictions:
- Whether an electron is emitted or not should depend on the power of the incident wave, that is, on
its intensity. A very intense wave, of any frequency, should cause photoemission.
- The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons should be greater if the radiation intensity is
greater. There is no reason why photoemission should be intantaneous.
This predictions, based on wave theory, do not match for the photoelectric effect. A new approch,
based on an entirely new concept, the quantum theory (particulature nature of EM), was used to explain
these findings.
29
4 Wave theory of the light: Particle theory of the light:

Explained through polarization. Explained through photoelectric emission.
Explained through diffraction and interference. Explained through the Compton effect.
5 Photon energy. In 1901, the German The energy E carried in each quantum is given by
physicist Max Planck had suggested that the
energy carried by electromagnetic radiation h = 6.63×10-34 Js, Planck’s constant.
might exist as descrete packets called quanta. f = the frequency of the radiation.
In 1905 Einstein extended this idea by suggesting that the quantum of energy emitted by an atom
continues to exist as a concentrated packet of energy. A beam of light of frequency f can therefore be
considered to be a stream of particles (called photons), each of energy hf.
Photon is the discrete amount The electronvolt (eV) is unit of energy. It is equal to the kinetic
(quantum) of energy of energy gained by an electron in being accelerated by a potential
electromagnetic radiation. difference of one volt. 1 eV = 1.6×10-19C × 1V = 1.6×10-19 J
6 Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect. When a photon interacts with an electron, it transfers
all its energy to the electron. It is possible for a single photon to interact with a single electron; the
photon cannot share its energy between several electrons. This transfer of energy is instantaneous.
The photon theory of photoelectric emission is as follows. If the frequency of the incident radiation
is less than the threshold frequency for the metal, the energy carried by each photon is insufficient
for an electron to escape the surface of the metal. If the photon energy is insufficient for an electron
to escape, it is converted to thermal energy in the metal.
Einstein used the principle of hf = the energy of each incident photon of frequency f.
conservation of energy to derive the Φ = work function energy.
the photoelectric equation = the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons (photoelectrons).
Photon energy = work function energy+maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron
! The emitted electrons have various kinetic energies, ranging from zero up to some maximum value.
Increasing the frequency of the incident radiation increases the energies of the emitted electrons and, in
particular the maximum kinetic energy.
! The intensity of the radiation has no effect on the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons.
Work function energy. The For radiation incident at the threshold frequency maximum
minimum amount of energy kinetic energy of photoelectron is equal to zero, so that
necessary for an electron to
escape from the surface is called Hence, the threshold frequency f0 is given by the expression:
the work function energy (Ф).
The graph shows that the maximum kinetic

The most important aspect of the graph is that energy of the photoelectrons is linearly related to
for a given voltage, increasing the intensity the frequency of the photons. Below a certain
increases the current but doesn‘t change the value f0, no photoelectrons are emitted; this is
stopping voltage This is because when the called the threshold frequency. Gradient of the
intensity is increased the light contains more graph is equal to Plank‘s constant.
photons (so emitted more electrons) but doesn‘t
increase the energy (so Vs is the same).
30
Some useful equations. The minimum potential which reduces the current to zero is called the
stopping potential (Vs):
e = charge of electron (e =1.6×10-19 C); m = mass of the electron (m =9.1×10-31kg)

c = speed of light in the vacuum (c=3×108m/s); λ = wavelength of the light (c = λ × f)
Photoelectric equation we can write in the forms below
OR OR OR
7 Wave-particle duality. The photoelectric effect of light waves clearly demonstrates that light can
behave like particles, but its wave nature can also be demonstrated – it reflects, refracts, diffracts and
interferes just like all waves. This duality is referred to as the wave–particle duality of light. In
simple terms:
 Light travels through space as a wave.
 Light interacts with matter as a particle – the photon.
8 De Broglie hypothesis. In 1924 the French
physicist Louis de Broglie suggested that all
moving particles a wave-like nature. Using
ideas based upon the quantum theory and
Einstein‘s theory or relativity, he suggested
that the momentum of a particle and its
associated wavelength are related by the
eqution
λ= De Broglie wavelength (m) ; h = Plank constant, h = 6.63×10-34 Js; p = momentum of the

particle (m/s) ; m = relativistic mass of the particle (kg) ; υ = velocity of the particl (m/s).
9 Davisson and Germer experiment. The diagramm below (a) shows the princilple behind the
Davisson and Germer electron diffraction experiment. A beam of electrons strikes a target nickel
crystal. The electrons are scattered from the surface. The intensity of these electrons depends on the
speed of the electrons (from accelerating voltage) and the angle. For specific angles, the electrons
scatter constructively and the detector records a large number of electrons, in the graph in (b). In this
graph, a high intensity means that more electrons are scattered in that direction, creating an antinode,
or constructive interference. Similarly, a low intensity can be interpreted as a node, or destructive
interference.
31
Figure below shows how the Davisson–Germer experiment gave convincing support to de Broglie‘s
hypothesis
Fig. Diffraction of electrons due to a gold film

10 Investigating electron diffraction. In order to show diffraction, an electron ―wave‖ must travel
through a gap of the same order as its wavelength. The atomic spacing in crystal atoms provides
such gaps. If you have access to an electron diffraction tube, you can see for yourself how a beam of
electrons is diffracted. The electron gun at one end of the tube produces a beam of electrons. By
changing the voltage between the anode and the cathode, you can change the energy of the electrons,
and hence their speed. The beam strikes a graphite target, and a diffraction pattern appears on the
screen at the other end of the tube.
(for constructive interference)
d = spacing of the atomic layers (m); m = 1, 2, 3, …
We can find the speed of the electrons from the
anode–cathode voltage V
√
Therefore wavelength
√
√
Qualitatively, you should find that increasing the
anode–cathode voltage makes the pattern of
diffraction rings shrink. The electrons have more
kinetic energy (they are faster); the shrinking
pattern shows that their wavelength has decreased.
Electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the anode; Radius r of the diffraction rings will obey:
they form a beam which is diffracted as it passes through
r   OR r  1 / V
the graphite film
11 The inability of the classical electromagnetic theory to
explain stationary state the orbit of an electron. An
orbiting electron is constantly changing its direction and
therefore is accelerating. According to Maxwell‘s laws of
electromagnetism, the orbiting electron should
continuously radiate energy and spiral into the nucleus,
which it does not do.
Stationary state is the orbit of an electron in which it does
not radiate energy.
32
12 Bohr’s Postulates. First postulate: Electrons in Second Postulate: During the transition of an
an atom can exist only in certain fixed orbits about electron from a higher orbit to a lower orbit the
the central nucleus. In these orbits, the angular energy difference is released as a photon. The
momentum of an electron is given by energy of the photon according to Plank‘s
equation is
(n=1, 2, 3, …)
13 Discrete electron energy levels in isolated atom of hydrogen. Bohr combined classical mechanics
with quantum wave mechanics to produce a satisfactory model of the atomic structure of hydrogen .
Consider an electron of mass m and charge e moving with velocity υ in a circular orbit of radius r
about a hydrogen nucleus. The charge nucleus is also e. There is Coulomb force (F) acting on the
electron.
According to the Newton‘s second The total energy E of the system is given by
law: (6)
(1) and (7)
(2) (8)
Multiplying each side of equation by
(9)
mr3 gives
Therefore from equations (5) and (9)
(3)
According to Bohr‘s first postulat: (n=1,2,3,…)
(4) If n = 1
Therefore from equations (3) and (4) ( )
- 21.7×10 -19 J =
( ) -13.6 eV (The lowest level of energy/Ground state)
For another energy levels:
i.e. (5) ; ; ;
The energies of the electrons in an atom can have
only certain values. These values are called the
energy levels of the atom. The energy levels of an
atom are usually represented as a series of horizontal
lines. Normally electrons occupy the lowest energy
levels available. Under these conditions the atom and
its electrons are said to be in the ground state. If the
atom absorbs energy in some way, electron may be
promoted into one of the higher energy levels. The
atom is now unstable - it is said to be in an excited
state – and after a short, but random interval the
electron ―falls‖ back into the lowest level so that
returns to its ground state.
The energy of the electron in the atom is said to be quantized. Each energy level is characterized by
what is called a quantum number (n). The lowest level has n=1, the next has n=2, etc. The energy
33
which has n = ∞ is zero. Movement of an electron between energy levels is called an electron
transition. Downward transition results in the emission of a photon. The atom can be raised to an
excited state by the absorption of a photon, but the photon must have just the right energy,
corresponding to the difference in energy of the excited state and the initial state. So, a downward
transition corresponds to photon emission, and an upward transition to photon absorption.
Absorption can occur Emission
only when:
Energy of photon = Difference energy
Difference energy between levels=
between levels Energy of the
emission photon
15 Success of the Bohr’s theory. Although based Disadvantages Bohr’s theory. From close observation of
on theoretical assumptions designed to fit the spectral lines we see that they are not all the same intensity.
observations rather than on direct empirical This implies that not all transitions are equally probably.
evidence, Bohr‘s model was for many reasons  With the development of more precise spectroscopic
quite successful: techniques, it became apparent that each of the excited
 It provided a physical model of the atom states was not a unique, single energy level but a group of
whose internal energy levels matched finely separated levels, near the Bohr level. To explain this
those of the observed hydrogen spectrum. splitting of levels, it was necessary to introduce
 It accounted for the stability of atoms: modifications to the shape of the Bohr orbits as well as the
Once an electron had descended to the concept that the electron was spinning on an axis as it
ground state, there was no lower energy to moved.
which it could jump. Thus, it stayed  It broke down when applied to many-electron atoms
there indefinitely, and the atom was stable. because it took no account of the interactions between
 It applied equally well to other one-electron electrons in orbit. To create a more accurate model we need
atoms, such as a singly ionized to look at matter in a different way.
helium ion.
16 Types of spectra. A prism or diffraction grating can spread light out into a spectrum with colours
distributed according to their wavelengths. The study of spectra is called spectroscopy, and
instruments used to measure the wavelenghts of spectra are spectrometers.
Continuous spectra. Whilst the light emitted by isolated atoms produces line spectra, the light
emitted by atoms in a solid, a liquid, or a gas at high pressure produces a continuous spectrum.
This happens because atoms close to each other. Interaction between atoms results in a broadening
of the electron levels. Consequently, transitions of a wide range og magnitudes of energy are
possible, and light of a broad spread of wavelengths may be emitted. This is seen as a continuous
spectrum. A hot, dense material emits a continuous spectrum, without any dark or bright lines.
Emission spectra. Emission line
spectrum is a pattern of bright lines
produced by a hot gas at low pressure.
For example, if a sample of hydrogen gas
under low pressure in a vacuum tube is
excited by a high electric potential
applied between electrodes at the ends of
the tube, a pink-purple glow is produced.
If this pink-purple light is passed through
a spectroscope, it is found to consist of
Apparatus used to produce an emission spectrum
numerous discrete wavelengths.
A line emission spectrum leads to an understanding of the existence of discrete electron energy
levels in atoms: - each line corresponds to photon energy; - photon emitted when electron changes
its energy level; discrete energy changes so discrete levels.
34
Absorption spectra. Absorption line spectrum is a pattern of dark lines produced when light passes
through a gas at low pressure. Spectrum contains a number of dark lines, because
 photons absorbs by electrons in gas atoms
 photon energy causes electron to move to higher energy level
 photon energy is equal to difference in energy of energy levels
 When electrons de-excite, photons emitted in all directions, rather than in the original direction
of the white light, so spectrum contains dark lines.
A gas at low pressure absorbs light at the same wavelengths as the light it emits when heated. A
photon of light can only be absorbed by an atom if it has exactly the right amount of energy to excite
an electron from one energy level to another. If light containing all wavelenghts (white light) is
passed through a gas then the photons with the right energy to excite electrons will be absorbed. The
spectrum of the light that comes out will have lines missing. This is called absorption spectrum and
is further evidence for the existence of electron energy levels.
Comparing three types of the speсtrum
17 Band theory. The electrons in an isolated

atom have a well-defined set of energy
levels. When two identical atoms are close
together their electrons move under the
influence of the combined electric fields of
the two atoms and each previously single
energy level splits into two levels, one
higher and one lower than the corresponding
level of the isolated atoms. When large
number of atoms are together, as they are in
crystal, the energy levels spread into bands.
35
Each band contains a large number of levels, and these are so close together that, in effect, there is a
continuous range of energies available to the electrons. The enegry levels separated by gaps in which
there are no available energy levels.
In semiconductors and insulators, the lower energy bands are filled with electrons. The valence
band is the uppermost filled band and the conduction band is the lowest unfilled band (figure
below). Each band consists of a very large number of closely-spaced energy levels. Between the
conduction band and the valence band, there exists the forbidden band. The forbidden band is a
range of energies that cannot be occupied by an electron.
18 Conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor. An intrinsic semiconductor is a substance such as pure

silicon or pure germanium that, at room temperatures, has a typical resistance between that of metals
and insulators. In an intrinsic semiconductor at zero kelvin (0 K): - the valence band is fully
occupied; - the conduction band is empty; - the forbidden band has a width of about 1 eV
For an intrinsic semiconductor above zero kelvin: - some electrons are able to jump the
forbidden band to enter the conduction band; - electrons in the conduction band act as negative
charge carriers; - the vacancies left behind in the valence band by the electrons entering the
conduction band are known as holes; - holes behave as positive charge carriers in the valence band;
- lattice vibrations increase as the temperature rises; - any effect due to increase in the number of
charge carriers outweighs any effect due to increase in laticce vibrations; -overall resistance
decreases as temperature rises; - the number per unit volume for electrons in the conduction band,
is equal to the number per unit volume of holes in the valence band.
Conduction in a metal. In a metal: - the valence band overlaps the conduction band; - the
forbidden band does not exist.
Conduction in an insulator. In an insulator: - the valence band is fully occupied;- the conduction
band is empty; - the forbidden band is very wide.
For light dependent resistor (LDR)
consists of an intrinsic semiconductor
resistance decreases if intensity of light
increases, because:
- photons of light give energy to electrons
in valence band;
- electrons move into the conduction
band; leaving holes in the valence band;
- these electrons and holes are charge
carriers increased number (increased
current), hence reduced resistance
36
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1 α-particle scattering experiment. In 1911, Rutherford and two of his associates, Geiger and
Marsden, fired a beam of α-particles at a very thin piece of gold foil. A zinc sulfide detector was
moved around the foil to detect the directions in which α-particles travelled after striking the foil.
They discovered that:

 the vast majority of the α-particles passed
through the foil with very little or no deviation
from their original path.
 a small number of particles were deviated
through an angle of more than about 100.
 an extremaly small number of particles
(about 1 in 8000) were deflected through an
angle greater than 900.
From these observations, the following
Possible paths of an α-particle near a nucleus.
conclusions could be drawn:
 The majority of the mass of an atom is concentrated in a very small volume at the centre of the
atom.
 The centre (or nucleus) of the atom is charged. α-particles, which are also charged, passing close
to the nucleus will experience a repulsive force causing them to deviate.
 Only α-particles that pass very close to the nucleus, almost striking it head-on, will experience
large enough repulsive forces to cause them to deviate through angles greater than 900. The fact that
so few particles did so confirms that the nucleus is very small, and the most of the atom is empty
space.
Rutherford’s nuclear model: Rutherford concluded
that the atom must be largely empty space, with its
positive charge and most of its mass concentrated in a
tiny nucleus at the centre. In his model, the much lighter
electrons orbited the nucleus rather like the planets
around the Sun.
Rutherford showed that more than 99.9% of the mass of
an atom is concentrated in a nucleus that is typically
only a few femtometres (10-15 m) in diameter.
In 1918, Rutherford began a new series of experiments in which he
bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles. He found that some
of the nitrogen transmuted into oxygen and that the process also
produced hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford concluded that the hydrogen
nucleus was a fundamental particle that is a constituent of all
nuclei. He called these particles protons, from protos, the Greek
word for ―first.‖
37
2 Nuclear terms and notation.

Protons and neutrons are called nucleons because they are both components of nuclei. Three numbers
describe the composition of a nucleus:
Atomic number, Z: the number of protons in a nucleus
Neutron number, N: the number of neutrons in the nucleus
Atomic mass number, A: the number of nucleons in the nucleus, A = Z + N
Scientists often indicate the composition of a nucleus with the notation , where X is the chemical
symbol for the element.
Isotopes of an element are atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. Hydrogen has three isotopes: with one proton, deuterium ( ) with one proton and
one neutron and tritium ( ) with one proton and two neutrons. Each form of an element is called
a nuclide. Nuclides with the same Z number but different A numbers are isotopes. Radioactive
isotopes are termed radioisotopes or radionuclides; their nuclei are unstable.
Unit of atomic mass (u). One unit of atomic mass (u) = of the mass of a carbon ( ) atom.
–27
1 u = 1,66057·10 kg
Some properties of subatomic particles:
3 General properties of nuclear reactions:

 The number of nucleons is conserved;
 Charge is conserved;
 Total energy is conserved;
 Total momentum is conserved
One possible nuclear reaction involves the bombardment of a stationary nitrogen-14 nucleus by an α-
particle to form oxygen-17 and proton.
Before reaction total number of nucleons is 18 = After reaction total number of nucleons is 18
Before reaction total number of charges is 9 = After reaction total number of charges is 9
4 Nuclear fission. If a radioactive isotope is bombarded with slow neutrons they may split the nuclei
into two different nuclei. In the process, energy and neutrons are released. The disintegration of a
heavier nucleus into one or more light ones, due to neutron bombardment, is called nuclear fission
(nuclear division).
The element uranuim is used in almost all of the fission processes. It has two natural isotopes. One of
them which constitutes 99.3% of natural uranium ore and which constitutes 0.7% of
natural uranium ore.
38
5 Сhain reaction. The neutrons generated

during the nuclear fission may also
bombard other isotopes and cause new
fissions. These new nuclear fission
reactions also produce neutrons with huge
amounts of energy and the process carries
on exponentially without any further outside
intervention. This continuos process is
called a nuclear chain reaction it was first
achieved by Enrico Fermi on September 2,
1942 in Chicago. It is the basic principle of
the atomic bomb and the nuclear reactor.
In an atomic bomb, an increasing
uncontrolled chain reaction occurs when
two pieces of uranium-235 come together
and exceed critical mass.
6 Nuclear reactor (Fission reactor). Nuclear reactors make use of controlled fission reactions to
provide energy. Parts of a nuclear reactor:
Fuel: Usually pellets of uranium oxide arranged in tubes to form fuel rods (uranium fuel element).
Moderator: This is material which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause
more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
Control rods: These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron,
and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it.
Heat exchanger: The heat exchanger allows the nuclear reactions to occur in a place that is sealed off
from the rest of the environment. The reactions increase the temperature in the core. This thermal
energy is transferred to heat water and the steam that is produced turns the turbines.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Extremely high ―energy density‖ – a great deal  Process produces radioactive nuclear waste
of energy is released from a very small mass of that is currently just stored.
uranium.  Larger possible risk if anything should go
 Reserves of uranium large compared to oil. wrong
 Nonrenewable (but should last a long time).
39
7 Nuclear fusion is the combining of two light nuclei to produce a heavier nucleus. Energy is released
by the process. An example is the fusion of two deuterium nuclei to produce helium 3:
Reactions of this type (to conversion of hydrogen to helium) are the source of the Sun‘s energy.
Temperatures in excess of 107’108 K are required to provide the nuclei which are to fuse with the
energy needed to overcome their mutual electrostatic repulsion. Nuclear fusion is the basis of the
hydrogen bomb. The high temperature and pressure effects of the atomic bomb initiate the nuclear
fusion reaction. The power of the hydrogen bomb is 1000 times greater than that of the atomic bomb.
Fusion in stars. The temperatures and pressures inside a star are so great that nuclear fusion can
happen. Stars have enough hydrogen to maintain their energy output for millions of years. During
most of a star's lifetime, hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium nuclei. As the star runs out of
hydrogen, other fusion reactions take place forming the nuclei of other elements. Heavier elements
than hydrogen and helium (up to iron) are formed. Elements heavier than iron are formed in
supernovas. Heavy elements are found in the Sun and planets of the solar system. This suggests that
the solar system was formed from the remains of earlier stars that exploded as supernovas.
In the 1930s, the young German physicist Hans Bethe (1906–2005) worked out the details of how
hydrogen nuclei could release energy by fusing together to form helium. In the Sun and smaller stars,
the process, called the proton-proton chain, has four steps.
First, two hydrogen nuclei
combine to form deuterium
(an isotope of hydrogen with
one neutron), an antielectron,
and a neutrino. Next, another
hydrogen nucleus combines
with the deuterium nucleus to
produce a helium-3 nucleus
and a gamma ray. Then, two
of the helium-3 nuclei
combine to produce a helium-
4 nucleus, two hydrogen
nuclei, and a gamma ray. In
the final step, annihilation of
two positron-electron pairs
occurs. Proton-proton chain
Each of these annihilations produces a pair of gamma photons. In order for these reactions to occur,
the nuclei must have enough kinetic energy to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between them.
8 Spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay. In radioactive decay an unstable nucleus emits
α or β particles and γ radiation and becomes the nucleus of an atom of a different element.
Nuclear decay is spontaneous because: - the decay of nuclei cannot be affected by chemical
reactions or external factors such as temperature and pressure; - the decay of a particular nucleus is
not affected by the presence of other nuclei. Nuclear decay is random because: - it is impossible to
predict when a particular nucleus in a sample is going to decay; -each nucleus in a sample has the
same chance of decaying per unit time.
9 Decay constant and activity. The decay constant (λ) is the probability of decay of nucleus per unit
time. The decay constant is a property of each particular isotope. For example, radium-226 has a
decay constant of 1.4×10-11 s-1, indicating that each individual nucleus in a sample of radium-226 has
a probability of 1.4×10-11 of decaying in 1 s. The greater the decay constant, the faster an isotope will
decay. The activity of a radioactive source is the number of nuclear decays occurring per unit time in
the source. Activity is usually measured in decays per second, or becquerels (Bq).
Activity and the decay constant are related by this formula:
In a time equal to one half-life, the activity of the sample will also halve. This is because activity is
proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei (A ∝ N ).
40
10 Half-life is the time required for one-half The half-lives of different isotopes have a very wide
of the radioactive nuclei in a range of values. Examples of some radioactive isotopes
sample to decay. are given in the table.
The half-life of an isotope and the decay
constant are inversly proportional to each
other:
11 Decay graphs and equations.
N = number of undecayed nucleus

N0= number of initial nucleus
λ = decay constant
t = time
е =2,71828… (exponenta)
The activity A of a sample is
proportional to the number of
undecayed nuclei N. Hense the activity
of the sample decreases exponentially:
А Geiger-Muller tube placed in front of a radioactive source therefore only detects a fraction of the
activity. The farther it is from the source, the smaller the count rate. Therefore, our measurements
give a received count rate (R) that is significantly lower than the activity (A). If we know how
efficient our detecting system is, we can deduce A from R. If the level of background radiation is
significant, then it must be subtracted to give corrected count rate.
12 Nature of α -, β - and γ-radiations. There are three types of radiation which are emitted by
radioactive substances: alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiations come from the unstable nuclei of
atoms.
An alpha (α) particle consists two protons and two neutrons, i.e. it is identical to a helium nucleus.
An alpha particle is written as . Charge +2e, mass 4u. Typical speed of α-particles is about
6
10 m/s (“slow”).
Beta (β) particles are fast moving electrons. Beta particles is written as β or or or e. Charge –
8
e, mass ≈1u/1840. Typical speed of β- particles is about 10 m/s (“fast”).
Gamma (γ) radiation is part of electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between 10-11m-10-13 m.
γ- radiation has no charge, no mass. Speed of γ - radiation is 3×108 m/s (speed of light).
13 Ionizing properties of α -, β - and γ-radiations. Alpha-radiation is the most strongly ionizing,
because the mass and charge of an α-particle are greater than those of a β-particle, and it usually
travels more slowly. This means that an α-particle interacts more strongly with any atom that it
passes, and so it is more likely to cause ionization. Beta-particles are much lighter and faster, and so
their effect is less. Gamma radiation also causes ionization, but not as strongly as α- and β-particles,
as γ-rays are not charged.
41
14 Radiation penetration.
α- particles: the penetrate ability in air
≈ 2,5-5 cm;
β- particles: the penetrate ability in air
≈ 30 cm
γ-rays: the penetrate ability in air is
several meters;
 α-radiation is absorbed by a thin
sheet of paper or a few centimeters of
air;
 β-radiation is absorbed by a few
millimeters of metal;
 γ-radiation is never completely
absorbed but a few centimeters of lead,
or several meters of concrete, greatly
reduces the intensity.
15 Behavior of radiations in electric and magnetic fields.
An electric field can be used to separate A magnetic field may also be used to separate
α-, β- and γ-radiations α-, β- and γ-radiations
16 Alpha decay: Gamma decay:
In α-decay, the nucleon number decreases by 4 and In γ-emission there is no change in nucleon or
the proton number decreases by 2. proton number
Beta decay:
In β-decay, the nucleon number is unchanged and the
proton number increases by 1.
β-particles are emitted by nuclei which have too
many neutrons to be stable. Such a nucleus attains a
more stable state when one of its neutrons changes
into a proton and an electron. When this happens the
electron is immediately emitted β-particles. Nucleus
lost a neutron and gained a proton.
42
17 Einstein’s mass-energy relation. 1 u = 1.661×10-27 kg ; c = 2,998×108 m/s

Albert Einstein in 1905 was the first person to If mass is 1 u, energy is
show that energy and mass are equivalent. 1u (energy)=
The total energy of a body is equal to the 1 u = 932 MeV
product of the relativistic mass and the square of
the light speed in a vacuum.
E=energy (J) ; m = mass (kg) ; c = speed of light
c ≈ 3×108 m/s;
18 The mass defect of a nucleus is defined as the difference between the mass of the separeted nucleons
and the combined mass of the nucleus. Mass defect = Mass of nucleons – Mass of nucleus
When six protons and six neutrons combine to form the nucleus of carbon-12, there is a very small
loss of mass Δm. We can calculate this difference as below:
Mass of proton ( ) ≈ 1.672623×10-27 kg; Mass of neutron ( )≈ 1.674929×10-27 kg
Mass of nucleus ≈ 19.926483×10-27 kg.
Mass before = 6×1.672623×10-27 kg +6×1.674929×10-27 kg = 20.085312×10-27 kg
Mass after = 19.926483×10-27 kg
Mass defect: Δm =20.085312×10-27 kg - 19.926483×10-27 kg = 0.158829×10-27 kg
19 Binding energy is the energy required to
separate to infinity all the nucleons of nucleus.
Binding energy is the energy equivalent of the
mass defect of a nucleus:
E = Δm×c2
E= binding energy (J) ; Δm = mass defect (kg);
c = 3×108 m/s.
20 Binding energy per nucleon is Graph shows variation with nucleon number of the binding
defined as the total energy needed energy per nucleon for different nuclides
to completely separate all the
nucleons in a nucleus divided by
the number of nucleons in the
nucleus.
In order to compare the stability
of different nuclides, we need to
consider the binding energy per
nucleon. A stable nucleus is one
which has a very low probability of
decay. Less stable nuclei are more
likely to disintegrate.
The most stable nuclides are
those with the highest binding
energy per nucleon. That is, those
near point B on the graph. Iron
( ) is one of these stable
nuclides. Typically, very stable
nuclides have binding energies per
nucleon of about 8 MeV.
Light nuclei, between A and B on the graph, may combine or fuse to form larger nuclei with larger
binding energies per nucleon. This process is called nuclear fusion. For the process to take place,
conditions of very high temperature and pressure are required, such as in stars like the Sun.
Heavy nuclei, between B and C on the graph, when bombarded with neutrons, may break into two
smaller nuclei, again larger binding energy per nucleon values. This process is called nuclear fission.
43
21 Nuclear fusion occurs when two light

nuclei combine to form a nucleus of
greater mass.
If we look at the binding energy (BE)
per nucleon against nucleon number
curve, we see that the line initially rises
steeply. If you were to add two
nuclei to get one nucleus, then the
He nucleus would have more binding
energy per nucleon.
If we add up the total BE for the helium
nucleus, it has 24 MeV more BE than
two hydrogen nuclei. This means that
24 MeV would have to be released; this
could be by the emission of gamma
radiation.
For this to take place, the matter must either be heated to temperatures as high as the core of the Sun
(107-108 kelvin) or the particles must be thrown together in a particle accelerator.
22 Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy
nucleus into two lighter nuclei of
approximately same mass.
Looking at the right-hand side of the graph
in figure we see that if one large nucleus is
split into two smaller ones, then the total BE
would again be increased. This reaction
forms the basis of the nuclear reactor.
BE of = 236×7.6 MeV = 1793.6 MeV
BE of = 141×8 MeV = 1128 MeV
BE of = 92×8.2 MeV = 754.4 MeV

Gain in BE = (1128+754.4) - 1793.6
= 88.8 MeV
Since this leads to a release of energy, this
process is possible.
44
Radioactive dating
45
QUANTUM FIELD THEORY

1 By 1930, Dirac, Heisenberg, Born, and others had established the foundations of quantum field
theory. In this theory, mediating particles are the mechanism by which the fundamental forces act
over the distance between particles. Particles that mediate a force exist for such a brief time that they
cannot be observed. For these virtual particles, energy, momentum, and mass are not related as they
are for real particles.
Quantum field theory: a field theory developed using both quantum mechanics and relativity theory.
Mediating particle: a virtual particle that carries one of the fundamental forces. Virtual particle: a
particle that exists for such a short time that it is not detectable. Gluon: the mediating particle for the
strong nuclear force. Graviton: the hypothetical mediating particle for the gravitational force.
The concept of mediating particles was first applied to the electromagnetic force, in a theory called quantum
electrodynamics. This theory states that virtual photons exchanged between charged particles are the carriers
of the attractive or repulsive force between the particles. For example, consider the electromagnetic repulsion
between two electrons. One electron emits a virtual photon in the direction of the other electron. According to
Newton‘s third law, the first electron will recoil and its momentum will change by an amount opposite to the
momentum of the photon. Similarly, when the second electron absorbs the photon, this electron will gain
momentum directed away from the first electron. You can think of the photon for an attractive force as acting a
bit like the shared electron holding two atoms together in a covalent chemical bond. In the latter part of the
20th century, calculations using a refined version of quantum electrodynamics gave results that matched
observed values with amazing accuracy — sometimes to 10 significant digits.
Quantum electrodynamics: Quantum field theory dealing with the interactions of electromagnetic fields,
charged particles, and photons.
2 The fundamental forces and their mediating particles
Force Range Relative Strength Mediating Particle
(for protons in particles obserbed?
nucleus)
Gravitational Infinite 10-38 gravitons No
-18 -6 + - 0
Weak nuclear <10 m 10 W , W ,Z Yes
-2
Electromagnetic Infinite 10 photons Yes
Strong nuclear <10-15 m 1 gluons Indirectly
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
1 Improved particle accelerators and detectors led to the discovery of many more subatomic particles. Over
300 have now been identified. Most of these particles are highly unstable and have lifetimes of less than
a microsecond. There are several ways to classify elementary (sub-atomic) particles. The two most
commonly used systems classify them according to their spin number and their structure. One subatomic
particle can be a member of two different groups according to these classifications, since each particle is
a special combination of several properties.
2 Classification according Classification according
to their structure to their spin number
Lepton: a subatomic particle that does not interact via
the strong nuclear force Fermion: particle with half integer spin (such as
Hadron: a subatomic particle that does interact via 1/2 or 3/2)
the strong nuclear force Boson: particle with integer spin (such as 0,1,2)
Hadron not a fundamental particle, lepton is fundamental particle. Hadron made of quarks, lepton not
made of quarks.
One of the key quantum properties for classifying particles is their
spin. This property is like angular momentum from rotation of the particle. The spin of a particle can be
either an integer or half-integer multiple of Planck‘s constant divided by 2π.
Classification of subatomic Particles
Leptons Hadrons Mediating particles
Fermions all leptons baryons
Bosons mesons all mediating particles
46
3 There are far more types of hadrons than types of leptons. In fact, physicists have found only six leptons
plus their corresponding antiparticles. Table below compares the mass and stability of the leptons and
some of the more significant hadrons.
*lifetime for a free neutron; neutrons in nuclei are stable

meson: hadron with spin integer; baryon: a hadron with half integer spin
4 The quark model. In 1963, Americans Murray Gell-Mann (b. 1929) and George Zweig (b. 1937)
independently proposed that all hadrons are composed of simpler particles, which Gell-Mann called
quarks. By grouping the subatomic particles into distinct classes and families, Gell-Mann and Zweig
showed that all the hadrons then known could be made from just three smaller particles and their
antiparticles. These three particles are now called the up quark, the down quark, and the strange quark.
This theory required that the quarks have fractional charges that are either one-third of the charge on an
electron or two-thirds of the charge on a proton. Understandably, many physicists had trouble accepting
this radical concept.
In the quark model, protons and neutrons contain only up and down quarks. The strange quark
accounts for the properties of strange particles, hadrons that decay via the weak nuclear force even
though they originate from and decay into particles that can interact via the strong nuclear force. In 1974,
the discovery of the psi meson confirmed the existence of a fourth quark, the charm quark. Then, in
1977, the heavy upsilon meson was detected and found to involve a fifth quark, the bottom quark. Since
there are six leptons, physicists wondered if there might be an equal number of quarks. In 1995, a large
team of researchers at Fermilab found evidence for the top quark. This discovery required a huge
accelerator because the top quark is about 40 000 times heavier than the up quark.
47
5 Quarks and antiquarks

Quarks Antiquarks
Generation Name Symbol Charge Symbol Charge
First Up u +2/3 e ̅ -2/3 e
Down d -1/3 e ̅ +1/3 e
Second Strange s -1/3 e ̅ +1/3 e
Charm c +2/3 e ̅ -2/3 e
Third Bottom b -1/3 e ̅ +1/3 e
Top t +2/3 e ̅ -2/3 e
6 Composition of protons and neutrons.
The proton and the neutron contain only first-generation quarks. As shown in figure, the proton consists
of a down quark and two up quarks. The net charge of these three quarks is (+2/3e) + (+ 2/3e) + (-1/3e)
= +e. The other quantum properties of the quarks also sum those of a proton.
Similarly, a neutron consists of two down quarks and an up quark. In this combination, the positive
charge on the up quark exactly balances the negative charge on the two down quarks.
7 Composition of other hadrons. All of the hadrons discovered in the 20th century can be accounted for
with a combination of either two or three quarks:
 All the mesons consist of a quark and an antiquark.
 All the baryons consist of three quarks.
 All the antibaryons consist of three antiquarks.
8 Describing beta decay using quarks and leptons. During beta decays of elements, the nuclei
emit either an electron or a positron. Since both these particles are leptons, beta decay must proceed via
the weak nuclear force.
-
In β decay of nuclei, a neutron transforms
into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino.
Physicists think that the down quark emits a

virtual W- particle (a mediator for the weak
nuclear force) that then decays into an electron
and an antineutrino:
Similarly, in β+ decay of nuclei, an up quark in a proton turns into a down quark by emitting a virtual W+
particle that then decays into a positron and a neutrino:
48
9 Standard model. The term standard model now refers to a model originally proposed in 1978 to
explain the nature of matter and the fundamental forces. Here are some key concepts of this model:
 All matter is composed of 12 fundamental particles — the 6 leptons and the 6 quarks — plus their
antiparticles.
 The electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force are both aspects of a single fundamental force.
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salaam, and Steven Weinberg developed the theory for this electroweak
force in the late 1960s. This theory accurately predicted the existence and masses of the W+, W-, and Z0
particles.
 The electromagnetic and nuclear forces are mediated by virtual particles. As discussed in section 17.2,
these mediating particles are the photon, the gluon, and the W+, W-, and Z0 particles.
 All quarks have a quantum property, termed colour, which determines how the strong nuclear force
acts between quarks. (Quantum colour is not related to visible colours at all.) The quantum field theory
describing the strong nuclear force in this way is called quantum chromodynamics. It is analogous to
quantum electrodynamics with colour instead of electric charge and gluons instead of photons.
Colour: a quantum property related to the strong nuclear force
Electroweak force: a fundamental force that combines the electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force
Quantum chromodynamics: quantum field theory that describes the strong nuclear force in terms of quantum
colour
List of literature
1. Roger Muncaster. A-Level Physics. Fourth edition, 2014. Oxford university press.
2. Jim Breithaupt. Physics for advanced level. Fourth edition, 2000. Nelson Thornes Ltd.
3. David Sang, Graham Jones, Richard Woodside. Cambridge International AS and A Level
Physics. Coursebook. 2010. Cambridge university press.
4. James E. Ackroyd et al. Physics. 2009, Pearson education Canada.
5. Physics series. Modular system. Zambak publishing. Istanbul Turkey.
49

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AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION

«NAZARBAYEV INTELLECTUAL SCHOOLS»

NAZARBAYEV INTELLECTUAL SCHOOL OF PHYSICS AND

«On the decision of the methodical department

Author: Bizhanov Yerali

ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

Period of free EM oscillations: Angular frequency of free EM oscillations:

6 Generation, properties and uses of EM radiation.

10 Sidebands and bandwidth. A carrier wave

16 Comparison of different chanells of communication.

Space waves are sky waves with a frequency

d Optic fibres. Pulses of light or infra-

e Communication satellites. A satellite is an object

Block diagram of a mobile-phone handset

Φ= Magnetic flux through coil;

4 Characteristics of alternating currents.

DC – Direct current AC –alternating current

I = value of the current at any time.

V = value of the voltage at any time.

Note that the current has the same frequency as the

Worked example: An alternating voltage V is a) Peak voltage: V0 = 311 V

alternating current Paver is delivered to the

The turns-ratio equation for a transformer:

Why the voltage across secondary

9 Step up and Step down transformers

The current is in phase with the voltage

(a) A capacitor connected across an AC generator.

The phasor diagram for the capacitor.

The average power dissipated in capacitor is

(a) An inductor connected across an AC generator.

A relationship between applied voltage and the current

Because the current and voltage in an inductor are

The phasor diagram for the inductor.

15 The RLC series circuit. An RLC

Maximum voltage : Individual voltage vectors

VRO = peak voltage across

2 Deflection of charged particles in

Charged particle motion in a magnetic field:

- faster-moving particles move in bigger circles (r∝ υ);

(а) if the initial motion of charged particle is parallel to the

4 Wave theory of the light: Particle theory of the light:

The graph shows that the maximum kinetic

e = charge of electron (e =1.6×10-19 C); m = mass of the electron (m =9.1×10-31kg)

λ= De Broglie wavelength (m) ; h = Plank constant, h = 6.63×10-34 Js; p = momentum of the

Fig. Diffraction of electrons due to a gold film

Comparing three types of the speсtrum

17 Band theory. The electrons in an isolated

18 Conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor. An intrinsic semiconductor is a substance such as pure

They discovered that:

2 Nuclear terms and notation.

3 General properties of nuclear reactions:

5 Сhain reaction. The neutrons generated

11 Decay graphs and equations.

N = number of undecayed nucleus

17 Einstein’s mass-energy relation. 1 u = 1.661×10-27 kg ; c = 2,998×108 m/s

21 Nuclear fusion occurs when two light

BE of = 141×8 MeV = 1128 MeV

BE of = 92×8.2 MeV = 754.4 MeV

QUANTUM FIELD THEORY

*lifetime for a free neutron; neutrons in nuclei are stable

5 Quarks and antiquarks

Physicists think that the down quark emits a

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