LECTURE 2, CLASSICAL MECHANICS 2.

2.0 WORK-ENERGY

(Before we start this class I expect each of you to refresh yourselves on velocity,
acceleration, displacement, vector and scalar quantities)

What is work? That which is done when a force moves a body through a distance.

Consider the motion of a body when subjected to a force.

Work done = force x displacement in direction of motion

W = Fd (2.1)
If the force is not in the direction of motion, then take the component of the force along the
direction of motion and multiply it by the displacement.
i.e The force must be resolved in the direction of motion. ( Here read vector addition, resolution
and equilibriant)

e.g. in this case W = (FCos)d (2.2)

In the example above we can consider two cases:

(i)  = 00: This then becomes the previous example where force acts in the direction of
motion. Since Cos  = Cos 00 = 1, W = Fd as in eqn.(2.1). means force is in
direction of motion.

(ii)  = 900: This is a situation where a force acts in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion. Since  = 900, Cos  = Cos 900 = 0, and W = FdCos = 0. No
work is done in this case, although the body has moved some distance d. i.e., W = 0
although F  0, d  0.

(iii)  = 300 The effective force= Fcos 30=¿)F/2

Work is a scalar quantity. Its unit is Joules (Newton-meter).

2.1 Motion On A Frictional Surface

Let a body of mass m be subjected to a force F⃗ making an angle  with the direction of motion.

If the body moves on a rough surface, having coefficient of dynamic friction as k, then we can
calculate the work done on the body when it moves a distance d by first identifying the forces
acting on the body when it moves on the rough surface.

( kindly go and check difference between coefficients of dynamic friction and coefficient of
kinetic friction)
normal reaction force
In general coefficient of friction =
effective force acting on abody ∈direction of motion

The force ⃗F is resolved in two directions:

(i) along the direction of motion - FCos
(ii) perpendicular to the direction of motion - FSin
- In addition to these components a gravitation force mg acts on the body at its center of
mass
- then the normal reaction from the surface acts on the body opposite to mg, represented
by N.
- When the body moves, a frictional force
f =μk N acts on the body in the direction
opposite to the direction of motion.

Since the body is moving unaccelerated in the direction of the x-axis, and there is no motion in
the direction of the y-axis, we can write down the net forces in the two directions as:

F cosθ−f =0 (2.3)
F sin θ+N −mg=0 (2.4)
From eqn.(2.4) N=mg−F sin θ
f =μk N =μk ( mg−F sin θ )
Then from eqn.(2.3) F cos θ−μk ( mg−F sin θ )=0 since body is unaccelerated=constant velocity.
NB: Work done in this scenario is just to overcome friction.

2.2 Work Done by a Variable Force Acting on a Body

2.2.1 Only Magnitude of Force Change

Consider the work done by a force that is not constant. We first consider a force that varies in
magnitude only. If the force is a function of position x, i.e. F = F(x) by assuming that ⃗F acts
in the x-direction, then the work done on the body when it goes from its position at x1 to a
new position at x2 can be computed as follows.
Let F(x) be the value of the force at some position x and the body moves a small distance x
from this position. Then the work W done by the force is given by

ΔW =F ( x ) Δx (2.5)

If we sum all the works done this way, when the body moves from x1 to x2 we end up with
the total work done
x2 x2

W =∑ ΔW =∑ F ( x ) Δx
x1 x1
(2.6)

Then in the limit Δx→0 , the summation reduces to integration

x2
x2
lim ∑ FΔx =∫x F ( x ) dx
Δx→0 x 1
1 (2.7)
x2
W 12=∫x F ( x ) dx
or 1 (2.8)

Example: Case of spring where F = -kx

If the spring is stretched by an extension

of a force F in the positive direction of
x, this force must be equal and opposite to
the force which the spring exerts on
mass m, i.e., F =−(−k x ) , so F ( x ) =k x . If the spring is further stretched by an amount
' ' ' '

' '
d x at x , then the work done by the force on the mass-spring system is
dW =F ( x ) d x
' ' '
(2.9)

If the mass is displaced from its equilibrium position by x, then the total work done by the
applied force is
( Note that in a spring, Force F= -kx, this is Hookes law, k= spring constant)

So work done = force X displacement

W = ∫ kxdx

1
W= kx2 (2.10)
2

This is the work done which goes into the mass-spring system as potential energy.

2.2.2 Direction and Magnitude of Force Changes

Consider work done by a force which varies in magnitude as well as in direction. The path of
the body may be a curved line.

In this case also, we can write for total work done when the body moves from a to b as

b b
W=∫a ⃗F⋅d ⃗r =∫a F cosθdr
(2.11)

To evaluate this integral, one needs to know how F and  vary from point to point.

It is easier to use Cartesian vector approach to solve this work done.

By writing the force and displacement vectors into their Cartesian components

⃗F =^i F x + ^j F y ^ ^
and d ⃗r = i dx+ j dy

we obtain an equivalent expression for eqn.(2.11) as

 b b
W=∫a ⃗F⋅d ⃗r =∫a ( F x dx +F y dy )
(2.12)

2.3 Work Energy Theorem

The theorem states: “Work done on a body by the resultant force is always equal to the change
in its kinetic energy.”

This is the work-energy theorem, i.e.,

W =K −K o = ΔK (2.13)

where Ko is the initial kinetic energy and K is the final kinetic energy.

If the speed of the body remains constant during the motion, then there is no change in its kinetic
energy. Therefore the work done on the body by the resultant force is zero. The component of
the resultant force in the direction of motion changes its speed and so does work.

Proof of work-energy theorem

From above,
x x
W=∫x F⃗⋅d ⃗r =∫x Fdx
o o (2.14)

But by Newton’s second law,

F=m⃗a (2.15)

and

d ⃗v dv dx dv
⃗a = = ⋅ =v⋅
dt dx dt dx This is CHAIN LAW IN CALCULUS. (2.16)

Using eqn.(2.16) in eqn.(2.15)

dv
F=mv
dx

and putting this into eqn.(2.14) gives

x x dv v
W=∫x Fdx =∫x mv dx =∫v mvdv
o o dx o
 1 1
W = mv2 − mv 2 =K −K o =ΔK
This gives 2 2 o (2.17)

This is the work-energy theorem

W=K −K = ΔK o .
2.4 Conservation of Energy
In the work-energy theorem we have shown that if several forces act on a body, the work done
⃗ =F
⃗ +⃗
by the resultant force ( 1 F 2 +. .. .. . .. ) , which is a vector sum of all the forces, is equal to the
F
change in the kinetic energy of the body. If we compute the works done by each force acting on
the body, then the net work done is the algebraic sum of the several works done, i.e.

W=W 1 +W 2 +W 3 +.. .. ..=ΔK (2.18)

( principle of conservation of energy: the total energy in any given closed system is always a
constant. Energy can only change from one form to another but cannot be destroyed( Types of
energies heat, sound, electric, magnetic, mechanical, etc….)

2.4.1 Conservative Forces

This is a force in a lossless system

Work done by a conservative force
 = zero in a closed loop ∮ Fdx =0
 Work done from A to B is independent on path
 A conservative force is irrotational ie Curl F=0

Examples of conservative forces are

-gravitational forces
-forces on a spring- Hookes law
-Coloumbic forces
( Give more examples of central forces)

WE WILL DISCUSS MORE ON THIS LATER.

2.4.2 Non-Conservative Forces

These are forces in dissipative systems.

Where work done between any two fixed points depends on path.
Energy is lost in the system
Example of a non conservative force
Frictional forces