Voltage Source and Current Source

Voltage Source:
A device which can produce a continuous force to move the electrons (or, continuous voltage)
through the wire connected into the two terminals of the device is called a Voltage Source. There
are two types of the Voltage Source which are:
Direct Voltage Source:
A device which produces a continuous direct voltage output is called a Direct Voltage Source.
For example: Cells, Battery, DC Generator.
A direct voltage is the kind of voltage whose polarity remains the same. Direct Voltage causes
the current to move only in one direction continuously.
Alternating Voltage Source:
A device which produces a alternating direct voltage output is called a Alternating Voltage
Source. For example: AC Generator, DC to AC converter etc.
A alternating voltage is the kind of voltage whose polarity is reversed periodically. Alternating
Voltage causes the current to move in one direction for a period and then in another direction for
another period.
Ideal Voltage Source:
An Ideal Voltage source is a kind of Voltage source whose internal resistance is zero! Such that
the supplied voltage does not changes even if the external load resistance is changes.
1) Ideal Independent Voltage Sources
An ideal independent voltage source is a two-terminal circuit element where the voltage across it
a) is independent of the current through it
b) can be specified independently of any other variable in a circuit. There are two symbols for
ideal independent voltage source in circuit theory:

Symbol for Constant Independent Voltage Source

General Symbol for Independent Voltage Source

Anatomy of a Virtually Ideal (Constant) Voltage Source:
A Voltage source which has zero internal resistance or impedance is called an Ideal or Constant
voltage source!
But practically it is not possible. No matter how much efforts are made the voltage source still
have a small internal resistance,but a voltage source can be converted into a Virtually Constant
Voltage Source by changing the internal materials used in a cell or voltage source such that the
internal resistance of the source is minimized.
A practical virtual constant voltage source has very low internal impedance (let it be 0.005 ohm
or 5 miliohm in this case) and the actual circuit diagram of a voltage source looks like:

 
Current Source:
A current source is a device which provides the regular flow or electrons or current on a circuit.
A current source is a type of voltage source which have enough EMF and surplus electrons so as
to produce the flow of electrons.
Direct Current Source:
The current source made of a Direct Voltage Source is called Direct Current Source.
Alternating Current Source:
The current source made of a Alternating Voltage Source is called Alternating Current Source.
Ideal Current Source:
A current source which provides a constant current without any relation with the voltage
supplied to the load is called Ideal Current Source.
Ideal Independent Current Sources
In contrast to ideal independent voltage sources, an ideal independent current source is a two-
terminal circuit element where the current passing through it
(a) is independent of the voltage across it
(b) can be specified independently of any other variable in a circuit. There is one symbol for
ideal independent current source in circuit theory:

Symbol for Ideal Independent Current Source

Anatomy of a Virtually Ideal (Constant) Current Source:
Practically an Ideal Current source is impossible but a circuit can be configured such that when
the voltage across the load is changed the supplied current varies negligibly. A virtual Constant
or Ideal current source can be made by adding avery high internal impedance to a Voltage
Source.a shown in the figure below:
 

 Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source and Vice Versa:

Here in the following constant voltage source:

The Internal resistance of the voltage source = Ri

The Load resistance = Rl

The Open Voltage across the load resistance = V = IRi
V
And the Short Current across the load resistance = I Short = 
Ri
Now we need to convert the above Constant voltage current source into a Constant Current
Source with Following anatomy:
 constant current source
As we can see in the above constant current source:
V
the Open Voltage = V =  I × R iand also the short current =  I Short = 
Ri
Thus the Open Voltage and Short Current in both circuits is same, thus both circuits are
electrically equivalent.
Hence, To convert a Constant Voltage Source into a Constant Current Source we need to follow
the following steps.
1. Find the Internal resistance of the Constant Voltage source and place it in parallel with
the Voltage source to convert it into a Constant Current Source.
2. Find the Current flowing through the Load in a Voltage source with the Load resistance
being short (I =V/ Ri) and the Current provided by the converted constant current source
is the same I.
We can also convert a Constant Current Source into a Constant Voltage Source by following
Method:
1. Find the resistance parallel of the Constant current source and place it in series with the
current source to convert it into a Constant Voltage Source.
2. Find the Open Voltage of the current source (V = I * Ri) and the voltage provided by the
constant voltage source will be the same V.

Voltage Divider

A Voltage Divider is a circuit or device that divides the total supplied voltage into fractions or
parts among the various components or points in the device.
Voltage dividers are normally used to obtain various voltage output from a voltage source , For
example in Transistor Biasing , Audio Circuits , Providing power to devices draining small
currents etc.

Voltage Divider Circuit:

A voltage divider circuit is a circuit which divides the supplied voltage into fractions. Voltage
Divider circuit consists of two or more resistor in series as shown in the figure below:
The figure above is a simple voltage divider which consists of a Voltage Source Supply of "V"
and two resistors "R1" and "R2", this circuit provides two output voltage "V1" and "V2" whose
total sum is "V".

Voltage Divider Rule:

The voltage divider rule is a simple rule which helps to determine the voltage drop or the voltage
provided by a branch in a voltage divider circuit.The rule simply stated that the voltage divided
in each branch of a Voltage Divider circuit is in proportion to their resistance or impedance.

Rx
Or Mathematically:V x = ×V t
Rt
Which is also called the voltage divider formula.
Where,
 V x = Voltage along a branch (Let it be named X).
R x= Resistance of the branch X.
Rt = Total Resistance of the branches in the Voltage Divider.
and, V t = Total Voltage supplied to the voltage divider.
For example:
Example 1: In the following circuit:

Voltage Divider

The Voltage V1 divided in the upper branch =

 4
V 1= ×10 V =8 V
4 +1
and the voltage V2 divided in the lower branch =
1
V 2= ×10 V =2V
4 +1

Example 2:
In the Voltage Divider Below:

Voltage Divider

Resistance in Upper Branch = Equivalent resistance of 4 kilo ohms and Load resistance
1
Rl = 1 1 = 2 kilo ohms
+
4 4
Resistance in Lower Branch = 1 kilo ohms
So,
2
V 1= ×10 V =6.777 V
2+1
and,
1
V 2= ×10 V =3.333V
2+1

Practicality of a Voltage Divider:

Voltage dividers are used in many types of electronics and electrical devices, Like Audio
Circuits, Power Supply etc.
One of the major factors to be considered while designing a voltage divider is the value of the
resistors to be used.
We can use any value of resistors in ratio to get the proportional output voltage. But it is good to
use high valued resistors in a voltage divider because using low valued resistors dissipate more
power from the main voltage source on heating resistors which cause fire or explosion and
excessive use of power.
Because of the use of high valued resistors in voltage dividers which resists high amount of flow
of current, Voltage Dividers are mostly used in electronics circuits that requires less than 10 mili
amps of current.
Also as we can see in the example 1 and 2 above ; changing the load resistor value in a voltage
divider might change the output voltage of a branch change massively , so voltage dividers
should be designed specifically for a purpose or a load and cannot be used as a regulated power
supply. One way to overcome this problem is to design the voltage divider such that the current
flowing through the voltage divider circuit is about 10 times that of the current flowing through
the load; using this approach helps to minimize the massive output voltage drop when connecting
the load.
Thus care should be taken to balance the value of the resistors used in a voltage divider for the
required purpose so that it is not too much to allow very less current though it which results in
massive drop of output voltage with load; Nor it is too less to dissipate massive power through it
which results in overheating and power loss.
Current Divider
A Current Divider is a simple linear circuit or device which divides the total input current to
various paths or loads in fractions of the input current.
It can be used to divide the input current in fractions to various branches on the device in a
certain ratio.

Current Divider Circuit:

A current divider circuit is a circuit which divides the input current to various branches in a
certain ratio.  A simple arrangement of two or more resistors in parallel can be considered as a
current divider Circuit.  A current divider circuit contains various impedances in parallel.

Current Divider Circuit

Current Divider Rule:

The Current Divider Rule is the rule which determines how much current flow through each
branch in a current divider. The general form of the Current Divider Rule is:
Rt
I b=I ×
Rb
Where,
I b= The current flowing through the required branch.
I = Total current flowing through the current divider or the array of resistors.
Rt = The Total resistance of the current divider or the array of resistors.
Rb = Resistance of the required branch.
Proof: Let us consider following current divider with two resistors in parallel:

Fig 1: current divider with two resistors in parallel.

1 R1× R2
=
Here,R= Total Resistance of the current divider =  1 1 R1 + R2
+
R1 R 2
And,
V =I × R=I 1 × R1=I 2 × R2
Now Taking,
I × R=I 1 × R 1
R
Thus, I 1=I ×
R1

And Similarly:
R
I 2=I ×
R2

Now, Let us consider following current divider with three resistors in parallel:

Fig2: current divider with three resistors in parallel.

Here, R = Total Resistance of the current divider

 1 R1× R2× R3
¿ =
1 1 1 R 2 × R 3 + R 1 × R 3+ R 1 × R 2
+ +
R1 R2 R 3

And,V =I × R=I 1 × R1=I 2 × R2=I 3 × R3

Now Taking, I × R=I 1 × R 1

R
Thus, I 1=I ×
R1

R
And Similarly I 2=I × , 
R2
R
I 3=I ×
R3

Note: A Current Divider is not equivalent to a Current Regulator and is designed for a specific
purpose or circuit so is circuit or purpose dependent.
DC Network and DC network Analysis.

Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law

We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, (RT) can be found when two
or more resistors are connected together in either series, parallel or combinations of both, and
that these circuits obey Ohm’s Law.
However, sometimes in complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we cannot simply use
Ohm’s Law alone to find the voltages or currents circulating within the circuit. For these types of
calculations we need certain rules which allow us to obtain the circuit equations and for this we
can use Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law.
In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws which
deal with the conservation of current and energy within Electrical Circuits
. These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws with one of Kirchhoff’s
laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed circuit, Kirchhoff’s Current Law, (KCL)
while the other law deals with the voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law, (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or
node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to
leave, as no charge is lost within the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the
currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by
Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 
Here, the 3 currents entering the node, I 1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the 2 currents leaving
the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 - I4 - I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more
current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either
in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when
analyzing parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also
equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to
zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

 
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is
important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage
sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analyzing series
circuits.
When analyzing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws a number of
definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analyzed such as:
node, paths, branches, loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it
is important to understand them.
Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:
• Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
• Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
 • Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more
circuit elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two
or more branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
• Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source
which are connected between two nodes.
• Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is
encountered more than once.
• Mesh – a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. There are no
components inside a mesh.
Note that:
    Components are said to be connected in Series if the same current flows through component.
    Components are said to be connected in Parallel if the same voltage is applied across them.
A Typical DC Circuit

 
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law Example No1
Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3
 

 
The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.
Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law, KCL the equations are given as;
At node A :    I1 + I2 = I3
At node B :    I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as;
Loop 1 is given as :    10 = R1 x I1 + R3 x I3 = 10I1 + 40I3
Loop 2 is given as :    20 = R2 x I2 + R3 x I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
Loop 3 is given as :    10 - 20 = 10I1 - 20I2
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
Eq. No 1 :    10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2)  =  50I1 + 40I2
Eq. No 2 :    20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2)  =  40I1 + 60I2
We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced to give us the values of I 1 and
I2 
Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps
As :    I3 = I1 + I2
The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as :    -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as :    0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The negative sign for I1 means that the direction of current flow initially chosen was wrong, but
never the less still valid. In fact, the 20v battery is charging the 10v battery.
Application of Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws
These two laws enable the Currents and Voltages in a circuit to be found, ie, the circuit is said to
be “Analyzed”, and the basic procedure for using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws is as follows:
1. Assume all voltages and resistances are given. (If not label them V1, V2,… R1, R2, etc.)
2. Label each branch with a branch current. (I1, I2, I3 etc.)
3. Find Kirchhoff’s first law equations for each node.
4. Find Kirchhoff’s second law equations for each of the independent loops of the circuit.
5. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents.
As well as using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law to calculate the various voltages and currents
circulating around a linear circuit, we can also use loop analysis to calculate the currents in each
independent loop which helps to reduce the amount of mathematics required by using just
Kirchhoff's laws. In the next tutorial about DC Theory we will look at Mesh Current Analysis to
do just that.

DC Network:

An Electronic DC Network is a circuit of interconnected electronic components such as energy

source, conductors and energy converters.

Single and Multi Mesh Network:

A circuit or Network might contain a single closed path or multiple closed paths called Mesh or
Loop.
In a single mesh network the same current flows through all the components. But in a multi mesh
network various value of current flows through various components.

Fig 1: single mesh network Fig 2: multi mesh network

In the figures above:
Fig 1 contains: 4 components named"R 1","R2", "R3" and "V", One Loop or Mesh named "I" and
four nodes named 1 to 4, And it is a single mesh network because it contains only one current
loop. And Fig 2 contains 5 Components named "R1", "R2", "R3", "R4","V", Three Loops or Mesh
named "I1", "I2", "I3" and six nodes 1 to 6, and it is a multi-mesh network because it contains
multiple current loops.

DC Network Analysis:

It is fairly easy to solve a single mesh network. Current and Voltage through each components
and nodes in a single mesh network is easy to calculate using basic electronics laws like Ohm's
Law. But a multi mesh network is not easily solvable by using basic electronics laws and
formulas, Thus a special analysis should be done on multi mesh networks to solve for current
and voltage through each components and nodes which is called DC Network Analysis
Various laws like Kirchhoff's laws techniques like nodal analysis, loop current etc and theorems
like Norton's theorem, Thevenin's theorem etc are used in DC Network Analysis. In general there
are two methods of DC Network Analysis:

Direct Method:

In this method the network is analyzed as it is; in it's original form to determine the different
voltages and currents through different components and nodes. Direct Method can be used to
solve simple networks. Some of the direct methods of network analysis are: Kirchhoff's Law.
Loop analysis, Nodal analysis, superposition theorem, compensation theorem, reciprocity
theorem etc.

Network Reduction Method:

In Network Reduction method the original network is converted into a much simpler equivalent
circuit for solving different quantities easily. This method can be used to solve complex
networks which cannot be solved using direct method. Some of the network reduction methods
of network analysis are: Star/Delta Conversion, Thevenin's theorem, Norton's theorem etc
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone Bridge is a simple bridge circuit  of resistors , consisting of four resistors , with two
branches in parallel and each branch with two resistors in series as shown in the figure below:
 Wheatstone Bridge

Where, R1, R2 are resistors, R and Rs are also resistors and G is a galvanometer.
Although it is called Wheatstone Bridge it is actually invented by Samuel Hunter Christie during
1833 and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone during 1843. It was originally used for soil
analysis and is used for resistance measurement till these days. 

Working principle of Wheatstone bridge:

Balanced and Unbalanced Condition of a Wheatstone bridge:

In most cases the Wheatstone bridge is unbalanced and it is so called when some current is
flowing through the galvanometer.
But in the case, when the values of R 1, R2 andRs are so adjusted; such that no current flows
through the bridge galvanometer; this state is called the balanced state of Wheatstone bridge.

Measurement using Wheatstone bridge:

A Wheatstone bridge as shown below can be used to measure the resistance of the resistor "R":

Wheatstone Bridge
To measure the value of a resistor using Wheatstone bridge the resistor of which the value is to
be measure is placed on the branch AD.
The two resistors of a known value and in a fixed ratio such as R 1:R2 = K: 1 , is placed on the
branch AB and BC.
Then a resistor Rs of known value is placed on the branch DC; Whose is tuned, such that the
bridge is balanced or no current flows through the galvanometer G.
Now, Let: Current flowing through the branch ABC = I 1 and through the branch ADC = I 2
Then, when The bridge is in balanced condition or no current flows through "G":
The Points B and D are in same potential or Voltage drop across the branch AB and AD is same,
and also the voltage drop across the branch BC and DC is the same thus
: I 1 × R 1=I 2 × R

and, I 1 × R 2=I 2 × R S

R1 R
Dividing the first equation by second we get: =
R2 RS
Thus the value of the unknown resistor R can be calculated using the formula:
R
R= 1 × RS
R2

Application of Wheatstone bridge:

A Wheatstone bridge is also called Differential Resistance Measurer and is mainly used for
measuring the value of an unknown resistor.  It is also used in various electrical sensors like
temperature sensor, light sensor etc.
A Wheatstone bridge can also be supplied AC power and can be used to measure Inductance,
Capacitance and Frequency when AC source is used with Wheatstone bridge.
(1:Bridge circuit: A circuit with two branches and a third acting as a bridge in between them)

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (Kirchhoff’s First Law)

Kirchhoff's current law is the first among the two of Kirchhoff's laws and is also refereed
as Kirchhoff 's point law or Kirchhoff's First law.Kirchhoff 's Current Law States That:
The total algebraic sum of all the currents entering and leaving a node in an electrical network
is zero and mathematically:
Σi=0
Kirchhoff's current law is based on and is derived from the conversation of charge which states
that: "Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed" , so if charge can neither be created nor be
destroyed then, all the charges entering a node must leave the node which concludes the result
that "The total algebraic sum of all the currents entering and leaving a node in an electrical
network is zero".
For Example:
In the following node of an electrical network:
 Kirchhoff’s current law

The currents I1, I2 and I4 are flowing into the node N through the branches A, B and D
respectively and the currents I3, I5 are flowing outwards from the node N through the branches C
and E respectively.
Applying the Kirchhoff's law in the node N:
I 1+ I 2 + I 4=I 3 + I 5
Or,
I 1+ I 2 + I 4−I 3−I 5=0
Thus, Σi=0
 
Kirchhoff's Current law is one of the fundamental laws of electronics and is very useful in
analyzing and solving the circuits and DC Networks (Also AC Networks) which cannot be
solved by using the ohm's law. KCL is the base while analyzing and designing any kind of
circuit and electronic device.

Limitations of Kirchhoff's Current Law:

Kirchhoff's Current Law is based on the fact that all the currents or charge entering a node in a
electrical network must leave the node.
But in real life situation, especially while considering AC source this is not exactly true. In many
cases a very small of charge is leaked or conserved through the nodes and conductors due to
parasitic capacitance and inductance, Due to which the Kirchhoff's Current Law is not exactly
true in many cases. But the leakage or conserved charge is very minimal in amount in most cases
and specially while considering DC source; So the limitation of KCL due to leakage and
conserved charges can be neglected in most cases.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (Kirchhoff’s Second Law)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law is the second among the two of Kirchhoff’s laws and is also refereed
as Kirchhoff‘s Mesh law or Kirchhoff’s Second law.
Kirchhoff‘s Voltage Law States That: The total sum of theVoltage or Potential Difference on a
loop is equal to zero.
Or, ΣV =0
Kirchhoff’s voltage law is based on and derived from "Maxwell-Faraday law of induction"
which states that the voltage drop on a loop is equal to the rate of change of flux around the loop.
And "Maxwell-Faraday law of induction" is the more complex form of the law of conservation
of energy which states that "Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed" thus Kirchhoff’s
voltage law is basically based on the law of conservation of energy. As Energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed,an electron is excited or current is created by the energy of Voltage or
Potential Difference and Kirchhoff’s voltage law says that the energy carried by or which excites
the electron is ultimately lost by electron thus Positive voltage or voltage rise in a loop is equal to
the negative voltage or Voltage drop in it. Which means the total sum of voltages on a loop is
equal to zero.

 Limitations of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

The Kirchhoff's Voltage Laws holds correct in any circuit or loop only if there is no fluctuating
magnetic field linking the circuit or loop.
Because fluctuating  magnetic field linking to the loop might create or consume the electrical
energy or voltage from the loop some extra voltage is either induced or dropped from the loop ,
This effect in seen on  almost every current loops specially while considering AC current loops.
But the voltage induced or dropped due to this effect is minimal in most cases and can be ignored
if maximum accuracy on measurement is not required.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in action:

In the following loop or circuit:

voltage divider circuit (loop)

We can use the voltage divider rule to find the voltage across various nodes as following:

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

1
V CB = × 12V =2V
6
 2
V DC = × 12V =4 V
6

3
V ED= × 12V =6 V
6

After adjusting the sign:

V CB =−2 V , V DC =−4 V , V ED=−6 V

AndV AF =12V , Also, V BA=0 V

Thus,

In the Loop AF,FE,ED,DC,CB,BA

ΣV =V AF +V FE +V ED +V DC +V CB +V BA

Or, Σ V = 12 + 0 – 6 – 4 – 3 + 0

ΣV =0.

Superposition Theorem
Superposition Theorem is one of the electrical network analysistheorems, which helps to solve
linear circuit with more than one current or voltage source easily.
Superposition theorem states that:
In a linear circuit with several sources the voltage and current responses in any branch is the
algebraic sum of the voltage and current responses due to each source acting independently with
all other sources replaced by their internal impedance.
Suppose an electrical circuit having several branches and or loads and also several source some
being current source and some being voltage source. Then Superposition theorem suggests that:If
we find the branch responses (Voltage drop and Current through it) on a branch due to only of
those source by ignoring effect of all other sources or replacing all other sources by their
corresponding internal impedance, and repeat the process for every source on the circuit. Then
the Combined responses (Voltage drop and Current through it) on a branch due to all the sources
combined is the algebraic sum of responses on the branches due to each individual source.

The process of using Superposition Theorem on a circuit:

To solve a circuit with the help of Superposition theorem follow the following steps:
1. First of all make sure the circuit is a linear circuit; or a circuit where Ohm's law implies,
because Superposition theorem is applicable only to linear circuits and responses.
2. Replace all the voltage and current sources on the circuit except for one of them. While
replacing a Voltage source or Current Source replace it with their internal resistance or
impedance. If the Source is an Ideal source  or internal impedance is not given then
replace a Voltage source with a short; so as to maintain a 0 V potential difference
 between two terminals of the voltage source. And replace a Current source with an
Open ; so as to maintain a 0 Amps Current between two terminals of the current source.
3. Determine the branch responses or voltage drop and current on every branches simply by
using KCL , KVL or Ohm's Law.
4. Repeat step 2 and 3 for every source the circuit has.
5. Now algebraically add the responses due to each source on a branch to find the response
on the branch due to the combined effect of all the sources.
Superposition Theorem in Action:
In the following circuit:

Superposition Theorem
We can use Superposition Theorem to solve the circuit as following:
Let us first find Responses on the branches due to the Voltage source:
To Remove the Current source it is opened, which converts the circuit into a simple voltage
divider circuit and the responses can be calculated simply by using ohm's law as following:

Superposition Theorem
Thus The responses due to The voltage source are:
On R1 ;  Voltage Drop = 6V , Current = 0.5 Amps
On R2 ;  Voltage Drop = 0V , Current = 0 Amps
On R3 ;  Voltage Drop = 6V , Current = 0.5 Amps
Now let us find the responses on various branches due to the current source:
To remove the Voltage source it is shorted which converts the circuit into a simple network of
parallel and seriesconnection of resistors ; and the responses can be easily calculated using ohm's
law as following:
 Superposition Theorem
Thus The responses due to the current source are:
On R1 ;  Voltage Drop = 3V , Current = 0.25 Amps
On R2 ;  Voltage Drop = 3V , Current = 0.5 Amps
On R3 ;  Voltage Drop = 3V , Current = 0.25 Amps
Now finally to find the responses on each branch due to the combined effect of both current
source and voltage source we add the individual responses.

Superposition Theorem
So,
On R1 ;  Voltage Drop = (6+3)V = 9V , Current = (0.5+0.25) Amps = 0.75 Amps
On R2 ;  Voltage Drop = (0+3)V = 3V , Current = (0+0.5) Amps = 0.5 Amps
On R3 ;  Voltage Drop = (6+3)V = 9V , Current = (0.5+0.25) Amps = 0.75 Amps

Mesh Analysis (Loop Current Method)

Mesh Analysis or Loop Current Method is an electrical network analysis theorem or method

which can be used to solve circuits with several sources and several adjoining loops or mesh as
shown on following figure:
 Mesh Analysis

Solving any circuit using the Mesh Analysis method or theorem involves the following steps:1.
For each closed loop,A current is assumed to circulate around the loop. Current in each loop is
labeled by a curved arrow and corresponding current label for eg: I 1, I2, I3 .... . The direction of
flow of current in all loops is made consistent.(either clockwise or anticlockwise) as shown on
figure below:

Mesh Analysis

2. Then current flowing through each branch is calculated. If the branch lies only on one mesh
then the current flowing through the branch is the current flowing through the mesh and if the
branch is common to two meshes then the current flowing through the branch is the algebraic
sum of the current flowing through the meshes on which the branch lies as shown on figure
below:

Mesh Analysis

3. Then a Equation using KVLis formed in each mesh or loop as given below:
Loop 1:
 I 1 R1 + ( I 1−I 2) R 4−V 1=0

on, Loop 2: I 2 R2 + ( I 2−I 3 ) R 5+(I 1−I 2 )R 4=0

on, Loop 3: I 3 I 3+ I 3 R6−V 2+ ( I 2−I 3 ) R5=0  

4. The Equations are then solved to find the mesh currents I 1. I2, I3 and ultimately the current
flowing and voltage drop through each branch.

Super Mesh and Dependent Sources:

Super Mesh is a mesh when a current source is contained between two meshes and Dependent
sources is a source which is dependent on another source. When a circuit or mesh contains these
two special cases applying Mesh Analysis method requires special considerations.
To apply Mesh Analysis Method in Super Mesh:
We should create a single equation for both the adjacent meshes incorporating the current source,
and the current source should be related to the mesh current of the two meshes. For e.g: In the
following super mesh:

Super Mesh

The equations for mesh analysis are:−V 1 + I 1 R1 + I 2 R2=0 and, I= I 1−I 2

To apply Mesh Analysis Method in Mesh that contains dependent sources:
We should form the equations treating the dependent source as if it is an independent source and
then we should relate the dependent source with other mesh currents. For eg: In the following
mesh:

Dependent Source

The equations for mesh analysis are:

I 1 R1 + ( I 2−I 1) R3 −V 1=0
 I 2 R2 + ( I 2−I 1 ) R3 +3 I 1

And I =I 2−I 3

Mesh Analysis Method in Action:

Let Us Solve the following circuit using Mesh Analysis or Loop Current Method:

Mesh Analysis

Here,
Equation for Mesh with mesh current I2:
2 I 2 +6 ( I 2−I 3 )−4 ( I 1−12 )=2

Or −4 I 1 +12 I 2−6 I 3=2

Equation for the combined I1, I3 mesh (Because it is a super mesh) is:

4 ( I 1 −I 2 ) −6 ( I 2−I 3 ) =12−10

4 I 1−10 I 2 +6 I 3 =2

Or,   I 3−I 1=2

And,
Thus Solving these equations we get: I 1=1 A , I 2=2 A , I 3=3 A

Nodal Analysis (Node Voltage Analysis)

Nodal analysis or Node Voltage Analysis is an electrical network analysis method which can be
used to determine the voltage on various circuit nodes.
Nodal Analysis or Node Voltage method is also used to solve various circuit along with Mesh
Analysis , The process seems similar to Mesh Analysis method. But Nodal Analysis method
uses KCL to form nodal analysis equations while Mesh Analysis uses KVL to form mesh
analysis equations.
Applying Nodal Analysis to Circuits:
To solve a circuit or network using Nodal Analysis for eg: the following circuit:

Nodal Analysis
We must follow the following steps:
1. First of all take one of the nodes in the circuit as a Reference Node which will be
regarded as a zero potential node and label the known and unknown voltage level on all
other nodes with reference to the reference node ( For eg: V1 , V2 , Va , Vb ... ) as shown
on figure below:

Nodal Analysis
 
2. Now Label the known and unknown current flowing through each branch ( for eg: I1 ,
I2 ...) as shown on figure below:

Nodal Analysis
 
3. Now finally for each node form equations using the KCL as given below:
On Node B:
 I 1=I 2 + I 4
V 1−V B V B −V C V B
Applying Ohm's law on each branch: = +   .......... (Equation (i)
R1 R2 R4
And On Node C: I 2=I 5 + I 3

V B −V C V C V C −V 2
Applying Ohm's law on each branch: = +   .......... (Equation (ii)
R2 R5 R3
And finally Solve the equations (EqnI , II in our example) to find the unknown voltages
( Vb&Vc in our example) in the circuit.
Nodal Analysis in Action:
Let us solve the following circuit using Nodal Analysis method:

Nodal Analysis
Now labeling the Nodes, Voltages and Currents we get:

Nodal Analysis
The Internal Resistance of 3v source is not given thus supposing it as an Ideal Voltage Source.
Now at Node B: I 1=I 2 + I 4

10−V B V B−V D V B
Or, = +   .......... (Equation (i)
3 4 8
At Node D: I 5=I 2+ I 3

V D V B−V D 6−V D
Or, = +   .......... (Equation(ii)
12 4 13
And,V C =V B−3,    .......... …..(Equation(iii)
Now Solving for equation I, II and III we get:
V B= 7.0133 V
V C = 4.0133 V
V D= 3.5376 V
Thévenin’s theorem

Thévenin's theorem is an electrical network analysis theorem or technique developed by the

German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz and French engineer Léon Charles Thévenin, and
states that:
Any network or combination of sources and resistors with two terminals can be replaced by the
equivalent circuit with a voltage source and a resistor in series. Where the voltage source of
equivalent circuit is open circuit voltage at the terminals, and the resistance of the series resistor
of equivalent circuit is the value obtained by dividing the equivalent voltage source by the short
circuit current on the terminals.
Black Box or Complex Network

Complex circuit with Simple Thevenin equivalent Circuit

Using Thévenin's theorem we can easily calculate the branch responses on a certain branch of a
complex electrical network.
Thevenin Equivalent
Thevenin equivalent circuit is the equivalent circuit of a complex network with the Thevenin
voltage source and Thevenin resistor in series of the Thevenin voltage source and the load.The
process of finding the Thevenin equivalent is also sometimes called Thevenization of a circuit
and the Thevenin equivalent circuit is called Thevenized circuit.

Thevenin Voltage

Thevenin equivalent voltage is the output voltage in the terminals of the network, when the
terminal is open or without any load resistor. It is denoted by V TH .

Thevenin Resistance

Thevenin equivalent resistance is the resistance measured through the two points of the terminal
after all internal voltage sources are replaced with a short and all internal current sources are
replaced with an open.
Thevenin resistance can also be calculated mathematically by dividing the Thevenin voltage by
the current flowing through the terminals with a short between terminals; this particular
mathematical technique can specially be used to calculate Thevenin resistance when the circuit
contains dependent sources.
 It is denoted byV TH .
For Example consider the following circuit:

The Thevenin equivalent of the above circuit is:

Where,
V th =V AB = the voltage measured through the terminals A and B in the first circuit.
and   Rth= The Resistance measured through the terminal A and B in the first circuit after the
voltage source is replaced by a short.

Thévenin's theorem example:

Using Thévenin's theorem let us find the voltage drop and current through the 10 Ohms resistor
in the following circuit:

Finding the:V th
V th =V AB = Voltage at 8 Ohms resistor - 12 V
2
Finding Voltage at 8 Ohms resistor, using voltage divider formula: ×20=5.71V
2+ 5
Thus,V th =V AB   =5.71 - 12 = -6.29 V
Now finding   Rth

1
Rth =R AB =8 Ω+ Ω=9.43 Ω
1 1
+
5 2
Thus the Thevenin Equivalent of the given circuit is:

Thus the Voltage drop Through10 Ohms resistor = 3.24 Voltage, and the Current flowing
through it = 0.32 Amps
Norton’s Theorem
Norton's Theorem is a network reduction electrical network analysis technique which can be
used to analyse the current through a branch in complex network of linear electronic
components.  Norton's theorem can be thought as an alternative  of Thévenin’s theorem in the
sense that the Thévenin’s theorem reduces a complex network into a voltage source and a series
resistance ; and the Norton's theorem reduces a complex network into a current source and a
parallel resistance .
Norton's Theorem was independently developed by Hans Ferdinand Mayer and Edward Lawry
Norton in 1926 therefore the theorem is also sometimes called as Mayer–Norton theorem.
Norton's Theorem states that:
Any linear electrical network with any numbers of sources (voltage or current) and components;
is equivalent to a current source with a resistor in parallel when viewed from the network's
output terminals.
WhereThe equivalent current source is the current flowing through the output terminals when it
is short-circuited and the equivalent resistance is the resistance as observed on the output
terminals when all the voltage and current sources in the network are replaced by their respective
internal resistances.

Norton's Theorem

Norton Equivalent

Norton's equivalent or Norton equivalent circuit is a reduced version of or equivalent circuit of a

complex electrical network circuit, derived in accordance with the Norton's Theorem. The
Norton equivalent circuit contains a current source with a resistance in parallel with it, which can
be calculated as stated below:

Norton Current

Norton equivalent current is the current observed to be flowing through the terminals , when the
terminals are short circuited. To calculate the Norton current either a observation is made by
short circuiting the output terminals and measuring the current through it , or various
mathematical techniques like Ohm's law , KCL and KVL are used.

Norton Resistance

Norton equivalent resistance is the resistance measured through the output terminal after all
internal voltage and current source are replaced by their internal resistance. For ideal voltage
sources, they are replaced with a short and for ideal current sources, they are replaced with an
open. Note that: The Norton Resistance is equal to the Thevenin Resistance.
 For example consider the following example:
The Norton Equivalent of the above circuit is:

Norton Equivalent Circuit

Where,
IN= Norton current = current flowing through the terminals when the terminals are short circuited
= Current flowing through R2when the terminal A and B are short circuited.
R3 V
I N =I R2= ×
R2 + R3 R2 × R3
R1 +
R 2+ R 3
V
R3
So,  R2 × R3 is the current flowing through the source and multiplying it by the
R 1+ R 2+ R 3
R2+ R 3
gives the current flowing through R2
And, RN
RN= Norton Resistance = Internal resistance of the circuit as observed from the terminals after
removing the internal sources with their internal resistance.Or, 
R1 × R 3
R N =R 2+ R 1 ∥ R3=R 2+
R 1+ R 3

Norton's Theorem Example:

Question: Using Norton's Theorem find the Norton equivalent circuit of the following circuit.
And also find the current flowing through the load when the load is a 5 ohms resistor.
 Norton Theorem Example.

Here,
To find Norton's currentIN:

Calculating Norton Current

Here, The output terminals are short circuited. The current flowing through the short; In; is the
Norton equivalent current.
8 × 4 20
Load resistance to the source V1 = 4 +8 ∥4=4+ = Ω
8+4 3
20 V
=3 A
So, current through the source V1= 20
Ω
3
4
So Now, I N = Current flowing through 8 ohms resistor = × 3 A=1 A
8+4
To find Norton's Resistance RN:

Calculating Norton Resistance

The Voltage source is replaced by it's internal resistance which is zero ohms since it is not stated.

(
R N =R AB=10 ∥ ( 8+4 ∥ 4 )=10 ∥ 8+
4×4
4 +4 )=10 ∥10=
10 ×10
10+10
=5 Ω
And, Thus the Norton Equivalent Circuit of the given circuit is:
 Norton Equivalent Circuit

And when a 5 Ohms load is connected to the output:

Norton Theorem example with Load

5
The current through the Load resistance R L=5 Ωis I L ; and  I L = ×1 A=0.5 A
5+5
Conversion between Thevenin& Norton equivalent circuits.
Thevenin's Theorem and Norton's Theorem both are important DC network analysis techniques
or theorem. And it is clear that every circuit have both their Thevenin and Norton equivalent
circuits for a terminal or load.

Conversion between Thevenin and Norton equivalent.

Sometimes it is desirable to convert Thevenin's or Norton's equivalent circuit into each other for
easier and faster solving of circuits.
To convert between Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits we use the following method:
Note: From the definition of both Thevenin's theorem and Norton's theorem it is clear that the
way to calculate the Thevenin Resistance (Rth) and Norton resistance (Rno) is the same. In both
cases It is the resistance between the terminals when all the internal Voltage and Current sources
are replaced by their internal resistances. So to convert between the Thevenin and Norton
equivalent we can use the same resistance in series and parallel in Thevenin and Norton
equivalent respectively. So, we only need to establish a conversion between Thevenin Voltage
and Norton Current to successfully convert between Thevenin and Norton equivalents.

From Thevenin to Norton Equivalent:

Conversion from Thevenin to Norton equivalent.

As discussed above both Thevenin and Norton Resistance are the same.
So, Rno=R th

Finding Norton current

And, The Norton Current( I no ) is the current flowing through the output terminals when the output
V th
terminals are short circuited. So, I no =I AB=
Rth

From Norton to Thevenin Equivalent:

 Conversion from Norton to Thevenin equivalent.

As discussed above both Norton and Thevenin Resistance are the same.
So, Rth =Rno

Finding Thevenin voltage.

And, The TheveninVoltage (Vth) is the potential difference between the two output terminals
when no load is connected to the terminals.
So,V th =V AB =V no × R no

The General Formula of Conversion:

From the both conditions above we can come into conclusion that:V th =I no × R
Where,
Vth= Thevenin Voltage.
Ino= Norton Current.
R=Thevenin or Norton resistance.
Reciprocity Theorem
Reciprocity theorem is one of the DC network analysis and AC network analysis technique and
deals with the relationship between impressed source in a part of the circuit and it's response at
some other part of the circuit.
The Reciprocal Theorem states that:
In any bilateral linear circuits; If a source of EMF "V" acting in a branch (let "A") of the circuit
produces the current "I" in another branch (let "B") of the circuit. Then when the EMF "V" acts
in the second branch "B", it will produce the same current "I" in the first branch "A".
In another words, the supply voltage "V" and a 0-ohm ammeter reading or current "I" are
mutually transferable in any bilateral linear circuits. The ratio between the Voltage and the
Current that are mutually transferable is called the transfer resistance.

Reciprocity Theorem

The Reciprocity theorem holds true in bilateral linear circuits, or on linear circuits which
contains only bilateral components; This property of the bilateral linear circuits is called their
reciprocal property and the circuits in which the Reciprocity theorem holds true are called
reciprocal circuits.
Reciprocity theorem can be applied to solve many DC and AC electrical network easily and
efficiently and it also have especial applications in electromagnetism and antenna electronics.
For Example:

Question: Calculate the current in the various branches of the network shown in figure below.
Also find the current through the one volt battery (V) when an extra e.m.f of 1 volt is added on
branch BD opposing the flow of original current in that branch.

Answer:Let us first solve the circuit using the Mesh Analysis or Loop Current Method:
On Loop ABDA:
−2 I 1−8 I 3 +6 I 2=0
I 1−3 I 2 + 4 I 3 =0
or, On Loop BCDB:
−4 ( I 1 −I 3 ) +5 ( I 2 + I 3 ) + 8 I 3=0
or,4 I 1−5 I 2−17 I 3=0
On Loop ABCVA:
−2 I 1−4 ( I 1−I 3 )−10 ( I 1+ I 2 ) +¿ 1=0
I1 = 0.0494A, I2 = 0.0229A and I3 = 0.0049A, 

Now, As given on question let us add an extra e.m.f of 1 volt on branch BD opposing the flow of
original current in that branch:

Now let us using the Superposition Theorem find the current through the battery V due to V and
V1 separately:
Due to V:
I + I =¿
Current through V due to V = 3 3 0.00723A
Due to V1:
Now let us again use reciprocity theorem; The one voltage supply at V produced I 3 at branch BD
so when -1 voltage is acted on the branch BD the current induced in the place of V will be -I3.
So current through V due to V1 =- I 3=¿-0.0049A 
Thus the current through V due to both voltages is: 0.0723A-0.0049A = 0.0674A

Maximum power transfer theorem.

Maximum power theorem is a theorem or technique used in Electrical Network Analysis and
Electrical circuit designing.  It was invented by a German engineer Moritz von Jacobi in 1840.
He invented the theorem in the process of finding a way to maximize the output of the battery to
a motored boat which he designed to travel in the river Neva; Thus the theorem is also
sometimes referred to as Jacobi's Law.
Maximum power transfer theorem deals with the power transferred to the load on a circuit with a
network of various sources or components on it. The maximum power transfer theorem defines
the condition under which the maximum power is transferred to the load in a circuit.
Note: Here we are talking about maximum power transferred to the load only, not about the
maximum power transferred to the load and internal components or resistance of the source
combined, Under the condition of Maximum power transfer we only deal with the power
transferred to the load and does not consider the power dissipated in internal circuits or
resistance of the source so we are not talking about the maximum efficiency of power transfer
but instead maximum possible power transfer from a source to a load.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that:
The power transferred from a source or circuit to a load is maximum when the resistance of the
load is made equal or matched to the internal resistance of the source or circuit providing the
power to the load.
For Example:
In the following Circuit:

maximum power transfer theorem example

According to maximum power transfer theorem the maximum power will be yielded to the load
RL when RL is equal to the internal resistance of the circuit or R1+R2.
The Maximum power transfer theorem holds true in any kind of circuit may it be linear, non-
linear, active, DC or AC. In the case of DC circuits the load resistance is matched with internal
resistance of the source by making both resistance equal and in case of AC the Load impedance
is matched with the internal impedance of the circuit or source by making the load impedance the
complex conjugate of the source impedance. For eg: load impedance will be R1−JX if the
internal impedance of the source is R1 + JX  

Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

Maximum power transfer theorem can be proved in DC networks or resistive circuits as

following:
Let,
V= EMF supplied to the load.
RL= Load resistance.
Ri= Internal resistance of the source.
I= Current flowing through the load, internal resistance and the source of the circuit.
PL= Power transferred to the load.
Pi= Power dissipated at internal resistances.
Then,
Power transferred to the load = P L=I 2 R L 
or,

( )
2
V V2
P L= × RL = 2
R i+ R L Ri
+2 Ri + RL
RL
Now using the theorems of Differential calculus, If we keep the RL variable and want to calculate
the maximum value of PL then we need to differentiate the PL with respect to RL and equate it
with zero. Thus,
Under Maximum power transfer to load condition:
2
d d V
P L= =0
d RL d Rl R 2
+ 2 Ri + R L
RL
2
−Ri
or, 2 +1=0
RL
or, Ri=R L
And in AC networks using same mathematical technique we can prove:
if,
Zi =Ri + X i=¿ Internal impedance of reactive circuits.
Z L =RL + X L= Load impedance.
Then, Under the condition of maximum power transfer to load:
Zi =Z l, Ri=R L , and X i =X L 

Power Transfer Efficiency:

Power transfer efficiency is the efficiency of any source or circuit in transferring it's power to the
load. Or it is the ratio of power transferred to the load over total power transferred by the source.
PL
It is denoted by the Greek letter η. And Mathematicallyη=
PT
 Where  P L is the power transferred to the load and PT   is the total power transferred by the
source. We can expand this expression as: P L=I 2 R Land PT =PL + PI =I 2 RL + I 2 R I , where, Iis the
total current flowing through the circuit  or Thevenin equivalent of the circuit, P I   is the power
2
PL I RL RL 1
¿ = 2 2
= =
dissipated in internal circuits of the source. Thus, η P T I R L + I RI R L + R I R
1+ I
RL

As we know that under the condition of maximum power transfer RL=RI, we can derive from
above formula that the efficiency under the condition of maximum power transfer is only 0.5.
The overall efficiency decreases if the RL  is kept very low and it increases up to  one when the
RL  is increased to infinity as shown on the graph below:

Graph: Power transfer efficiency Vs Load resistance

And the power transferred to load becomes minimum when R L is kept very low and very high.
The maximum power transfer to load is obtained when RL=RI. As shown on the following
graphs:

Graph: Power transfer to load Vs Load

Resistance.

Applications of Maximum
Power Transfer Theorem:

The Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem has a wide range of usage on real life
situation. The theorem is used to maximize
the power output to a load from any circuit.
So they can be used to design circuits where the maximum output performance is desired for
example to match an Amplifier with a Loudspeaker to yield maximum power to the speaker and
thus produce maximum sound. In some situations Transformer Coupling are also used to yield
maximum power to the load when the matching of Load and Source impedance is not possible
for example is the amplifier is of 1000 Ohms and the speaker if of 10 ohms.
The application of Maximum Power Theorem is done only under the conditions when the
maximum performance is desired over the overall efficiency of the circuit because as we
discussed above the efficiency of a circuit under maximum power transfer condition is only 0.5.
So, Maximum power transfer theorem is applied in radio electronics; for example: In Antenna
Signal amplifier for radio and TV receivers; and various other fields where maximum
performance is required but the maximum efficiency is not desired.
Elaboration of Maximum power transfer theorem with example:
let an amplifier circuit provides 20 voltage with 5 ohms internal resistance.

If you connect a 1 ohm speaker to the circuit:

Total current flowing through the system (internal resistance and speaker) = 20 V / (5+1) ohm =
3.333 amps.
Total power usage by the whole system = I^2 * Total resistance = 1^2 * 6 = 66.6666 watts
Power usage by speaker = I^2 * speaker resistance = 11.11 watts.
Power usage by internal resistance = I^2 * internal resistance = 55.55 watts
That means 16% of power is transferred to speaker.
Now, If you connect a 5 ohm speaker to the circuit:

Total current flowing through the system ( internal resistance and speaker) = 20 V / (5+5) ohm =
2 amps.
Total power usage by the whole system = I^2 * Total resistance = 2^2 * 10 = 40 watts.
Power usage by speaker = I^2 * Speaker resistance = 20 watt.
Power usage by internal resistance = I^2 * Internal resistance = 20 watts again. 
That means 50% power is transferred to speaker.

Again, If you connect a 15 ohm speaker:

Total current flowing through the system( internal resistance and speaker) = 20 V / (5+15) ohm =
1 amps.
Total power usage by the whole system = I^2 * Total resistance = 1^2 * 20 = 20 watts.
Power usage by speaker = I^2 * speaker resistance = 15 watts.
Power usage by internal resistance = I^2 * internal resistance = 5 watts
That means 66% of power is transferred to speaker.In above condition when the one ohm
resistance load is connected only 16% power is transferred to the speaker which is 11.11 watts!
in second condition when the speaker resistance is matched with internal resistance 50% power
is transferred to the speaker which is 20 watts. This is the condition of maximum power transfer.
And again in third condition with 15 ohm speaker 15 watt power is transferred to the speaker but
it is 66% of the total power transferred.

Millman’s Theorem
Millman's Theorem is a theorem which helps in simplifying electrical networks with a bunch of
parallel branches. It was invented by the Russian born, American Engineer Jacob
Millman. Millman's Theorem can be used to find the potential difference between two points of a
network which contains only parallel branches.
Millman's Theorem states that:
The total voltage or potential difference between any two terminals in a circuit is equal to:
Σi
V=
ΣG
Where,
1
i = the current flowing through each branch. G= = Admittance of each parallel branch or
R
current source where, R = Internal resistance of each parallel branch or current source.
In above statement of Millman's Theorem the theorem takes into account only the current
flowing through or current source in each branch. Millman's theorem can also be stated taking
the Voltage source in each branch into account.
The Millman's Theorem can also be stated in other words as:
The total voltage or potential difference build up between any two points in a circuit is equal to:
Σ ( V x ×G x )
V=
Gx
Where,
Vx= Voltage source in each branch.
Gx= Admittance of each branch or internal admittance of each voltage source.
Using Millman's Theorem we can easily find the Norton and Thevenin equivalent circuit of a
network so, Millman'sTheorem is also sometimes called the combination of Norton's and
Thevenin's theorem.
Note: It should be noted that Millman's Theorem holds true only to the circuits which contains
only parallel branches with only one resistance and source in a branch, or which can be reduced
to the equivalent form with only parallel branches with only one resistance and source in a
branch as shown on the figure below. Millman's theorem cannot be applied in a complex mesh of
parallel and series network.

circuit with only parallel branches

Making a circuit ready for Applying Millman's Theorem:

As stated earlier the circuit with only parallel branches with the following requirements can be
applied with Millman's theorem:
* Contains Only Parallel branches.
* Contains one and only one resistance and source in each branch.
Sometimes even though a circuit does not full-fill both the requirements the circuit can be
converted into an equivalent  circuit which full-fills both of the above requirements and the
process of conversion is done as following:
Note: It is easier to apply Millman's theorem to a circuit if all the branches contains same type of
source either voltage or current. The theorem can also be applied to a circuit containing both
types of sources but often the process requires the use of ohm's law in each branch and is
confusing and complex.

Converting into parallel circuit with only Voltage sources.

Let us convert following circuit into it's equivalent circuit which full-fills both the requirements
discussed above for applying Millman's Theorem.

Electrical Network

The parallel equivalent of the above circuit will be:

Parallel Equivalent of Electrical Network With Only Voltage Source In each branch

Where we have used the conversion of current source into voltage source to calculate the voltage
source in each branch.Thus:
V 0=V 0and R5=R 5, V 2=0 and R2=R 2 V 3=I 0 × R8 and R10 =R3 + R 8+ R 4

V 1=V 1 and R6 =R 6 , V dc 1=I 1 × R 9, and R11=R9 + R7

Converting into parallel circuit with only Current sources.

Now Let us again convert the above example to a parallel network which contains only current
sources.
The circuit which needs to be converted into parallel equivalent circuit so that Millman's theorem
can be applied to it is:

Electrical Network

And it's equivalent circuit with only parallel branches with current source in each branch is:

Here, we have used the ed the conversion of voltage source into current source to calculate the
current source in each branch. Where,
V0
I a= and Ra =R5
R5
I b=0 and Rb =R2
I c =I 0and Rc =R 3+ R 4 + R8
V1
I d= and Rd =R6
R6
I e =I 1 and Re =R7 + R 9

Applying Millman's Theorem To circuits!

We can apply Millman's Theorem to circuits as following:

Circuits with Voltage sources:

According to Millman'stheorem, in circuits with voltage sources:

The total voltage or potential difference build up between any two points in a circuit is equal to:
Σ ( V x ×G x )
V=
Gx
Where, Vx= Voltage source in each branch.
Gx= Admittance of each branch or internal admittance of each voltage source.
For example in the following circuit:

Here, The potential difference between X and Y is:

V 0 V 2 V 3 V 1 V dc 1
+ + + +
R5 R2 R10 R6 R11
V xy=
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
R5 R2 R 10 R 6 R11

And the Thevenin's equivalent circuit of the above example is:

Thevenin equivalent

Where,
V 0 V 2 V 3 V 1 V dc 1
+ + + +
R5 R2 R10 R6 R11
V th =
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
R5 R2 R 10 R 6 R11
 1
Rth =
And, 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
R 5 R 5 R10 R6 R11

Circuits with Current Sources:

According to Millman'stheorem, in circuits with voltage sources:

The total voltage or potential difference between any two terminals in a circuit is equal to:
Σi
V=
ΣG
Where,
i = the current flowing through each branch.
1
G = = Admittance of each parallel branch or current source where, R = Internal resistance of
R
each parallel branch or current source. For example in the following circuit:

The potential difference between X and Y is:

I a + I b+ I c + I d + I e
V XY =
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
Ra R b Rc Rd Re
And the Norton equivalent of the above example is:

Norton equivalent

Where,
I no =Σ I X =I a+ I b + I c + I d + I e
 1
Rno=
And, 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
Ra Rb R c R d R e

Compensation Theorem
It is one of the important theorems in Network Analysis , which finds its application mostly in
calculating the sensitivity of electrical networks & bridges and solving electrical networks.
The Compensation Theorem states that:
For the sake of branch responses calculations;Any resistance in a branch of an linear bilateral
electrical network can be replaced by a voltage source which provides the same voltage as the
voltage dropped in the resistance replaced.
The statement can be clarified with the following illustration:

In the figure above, In fig: 1.a the circuit contains an Electrical network with various branches
made up of sources and resistances, but for the sake of application of compensation theorem we
shall not take those branches into account, we just look at one branch which contains a
Resistance "R" and a current of "I" flows through it. Then, According to the Compensation
theorem, The Circuit in Fig: 1.b is equivalent to Circuit in Fig:1.a.  Such that the "R” in Fig: 1.a
is replaced by a "V" in Fig: 1.b.
Where, the value of "V" is equal to the voltage dropped in "R" or, V = -I.R
From the statement of Compensation theorem above the following statement follows
immediately: 
From the first statement of the theorem the following statements can be derived:
In any linear bilateral Electrical Network If  in any Branch have it's initial resistance (or
impedance in case of AC) "R" conducting a current of "I" through it, And if the resistance of the
branch is changed by a factor of R , with it's final resistance R+  R  , the final effect in various
branches due to the change in the resistance of the branch can be calculated by injecting an extra
voltage source along with the resistance in modified branch .
The above statement can be clarified with the following illustration:
 Compensation Theorem

In the figure above,

In fig: 2.a, The current "I" flows through R3 when V1 acts upon it.
In fig: 2.b , the R3 is changed to R 4 where R4=R3+dR , or R3 is increased by dR. This can also be
thought of as an extra dR added in series with R3.
Now, we don't know how much current flows through the branch when R 3 is increased by dR , so
to calculate the current flowing through the branch due to the effect of dR , as per Compensation
theorem in fig: 2.c we add an extra V=-I.dR along with R4 and calculate the current flowing
through the branch due to the V or dR to be -dI. Now in fig: 2.d we add the currents in fig: 2.a
and 2.c using superposition theorem to find the new current to be I-dI.

Tellegen’s Theorem
Tellegen's theorem is an important theorem on electrical network analysis . Tellegen's theorem is
one of the fundamental theorems among electrical network analysis theorems and most of the
network analysis theorems can be easily derived from this theorem.
Tellegen's theorem was invented and published by Dutch engineer Bernard D.H. Tellegen in
1952.
Tellegen's theorem states that:
In any electrical network which satisfies Kirchhoff's laws , the summation of instantaneous
power in all the branches is equal to zero.
Tellegen's theorem is applicable to a wide range of electrical networks, The only requirement for
the validation of the Tellegen's theorem in any circuit is that it satisfies the Kirchhoff's Current
Law and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law.
n
Mathematically the Tellegen's Theorem states:∑ P κ=V κ × I κ =0
k =1
 
Where,
n = numbers of elements in the circuit.
= Instantaneous power in k'th element of the circuit.
= Instantaneous voltage drop in k'th element of the circuit.
= Instantaneous current flowing through k'th element of the circuit.
For example in the following circuit:

∑ P κ=V v I V +V R 5 I R 5 +V R 2 I R 2+V R 3 I R 3 +V v 1 I v 1 +V R 4 I R 4 +V R 1 I R 1+V R 0 I R 0=0Or, the sum of

instantaneous powers in each branch or V. V1, R0, R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 is zero.
Star, Delta connection and transformation.
In an electrical network containing three branches, the branches can be arranged in various ways.
The most popular among them are called Star and Delta connection.
Star Connection:
Star connection or star network is a network of three (or more but we consider only three in our
tutorial) electrical components in such a composition such that one point of all the components
or resisters are connected at a common point.
The star connection of three resistors or branches also looks like the English alphabet "Y" so
sometimes the Star network or connection is also referred to as "Y" or "Wye" connection.
A star or Y connection can also be rearranged to make it look like the English letter "T" and in
fact, many electrical circuits use the star connection in it's "T" form.

Delta Connection:

Delta connection is an electrical network composed of three branches or circuit components ,

where each branch or element is connected head to tail of other branch or circuit element. The
Delta connection is so called because this connection looks like the Greek alphabet Delta( Δ ) .
The delta connection can also be re arranged to look like a Pi ( π )symbol so the network is also
sometimes referred to as Pi Network.

Delta Network

It is often useful to transform delta network to star and star network to delta while solving an
electrical network. The transformation can make the calculations simpler and easier.
The theory for network transformation was invented and published by Irish-American
engineer Arthur E. Kennelly in 1899. The process of transformation can be done as following:

Delta to Star Transformation:

To convert a Delta network to it's equivalent Star network let us consider the following circuit:

Delta to Star Transformation

Here,
The value of impedance or resistance for P, Q and R are known. But We don't know what the
values of X, Y and Z are! and thus we need to relate the values of X , Y and Z to the values of P,
Q and R.
Here, We Know that in both the circuits above the resistance between the terminals A-B, B-C
and A-C should be the same.
P × ( Q+ R )
R AB= X + Z= …………………………………………………………….eqn (i)
P+Q+ R
 R × ( P+ Q )
R BC =X + Z= …………………………………………………………….eqn (ii)
P+Q+ R
Q × ( P+ R )
R AC = X +Z = …………………………………………………………….eqn (iii)
P+ Q+ R

Now subtracting Eqn. ii from Eqn. i and adding the result to Eqn. iii we get:
P ×Q
X=
P+Q+ R
Similarly subtracting Eqn. i from Eqn. iii and adding the result to Eqn. ii we get:

Q×R
X=
P+Q+ R
And subtracting Eqn. iii from Eqn. i and adding the result to Eqn. ii  we get:

P×R
X=
P+Q+ R

Star to Delta Transformation:

Let us consider the following circuit to find a relation between Star and Delta network so that we
can easily transform any Star connected network into Delta connected network:

Star to Delta Transformation.

To relate the values of P, Q and R in terms of X , Y and Z:

For the two circuits above to be transferable or equivalent to each other the equivalent resistance
or impedance in between A-B, B-C and A-C in both circuits should be the same.
So,
P × ( Q+ R )
R AB= = X+ Z ……………………………………………………………………eqn (i)
P+ Q+ R
and,
R × ( P+Q )
R BC = =Y + Z ……………………………………………………………………eqn (ii)
P+Q+ R
and,
 Q × ( P+ R )
R AC = =X +Y …………………………………………………………………...eqn (iii)
P+Q+ R
Now,
Multiplying i& ii , ii & iii and iii &i and simplifying, solving for P, Q & R we get:
XY +YZ +ZX XZ
P= = X +Z +
Y Y
and,
XY +YZ +ZX XY
Q= = X +Y +
Z Z
XY +YZ + ZX YZ
and, R= =Y + Z +
X X

Semiconductor Basics
If Resistors are the most basic passive component in electrical or electronic circuits, then we
have to consider the Signal Diode as being the most basic “Active” component. However, unlike
a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as it has an
exponential I-V relationship and therefore cannot be described simply by using Ohm’s law as we
do for resistors.
Diodes are basic unidirectional Semiconductor Devicesthat will only allow current to flow
through them in one direction only, acting more like a one way electrical valve, (Forward Biased
Condition). But, before we have a look at how signal or power diodes work we first need to
understand the semiconductors basic construction and concept.
Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material which has a positive “P-region”
at one end and a negative “N-region” at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere
between that of a conductor and an insulator. But what is a “Semiconductor” material?, firstly
let’s look at what makes something either a Conductor or an Insulator.
Resistivity
The electrical Resistance of an electrical or electronic component or device is generally defined
as being the ratio of the voltage difference across it to the current flowing through it, basic Ohm
´s Law principals. The problem with using resistance as a measurement is that it depends very
much on the physical size of the material being measured as well as the material out of which it
is made. For example, if we were to increase the length of the material (making it longer) its
resistance would also increase proportionally.
Likewise, if we increased its diameter or size (making it fatter) its resistance value would
decrease. So we want to be able to define the material in such a way as to indicate its ability to
either conduct or oppose the flow of electrical current through it no matter what its size or shape
happens to be.
The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called Resistivity and is given the
Greek symbol of ρ, (Rho). Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metres, (Ω-m). Resistivity is the
inverse to conductivity.
If the resistivity of various materials is compared, they can be classified into three main groups,
Conductors, Insulators and Semi-conductors as shown below.
Resistivity Chart
 Notice that there is a very small margin
between the resistivity of the conductors
such as silver and gold, compared to a
much larger margin for the resistivity of
the insulators between glass and quartz.
Note also that the resistivity of all
materials at any one time also depends
upon their ambient temperature because
metals are also good conductors of heat.

Conductors
From above we now know that Conductors are materials that have very low values of
resistivity, usually in the micro-ohms per metre. This low value allows them to easily pass an
electrical current due to there being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom
structure. When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these “free electrons” leave
their parent atom and travel together through the material forming an electron drift. In other
words a current.
Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium, Silver or non
metals such as Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their outer “Valence
Shell” or ring, resulting in them being easily knocked out of the atom’s orbit. This allows them
to flow freely through the material until they join up with other atoms, producing a “Domino
Effect” through the material thereby creating an electrical current. Copper and Aluminium is the
main conductor used in electrical cables as shown.

An Electrical Cable uses

Conductors and Insulators

Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as they have very small
resistance values, usually in the region of micro-ohms per metre. While metals such as copper
and aluminium are very good conducts of electricity, they still have some resistance to the flow
of electrons and consequently do not conduct perfectly.
The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current, appears in the form of
heat which is why conductors and especially resistors become hot. Also the resistivity of
conductors increases with ambient temperature because metals are also generally good
conductors of heat.
Insulators
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials,
generally non-metals, that have very few or no “free electrons” floating about within their basic
atom structure because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the
positively charged inner nucleus.
So if a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no electrons to
move and which gives these materials their insulating properties.
Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally not
affected by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood becomes
charcoal and changes from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble,
fused quartz, p.v.c. plastics, rubber etc.
Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because without
them electrical circuits would short together and not work. For example, insulators made of glass
or porcelain are used for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy-
glass resin materials are used to make printed circuit boards, PCB’s etc. while PVC is used to
insulate electrical cables as shown.
Semiconductor Basics
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs),
have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a “conductor” and an
“insulator”. They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-
conductors). They have very few “fee electrons” because their atoms are closely grouped
together in a crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice”.
However, their ability to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by adding certain
“impurities” to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice
versa.
By controlling the amount of impurities added to the semiconductor material it is possible to
control its conductivity. These impurities are called donors or acceptors depending on whether
they produce electrons or holes respectively.
This process of adding impurity atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity atom per
10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping.
The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has four
valence electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to
form full orbital’s of eight electrons. The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is
such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbour making the bond very stable.
As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure
silicon (or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value
resistors.
Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid
structure. A crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic
crystal (it has no impurities) and therefore has no free electrons.
But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric
current from it. To do that we need to create a “positive” and a “negative” pole within the silicon
allowing electrons and therefore electric current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are
created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.
A Silicon Atom Structure

 
The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a ‘normal’ pure crystal of Silicon.
N-type Semiconductor Basics
In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such
as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities
are added). These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with
neighbouring atoms and are commonly called “Pentavalent” impurities.
This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms
leaving one “free electron” to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron
flow). As each impurity atom “donates” one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as
“donors”.
Antimony (symbol Sb) or Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent additive
to the silicon as they have 51 electrons arranged in five shells around their nucleus with the
outermost orbital having five electrons. The resulting semiconductor basics material has an
excess of current-carrying electrons, each with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as
an N-type material with the electrons called “Majority Carriers” while the resulting holes are
called “Minority Carriers”.
When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this
stimulation are quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms.
But this action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal
making it negatively charged.
Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is greater than its
acceptor density, in other words, it has more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole
as shown.
Antimony Atom and Doping
 
The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.
P-Type Semiconductor Basics
If we go the other way, and introduce a “Trivalent” (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline
structure, such as Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only three valence electrons
available in their outermost orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a
complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor material an abundance of
positively charged carriers known as holes in the structure of the crystal where electrons are
effectively missing.
As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it and will try
to move into the hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it
as it moves. This in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it,
and so forth giving the appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through the
crystal structure (conventional current flow).
This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped
crystal into a positive pole. As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are
generally known as “Acceptors” as they are continually “accepting” extra or free electrons.
Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged
in three shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons. The
doping of Boron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers resulting
in a P-type material with the positive holes being called “Majority Carriers” while the free
electrons are called “Minority Carriers”.
Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater
than its donor density. Therefore, a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.
Boron Atom and Doping

 
The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom Boron.
Semiconductor Basics Summary
N-type (e.g. doped with Antimony)
These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by
“electron” movement and are therefore called, N-type Semiconductors.
In N-type semiconductors there are:
 1. The Donors are positively charged.
 2. There are a large number of free electrons.
 3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
 4. Doping gives:
o   positively charged donors.
o   negatively charged free electrons.
 5. Supply of energy gives:
o   negatively charged free electrons.
o   positively charged holes.
P-type (e.g. doped with Boron)
These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by
“hole” movement and are therefore called, P-type Semiconductors.
In these types of materials are:
 1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.
 2. There are a large number of holes.
 3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.
 4. Doping gives:
o   negatively charged acceptors.
o   positively charged holes.
 5. Supply of energy gives:
o   positively charged holes.
o   negatively charged free electrons.
and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their own.
Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used doping agents as they are
more feely available compared to other types of materials. They are also classed as “metalloids”.
However, the periodic table groups together a number of other different chemical elements all
with either three, or five electrons in their outermost orbital shell making them suitable as a
doping material.
These other chemical elements can also be used as doping agents to a base material of either
Silicon (S) or Germanium (Ge) to produce different types of basic semiconductor materials for
use in electronic semiconductor components, microprocessor and solar cell applications. These
additional semiconductor materials are given below.
Periodic Table of Semiconductors

Elements Group 13 Elements Group 14 Elements Group 15

3-Electrons in Outer Shell 4-Electrons in Outer Shell 5-Electrons in Outer Shell
(Positively Charged) (Neutrally Charged) (Negatively Charged)
(5) (6)
 
Boron  ( B ) Carbon  ( C )
 (13) (14) (15)
Aluminium  ( Al ) Silicon  ( Si ) Phosphorus  ( P )
(31) (32) (33)
Gallium  ( Ga ) Germanium  ( Ge ) Arsenic  ( As )
(51)
   
Antimony  ( Sb )

In the next tutorial about semiconductors and diodes, we will look at joining the two
semiconductor basics materials, the P-type and the N-type materials to form a PN Junction which
can be used to produce diodes.

The Power Diode

In the previous tutorials we saw that a semiconductor signal diode will only conduct current in
one direction from its anode to its cathode (forward direction), but not in the reverse direction
acting a bit like an electrical one way valve. A widely used application of this feature is in the
conversion of an alternating voltage (AC ) into a continuous voltage ( DC ). In other words,
Rectification. But small signal diodes can also be used as Rectifiers

in low-power, low current (less than 1-amp) rectifiers or applications, but were larger forward
bias currents or higher reverse bias blocking voltages are involved the PN junction of a small
signal diode would eventually overheat and melt so larger more robust Power Diodes are used
instead.

The power semiconductor diode, known simply as the Power Diode, has a much larger PN
junction area compared to its smaller signal diode cousin, resulting in a high forward current
capability of up to several hundred amps (KA) and a reverse blocking voltage of up to several
thousand volts (KV).
Since the power diode has a large PN junction, it is not suitable for high frequency applications
above 1MHz, but special and expensive high frequency, high current diodes are available. For
high frequency rectifier applications Schottky Diodes are generally used because of their short
reverse recovery time and low voltage drop in their forward bias condition.
Power diodes provide uncontrolled rectification of power and are used in applications such as
battery charging and DC power supplies as well as AC rectifiers and inverters. Due to their high
current and voltage characteristics they can also be used as free-wheeling diodes and snubber
networks.
Power diodes are designed to have a forward “ON” resistance of fractions of an Ohm while their
reverse blocking resistance is in the mega-Ohms range. Some of the larger value power diodes
are designed to be “stud mounted” onto heatsinks reducing their thermal resistance to between
0.1 to 1oC/Watt.
If an alternating voltage is applied across a power diode, during the positive half cycle the diode
will conduct passing current and during the negative half cycle the diode will not conduct
blocking the flow of current. Then conduction through the power diode only occurs during the
positive half cycle and is therefore unidirectional i.e. DC as shown.
Power Diode Rectifier

Power diodes can be used individually as above or connected together to produce a variety of
rectifier circuits such as “Half-Wave”, “Full-Wave” or as “Bridge Rectifiers”. Each type of
rectifier circuit can be classed as either uncontrolled, half-controlled or fully controlled were an
uncontrolled rectifier uses only power diodes, a fully controlled rectifier uses thyristors (SCRs)
and a half controlled rectifier is a mixture of both diodes and thyristors.
The most commonly used individual power diode for basic electronics applications is the general
purpose 1N400x Series Glass Passivated type rectifying diode with standard ratings of
continuous forward rectified current of 1.0 amp and reverse blocking voltage ratings from 50v
for the 1N4001 up to 1000v for the 1N4007, with the small 1N4007GP being the most popular
for general purpose mains voltage rectification.

Half Wave Rectification

A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into a Direct
Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-phase or a multi-
phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that of the Half Wave Rectifier.
The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete sine wave
of the AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Then this type of circuit is called a
“half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC power supply as shown
below.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

During each “positive” half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward biased as the anode
is positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through the diode.
Since the DC load is resistive (resistor, R), the current flowing in the load resistor is therefore
proportional to the voltage (Ohm´s Law), and the voltage across the load resistor will therefore
be the same as the supply voltage, Vs (minus Vf), that is the “DC” voltage across the load is
sinusoidal for the first half cycle only so Vout = Vs.
During each “negative” half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode is reverse
biased as the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. Therefore, NO current flows through
the diode or circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the supply, no current flows in the load
resistor as no voltage appears across it so therefore, Vout = 0.
The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the circuit
Unidirectional. As the load resistor receives from the diode a positive half of the waveform,
zero volts, a positive half of the waveform, zero volts, etc, the value of this irregular voltage
would be equal in value to an equivalent DC voltage of 0.318 x Vmax of the input sinusoidal
waveform or 0.45 x Vrms of the input sinusoidal waveform.
Then the equivalent DC voltage, VDC across the load resistor is calculated as follows.

V max
V d .c . = =0.318 V =0.45 V S
π

Where Vmax is the maximum or peak voltage value of the AC sinusoidal supply, and V S is the
RMS (Root Mean Squared) value of the supply.

Power Diode Example No1

Calculate the voltage across VDC and the current IDC, flowing through a 100Ω resistor connected
to a 240 Vrms single phase half-wave rectifier as shown above. Also calculate the DC power
consumed by the load.

V MAX=V RMS ×1.414 , orV RMS=V MAX ×0.7071

V DC=0.45 V RMS =0.45 ×240=108Volts or

V DC =0.318 V MAX=0.318×(240 ×1.414)=108Volts

V DC 108 V
I DC = = =1.08 Amps
R 100 Ω
Power ¿ I 2 R=1.082 ×100=116 Watts  

During the rectification process the resultant output DC voltage and current are therefore both
“ON” and “OFF” during every cycle. As the voltage across the load resistor is only present
during the positive half of the cycle (50% of the input waveform), this results in a low average
DC value being supplied to the load.
The variation of the rectified output waveform between this “ON” and “OFF” condition
produces a waveform which has large amounts of “ripple” which is an undesirable feature. The
resultant DC ripple has a frequency that is equal to that of the AC supply frequency.
Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a “steady” and continuous
DC voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. One way of doing this is to connect a large
value Capacitor across the output voltage terminals in parallel with the load resistor as shown
below. This type of capacitor is known commonly as a “Reservoir” or Smoothing Capacitor.

Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

When rectification is used to provide a direct voltage (DC) power supply from an alternating
(AC) source, the amount of ripple voltage can be further reduced by using larger value capacitors
but there are limits both on cost and size to the types of smoothing capacitors used.
For a given capacitor value, a greater load current (smaller load resistance) will discharge the
capacitor more quickly (RC) Time Constant ) and so increases the ripple obtained. Then for
single phase, half-wave rectifier circuit using a power diode it is not very practical to try and
reduce the ripple voltage by capacitor smoothing alone. In this instance it would be more
practical to use “Full-wave Rectification” instead.
In practice, the half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power applications because of their
major disadvantages being. The output amplitude is less than the input amplitude, there is no
output during the negative half cycle so half the power is wasted and the output is pulsed DC
resulting in excessive ripple. To overcome these disadvantages a number of Power Diode are
connected together to produce a Full Wave Rectifier as discussed in the next tutorial.

The Full Wave Rectifier

In the previous Power Diodes tutorial we discussed ways of reducing the ripple or voltage
variations on a direct DC voltage by connecting capacitors across the load resistance. While this
method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to applications which need a
“steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One method to improve on this is to use every half-
cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit which allows us to do this
is called a Full Wave Rectifier. Like the half wave circuit, a Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
produces an output voltage or current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component.
Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier
counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full
wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother
output waveform.

In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle. A
multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves
with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This configuration results in each diode
conducting in turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer centre
point C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is
100% efficient as shown below.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance
(RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the
transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as
indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C, diode D2
conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same
direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the
two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-phase”
circuit.
As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in by the
other diode the average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now double that of the
single half-wave rectifier circuit and is about  0.637Vmax  of the peak voltage, assuming no losses.
2V max
V DC = =0.637 V max =0.9 V RMS
π
Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding and VRMS is the
rms value.
The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave rectifier
provided each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage value. To obtain a
different DC voltage output different transformer ratios can be used. The main disadvantage of
this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for a given power output is
required with two separate but identical secondary windings making this type of full wave
rectifying circuit costly compared to the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier” circuit equivalent.

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four
individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the
desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is
connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2
conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the
load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

 

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore
the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.

Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just
one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the
input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a
50Hz supply)
Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge rectifier, pre-made
bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range of different voltage and
current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by spade
connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner cut off. This
cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the positive or +ve output
terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve output lead. The
other two connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from a transformer secondary
winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an output wave
every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a steady DC
supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax)
with less superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the frequency of the
input supply frequency. We can therefore increase its average DC output level even higher by
connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge circuit as shown below.
Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC
output voltage. Generally for DC power supply circuits the smoothing capacitor is an Aluminium
Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value of 100uF or more with repeated DC voltage pulses
from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to peak voltage.
However, there are two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable smoothing
capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output value
of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear
superimposed on top of the DC voltage.
Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the output waveform. But if the
smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large enough (parallel capacitors can be used) and the load
current is not too large, the output voltage will be almost as smooth as pure DC. As a general
rule of thumb, we are looking to have a ripple voltage of less than 100mV peak to peak.
The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is not only determined by
the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load current, and is calculated as:

Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage

I ( load )
V ( ripple)= , Volts
f ×C

Where: I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or twice the input
frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple value for a
given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier.
Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the AC supply
frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency
(50Hz).
The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply voltage by the diodes
can be virtually eliminated by adding a much improved π-filter (pi-filter) to the output terminals
of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of two smoothing capacitors, usually
of the same value and a choke or inductance across them to introduce a high impedance path to
the alternating ripple component
Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3-terminal voltage
regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where “xx” stands for the output voltage rating) for a positive
output voltage or its inverse equivalent the LM79xx for a negative output voltage which can
reduce the ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet) while delivering a constant output current of
over 1 amp.
In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the Zener Diode which takes advantage of its
reverse breakdown voltage characteristic to produce a constant and fixed output voltage across
itself.
Diode Clipping Circuits
The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes an input
waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves together to produce an
output waveform that resembles a flattened version of the input. For example, the half-wave
rectifier is a clipper circuit, since all voltages below zero are eliminated.

But Diode Clipping Circuits can be used a variety of applications to modify an input waveform
using signal and Schottky diodes or to provide over-voltage protection using Zener Diodes
to ensure that the output voltage never exceeds a certain level protecting the circuit from high
voltage spikes. Then diode clipping circuits can be used in voltage limiting applications.
We saw in the Signal Diodes tutorial that when a diode is forward biased it allows current to pass
through itself clamping the voltage. When the diode is reverse biased, no current flows through it
and the voltage across its terminals is unaffected, and this is the basic operation of the diode
clipping circuit.
Although the input voltage to diode clipping circuits can have any waveform shape, we will
assume here that the input voltage is sinusoidal. Consider the circuits below.
Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

 
In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (cathode more positive than anode)
during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the diode to become forward
biased, it must have the input voltage magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a
germanium diode).
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself constant at
0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus the output voltage which is taken
across the diode can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (anode more positive than cathode)
blocking current flow through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative half of the
sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load unaltered. Then the diode limits the positive half of
the input waveform and is known as a positive clipper circuit.
Negative Diode Clipping Circuits
 
Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to -0.7 volts while allowing the positive half cycle to
pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half cycle of the input
voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.
Clipping of Both Half Cycles

 
If we connected two diodes in inverse parallel as shown, then both the positive and negative half
cycles would be clipped as diode D1 clips the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input
waveform while diode D2 clips the negative half cycle. Then diode clipping circuits can be used
to clip the positive half cycle, the negative half cycle or both.
For ideal diodes the output waveform above would be zero. However, due to the forward bias
voltage drop across the diodes the actual clipping point occurs at +0.7 volts and -0.7 volts
respectively. But we can increase this ±0.7V threshold to any value we want up to the maximum
value, (VPEAK) of the sinusoidal waveform either by connecting together more diodes in series
creating multiples of 0.7 volts, or by adding a voltage bias to the diodes.
Biased Diode Clipping Circuits
To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias voltage, V BIAS
is added in series with the diode as shown. The voltage across the series combination must be
greater than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode becomes sufficiently forward biased to conduct. For
example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 volts, then the sinusoidal voltage at the diode’s anode
terminal must be greater than 4.0 + 0.7 = 4.7 volts for it to become forward biased. Any anode
voltage levels above this bias point are clipped off.
Positive Bias Diode Clipping

 
Likewise, by reversing the diode and the battery bias voltage, when a diode conducts the
negative half cycle of the output waveform is held to a level -VBIAS - 0.7V as shown.
Negative Bias Diode Clipping
 
A variable diode clipping or diode limiting level can be achieved by varying the bias voltage of
the diodes. If both the positive and the negative half cycles are to be clipped, then two biased
clipping diodes are used. But for both positive and negative diode clipping, the bias voltage need
not be the same. The positive bias voltage could be at one level, for example 4 volts, and the
negative bias voltage at another, for example 6 volts as shown.
Diode Clipping of Different Bias levels

 
When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D 1 conducts and limits the
waveform at +4.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore, all
positive voltages above +4.7 V and negative voltages below –6.7 V are automatically clipped.

The advantage of biased diode clipping circuits is that it prevents the output signal from
exceeding preset voltage limits for both half cycles of the input waveform, which could be an
input from a noisy sensor or the positive and negative supply rails of a power supply.
If the diode clipping levels are set too low or the input waveform is too great then the elimination
of both waveform peaks could end up with a square-wave shaped waveform.
Zener Diode Clipping Circuits
The use of a bias voltage means that the amount of the voltage waveform that is clipped off can
be accurately controlled. But one of the main disadvantages of using voltage biased diode
clipping circuits, is that they need an additional emf battery source which may or may not be a
problem.
One easy way of creating biased diode clipping circuits without the need for an additional emf
supply is to use Zener Diodes.
As we know, the zener diode is a another type of diode that has been specially manufactured to
operate in its reverse biased breakdown region and as such can be used for voltage regulation or
zener diode clipping applications. In the forward region, the zener acts just like an ordinary
silicon diode with a forward voltage drop of 0.7V (700mV) when conducting, the same as above.
However, in the reverse bias region, the voltage is blocked until the zener diodes breakdown
voltage is reached. At this point, the reverse current through the zener increases sharply but the
zener voltage, VZ across the device remains constant even if the zener current, IZ varies.
Then we can put this zener action to good effect by using them for clipping a waveform as
shown.
Zener Diode Clipping

 
The zener diode is acting like a biased diode clipping circuit with the bias voltage being equal to
the zener breakdown voltage. In this circuit during the positive half of the waveform the zener
diode is reverse biased so the waveform is clipped at the zener voltage, V ZD1. During the negative
half cycle the zener acts like a normal diode with its usual 0.7V junction value.
We can develop this idea further by using the zener diodes reverse-voltage characteristics to clip
both halves of a waveform using series connected back-to-back zener diodes as shown.
Full-wave Zener Diode Clipping

 
The output waveform from full wave zener diode clipping circuits resembles that of the previous
voltage biased diode clipping circuit. The output waveform will be clipped at the zener voltage
plus the 0.7V forward volt drop of the other diode. So for example, the positive half cycle will be
clipped at the sum of zener diode, ZD1 plus 0.7V from ZD2 and vice versa for the negative half
cycle.
Zener diodes are manufactured with a wide range of voltages and can be used to give different
voltage references on each half cycle, the same as above. Zener diodes are available with zener
breakdown voltages, VZ ranging from 2.4 to 33 volts, with a typical tolerance of 1 or 5%. Note
that once conducting in the reverse breakdown region, full current will flow through the zener
diode so a suitable current limiting resistor, R1 must be chosen.
Diode Clipping Summary
As well as being used as rectifiers, diodes can also be used to clip the top, or bottom, or both of a
waveform at a particular dc level and pass it to the output without distortion,. In or examples
above we have assumed that the waveform is sinusoidal but in theory any shaped input
waveform can be used.
Diode Clipping Circuits are used to eliminate amplitude noise or voltage spikes, voltage
regulation or to produce new waveforms from an existing signal such as squaring off the peaks
of a sinusoidal waveform to obtain a rectangular waveform as seen above.
The most common application of a “diode clipping” is as a flywheel or free-wheeling diode
connected in parallel across an inductive load to protect the switching transistor form reverse
voltage transients.

The Zener Diode

In the previous Signal Diode tutorial, we saw that a “reverse biased” diode blocks current in the
reverse direction, but will suffer from premature breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage
applied across it is too high. However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode” as they are
sometimes called, are basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but are specially
designed to have a low pre-determined Reverse Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of
this high reverse voltage. The zener diode is the simplest types of voltage regulator and the point
at which a zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the “Zener Voltage” (Vz).

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction.
When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated
current, but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the Zener Diode
exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which
point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a
current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse saturation
current remains fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage
point, VB is called the “zener voltage” for zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to
hundreds of volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or
7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even
with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).
This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel
with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the
zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.
The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a
suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain
a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so
to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabilizer circuit as shown
below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.

Zener Diode Regulator

The resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilized output
voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode. The zener diode is connected with its cathode
terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be
operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current
flowing in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, (IL = 0 ), and all the circuit
current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a small
value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load resistance RL is
connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care
must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the zener’s
maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the
same as the zener voltage, (VR = VZ ). There is a minimum zener current for which the
stabilization of the voltage is effective and the zener current must stay above this value operating
under load within its breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course
dependant upon the power rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
One small problem with zener diode stabilizer circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate
electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilize the voltage. Normally this is not a
problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across the
zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing.
Then to summarize a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. A
voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode to maintain a constant DC output
voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in the load current.
The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the
input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased
condition. The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the same as the breakdown
voltage VZ of the diode.

Zener Diode Example No1

A 5.0Vstabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply input
source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using the zener regulator circuit
above calculate:

(a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

Watts 2 W
Maximum Current¿ = =400 mA
Voltage 5 V
b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS
V S −V Z
R S= =17.5 Ω
IZ
c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.
VZ 5V
I L= = =5 mA
R L 1000 Ω
d). Thezener current IZ at full load.

I Z =I S −I L =400 mA −5 mA=395 mA  

Zener Diode Voltages

As well as producing a single stabilized voltage output, zener diodes can also be connected
together in series along with normal silicon signal diodes to produce a variety of different
reference voltage output values as shown below.

Zener Diodes Connected in Series

The values of the individual Zener diodes can be chosen to suit the application while the silicon
diode will always drop about 0.6 – 0.7V in the forward bias condition. The supply voltage, Vin
must of course be higher than the largest output reference voltage and in our example above this
is 19v.
A typical zener diode for general electronic circuits is the 500mW, BZX55 series or the larger
1.3W, BZX85 series were the zener voltage is given as, for example, C7V5 for a 7.5V diode
giving a diode reference number of BZX55C7V5.
The 500mW series of zener diodes are available from about 2.4 up to about 100 volts and
typically have the same sequence of values as used for the 5% (E24) resistor series with the
Zener Diode Clipping Circuits
Thus far we have looked at how a zener diode can be used to regulate a constant DC source but
what if the input signal was not steady state DC but an alternating AC waveform how would the
zener diode react to a constantly changing signal.
Diode clipping and clamping circuits are circuits that are used to shape or modify an input AC
waveform (or any sinusoid) producing a differently shape output waveform depending on the
circuit arrangement. Diode clipper circuits are also called limiters because they limit or clip-off
the positive (or negative) part of an input AC signal. As zener clipper circuits limit or cut-off part
of the waveform across them, they are mainly used for circuit protection or in waveform shaping
circuits.
For example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform at +7.5V, we would use a 7.5V zener
diode. If the output waveform tries to exceed the 7.5V limit, the zener diode will “clip-off” the
excess voltage from the input producing a waveform with a flat top still keeping the output
constant at +7.5V. Note that in the forward bias condition a zener diode is still a diode and when
the AC waveform output goes negative below -0.7V, the zener diode turns “ON” like any normal
silicon diode would and clips the output at -0.7V as shown below.

Square Wave Signal

The back to back connected zener diodes can be used as an AC regulator producing what is
jokingly called a “poor man’s square wave generator”. Using this arrangement we can clip the
waveform between a positive value of +8.2V and a negative value of -8.2V for a 7.5V zener
diode.
So for example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform between two different minimum and
maximum values of say, +8V and -6V, we would simply use two differently rated zener diodes.
Note that the output will actually clip the AC waveform between +8.7V and -6.7V due to the
addition of the forward biasing diode voltage.
In other words a peak-to-peak voltage of 15.4 volts instead of expected 14 volts, as the forward
bias volt drop across the diode adds another 0.7 volts in each direction.
This type of clipper configuration is fairly common for protecting an electronic circuit from over
voltage. The two zener’s are generally placed across the power supply input terminals and during
normal operation, one of the zener diodes is “OFF” and the diodes have little or no affect.
However, if the input voltage waveform exceeds its limit, then the zener’s turn “ON” and clip the
input to protect the circuit.
In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at using the forward biased PN junction of a diode
to produce light. We know from the previous tutorials that when charge carriers move across the
junction, electrons combine with holes and energy is lost in the form of heat, but also some of
this energy is dissipated as photons but we cannot see them.
If we place a translucent lens around the junction, visible light will be produced and the diode
becomes a light source. This effect produces another type of diode known commonly as the
Light Emitting Diode which takes advantage of this light producing characteristic to emit light
(photons) in a variety of colours and wavelengths.
Light Emitting Diodes
Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the different types of
semiconductor diodes available today. They are the most visible type of diode that emit a fairly
narrow bandwidth of either visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red
light for remote controls or laser type light when a forward current is passed through them.A
“Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialized
type of PN junction diode, made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor
material.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band
recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons
which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable
number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light
output.

LED Construction
Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are
semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
The construction of a Light Emitting Diode
is very different from that of a normal signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by
a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the
LED from both vibration and shock.
Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy resin body is
constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the junction are reflected away
from the surrounding substrate base to which the diode is attached and are focused upwards
through the domed top of the LED, which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light.
This is why the emitted light appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.
However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy shell. Some
indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction that has a flat surface on
top or their body is shaped into a bar or arrow. Also, nearly all LEDs have their cathode, ( K )
terminal identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body, or by one of the leads being shorter
than the other, ( the Anode, A ).
Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of heat when
illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of light which leads to high
efficiencies than the normal “light bulb” because most of the generated energy radiates away
within the visible spectrum. Because LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be extremely small
and durable and provide much longer lamp life than normal light sources.
Light Emitting Diode Colours
So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes which are made
for detection or power rectification, and which are made from either Germanium or Silicon
semiconductor materials, Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor
compounds such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide
Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed
together at different ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of colour.
Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum and
therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the semiconductor material used
will determine the overall wavelength of the photon light emissions and therefore the resulting
colour of the light emitted.
Light Emitting Diode Colours

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material
GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v
GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v
GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v
GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v
AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v
SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v
GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is determined by the wavelength of the light
emitted,
which in turn is determined by the actual semiconductor compound used in forming the PN
junction during manufacture.
Therefore the colour of the light emitted by an LED is NOT determined by the colouring of the
LED’s
plastic body although these are slightly coloured to both enhance the light output and to indicate
its colour when its not being illuminated by an electrical supply.
Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of colours with the most common being
RED, AMBER, YELLOW and GREEN and are thus widely used as visual indicators and as
moving light displays.
Recently developed blue and white coloured LEDs are also available but these tend to be much
more expensive than the normal standard colours due to the production costs of mixing together
two or more complementary colours at an exact ratio within the semiconductor compound and
also by injecting nitrogen atoms into the crystal structure during the doping process.
From the table above we can see that the main P-type dopant used in the manufacture of Light
Emitting Diodes is Gallium (Ga, atomic number 31) and that the main N-type dopant used is
Arsenic (As, atomic number 31) giving the resulting compound of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
crystal structure.
The problem with using Gallium Arsenide on its own as the semiconductor compound is that it
radiates large amounts of low brightness infra-red radiation (850nm-940nm approx.) from its
junction when a forward current is flowing through it.
The infra-red light produced is ok for television remote controls but not very useful if we want to
use the LED as an indicating light. But by adding Phosphorus (P, atomic number 15), as a third
dopant the overall wavelength of the emitted radiation is reduced to below 680nm giving visible
red light to the human eye. Further refinements in the doping process of the PN junction have
resulted in a range of colours spanning the spectrum of visible light as we have seen above as
well as infra-red and ultra-violet wavelengths.
By mixing together a variety of semiconductor, metal and gas compounds the following list of
LEDs can be produced.
Types of Light Emitting Diode
 • Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - infra-red
 • Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) - red to infra-red, orange
 • Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) - high-brightness red, orange-red,
orange, and yellow
 • Gallium Phosphide (GaP) - red, yellow and green
 • Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) - green
 • Gallium Nitride (GaN) - green, emerald green
 • Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) - near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
 • Silicon Carbide (SiC) - blue as a substrate
 • Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) - blue
 • Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) - ultraviolet
Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-dependent devices with
its forward voltage drop VF, depending on the semiconductor compound (its light colour) and on
the forward biased LED current. The point where conduction begins and light is produced is
about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED.
The exact voltage drop will of course depend on the manufacturer because of the different
dopant materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop across the LED at a particular current
value, for example 20mA, will also depend on the initial conduction VF point. As an LED is
effectively a diode, its forward current to voltage characteristics curves can be plotted for each
diode colour as shown below.
Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Schematic symbol and I-V Characteristics Curves
showing the different colours available.
 
Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow through it, as
it is a current dependant device with their light output intensity being directly proportional to the
forward current flowing through the LED.
As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power supply it should be
current limited using a series resistor to protect it from excessive current flow. Never connect an
LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly because too
much current will pass through and burn it out.
From the table above we can see that each LED has its own forward voltage drop across the PN
junction and this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor material used, is the
forward voltage drop for a specified amount of forward conduction current, typically for a
forward current of 20mA.
In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series resistor, R S used to
limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a simple LED indicator to 30mA or
more where a high brightness light output is needed.
LED Series Resistance.
The series resistor value RS is calculated by simply using Ohm´s Law, by knowing the required
forward current IF of the LED, the supply voltage V S across the combination and the expected
forward voltage drop of the LED, VF at the required current level, the current limiting resistor is
calculated as:
LED Series Resistor Circuit
 
Light Emitting Diode Example No1
An amber coloured LED with a forward volt drop of 2 volts is to be connected to a 5.0v
stabilised DC power supply. Using the circuit above calculate the value of the series resistor
required to limit the forward current to less than 10mA. Also calculate the current flowing
through the diode if a 100Ω series resistor is used instead of the calculated first.
1). series resistor required at 10mA.

V S −V F 5 V −2V 3
R S= = = =300 Ω
IF 10 mA 10 ×10
−3

 
2). with a 100Ω series resistor.

V S −V F
R S=
IF
V S−V F 5−2
∴ I F= = =30 mA
IF 100
 
We remember from the Resistorstutorials that resistors come in standard preferred values. Our
first calculation above shows that to limit the current flowing through the LED to 10mA exactly,
we would require a 300Ω resistor. In the E12 series of resistors there is no 300Ω resistor so we
would need to choose the next highest value, which is 330Ω. A quick re-calculation shows the
new forward current value is now 9.1mA, and this is ok.
LED Driver Circuits
Now that we know what an LED is, we need some way of controlling it by switching it “ON”
and “OFF”. The output stages of both TTL and CMOS logic gates can both source and sink
useful amounts of current therefore can be used to drive an LED. Normal integrated circuits
(ICs) have an output drive current of up to 50mA in the sink mode configuration, but have an
internally limited output current of about 30mA in the source mode configuration.
Either way the LED current must be limited to a safe value using a series resistor as we have
already seen. Below are some examples of driving light emitting diodes using inverting ICs but
the idea is the same for any type of integrated circuit output whether combinational or sequential.
IC Driver Circuit
 
If more than one LED requires driving at the same time, such as in large LED arrays, or the load
current is to high for the integrated circuit or we may just want to use discrete components
instead of ICs, then an alternative way of driving the LEDs using either bipolar NPN or PNP
transistors as switches is given below. Again as before, a series resistor, R S is required to limit
the LED current.
Transistor Driver Circuit

 
The brightness of a light emitting diode cannot be controlled by simply varying the current
flowing through it. Allowing more current to flow through the LED will make it glow brighter
but will also cause it to dissipate more heat. LEDs are designed to produce a set amount of light
operating at a specific forward current ranging from about 10 to 20mA.
In situations were power savings are important, less current may be possible. However, reducing
the current to below say 5mA may dim its light output too much or even turn the LED “OFF”
completely. A much better way to control the brightness of LEDs is to use a control process
known as “Pulse Width Modulation” or PWM, in which the LED is repeatedly turned “ON” and
“OFF” at varying frequencies depending upon the required light intensity.
LED Light Intensity using PWM

 
When higher light outputs are required, a pulse width modulated current with a fairly short duty
cycle (“ON-OFF” Ratio) allows the diode current and therefore the output light intensity to be
increased significantly during the actual pulses, while still keeping the LEDs “average current
level” and power dissipation within safe limits.
This “ON-OFF” flashing condition does not affect what is seen as the human eyes fills in the
gaps between the “ON” and “OFF” light pulses, providing the pulse frequency is high enough,
making it appear as a continuous light output. So pulses at a frequency of 100Hz or more
actually appear brighter to the eye than a continuous light of the same average intensity.
Multi-coloured Light Emitting Diode
LEDs are available in a wide range of shapes, colours and various sizes with different light
output intensities available, with the most common (and cheapest to produce) being the standard
5mm Red Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) LED.
LED’s are also available in various “packages” arranged to produce both letters and numbers
with the most common being that of the “seven segment display” arrangement.
Nowadays, full colour flat screen LED displays, hand held devices and TV’s are available which
use a vast number of multicoloured LED’s all been driven directly by their own dedicated IC.
Most light emitting diodes produce just a single output of coloured light however, multi-coloured
LEDs are now available that can produce a range of different colours from within a single
device. Most of these are actually two or three LEDs fabricated within a single package.
Bicolour Light Emitting Diodes
A bicolour light emitting diode has two LEDs chips connected together in “inverse parallel” (one
forwards, one backwards) combined in one single package. Bicolour LEDs can produce any one
of three colours for example, a red colour is emitted when the device is connected with current
flowing in one direction and a green colour is emitted when it is biased in the other direction.
This type of bi-directional arrangement is useful for giving polarity indication, for example, the
correct connection of batteries or power supplies etc. Also, a bi-directional current produces both
colours mixed together as the two LEDs would take it in turn to illuminate if the device was
connected (via a suitable resistor) to a low voltage, low frequency AC supply.
A Bicolour LED
Terminal A
LED + - AC
selected
LED 1 ON OFF ON
LED 2 OFF ON ON
Colour Gree Red Yellow
n

Tricoloured Light Emitting Diode

The most popular type of tricolour light emitting diode comprises of a single Red and a Green
LED combined in one package with their cathode terminals connected together producing a three
terminal device. They are called tricolour LEDs because they can give out a single red or a green
colour by turning “ON” only one LED at a time.
These tricoloured LED’s can also generate additional shades of their primary colours (the third
colour) such as Orange or Yellow by turning “ON” the two LEDs in different ratios of forward
current as shown in the table thereby generating 4 different colours from just two diode
junctions.
A Multi or Tricoloured LED

Output Yello
Red Orange Green
Colour w
LED 1
Curren 0 5mA 9.5mA 15mA
t
LED 2
Curren 10mA 6.5mA 3.5mA 0
t

LED Displays
As well as individual colour or multi-colour LEDs, several light emitting diodes can be
combined together within a single package to produce displays such as bar graphs, strips, arrays
and seven segment displays.
A 7-segment LED display provides a very convenient way when decoded properly of displaying
information or digital data in the form of numbers, letters or even alpha-numerical characters and
as their name suggests, they consist of seven individual LEDs (the segments), within one single
display package.
In order to produce the required numbers or characters from 0 to 9 and A to F respectively, on
the display the correct combination of LED segments need to be illuminated. A standard seven
segment LED display generally has eight input connections, one for each LED segment and one
that acts as a common terminal or connection for all the internal segments.
 The Common Cathode Display (CCD) - In the common cathode display, all the cathode
connections of the LEDs are joined together and the individual segments are illuminated
by application of a HIGH, logic “1″ signal.
 The Common Anode Display (CAD) - In the common anode display, all the anode
connections of the LEDs are joined together and the individual segments are illuminated
by connecting the terminals to a LOW, logic “0″ signal.
A Typical Seven Segment LED Display

 
Opto-coupler
Finally, another useful application of light emitting diodes is Opto-coupling. An opto-coupler or
opto-isolator as it is also called, is a single electronic device that consists of a light emitting
diode combined with either a photo-diode, photo-transistor or photo-triac to provide an optical
signal path between an input connection and an output connection while maintaining electrical
isolation between two circuits.
An opto-isolator consists of a light proof plastic body that has a typical breakdown voltages
between the input (photo-diode) and the output (photo-transistor) circuit of up to 5000 volts. This
electrical isolation is especially useful where the signal from a low voltage circuit such as a
battery powered circuit, computer or microcontroller, is required to operate or control another
external circuit operating at a potentially dangerous mains voltage.
Photo-diode and Photo-transistor Opto-couplers
 
The two components used in an opto-isolator, an optical transmitter such as an infra-red emitting
Gallium Arsenide LED and an optical receiver such as a photo-transistor are closely optically
coupled and use light to send signals and/or information between its input and output. This
allows information to be transferred between circuits without an electrical connection or
common ground potential.
Opto-isolators are digital or switching devices, so they transfer either “ON-OFF” control signals
or digital data. Analogue signals can be transferred by means of frequency or pulse-width
modulation.

Bipolar Transistor Basics

In the Diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of semiconductor
material, either silicon or germanium to form a simple PN-junction and we also learnt about their
properties and characteristics. If we now join together two individual signal diodes back-to-back,
this will give us two PN-junctions connected together in series that share a common P or N
terminal. The fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer, two junction, three terminal
device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.
Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that
can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
transistor’s ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions:
“switching” (digital electronics) or “amplification” (analogue electronics). Then Bipolar
Transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:

 • Active Region   -   the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

 • Saturation   -   the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 • Cut-off   -   the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0

A Typical
Bipolar Transistor

The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words Transfer Varistor used to
describe their mode of operation way back in their early days of development. There are two
basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the
physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are
made.
The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two.
These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter (E), the Base (B) and the Collector
(C) respectively.
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing
through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting
like a current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and
NPN, is exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power
supply for each type.

Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of “conventional current
flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always
points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types,
exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to
connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and
output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as
the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

• Common Base Configuration   -   has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
• Common Emitter Configuration   -   has both Current and Voltage Gain.
• Common Collector Configuration   -   has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

The Common Base (CB) Configuration

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the BASE
connection is common to both the input signal AND the output signal with the input signal being
applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken
from between the base and the collector terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or
connected to a fixed reference voltage point.
The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current
and collector current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter
current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of “1″ (unity) or less, in other
words the common base configuration “attenuates” the input signal.

The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that the signal
voltages Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common due
to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its output characteristics represent that of a
forward biased diode while the input characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode.
Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input resistance or
more importantly “load” resistance ( RL ) to “input” resistance ( Rin ) giving it a value of
“Resistance Gain”. Then the voltage gain (Av) for a common base configuration is therefore
given as:
Common Base Voltage Gain

V out I C × R L
AV = =
V ¿ I E × R¿

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha (α) and RL/Rin is the resistance gain.
The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as
microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency (Rf) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency
response.
The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied between
the base, while the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as shown. This
type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based amplifiers and
which represents the “normal” method of bipolar transistor connection.
The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power gain of all
the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is LOW
as it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as it is
taken from a reverse biased PN-junction.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the
currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.
As the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of the
common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib. A transistors
current gain is given the Greek symbol of Beta, (β).
As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of
Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will always be
less than unity.
Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by the
physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base current (Ib), will result
in a much larger change in the collector current (Ic).
Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control the current in the emitter-
collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose
transistors.
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical relationship
between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

IC IC β β
Alpha,(α )= ,Beta,( β )= ∴ I C =α . I E =β . I B as α = , α=
IE IB β+ 1 β+ 1
I E =I C + I B
Where: “Ic” is the current flowing into the collector terminal, “Ib” is the current flowing into the
base terminal and “Ie” is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal.
Then to summarize a little,This type of bipolar transistor configuration has greater input
impedance, current and power gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage
gain is much lower. The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. This
means that the resulting output signal is 180o “out-of-phase” with the input voltage signal.

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now common
through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while the output is taken
from the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly known as a Voltage
Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching
applications because of the very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of
Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β value of the
transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in series
with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current.
As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the base current combined, the
load resistance in this type of transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the
input current of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is given as:

The Common Collector Current Gain

I E I C+ I B IC
I E =I C + I B , Ai= = , Ai = +1, Ai= β+1
IB IB IB

This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the signal voltages
of Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. It has a voltage gain that is always less than “1″ (unity). The load
resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the base and collector currents giving
a large current gain (as with the common emitter configuration) therefore, providing good
current amplification with very little voltage gain.

Bipolar Transistor Summary

Then to summarize, the behaviour of the bipolar transistor in each one of the above circuit
configurations is very different and produces different circuit characteristics with regards to input
impedance, output impedance and gain whether this is voltage gain, current gain or power gain
and this is summarized in the table below.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

with the characteristics of the different transistor configurations given in the following table:

Common Common Common

Characteristic
Base Emitter Collector
Input Impedance Low Medium High
Output
Very High High Low
Impedance
Phase Angle 0o 180o 0o
Voltage Gain High Medium Low
Current Gain Low Medium High
Power Gain Low Very High Medium

In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors, we will look at the NPN Transistor in more detail
when used in the common emitter configuration as an amplifier as this is the most widely used
configuration due to its flexibility and high gain. We will also plot the output characteristics
curves commonly associated with amplifier circuits as a function of the collector current to the
base current.

The NPN Transistor

In the previous tutorial we saw that the standard Bipolar Transistoror BJT comes in two basic
forms. An NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) type and a PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive) type,
with the most commonly used transistor type being the NPN Transistor. We also learnt that the
junctions of the bipolar transistor can be biased in one of three different ways – Common Base,
Common Emitter and Common Collector.
In this tutorial about bipolar transistors we will look more closely at the “Common Emitter”
configuration using the Bipolar NPN Transistor with an example of the construction of a NPN
transistor along with the transistors current flow characteristics is given below.
A Bipolar NPN Transistor Configuration
(Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, “out” for a Bipolar NPN
Transistor.)
The construction and terminal voltages for a Bipolar NPN Transistorare shown above. The
voltage between the Base and Emitter (VBE), is positive at the Base and negative at the Emitter
because for an NPN transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to the Emitter.
Also the Collector supply voltage is positive with respect to the Emitter (VCE). So for a bipolar
NPN transistor to conduct the Collector is always more positive with respect to both the Base
and the Emitter.

NPN Transistor Connection

Then the voltage sources are connected to an NPN transistor as shown. The Collector is
connected to the supply voltage VCC via the load resistor, RL which also acts to limit the
maximum current flowing through the device. The Base supply voltage VB is connected to the
Base resistor RB, which again is used to limit the maximum Base current.
We know that the transistor is a “current” operated device (Beta model) and that a large current
(Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals when the
transistor is switched “fully-ON”. However, this only happens when a small biasing current ( Ib )
is flowing into the base terminal of the transistor at the same time thus allowing the Base to act
as a sort of current control input.
The transistor current in a bipolar NPN transistor is the ratio of these two currents (Ic/Ib), called
the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, (β). The
value of β can be large up to 200 for standard transistors, and it is this large ratio between Ic and
Ib that makes the bipolar NPN transistor a useful amplifying device when used in its active
region as Ib provides the input and Ic provides the output. Note that Beta has no units as it is a
ratio.
Also, the current gain of the transistor from the Collector terminal to the Emitter terminal, Ic/Ie, is
called Alpha, (α), and is a function of the transistor itself (electrons diffusing across the
junction). As the emitter current Ie is the sum of a very small base current plus a very large
collector current, the value of alpha α, is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal
transistor this value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999
α and β Relationship in a NPN Transistor
Output Current I C
D.C. current gain¿ = ,
Input Current IB
I
I E =I B + I C ……..KCL and C =α Thus, I B=I E−I C
IE
I I α
I B=I E−α I E, I B=I E (1−α ), ∴ β= C = C =
I B I E ( 1−α ) 1−α
By combining the two parameters α and β we can produce two mathematical expressions that
gives the relationship between the different currents flowing in the transistor.
β
α= orα =β ( 1−α )
β+ 1
α 0.99
β= or ¿ α ( 1+ β ), If α =0.99 , β= =99  
1−α 0.01

The values of Beta vary from about 20 for high current power transistors to well over 1000 for
high frequency low power type bipolar transistors. The value of Beta for most standard NPN
transistors can be found in the manufactures data sheets but generally range between 50 – 200.
The equation above for Beta can also be re-arranged to make Ic as the subject, and with a zero
base current ( Ib = 0 ) the resultant collector current Ic will also be zero, ( β x 0 ). Also when the
base current is high the corresponding collector current will also be high resulting in the base
current controlling the collector current. One of the most important properties of the Bipolar
Junction Transistor is that a small base current can control a much larger collector current.
Consider the following example.

NPN Transistor Example No1

A bipolar NPN transistor has a DC current gain, (Beta) value of 200. Calculate the base current
Ib required to switch a resistive load of 4mA.
I C 4 ×10−3
I B= = =20 μA
β 200
Therefore, β = 200, Ic = 4mA and Ib = 20µA.
One other point to remember about Bipolar NPN Transistors. The collector voltage, (Vc) must
be greater and positive with respect to the emitter voltage, (Ve) to allow current to flow through
the transistor between the collector-emitter junctions. Also, there is a voltage drop between the
Base and the Emitter terminal of about 0.7v (one diode volt drop) for silicon devices as the input
characteristics of an NPN Transistor are of a forward biased diode.
Then the base voltage, (Vbe ) of a NPN transistor must be greater than this 0.7V otherwise the
transistor will not conduct with the base current given as.

V B−V BE
I B=
RB

Where:   Ib is the base current, Vb is the base bias voltage, Vbe is the base-emitter volt drop (0.7v)
and Rb is the base input resistor. Increasing Ib, Vbe slowly increases to 0.7V but Ic rises
exponentially.
NPN Transistor Example No2

An NPN Transistor has a DC base bias voltage, Vb of 10v and an input base resistor, Rb of
100kΩ. What will be the value of the base current into the transistor.
V −V BE 10−0.7
I B= B = =93 μA Therefore, Ib = 93µA.
RB 100 kΩ

The Common Emitter Configuration.

As well as being used as a semiconductor switch to turn load currents “ON” or “OFF” by
controlling the Base signal to the transistor in ether its saturation or cut-off regions, Bipolar NPN
Transistorscan also be used in its active region to produce a circuit which will amplify any small
AC signal applied to its Base terminal with the Emitter grounded.
If a suitable DC “biasing” voltage is firstly applied to the transistors Base terminal thus allowing
it to always operate within its linear active region, an inverting amplifier circuit called a single
stage common emitter amplifier is produced.
One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration of an NPN transistor is called a Class A
Amplifier. A “Class A Amplifier” operation is one where the transistors Base terminal is biased
in such a way as to forward bias the Base-emitter junction.
The result is that the transistor is always operating halfway between its cut-off and saturation
regions, thereby allowing the transistor amplifier to accurately reproduce the positive and
negative halves of any AC input signal superimposed upon this DC biasing voltage.
Without this “Bias Voltage” only one half of the input waveform would be amplified. This
common emitter amplifier configuration using an NPN transistor has many applications but is
commonly used in audio circuits such as pre-amplifier and power amplifier stages.
With reference to the Common Emitter Configuration

shown below, a family of curves known as the Output Characteristics Curves, relates the
output collector current, (Ic) to the collector voltage, (Vce) when different values of Base current,
(Ib). Output characteristics curves are applied to the transistor for transistors with the same β
value.
A DC “Load Line” can also be drawn onto the output characteristics curves to show all the
possible operating points when different values of base current are applied. It is necessary to set
the initial value of Vce correctly to allow the output voltage to vary both up and down when
amplifying AC input signals and this is called setting the operating point or Quiescent Point, Q-
point for short and this is shown below.

Single Stage Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

Output Characteristics Curves of a Typical Bipolar Transistor

The most important factor to notice is the effect of Vce upon the collector current Ic when Vce is
greater than about 1.0 volts. We can see that Ic is largely unaffected by changes in Vce above this
value and instead it is almost entirely controlled by the base current, Ib. When this happens we
can say then that the output circuit represents that of a “Constant Current Source”.
It can also be seen from the common emitter circuit above that the emitter current Ie is the sum
of the collector current, Ic and the base current, Ib, added together so we can also say that Ie= Ic +
Ib for the common emitter (CE) configuration.
By using the output characteristics curves in our example above and also Ohm´s Law, the current
flowing through the load resistor, ( RL ), is equal to the collector current, Ic entering the transistor
which in turn corresponds to the supply voltage, (Vcc) minus the voltage drop between the
collector and the emitter terminals, (Vce) and is given as:
V CC−V CE
Collector Current, I C =  
RL
Also, a straight line representing the Dynamic Load Line of the transistor can be drawn directly
onto the graph of curves above from the point of “Saturation” ( A ) when Vce = 0 to the point of
“Cut-off” ( B ) when Ic = 0 thus giving us the “Operating” or Q-point of the transistor. These
two points are joined together by a straight line and any position along this straight line
represents the “Active Region” of the transistor. The actual position of the load line on the
characteristics curves can be calculated as follows:
V CC−0 V CC
When: ( V CE =0 ), I C = , I C=
RL RL
V −V
( I C =0 ), 0= CC CE , V CC =V CE
RL
Then, the collector or output characteristics curves for Common Emitter NPN Transistors can be
used to predict the Collector current, Ic, when given Vce and the Base current, Ib. A Load Line can
also be constructed onto the curves to determine a suitable Operating or Q-point which can be set
by adjustment of the base current. The slope of this load line is equal to the reciprocal of the load
resistance which is given as: -1/RL
Then we can define a NPN Transistor as being normally “OFF” but a small input current and a
small positive voltage at its Base (B) relative to its Emitter (E) will turn it “ON” allowing a much
large Collector-Emitter current to flow. NPN transistors conduct when Vc is much greater than
Ve.
In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors, we will look at the opposite or complementary
form of the NPN Transistor called the PNP Transistor and show that the PNP Transistor has very
similar characteristics to the bipolar NPN transistor except that the polarities (or biasing) of the
current and voltage directions are reversed.

The PNP Transistor

The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN Transistor device we looked at in the
previous tutorial. Basically, in this type of transistor construction the two diodes are reversed
with respect to the NPN type giving a Positive-Negative-Positive type configuration, with the
arrow which also defines the Emitter terminal this time pointing inwards in the transistor symbol.

Also, all the polarities for a PNP transistor are reversed which means that it “sinks” current into
its Base as opposed to the NPN Transistorwhich “sources” current through its Base. The main
difference between the two types of transistors is that holes are the more important carriers for
PNP transistors, whereas electrons are the important carriers for NPN transistors.
Then, PNP transistors use a small base current and a negative base voltage to control a much
larger emitter-collector current. In other words for a PNP transistor, the Emitter is more positive
with respect to the Base and also with respect to the Collector.
The construction of a “PNP transistor” consists of two P-type semiconductor materials either
side of an N-type material as shown below.

A PNP Transistor Configuration

(Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, “in” for a PNP transistor.)
The construction and terminal voltages for an NPN transistor are shown above. The PNP
Transistor has very similar characteristics to their NPN bipolar cousins, except that the
polarities (or biasing) of the current and voltage directions are reversed for any one of the
possible three configurations looked at in the first tutorial, Common Base, Common Emitter and
Common Collector.

PNP Transistor Connection

The voltage between the Base and Emitter (VBE), is now negative at the Base and positive at the
Emitter because for a PNP transistor, the Base terminal is always biased negative with respect to
the Emitter.
Also the Emitter supply voltage is positive with respect to the Collector (VCE). So for a PNP
transistor to conduct the Emitter is always more positive with respect to both the Base and the
Collector.
The voltage sources are connected to a PNP transistor are as shown. This time the Emitter is
connected to the supply voltage VCC with the load resistor, RL which limits the maximum current
flowing through the device connected to the Collector terminal. The Base voltage VB which is
biased negative with respect to the Emitter and is connected to the Base resistor RB, which again
is used to limit the maximum Base current.
To cause the Base current to flow in a PNP transistor the Base needs to be more negative than
the Emitter (current must leave the base) by approximately 0.7 volts for a silicon device or 0.3
volts for a germanium device with the formulas used to calculate the Base resistor, Base current
or Collector current are the same as those used for an equivalent NPN transistor and is given as.
I
I C =I E −I B, I C =β I B , I B= C  
β
We can see that the fundamental differences between a NPN Transistor and a PNP Transistor is
the proper biasing of the transistors junctions as the current directions and voltage polarities are
always opposite to each other. So for the circuit above: Ic = Ie – Ib as current must leave the Base.
Generally, the PNP transistor can replace NPN transistors in most electronic circuits, the only
difference is the polarities of the voltages, and the directions of the current flow. PNP transistors
can also be used as switching devices and an example of a PNP transistor switch is shown below.

A PNP Transistor Circuit

The Output Characteristics Curves for a PNP transistor look very similar to those for an
equivalent NPN transistor except that they are rotated by 180o to take account of the reverse
polarity voltages and currents, (the currents flowing out of the Base and Collector in a PNP
transistor are negative). The same dynamic load line can be drawn onto the I-V curves to find the
PNP transistors operating points.

Transistor Matching

Complementary Transistors
You may think what is the point of having a PNP Transistor, when
there are plenty of NPN Transistors available that can be used as an
amplifier or solid-state switch? Well, having two different types of
transistors “PNP” and “NPN”, can be a great advantage when
designing power amplifier circuits such as the Class B Amplifier.
Class-B amplifiers uses “Complementary” or “Matched Pair” (that is one PNP and one NPN
connected together) transistors in its output stage or in reversible H-Bridge motor control circuits
were we want to control the flow of current evenly through the motor in both directions.
A pair of corresponding NPN and PNP transistors with near identical characteristics to each
other are called Complementary Transistors for example, a TIP3055 (NPN transistor) and the
TIP2955 (PNP transistor) are good examples of complementary or matched pair silicon power
transistors. They both have a DC current gain, Beta, ( Ic/Ib ) matched to within 10% and high
Collector current of about 15A making them ideal for general motor control or robotic
applications.
Also, class B amplifiers use complementary NPN and PNP in their power output stage design.
The NPN transistor conducts for only the positive half of the signal while the PNP transistor
conducts for negative half of the signal.
This allows the amplifier to drive the required power through the load loudspeaker in both
directions at the stated nominal impedance and power resulting in an output current which is
likely to be in the order of several amps shared evenly between the two complementary
transistors.

Identifying the PNP Transistor

We saw in the first tutorial of this transistors section, that transistors are basically made up of
two Diodesconnected together back-to-back.
We can use this analogy to determine whether a transistor is of the PNP type or NPN type by
testing its Resistance between the three different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector. By testing
each pair of transistor leads in both directions with a multimeter will result in six tests in total
with the expected resistance values in Ohm’s given below.

 1. Emitter-Base Terminals – The Emitter to Base should act like a normal diode and
conduct one way only.
 2. Collector-Base Terminals – The Collector-Base junction should act like a normal diode
and conduct one way only.
 3. Emitter-Collector Terminals – The Emitter-Collector should not conduct in either
direction.

Transistor Resistance Values for a PNP Transistor and a NPN Transistor

Between Transistor Terminals PNP NPN

Collector-Emitter RHIGH RHIGH
Collector-Base RLOW RHIGH
Emitter-Collector RHIGH RHIGH
Emitter-Base RLOW RHIGH
Base-Collector RHIGH RLOW
Base-Emitter RHIGH RLOW

Then we can define a PNP Transistor as being normally “OFF” but a small output current and
negative voltage at its Base (B) relative to its Emitter (E) will turn it “ON” allowing a much large
Emitter-Collector current to flow. PNP transistors conduct when Ve is much greater than Vc.
In other words, a Bipolar PNP Transistor will ONLY conduct if both the Base and Collector
terminals are negative with respect to the Emitter
In the next tutorial about Bipolar Transistors instead of using the transistor as an amplifying
device, we will look at the operation of the transistor in its saturation and cut-off regions when
used as a solid-state switch. Bipolar transistor switches are used in many applications to switch a
DC current “ON” or “OFF”, from LED’s which require only a few milliamps of switching
current at low DC voltages, or motors and relays which may require higher currents at higher
voltages.

The Transistor as a Switch

When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied in such a
way that it always operates within its “active” region, that is the linear part of the output
characteristics curves are used. However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be
made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid state switches by biasing the transistors base differently
to that of a signal amplifier.
Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of transistors, and transistor
switches can be used for controlling high power devices such as motors, solenoids or lamps, but
they can also used in digital electronics and logic gate circuits.
If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing of the transistor, either
NPN or PNP is arranged to operate the transistor at both sides of the “ I-V ” characteristics
curves we have seen previously.
The areas of operation for a Transistor Switch are known as the Saturation Region and the Cut-
off Region. This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage
divider circuitry required for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by driving it back
and forth between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off) and “fully-ON” (saturation) regions as shown below.
Operating Regions

 
The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the “Cut-off” region while the blue
area to the left represents the “Saturation” region of the transistor. Both these transistor regions
are defined as:
1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current (I B), zero output
collector current (IC) and maximum collector voltage (VCE) which results in a large depletion
layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-
OFF”.
Cut-off Characteristics

• The input and Base are grounded ( 0V )

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7V
• Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
• Transistor is “fully-OFF” (Cut-off region)
• No Collector current flows (IC = 0)
• VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″
• Transistor operates as an “open switch”
Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar transistor as a
switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP transistor, the
Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.
2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied,
resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage drop
which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current flowing
through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.
Saturation Characteristics

• The input and Base are connected to VCC

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-Collector junction is forward biased
• Transistor is “fully-ON” (saturation region)
• Max Collector current flows (IC = Vcc/RL)
• VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
• VOUT = VCE = ”0″
• Transistor operates as a “closed switch”

Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a bipolar transistor as a
switch as being, both junctions forward biased, V B > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be positive with respect to the Base.
Then the transistor operates as a “single-pole single-throw” (SPST) solid state switch. With a
zero signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns “OFF” acting like an open switch and
zero collector current flows. With a positive signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns
“ON” acting like a closed switch and maximum circuit current flows through the device.
An example of an NPN Transistor as a switch being used to operate a relay is given below. With
inductive loads such as relays or solenoids a flywheel diode is placed across the load to dissipate
the back EMF generated by the inductive load when the transistor switches “OFF” and so protect
the transistor from damage. If the load is of a very high current or voltage nature, such as motors,
heaters etc, then the load current can be controlled via a suitable relay as shown.
Basic NPN Transistor Switching Circuit

 
The circuit resembles that of the Common Emitter circuit we looked at in the previous tutorials.
The difference this time is that to operate the transistor as a switch the transistor needs to be
turned either fully “OFF” (cut-off) or fully “ON” (saturated). An ideal transistor switch would
have infinite circuit resistance between the Collector and Emitter when turned “fully-OFF”
resulting in zero current flowing through it and zero resistance between the Collector and Emitter
when turned “fully-ON”, resulting in maximum current flow.
In practice when the transistor is turned “OFF”, small leakage currents flow through the
transistor and when fully “ON” the device has a low resistance value causing a small saturation
voltage (VCE) across it. Even though the transistor is not a perfect switch, in both the cut-off and
saturation regions the power dissipated by the transistor is at its minimum.
In order for the Base current to flow, the Base input terminal must be made more positive than
the Emitter by increasing it above the 0.7 volts needed for a silicon device. By varying this Base-
Emitter voltage VBE, the Base current is also altered and which in turn controls the amount of
Collector current flowing through the transistor as previously discussed.
When maximum Collector current flows the transistor is said to be Saturated. The value of the
Base resistor determines how much input voltage is required and corresponding Base current to
switch the transistor fully “ON”.
Transistor As A Switch Example No1
Using the transistor values from the previous tutorials of: β = 200, Ic = 4mA and Ib = 20uA, find
the value of the Base resistor (Rb) required to switch the load fully “ON” when the input
terminal voltage exceeds 2.5v.
V ¿ −V BE 2.5V −0.7 V
R B= = −6
=90 kΩ 
IB 20 ×10
The next lowest preferred value is: 82kΩ, this guarantees the transistor switch is always
saturated.
Transistor As A Switch Example No2
Again using the same values, find the minimum Base current required to turn the transistor
“fully-ON” (saturated) for a load that requires 200mA of current when the input voltage is
increased to 5.0V. Also calculate the new value of Rb.
I 200 mA
transistor Base current: I B= C = =1 mA  
β 200
V ¿ −V BE 5.0V −0.7 V
transistor Base resistance: R B= = =4.3 kΩ
IB 1 ×10
−3

Transistor switches are used for a wide variety of applications such as interfacing large current or
high voltage devices like motors, relays or lamps to low voltage digital logic IC’s or gates like
AND gates or OR gates. Here, the output from a digital logic gate is only +5v but the device to
be controlled may require a 12 or even 24 volts supply. Or the load such as a DC Motor may
need to have its speed controlled using a series of pulses (Pulse Width Modulation). transistor
switches will allow us to do this faster and more easily than with conventional mechanical
switches.
Digital Logic Transistor Switch
 
The base resistor, Rb is required to limit the output current from the logic gate.
PNP Transistor Switch
We can also use the PNP Transistors as a switch, the difference this time is that the load is
connected to ground (0v) and the PNP transistor switches the power to it. To turn the PNP
transistor operating as a switch “ON”, the Base terminal is connected to ground or zero volts
(LOW) as shown.
PNP Transistor Switching Circuit

 
The equations for calculating the Base resistance, Collector current and voltages are exactly the
same as for the previous NPN transistor switch. The difference this time is that we are switching
power with a PNP transistor (sourcing current) instead of switching ground with an NPN
transistor (sinking current).
Darlington Transistor Switch
Sometimes the DC current gain of the bipolar transistor is too low to directly switch the load
current or voltage, so multiple switching transistors are used. Here, one small input transistor is
used to switch “ON” or “OFF” a much larger current handling output transistor. To maximize the
signal gain, the two transistors are connected in a “Complementary Gain Compounding
Configuration” or what is more commonly called a “Darlington Configuration” were the
amplification factor is the product of the two individual transistors.
Darlington Transistors simply contain two individual bipolar NPN or PNP type transistors
connected together so that the current gain of the first transistor is multiplied with that of the
current gain of the second transistor to produce a device which acts like a single transistor with a
very high current gain for a much smaller Base current. The overall current gain Beta (β) or Hfe
value of a Darlington device is the product of the two individual gains of the transistors and is
given as: β TOTAL=β 1 × β 2
So Darlington Transistors with very high β values and high Collector currents are possible
compared to a single transistor switch. For example, if the first input transistor has a current gain
of 100 and the second switching transistor has a current gain of 50 then the total current gain will
be 100 x 50 = 5000. An example of the two basic types of Darlington transistor are given below.
Darlington Transistor Configurations

 
The above NPN Darlington transistor switch configuration shows the Collectors of the two
transistors connected together with the Emitter of the first transistor connected to the Base
terminal of the second transistor therefore, the Emitter current of the first transistor becomes the
Base current of the second transistor switching it “ON”.
The first or “input” transistor receives the input signal to its Base. This transistor amplifies it in
the usual way and uses it to drive the second larger “output” transistors. The second transistor
amplifies the signal again resulting in a very high current gain. One of the main characteristics of
Darlington Transistors is their high current gains compared to single bipolar transistors.
As well as its high increased current and voltage switching capabilities, another advantage of a
“Darlington Transistor Switch” is in its high switching speeds making them ideal for use in
inverter circuits, lighting circuits and DC motor or stepper motor control applications.
One difference to consider when using Darlington transistors over the conventional single
bipolar types when using the transistor as a switch is that the Base-Emitter input voltage (V BE)
needs to be higher at approximately 1.4v for silicon devices, due to the series connection of the
two PN junctions.
Transistor as a Switch Summary
Then to summarise when using a Transistor as a Switch the following conditions apply:
 Transistor switches can be used to switch and control lamps, relays or even motors.
 When using the bipolar transistor as a switch they must be either “fully-OFF” or “fully-
ON”.
 Transistors that are fully “ON” are said to be in their Saturation region.
 Transistors that are fully “OFF” are said to be in their Cut-off region.
 When using the transistor as a switch, a small Base current controls a much larger
Collector load current.
 When using transistors to switch inductive loads such as relays and solenoids, a
“Flywheel Diode” is used.
 When large currents or voltages need to be controlled, Darlington Transistors can be
used.
In the next tutorial about Transistors, we will look at the operation of the junction field effect
transistor known commonly as anJFET. We will also plot the output characteristics curves
commonly associated with JFET amplifier circuits as a function of Source voltage to Gate
voltage.