World Religions – Slides Unit: Judaism

Christianity
OUR TREATMENT:
1. Jesus’ life and ministry
2. Jewish & Gentile Christianity
• Text: “Sermon on the Mount”
3. History & Doctrine: Councils
4. History & Doctrine: Denominations
5. Ritual & Practice
6. Malkovsky: Crossover Communion

TIMELINE OF EVENTS
 30 CE: Romans crucify Jesus of Nazareth
 50 – 100 CE: Composition of NT
 325 CE: Council of Nicaea (Christ divine)
 451 CE: Council of Chalcedon (Two natures)
 1054 CE: Great Schism (Orthodox, Catholic)
 16th c. CE: Protestant Reformation
 1960s: Second Vatican Council

Christian Scriptures
Old Testament ≈ Hebrew Bible
 Ordering slightly different; expanded for some Christians
New Testament
 27 books, including
o 4 gospels + Acts of the Apostles (a sequel to Luke)
o 21 letters / epistles
o The Book of Revelation (a.k.a. The Apocalypse)
 Paul’s letters likely the oldest complete texts (1Thess c. 50 C.E.)

The Gospels
“The Gospel” = the “good news” of salvation in Jesus Christ
Four canonical gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John
Genre: not a strict biography in the modern sense. Rather, a narrative
account of Jesus’ life, passion, death, and resurrection, based on historical
events and intended to bring the reader to faith in Jesus (cf. John 20:31).
 The gospels themselves are already theological
Synoptic Problem
 The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke frequently and closely parallel
one another in content (and even word order).
  The “problem”: How do we account for their similarities and
differences?
 Dominant answer: Two source theory: Mark (shortest) is the oldest.
Matthew & Luke use Mark’s narrative framework as a basis, inserting a
shared source (“Q”) as well as their own sources (“M” and “L”).

Jesus’ Life
Infancy narratives
 Likely later material (Mark, oldest, has no account of Jesus’ birth).
 Scholars: their form resembles Midrash (commentaries on Hebrew
Bible to fill gaps, resolve difficulties) more than it does strict history.
For example…
o Magi and animals / Gentiles
o Jesus in a feedbox / Eucharist
Beginning of Ministry - (1 year, per Synoptics; 3 years, per John)
 Jesus is baptized by John the Baptist, an ascetic in the wilderness
o Act typically marks conversion, repentance (but Jesus sinless?)
 Jewish interpretation of Torah (not out to start a new religion)
 Healings and exorcisms; association with the marginalized
 Main content: Reign (Kingdom) of God (“Messiah” oblique, secret)

Jesus’ Preaching: The Reign of God

“Now after John was arrested, Jesus came to Galilee, proclaiming the good
news of God, and saying, ‘The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God has
come near; repent, and believe in the good news’” (Mk 1:14-15).
~~~
“When Jesus came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, he went to
the synagogue on the Sabbath day, as was his custom. He stood up to
read, and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was given to him. He unrolled the
scroll and found the place where it was written: 
‘The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to bring
good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives
and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim
the year of the Lord’s favor.’ 
And he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant, and sat down. The
eyes of all in the synagogue were fixed on him. Then he began to say to
them, ‘Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing’” (Lk 4:16-22).
What does the ‘Reign of God’ look like? How does it relate to Jesus?

Jesus’ Death
Passion narrative: account of Jesus’ suffering (passio) and death by
crucifixion on “Good Friday”; oldest stratus of gospels
  Common elements: betrayal (Judas, collusion of high priests),
condemnation from Roman Prefect, relatively quick death
 Unclear: relation to Passover. Synoptics have Thursday as Passover
meal, but Jesus’ death occurs before Passover meal in John (lambs).
 Charge: “King of the Jews”
o Messianic claim? Reign of God connected…
o Danger of uprising would spook Rome
o Jesus’ horrific public execution was a major blow to his
movement; scandal.

Grappling with the Cross

Early Christians offered explanatory, theological theories:
Are there any with which you’re familiar?
 Sacrifice – Jesus’ death is a sacrifice to God, renewing the Covenant
once and for all. “Unlike the other high priests, he has no need to offer
sacrifices day after day…this he did once for all when he offered
himself” (Heb 7:27).
 Supreme Act of Love – “We know love by this, that he laid down his
life for us… God is love” (1John 3:16, 4:8).
 Ransom: Jesus pays price to “redeem” (buy back) slaves from Satan.
 Christus Victor – Jesus’ death and descent into the underworld is the
occasion for a battle with Satan & evil, which Jesus ultimately wins.
“‘Death has been swallowed up in victory.’ ‘Where, O death, is your
victory?  Where, O death, is your sting?’… Thanks be to God, who
gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ” (1Cor 15:55-56)
 Other theories (later): satisfaction, penal substitution

Jesus’ Resurrection
Resurrection vs. Resuscitation
 Gospels report Jesus resuscitating several dead people in his
ministry
Jesus said, ‘Take away the stone.’ Martha, the sister of the dead man, said
to him, ‘Lord, already there is a stench because he has been dead for four
days.’  Jesus…cried with a loud voice, ‘Lazarus, come out!’ The dead man
came out, his hands and feet bound with strips of cloth, and his face
wrapped in a cloth. Jesus said to them, ‘Unbind him, and let him go’” (Jn
11:39-44).
 Jesus’ own resurrection reported as something quite different
“Then Peter and the other disciple set out and went towards the tomb.  The
two were running together, but the other disciple outran Peter and reached
the tomb first.  He bent down to look in and saw the linen wrappings lying
there, but he did not go in. Then Simon Peter came, following him, and went
into the tomb. He saw the linen wrappings lying there, and the cloth that
had been on Jesus’ head, not lying with the linen wrappings but rolled up in
a place by itself” (Jn 20:3-7).

The Road to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-35)

 Now on that same day two of them were going to a village called
Emmaus, about seven miles from Jerusalem, and talking with each
other about all these things that had happened. While they were
talking and discussing, Jesus himself came near and went with
them, but their eyes were kept from recognizing him. And he said
to them, ‘What are you discussing with each other while you walk
along?’ They stood still, looking sad. Then one of them, whose name
was Cleopas, answered him, ‘Are you the only stranger in Jerusalem
who does not know the things that have taken place there in these
days?’ He asked them, ‘What things?’ They replied, ‘The things about
Jesus of Nazareth, who was a prophet mighty in deed and word before
God and all the people, and how our chief priests and leaders handed
him over to be condemned to death and crucified him. But we had
hoped that he was the one to redeem Israel. Yes, and besides all this,
it is now the third day since these things took place. Moreover, some
women of our group astounded us. They were at the tomb early this
morning, and when they did not find his body there, they came back
and told us that they had indeed seen a vision of angels who said that
he was alive. Some of those who were with us went to the tomb and
found it just as the women had said; but they did not see him.’ Then
he said to them, ‘Oh, how foolish you are, and how slow of heart to
believe all that the prophets have declared! Was it not necessary that
the Messiah should suffer these things and then enter into his
glory?’ Then beginning with Moses and all the prophets, he interpreted
to them the things about himself in all the scriptures.
 As they came near the village to which they were going, he walked
ahead as if he were going on. But they urged him strongly, saying,
‘Stay with us, because it is almost evening and the day is now nearly
over.’ So he went in to stay with them. When he was at the table with
them, he took bread, blessed and broke it, and gave it to them.  Then
their eyes were opened, and they recognized him ; and he
vanished from their sight. They said to each other, ‘Were not our
hearts burning within us while he was talking to us on the road, while
he was opening the scriptures to us?’ That same hour they got up and
returned to Jerusalem; and they found the eleven and their
companions gathered together. They were saying, ‘The Lord has risen
indeed, and he has appeared to Simon!’ Then they told what had
happened on the road, and how he had been made known to them in
the breaking of the bread.
Judaism and Early Christianity
Jewish-Christians
• Jesus’ movement was almost entirely Jewish early on.
o Although Jesus was Jewish, his teachings and actions made him
unique; developed Jewish ideas.
o Continuity and discontinuity
• The Gospel of Matthew (circa 85 C.E.)
o Chapters 5-7: “Sermon on the Mount”
Question: What elements of continuity can you detect in Jesus’
“Sermon on the Mount”? Discontinuity?
Additional continuity: ‘Which commandment is the
first of all?’ Jesus answered, ‘The first is, “Hear, O Israel:
the Lord our God, the Lord is one; you shall love the Lord
your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind,
and with all your strength.” The second is, “You shall love your neighbor as
yourself” (Mk 12).

Continuity
 Reiterate commands.
 Setting: Mountain – Moses
Discontinuity
 Worship in secret
 Reversal
 Divorce
 Authority – not as scribes
No abolishment of law but fulfillment.

Paul & Gentile Christianity

Paul
• A Jew (Pharisee) who initially worked to suppress Jesus’ movement
• Encounters the Risen Christ, converts and becomes a follower.
• Mission: Proclaim the “good news” to Gentiles, expand the early
Church into Asia Minor / Greece.
o Message: Righteousness via faith in Christ
rather than via works of the Law
o Some precepts of the Law aren’t
necessary for Gentile (Greek) Christians
Church at Galatia
• “Judaizing” Christians arrive after Paul’s
departure, insist on circumcision, etc.
• Paul vehemently objects; lobbies for viability
of “Gentile” and Jewish Christianity.
• Leaders in Jerusalem more or less agree.
Some Background
Early Christian Theology
• Church Fathers (Patristic): early Christians whose theology greatly
influenced “orthodoxy” (“right belief”) in the church; authors of the
“classics” of early Christian theology.
• Topics: Who is Jesus (christology) and what did he do (soteriology)?
o Patristic answer: the “exchange dictum”
2Peter 1:4 (NT):
Thus he has given us, through these things, his precious and very great
promises, so that through them you may escape from the corruption that is
in the world because of lust, and may become participants in the divine
nature.
Irenaeus of Lyons (d. 202 C.E.):
… our Lord Jesus Christ, who did, through his transcendent love, become
what we are, that he might bring us to be even what he is himself.
Athanasius of Alexandria (d. 373 C.E.):
the Word of God himself… assumed humanity that we might become God.

Two interrelated concepts:

Incarnation: In Jesus, God (still remaining God) became human
• “In the beginning…the Word was God…and the Word became
flesh” (Jn 1)
Divinization: In Jesus, humans come to share in God’s own divine life
Irenaeus of Lyons (d. 202 C.E.):
… our Lord Jesus Christ, who did, through his transcendent love, become
what we are, that he might bring us to be even what he is himself.

More Background
Structure of the Early Church
• Built from “local” churches. Paul writes to “the church of God that is in
Corinth” (1Cor 1:2), “the church of the Thessalonians” (1Thess 1:1),
“the churches of Galatia” (Gal 1:2).
• Bishop (episkopos, “over-seer”): leader & authority of a local church;
understood as successors of Jesus’ apostles (= 12 core disciples)
• Universal “church” is in fact a “communion of churches.”
Decisions in the Early Church
Council: “A meeting, principally of bishops, gathered in Christ’s name, who
make decisions binding on the church” (John O’Malley).
• Ecumenical council: a “world wide” or “church wide” council; an
important meeting for decisions impacting the whole (rather than a
local) church.
• Typically, councils are convoked to settle major crises. The early
Church had numerous christological (“Who is Jesus?”) councils.
The Council of Nicaea (325 C.E.)
Crisis: Arianism
• Common Christian practice to regard Jesus as “Lord” (John 20:28).
• A presbyter (literally “elder,” a priest) named Arius teaches that Jesus
is not divine, but a kind of super-creature. Gains huge following.
o Saying: “before he was begotten or created, he was not.”
o Motivation: maintain God’s unity
Resolution: Affirm Jesus’ full divinity, “one in being” w/ God the Father;
condemn Arianism as a heresy (not orthodox)
• Decision enshrined in the Nicene Creed:
o “begotten, not made”; “homoousios with
the Father”; “God from God”
o Motivation: protect the story of salvation
(“What Jesus did,” exchange dictum)
• Opponents of Arius: Athanasius of Alexandria,
St. Nicholas of Myra (legend: punched Arius)

Subsequent Christological Councils

Council of Constantinople I (381 C.E.)
Crisis: Apollinarianism (Christ has no human soul/mind; God in a body)
Resolution: Christ has a soul (and, btw, Holy Spirit is divine too)
• Doctrine of the Trinity (3 “Persons,” 1 “substance”) formally in place.
Council of Chalcedon (451 C.E.)
Crisis: Nestorianism and Monophysitism
• Nestorius: two “persons” in Christ, one divine and one human
• Alexandrians: one “nature”; Christ’s humanity subsumed by divinity?
Resolution: Formula – “1 Person, 2 natures.” Fully God, fully human.
Council of Constantinople III (681 C.E.)
Crisis: Monothelitism (Christ has one will, which is divine)
Resolution: Jesus has two wills, one human and one divine
Motivation? Maintain story of salvation, which requires full humanity.
Gregory Nazianzen: “What has not been assumed has not been redeemed.”

30 CE Second Temple Period Judaism

 Jesus
 Apostles
4th Cent. BC Conciliar Mainstream
-Church of the East
-Oriental Orthodox
Great Schism 1054 CE West (“Catholic”)
East (Orthodox)
Protestant Reformation 16th Cent. Protestant
 Catholic

Christianity Today
Global population: ~2.6 billion
Catholic (1.3 billion)
• Latin Rite (“Roman”): 1.2 billion
Protestant (~900 million)
• Baptist churches: 100 million
• Lutheran: 80 million
• Non-denom.: 90 million
• Reformed: 70 million
Orthodox (280 million)
Anglican (110 million)
Restorationists, Non-Trinitarian
• Latter-Day Saints: 16.7 million
• Jehovah’s Witnesses: 8.5 million

Denominations of Christianity
Historical movements
• Christian Gnosticism: groups which combined Platonic dualism,
rejection of materiality, and salvation through the knowledge of an
elaborate myth (including multiple gods, good and evil)
o Marcion (2nd c.): taught that Jewish God different from Jesus’
• Pelagianism: 4th c. movement (and persistent tendency) based on the
idea that human salvation can be achieved through one’s own
individual effort, apart from God’s help (grace).
o Doctrine of Original Sin (Augustine, d. 430):
1) There was a “first” sin historically and personally committed
2) We are all implicated in the first sin; the human race stands at a distance
from God as a result.
Historical and Contemporary
• Non-Chalcedonian Christians – Ancient traditions which elected not to
accept the formula “one person, two natures” (Chalcedon, 451 CE)
o Patristic answer: the “exchange dictum”

Major Division #1: East and West

Major Dates
• Late 4th century: Christianity official religion of the Roman Empire.
o Administrative division of the Empire (Rome, Constantinople) →
the Latin West (Rome) and the Greek East (Constantinople)
• 1054: Schism: “Catholic” West and “Orthodox” East
o For various political and theological reasons, leaders of East and
West excommunicate (declare “out of communion”) each other.
 • 1204: Sacking of Constantinople
o During the crusades (efforts to retake the Holy Land from Muslim
forces), western army diverts from plan & attacks Constantinople
en route. Likewise, crusaders massacre Jewish communities.
Differing Theological Emphases
• Filioque controversy (West’s addition of “and the Son” to Creed)
• Structural authority: Pope as primus inter pares (“first among equals”)
vs. Catholic emphasis on universal power and authority.

Major Division #2: Within the West

The Reformation (16th century CE)
• Initially an effort at renewal of the Catholic Church from within
o Reemphasis upon reading the Bible, stopping the sale of
indulgences, reemphasis on the primacy of God’s grace
o Leading figure: Martin Luther (priest, Germany: 1483-1546)
▪ Other prominent figures: John Calvin (Reformed tradition,
d. 1564) and Ulrich Zwingli (d. 1531).
• Evolves into formal rupture with political as well as theological
motivations and implications.
• Theological mottos:
o Sola scriptura – authority of Bible alone
o Sola fide – Justification via faith alone
o Sola gratia – contra neo-Pelagianism; salvation cannot be
achieved without God’s aid.
(Note: disputes on last two no longer as divisive)
• Catholic response: Council of Trent, “counter-Reformation”

Broad Strokes: Catholic & Protestant

David Tracy: Different “imaginations”
• Dialectical Imagination (Protestant tendency): view the world in terms
of sharper dichotomy, e.g. God (holy) vs. creation (fallen).
o Leads to deep wariness of Catholic practices like prayer to saints,
sacramental worldview, authority of church leaders.
o Can accompany an anthropology with more emphasis on soul, as
well as immaterial heaven (though most
Protestants believe in bodily resurrection).
• Analogical Imagination (Catholic tendency):
view the world as a reflection of God,
emphasize continuity and likeness.
• Anthropology places strong emphasis on body;
heaven is transformation of material world, not
construed as an “escape” from it.
Key: All Christians use both imaginations!
Where they tend to differ is the place of emphasis.

Early Christian Liturgy

Roman charges against Christianity:
• Practice ritual cannibalism
• Ritual orgies, unbridled sensuality
• Eucharist: literally, “thanksgiving”; the
whole service, especially the second
part in which bread and wine are
blessed and received as communion.
o Early Eucharists were full-out
meals, known sometimes as
“agape [love] feasts” (cf. Rom 7:3)
o Kiss of Peace: ancient liturgical act
o non-sexual; sharing the pneuma
(spirit / breath; cf. Hebrew ruach).
Sacrament: “visible sign of invisible grace” (Augustine).
Medieval: signum efficax gratiae, i.e. a sign which brings about what it
signifies

Ancient Christian Initiation

Baptism
Rite of Initiation
• Together with reception of the Eucharist
(and, for some, confirmation)
• “Make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the
name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Spirit” (Matt 28:19)
• Ancient: full submersion, “drowning” to be
“raised” with Christ (naked → white garment)
Debates
• Effect:
o Join “Christ’s body,” the Church; give grace, purge Original Sin
o Merely symbolic act, testify to prior regeneration through faith
• Age – infant baptism
o Limbo: classically, destiny of deceased, unbaptized infants

Christian Holy Days

Easter, preceded by Lent (season)
Celebration of Jesus’ resurrection
• Preceded by …
Holy Thursday (Last Supper),
 Good Friday (Crucifixion),
Holy Saturday (tomb)
• Highpoint of ancient liturgy:
Easter Vigil late Saturday
o Initiation of new members
“Where, O death, is your victory? Where, O death, is your sting?” (1Cor
15:55)
Christmas, preceded by Advent (season)
• Celebration of Jesus’ birth
• Eclipsed in ancient world (& Puerto Rico today)
by Epiphany/Three Kings Day (“manifestation” to the visiting magi).
“God has willed to be the Son of Man & willed men to be sons of God.” -
Augustine

Christian Practices
Veneration (Latin: dulia): reverence
shown to finite people or things
which lead to God. Differs from
adoration (Latin: latria), which is
reserved for God alone.

Iconography
• Sacred images produced in the
midst of prayer and fasting
o Highly stylized, not “realistic”; “windows to the eternal”
• Important especially to Christian spirituality in the East
Communion of Saints
• Saints (especially Mary) venerated by Catholics, Orthodox, Anglicans
• Early practice to worship at graves of martyrs (catacombs);
intercession
• Motivation: All are alive in Christ, communion exists beyond death.

Malkovsky: Crossover Communion

1. Compare and contrast prasad in Hinduism and “Eucharist” in Catholic
Christianity.

How do access to these rituals differ and what rationale stands behind
each position?
2. How much does cultural setting impact the practice of a religious
tradition like Christianity? Is it really a singular “Catholicism” that
Malkovsky experienced in both Germany and India?