MODULE 1 – CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE AND RANKINE VAPOR CYCLE

NOT Pure
Pure Substance
Substance

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones
Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones
Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones
The Steam Tables
When the pure substance is water or steam, the relevant properties can be obtained
from the Steam Tables. There is an English version and S.I. version of such tables. For
our discussions, we will use the S.I. version authored by Keenan, Keyes, Hill, and
Moore (front cover snapshot shown below). Note that the Steam Tables contain several
property tables for water.

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 Important!
In Thermodynamics 2, every student must have a copy of the Steam Tables.

Note:
In the Steam Tables (Keenan, et al), S.I. system, the following units are
being used:
Pressure: MPa
Temperature: C
Specific volume: m3/kg
Specific internal energy: kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy: kJ/kg
Specific entropy: kJ/kg-K

An introduction on how to use the Steam Tables will be illustrated in the sample
problems that follows.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1.1

A rigid tank contains 50 kg of saturated liquid water at 90 C. Determine: (a) the
pressure inside the tank, (b) the volume of water in the tank, (c) the specific enthalpy of
the liquid, and (d) the total enthalpy of the liquid, and (e) the specific entropy of the
liquid.
[Answers: 70.12 kPa; 0.0518 m3; 376.93 kJ/kg; 18,847 kJ; 1.1925 kJ/kg-K ]

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

SOLUTION

➢ (a) the pressure inside the tank

To determine the pressure inside the tank, let us open the Steam Tables at
Table 1. Saturation: Temperatures

Why Table 1?

We choose Table 1 because the problem states that

the water is a saturated liquid and its temperature (which is 90 ℃) is known.

The snippet snapshot view of Table 1 with highlighted properties at a temperature of

90 ℃ is shown below.

The values of the pressure (in MPa units) are presented in the 2nd column.
Since saturation conditions exist in the tank, the pressure must be the saturation pressure
at 90 C. Therefore, the pressure inside the tank is

𝑃 = 0.07014 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑷 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

Remark: The answers have slight difference maybe because the author of our reference
book is using a different steam tables or a steam calculator application
software.

➢ (b) the volume of water in the tank

To calculate the volume of water inside the tank, we need to find first the specific
volume. The values of the specific volume of the saturated liquid 𝜈𝑓 (in m3/kg units) are
presented in the 3rd column. Note that these values have a multiplier of 103. That is,

3
𝑚3
10 𝜈𝑓 = 1.0360
𝑘𝑔
Therefore,
𝑚3
1.0360
𝑘𝑔
𝜈𝑓 = 3
10
𝑚3
𝜈𝑓 = 0.0010360
𝑘𝑔
−3
𝑚3
𝜈𝑓 = 1.0360 × 10
𝑘𝑔

Then, the total volume is equal to the product of the specific volume and the total mass

𝑉 = 𝑚 𝜈𝑓
−3
𝑚3
𝑉 = (50 𝑘𝑔) (1.0360 × 10 )
𝑘𝑔
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝟑 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

➢ (c) the specific enthalpy of the liquid

The specific enthalpy of saturated liquid ℎ𝑓 is presented in the 8th column of Table 1 and
its value is
𝒌𝑱
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟑𝟕𝟔. 𝟗𝟐 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

➢ (d) the total enthalpy of the liquid

The total enthalpy 𝐻 is calculated by multiplying the specific enthalpy and the total
mass.

𝐻=𝑚ℎ
𝑘𝐽
𝐻 = (50 𝑘𝑔) (376.92 )
𝑘𝑔
𝑯 = 𝟏𝟖, 𝟖𝟒𝟔 𝒌𝑱 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

➢ (e) the specific entropy of the liquid

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

The specific entropy of saturated liquid 𝑠𝑓 is presented in the 11th column of Table 1 and
its value is
𝒌𝑱
𝒔𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟓 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝑲

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1.2

A piston–cylinder device contains 56.63 liters of saturated water vapor at 345 kPa
pressure. Determine: (a) the temperature of the vapor, (b) the mass of the vapor inside
the cylinder, (c) the specific internal energy of the vapor, (d) specific enthalpy of the
vapor, and (e) the specific entropy of the vapor.
[Answers: 138.36 C; 0.1065 kg; 2548.3 kJ/kg; 2731.7 kJ/kg; 6.9457 kJ/kg-K ]

SOLUTION
P
Saturated
vapor

𝑃 = 345 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑉 = 56.63 𝐿

345 kPa

➢ (a) the temperature of the vapor

To determine the temperature inside the tank, let us open the Steam Tables at
Table 2. Saturation: Pressures

Why Table 2?

We choose Table 2 because the problem states that

the substance is a saturated water vapor and its pressure (which is 345 𝑘𝑃𝑎) is known.

The snippet snapshot view of Table 2 with highlighted properties at a temperature of

345 𝑘𝑃𝑎 is shown below.

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

* Remember that in Steam Tables, the pressures are expressed in MPa units.

Based on the Steam Tables shown above, the temperature of the saturated water vapor
inside the piston-cylinder device at a saturation pressure of 345 kPa (or 0.345 MPa) is

𝑻 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟑𝟖 ℃ ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

➢ (b) the mass of the vapor inside the cylinder

To determine the mass of the vapor inside the cylinder, let’s take first the specific
volume of vapor 𝜈𝑔 in the 4th column of the Table 2 above.

3
𝑚3
10 𝜈𝑔 = 531.4
𝑘𝑔

In a similar way as in the previous example,

−3
𝑚3
𝜈𝑔 = 531.4 × 10
𝑘𝑔

Now we will solve for the mass of the water vapor. Don’t forget to convert L to m3.

𝑉
𝑚=
𝜈𝑔
56.63 𝐿 1 𝑚3
𝑚= [ ]
𝑚3 1000 𝐿
531.4 × 10−3
𝑘𝑔
𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝒈 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

Remark: The answers have slight difference maybe because the author of our reference
book is using a different steam tables or a steam calculator application
software.

➢ (c) the specific internal energy of the vapor

The specific internal energy of saturated vapor 𝑢𝑔 is displayed in the 7th column of
Table 2 and its value is

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 𝒌𝑱
𝒖𝒈 = 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟖. 𝟒 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

➢ (d) specific enthalpy of the vapor

The specific enthalpy of saturated vapor ℎ𝑔 is displayed in the 10th column of Table 2
and its value is
𝒌𝑱
𝒉𝒈 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝟏. 𝟖 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

➢ (e) the specific entropy of the vapor

The specific entropy of saturated vapor 𝑠𝑔 is presented in the last (or 13th ) column of
Table 1 and its value is
𝒌𝑱
𝒔𝒈 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟑 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝑲

Remark: The answers have slight difference maybe because the author of our reference
book is using a different steam tables or a steam calculator application
software.

Quality of Saturated Mixture

𝑚vapor
𝑥=
𝑚total

𝒎𝒈
𝒙=
𝒎

where: 𝑥 = quality of the mixture

𝑚𝑔 = mass of the vapor in the mixture
𝑚 = total mass of the mixture
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔

Once again, subscript 𝑓 denotes saturated liquid and subscript 𝑔 denotes saturated
vapor.

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 The properties of the saturated mixture at a specific saturation temperature or
saturation pressure are calculated using the quality 𝑥.

Specific Volume of Saturated Mixture

𝝂 = 𝝂𝒇 + 𝒙 𝝂𝒇𝒈 = 𝝂𝒇 + 𝒙 (𝝂𝒈 − 𝝂𝒇 )

where: 𝜈 = specific volume of the mixture

𝜈𝑓 = specific volume of saturated liquid
𝜈𝑔 = specific volume of saturated vapor
𝑥 = quality of the mixture
𝜈𝑓𝑔 = difference between 𝜈𝑔 and 𝜈𝑓

Internal Energy of Saturated Mixture

𝒖 = 𝒖𝒇 + 𝒙 𝒖𝒇𝒈 = 𝒖𝒇 + 𝒙 (𝒖𝒈 − 𝒖𝒇 )

where: 𝑢 = specific internal energy of the mixture

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones
 𝑢𝑓 = specific internal energy of saturated liquid
𝑢𝑔 = specific internal energy of saturated vapor
𝑥 = quality of the mixture
𝑢𝑓𝑔 = difference between 𝑢𝑔 and 𝑢𝑓

Enthalpy of Saturated Mixture

𝒉 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙 𝒉𝒇𝒈 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙 (𝒉𝒈 − 𝒉𝒇 )

where: ℎ = specific enthalpy of the mixture

ℎ𝑓 = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid
ℎ𝑔 = specific enthalpy of saturated vapor
𝑥 = quality of the mixture
ℎ𝑓𝑔 = difference between ℎ𝑔 and ℎ𝑓

Entropy of Saturated Mixture

𝒔 = 𝒔𝒇 + 𝒙 𝒔𝒇𝒈 = 𝒔𝒇 + 𝒙 (𝒔𝒈 − 𝒔𝒇 )

where: 𝑠 = specific entropy of the mixture

𝑠𝑓 = specific entropy of saturated liquid
𝑠𝑔 = specific entropy of saturated vapor
𝑥 = quality of the mixture
𝑠𝑓𝑔 = difference between 𝑠𝑔 and 𝑠𝑓

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1.3

A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90 C. If 8 kg of the water is in the

liquid form and the rest is in the vapor form, determine:
(a) the quality of the mixture,
(b) the pressure in the tank,
(c) the specific volume of the mixture,
(d) the volume of the tank,
(e) the specific enthalpy of the mixture,
(f) the total enthalpy of the mixture, and
(g) the specific entropy of the mixture.
[Answers: 0.20; 70.12 kPa; 0.4732 m3/kg; 4.732 m3; 833.5 kJ/kg; 8335 kJ; 2.4497 kJ/kg-K]

SOLUTION

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 ➢ (a) the quality of the mixture
𝑚𝑔
𝑥=
𝑚
But 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔 or 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚 − 𝑚𝑓
Therefore,
𝑚 − 𝑚𝑓 (10 − 8) 𝑘𝑔
𝑥= =
𝑚 10 𝑘𝑔
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 or 𝟐𝟎 % ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

➢ (b) the pressure in the tank

Once again, we will get the properties from Table 1. Saturation: Temperatures of the
Steam Tables because the substance is a saturated mixture of liquid water and water
vapor at a temperature of 90 C.

Based on the table above, at 90 C, the saturation pressure is

𝑃 = 0.07014 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑃 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 ➢ (c) the specific volume of the mixture
𝜈 = 𝜈𝑓 + 𝑥 𝜈𝑓𝑔 = 𝜈𝑓 + 𝑥 (𝜈𝑔 − 𝜈𝑓 )

From Table 1 above, at 90 C,

−3
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝜈𝑓 = 1.0360 × 10 and 𝜈𝑔 = 2.361
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
Therefore,
𝜈 = 𝜈𝑓 + 𝑥 (𝜈𝑔 − 𝜈𝑓 )
−3
𝑚3 −3
𝑚3
𝜈 = 1.0360 × 10 + (0.20)(2.361 − 1.0360 × 10 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝟑
𝒎
𝝂 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟎 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

Remark: The answers have slight difference maybe because the author of our reference
book is using a different steam tables or a steam calculator application
software.

➢ (d) the volume of the tank

There are two (2) ways to determine the volume of the tank
1st Method: Using the specific volume of the mixture and the total mass

𝑚3
𝑉 = 𝑚 𝜈 = 10 𝑘𝑔 (0.4730 )
𝑘𝑔
𝟑
𝑽 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟑𝟎 𝒎 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

2nd Method: Using the specific volumes of the liquid and the vapor multiplied by their
respective masses

𝑉 = 𝑚𝑓 𝜈𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔 𝜈𝑔
−3
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑉 = 8 𝑘𝑔 (1.0360 × 10 ) + 2 𝑘𝑔 (2.361 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑽 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝟑 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

➢ (e) the specific enthalpy of the mixture

ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔

From Table 1 above, at 90 C,

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ𝑓 = 376.92 and ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2283.2
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

Therefore,
ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
ℎ = 376.92 + (0.20) (2283.2 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones
 𝒌𝑱
𝒉 = 𝟖𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟔 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

➢ (f) the total enthalpy of the mixture

𝐻=𝑚ℎ
𝑘𝐽
𝐻 = 10 𝑘𝑔 (833.56 )
𝑘𝑔
𝑯 = 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟓. 𝟔 𝒌𝑱 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹

Note: Similar to total volume, the total enthalpy can also be determined by using the ℎ𝑓
and ℎ𝑔 multiplied by their respective masses.

➢ (g) the specific entropy of the mixture

𝑠 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑓𝑔

From Table 1 above, at 90 C,

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠𝑓 = 1.1925 and 𝑠𝑓𝑔 = 6.2866
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾

Therefore,
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑓𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑠 = 1.1925 + (0.20) (6.2866 )
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾
𝒌𝑱
𝒉 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟗𝟖 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝑲

In the 𝑇 − 𝑠 diagram of water shown below, the red curve is called the
saturation curve or saturation dome. At the peak of the curve is the critical
point. The portion of the saturation curve at the left of the critical point is the
saturated liquid line. And the portion of the saturation curve at the right of
the critical point is the saturated vapor line. Any point below the dome is a
saturated mixture of liquid and vapor.

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 The sample curves for constant pressure (in green color, continuous line)
and constant specific volume (in green color, broken line) are also
illustrated.

The properties of superheated water vapor are tabulated in Table 3. Vapor in the
Steam Tables.

Superheated vapor
region

Saturated mixture
region

Compressed
liquid region

The region at the left of the saturated liquid line is called the compressed liquid region.

Compressed liquid tables are not as commonly available. Although, the properties of
compressed liquid can be found in Table 4. Liquid in the Steam Tables, it is observed
that the data are inadequate. This is because the compressed liquid data is relative
independent from its pressure.

In the absence of compressed liquid data, a general approximation is to treat compressed

liquid as saturated liquid at the given temperature. This is because the compressed
liquid properties depend more on the temperature rather than on the pressure.

Compressed liquid approximation

If the substance is a compressed liquid and the pressure 𝑃 and temperature 𝑇 are known,
the properties can be approximated as follows:

• Specific volume of compressed liquid

𝜈 ≅ 𝜈𝑓

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 • Specific internal energy of compressed liquid
𝑢 ≅ 𝑢𝑓

• Specific enthalpy of compressed liquid

ℎ ≅ ℎ𝑓

• Specific entropy of compressed liquid

𝑠 ≅ 𝑠𝑓

Important!
• Use the temperature 𝑇 of the compressed liquid to obtain the properties of
saturated liquid (subscript 𝑓). Do not use the pressure 𝑃.
• For more accurate results, use Table 4. Liquid in the Steam Tables and interpolate
the values if necessary.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1.4

Determine the specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of water at 140
kPa and 210 C.
[Answers: 1.582 m3/kg; 2671.3 kJ/kg; 2892.8 kJ/kg; 7.7167 kJ/kg-K]

SOLUTION
DO NOT SOLVE YET. VERIFY FIRST.
Unlike in the previous examples, this problem did not mention the phase or condition of
the water. Either it is saturated liquid, saturated vapor, saturated mixture, superheated
vapor, or compressed liquid. In a case like this, you need to establish first what is the
state of the water.

➢ Why?
Because the Steam Tables is a compilation of several tables (and even charts),
such as, Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and so on.
Every table presents various properties to a specific condition of water. That is,
1. Use Table 1 if water is a saturated liquid and temperature is known.
2. Use Table 2 if water is a saturated liquid and pressure is known.
3. Use Table 3 if water is a superheated vapor
4. Use Table 4 if water is a compressed liquid (or you can use the approximation)

If you do not know the condition or state of substance, then how can you decide
which property table to use?

“Daw pareho na bala nga gin-tag ang Facebook name mo sa isa ka

video link. Indi mo man friend ang nag tag sa imo. Indi magpulok
kag pinduton dayon. I-verify mo anay… ”

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 ➢ How to determine the condition or state of the substance?

We have three (3) simple steps to follow:

Let: 𝑃 = the given pressure and
𝑇 = the given temperature
In this problem, 𝑃 = 140 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.140 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝑇 = 210 ℃

1. Since the pressure is given, open Table 2 and locate the pressure there.

2. At the 2nd column, get the value of the saturation temperature. Let’s call it
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
In this problem, 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 109.31 ℃

3. Compare the given 𝑇 with the 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 :

If 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
➢ the substance is a compressed liquid

If 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
➢ the substance is a superheated vapor

If 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
➢ the substance is either saturated liquid, saturated vapor, or saturated mixture.
You need additional data to establish the exact state. For example, if the
quality is 0, it is saturated liquid. Or if the quality is 1, it is saturated vapor.
Don’t worry because this 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 seldom happens. Normally, the problem
will already state if the substance is in saturated condition.

In this problem, 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 , that is, 210 ℃ > 109.31 ℃

Therefore, the state of water is a superheated vapor.

Now that we have established the exact state of the substance, we can proceed to the
solutions.

For superheated vapor state, we will use Table 3. Vapor in the Steam Tables. Notice
that Table 3 is somewhat different from Table 1 and Table 2.

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones

 Shown below is the snippet snapshot view of Table 3 where 𝑃 = 0.14 𝑀𝑃𝑎 is
located. Notice also that the 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 109.31 ℃ is also displayed beside the pressure.
The properties at 𝑇 = 210 ℃ were highlighted for you to easily recognize the data.
Notice also that 𝜈, 𝑢, ℎ, and 𝑠 do not have subscripts anymore. It is because these are
purely vapor properties, no more liquids involved.

From the highlighted values above, we have now the answers to the problem.
➢ the specific volume
3
𝑚3
10 𝜈 = 1582.0
𝑘𝑔
𝒎𝟑
𝝂 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝟐 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

➢ the specific internal energy

𝒌𝑱
𝒖 = 𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟏. 𝟖 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

➢ the specific enthalpy

𝒌𝑱
𝒉 = 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟑. 𝟑 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈

➢ the specific entropy

𝒌𝑱
𝒔 = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟏𝟕𝟔 ← 𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹
𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝑲

Remark: The answers have slight difference maybe because the author of our reference
book is using a different steam tables or a steam calculator application
software.

Learning Modules in Thermodynamics 2 Compiled by: Engr. Niño G. Blones