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 9 -MEAIi• ReZarch Quality Telescopes,Parts and Accessories
FIBERGLASS TELESCOPE TUBES '-AK.1. '· ILLUMINATED RETICLE EYEPIECE
Premium quality solid fiberglass i.. :A,professionally-
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•Each filter $5.75 ppd. -Set of any 6, $32.50 ppd.•| These same Series 1 orthoscopics ...'.. each $19.50 ppd.
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 If. pdople ever set foot· on Io, it will be from
6ehind several inches of lead.
This frozen, airless world - as large as Mer-
cury, but 500 million miles from the sun - would
be inhospitable by any standards. But Io is particu-
larly cuised.
Bathed in the heat of Jupiter at its formation,
Io has never broken th6 bond with its giant neigh-
bot which now wraps it in a deadly shroud of high
energy. radiation. Vast electric currents move between
Jupiter and Io, and a continuous blast of electrons
and protons strikes the satellite's surface.
Io is one of the four "Galilean" satellites of
Jupiter ( so-called after their discoverer ); the others
are Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. They are much
larger than the other Jovian moons and their orbits
are closer to the planet. They were one of the first
discoveries of the telescopic era, and study of their
motions was influential in developing Newton's
theory of gravitation. But they fell into relative ob-
livion after the 18th century - being distant, diffi-
cult to see, ind dwarfed by their primary. Only in the
past few years have many scientists begun to appre-
ciate that the Galilean satellites - along with
Titan, which belbhgs to Saturn, and Neptune's Tri-
ton - are planetary bodies of respdctable size, all
as large as our moon.
But the satellites are not simply cooler carbon
copies of the planets and moons nearer the sun.
They must have had a radically different origin.
Unlike the close-in planets which condensed from
the gas and dust in the inner reaches of the proto-
solar nebulti. ( where temperatures never dropped
below the freezing point ), the outer solar Systam
was born in the chill of space. In addition, the satel-
lites were greatly influenced by the giant planets
about •hich. they formed. These influences were
particularly significant in molding Io, innermost
of the Galileans.
For instiince, the tbrrestrial planets ( Mercury,
Venus, Earth and· Mars ) are much denser than the
outer satellites. With . densitites ranging from 4.0
to 5.5 times that of water, they must be composed
of heavy methls ( primarily nickel and iron, which are
Caption for pages 6&7
Like a malevolent monster.with a' huge, unwinkind red.eye,
th6 incredible bulk'of Jupiter looms:over the dusty surfabe of
its satellite lo. Great.salt·beds coat the lonian·landscape like
dried-up oceans,.apd.craters similar to the mooh's pockmark
the •roilnd. This'amazing 9,sta is.one that mankind inay never
see firsthand, for 10 ·i,encased in Jupiter's magnetic field -
is one,of the most lethal places in the entire solar system.
Artwork by Johri'W. Cldrk.
lo's shadow crosses the cloud surface of Jupiter in this Pioneer
10. photograph iaken in 1973. Of all Jupiter's large,moons,
lo is the c16sest to:its'primary, and it lies deep in the planet's
radiation belts:kThe:sodium cloud. surrounding the satellite
makes it a good conductor..of electricity, causing huge elec-
trical currents to'iflow' .between lo and Jupiter. NASA
phot6graph.
cosmically abundant) in addition to the rocky min-
erals we find on their surfaces.· In the outer solar
system, though, the picture is ·different. Callisto and
Ganyniede have densities 6f less than 2.0 - and
Titan is only 1.3 times as dense as water.
Such low densities indicate that these satellites
contain little metal and must be comp6sed of some-
thing lighter.. The 6bvious material is water, sihce
its components ( hydrogen and oxygen ) are among
the most plentiful elements in the universe - and
water is a particularly stable compound. There is
some observational evidence for this: The spectro-
scope reveals that the rings of Saturn and the bright
surfaces of Europa and Ganymede are composed·of
water ice. And, as noted a few years ago by John
Lewis at . MIT, this water may be mostly liquid
( ndt frozen ), makinit the satellites planet sized
drops of water with cores of mud and crusts of
ice.
But Io is a maverick. It also has a bright, highly
reflective surface - but it's not made 6f ice. Infrared
spectroscopy would tell us if it were. Even more
remarkably, Io has the same density as the moon -
about 3.5 tifiles that of water. So neither its surface
nor its interior can have very much water.
Where was Io when the ice was being passed
out? Its sister satellites seem to have plenty of it.
And if it did have ice once, where did it go?
To search for the answer, we must go back in
time to the birth of the Jovian satellite system.
Jupiter was just emerging from a shroud of spinning,
collapsing gas and dust. The material that would
become its satellitas surrounded it in a dense disk.
The bulk of material in this protosatellite cloud
was water. In the center, though, infalling material
generated heat from gravitational energy. Tempera-
tures at the center. of the proto-Jupiter reached a
peak of 145,000 degrees Fahrenheit, and the planet
radiated 1/1,000 as much energy as the sun. This
radiation would have kept the temperature above
the condensation point of water for 5 to 10 million
yearA. Io was probably formed during that interval,
thus depriving it of the ice that was so plentiful
elsewhere.
It's hard td say exactly how hot the infant
satellite was. We don't know how much Io was
heated by infalling material as it formed. If accre-
tion was rapid enough, the interior could have becornd
hot enoligh to melt rock - but more likely it ended
its main period of growth at a few hundred degrees
Fahrenheit. Jupiter would have heated it further,
though, glowing dull red across 1/3 of the sky. And
mighty tides from the giant planet would slow Io's
initially rapid rate of spin, with the lost rotational
energy turning into heat. Still more heat would be
generated by radioactive deca9 of elements such as
uranium and thorium. Over a few million years, this
heat would build up until the melting point of some
of the interior. minerals· was. reached - which would
9
nnEirk.the start of a ndw and important phase in the
shtellite's history.
As Io's interior melted, heavier materials began
to sink toward the center, while lighter bnes floated
up toward the crust. Heat liberated water that had
been chenlically bound in the rocks, and hot liquid
water percolated up t6ward the surface. The hot
water dissolved minerals • along the way, just as
seeping ground water on Earth can dissolve lime-
stone to form caves.
We can only guess How much water finally
arrived at the surface of Io, or how rapidly .it got
there. Perhaps it was released slowly, seeping up-
ward only to evapor#te ihto space. Or maybe it
escaped rapidly - through great volcanos and gey-
sers, spraying hundreds of yards .into the air. If
temperatures were high enough, not only water but
steam and even molten lava may have spewed out
in vast eruptions.
If water was released fibm the ihterior more
rapidly. than it could have evaporated into space,
Io might once have had great oceans of liciuid water
under thick, shifting packs of ice.. Thehe oceans
would have been.heavy with dissolved minerals from
the interi6r - primarily salts made up 6f sodium,
sulfur and chlorine.
But the source of water from the interior couldn't
last, and eventually the oceans would dry up Because
of Io's low gravity and consdquent low atmospheric
pressure. To visualize what Io would look like after
this had happened, we ·have only to ask ourselves
what Earth would look .like if its oceans dried up -
the ocean basins .would be filled with salt beds
hundreds of yards deep. If that happened on Io
( and subsequent geologic processes left the surface
undisturbed ), then Io may still have a coating of
salts today. There's some experimental evidence
that this is indeed the case.
Io has one of the most highly reflective sur-
faces of any planet or satellite - reflecting more
than 60 percent of the sunlight striking it! The
brightest parts of the moon reflect Only 17 perdent;
the whitest rocks we know of, only 40 percent. As
mentioned earlier, this led astronomers to bdlieve
that Io's surface was covered with ice.- until infra-
red spectroscopy in 1972 showed it couldn't be.
Not ohly does the infrared spectroscope prove
there's no ( or very little ) water or other ices on Io's
surface, it also reveals a puzzling reflection property
that makes Io unique in the solar system. Io has an
equally hith reflectivity in the ihfrared as it has in
visible light. Very few substances reflect highly in
both parts of the spectrum.
There's one natural reflecting surface on Earth
tliat has this property: dried lake beds such ds the
flats surrounding the Great Salt Lake in Utah. In
the laboratory, certain preparations of the element
sulfur also have the right properties. And material
from one other cosmic body passes the tests: salts
10
from a well-known carboriaceous chondrite meteor-
ite called th23 Orgueil meteorite - which has pre-
cisely the composition predicted by the evolutionary
processes proposed for Ib: a surface of salts ( pri-
marily sulfates ) with possibly some elemental
sulfur as well.
In spite of its high reflectivity, the. surface of
Io would not seem as bright to human observers as
the salt flats of terrestrial desihrts. Io is fiv6 times
farther away from the sun, so the sunlight reaching
its surface is only 1/25 as bright. Once you adjusted
to the low level of illumination, a landscape on Io
might resemble a desert on Earth. The colors would
be similar, with the white salt stained by inipurities
to varying shades of yellow, ofange and brown. Even
through a small telescope, Io looks redder than Jupi-
ter's other satellites. There's no way yet for us to
predict exactly what the surface features of the
satellite are - mountains, valley.s; craters or what-
ever. We do know a few things, though.
We can be • sure that whhtevet the composition
of Io; the surface was influ6nbed by the history
of continlibus collisions with small meteoric frag-
ments - common to all objebts iIi the solar system.
Occasional impacts by large bodies· must produce
craters like those on the moon. and Mercury, and the
rain of finer cosmic dust is likely to fragnient and
stir up the surface on a smaller scale.
Io's surface must be dusty and porous, accord-
ing to 1972 measurements of tlie thermal infrared
emission from the satellite. Oncd iri each · orbit, Io
passes through the shadow of Jupiter - cutting off
sunlight for a couple of hourh. Astronomers in
Hawaii ind California found dtiring these eclipses
that Io cooled very rapidly, hnd · then reheated
j.ust as rapidly when it emergeil into· the surilight.
This is the way objects of low therinal conductivity
behave, like conimercial insulating .material, or -
more to the point - the surfdce of the moon. So
the surface of Io is covered with loose, dusty material
and not a clean, solid surface df rock.
Io's strange surface chemjstry is not the only
peculiai• thing about it. . Several. years before the
first irifrared spectroscopy of the satellite, radio
astron6mers studying Jupiter made an amazing dis-
covery. At wavelenkths of.tens of meters,. Jupiter
sent bursts of static at irregular intervals. Eventually
they found a sort of patteim: Most of the noise
storms occurred when one of two or three Jovian
longitildes pointed toward Earth - but not every
time.
Then someone noticed that the emission came
and went in intervals of about 21 hozirs.·This peribd
The distant sun lights up the surfaqes of Jupiter and lo as a
Mariner probe approaches the Jovian'system, preparing for a
close flyby of the satellite. Scheduled f6r launch in 1977,
the spacecraft will photograph about. half of lo'S surface; this
detailed coverage may. remove some of ihe mystdry now sur-
rounding this tiny, bizarre world. Artwork by Adolf Schaller.
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The sodium "atmosphere" of lo is not limited to a small area
around the satellite, although its greatest concentration (A)
is near lo. A great cloud of sodium is distributed (B) all along
the orbital plane, while a much more tenuous cloud (C) extends
even farther - over Jupiter's poles. The cloud is constantly
replenished by lo's salt surface, as high energy particles from
Jupiter's radiation belts chip off the sodium atoms and release
them into space. Artwork by Victor Costanzo.
of time has nothing to do with the rotation of Jupi-
ter - but it's exactly half the orbital period of Io!
Once they saw this totally unexpected relation-
ship, it didn't take long to figure out that the noise
storms happened only when Io was on one side or
the other of Jupiter.
So it was no wonder that the bursts seemed
erratic to early investigators. Both conditions had
to be fulfilled simultaneously - Jupiter facing the
right way and Io being in the right part of its orbit,
as seen from Earth.
No effect like this had ever been observed
before. What made it even more mysterious was
that the bursts came from Jupiter's atmosphere -
not the Van Allen type belts that surround the
planet. So either Io was influencing Jupiter's atmos-
phere directly or was in some way "beaming" the
radio signals toward Earth. Theoretically, such
beaming could take place only if giant electrical
currents flowed between Io and Jupiter - but
14
that meant that Io had to be a good conductor of
electricity. Rocks aren't.
The mystery deepened in 1973, when routine
spectra were taken of the Jovian satellites ( from
Harvard ). Io, or the region around it, was glowing
with the characteristic radiation of sodium gas.
None of Jupiter's other satellites showed this
emission.
For Io to have any atmosphere at all is strange.
Its surface gravity, like the moon's, is too low to
hold onto any tangible amount of gas for very long.
And an atmosphere of metal-like sodium - that's
even more weird.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory observations soon
showed that the sodium was glowing by scattered
sunlight rather than as a result of auroral activity
or high temperature. To an observer on Io, the light
would be very bright - like terrestrial aurorae in
high latitudes. Unlike our aurorae, though, Io's
sodium glow wouldn't show delicate structure,
but would just suffuse the entire sky with a uniform
pale yellow light. You wouldn't see it in the daytime
because of the sun's competition, but at night it
would be bright enough to blot out fainter stars.
Only during eclipse, when Io and its surrounding
cloud pass through the shadow of Jupiter, would the
yellow glow fade away to reveal the stars in their
full glory.
036,.3,
'i : 036«.
.·· C-»,:- :-22,-4.,.,·:.,••-S.·61,i'e•«,i:·2_-..-
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Then investigators at the University. of Texas
foubd that the sodium emission wasn't confined · to
a stilall area around the satellite, arid in fact wasn't
an atmosphere at all in the usual sense. Instead,
i:
thete's a. vast region of glowing sodium gas extend-
ing in a great doughnut shaped cloud all around the
orbit of Io. #
But what could be the source of such a cloud? f
It ha• to, Be continually replaced from the surface
of Io, or it would simply dissipate into space.
From the size of the cloud, you can calculate
h8w fast the surface of io has to supply the cloud
with • sodium atoms. It comes to 100 million atoms
fer secdnd, for each hquare inch of surface.
Scientists. in the JPL group studying Io be-
Ganymede
lieve that such large amounts of sodium might.be
released by "sputtering". This is what happens
when high energy protons or electrons strike ·a solid
surface,· 0 hipping off atoms to release them into ·:t
space: The high energy particles come from Jupiter's .
Van Allen type belts, and the sodium could be
A*-:. 4
actounted for by the salt and suifur modei provided .'·t·-44-
fot Io's surface. «IL '.'

Jupiter's Van Alien belts were discovered more

036
than a decade ago, from synchrotron radiation emitted
by electrons spiraling within Jupiter's magnetic 4..
field. The first direct nieasurements weren't made
until Pionder 10 pasded Jupiter in Deccamber 1973.
Callisto
When it crossed the •orbit of Io, the spacecraft was
being hit by more thah a 6illion high energy particles
per second, for every square inch of surface. The
on-board comput'er issued erratic and unprogrammed
commhnds, because of the high radiation. By the
time Pioneer 10 paised closest to Jupiter - 0Iily 0
81,000 miles abbve its turbulent clouds - several
experiments had been zapped with more than 90
percent of their maximum rated radiation exposure. 0
This is the environfilent Io lives in.
Eufopa and Ganyniede are affected, by this lO
steady stream of radiatibn, although far less than
Io. As Pioneer crossed the orbits of these two sate-
ellites, it found decre•ses in electron . intensity
e
where those moons had .swept out and absorbed a
certain fraction of those particles.
/ Ilim
*
But near the orbit of Io, the situation. was
much more complex. S6me. particles were depleted
t'•
neat the . orbit - but others were accelerated by
the satellite to elieh higher than* normal endrgies.
it almost seemed as if Io were fighting back against
Jupiter's radiation bhth. On the sides facirig toward Moon
and opposite Jupiter, great charges called . plasma
sheaths were built up; dausing the particles' peculiar
behavior. It has been gueshed, also, that an electric

Unlike its·sister satellites in.,Jupiter's family, lo's highly .re-

fledtive surface is not composed of water ice. lo also has.a
higher density than any 6f:the.other, Jovian moons - 3.5 times
that of water. This is the·same: d6nsity as our.own moon,.indi-
eating that lo.maybe.similar in mdre ways to the dense terres- Europa
trial bodies of the sdlar,system than to its companion satellites.
Artwork by Victor Costanzo.
 .- .-=
, 4- I .
»
This Pioneer 10 photograph of Ganymede is the best picture
we currently have of any of the Jovian moons. lo has aroused
more curiosity than Ganymede, but scientists will not know
what lo looks like until the scheduled Mariner flyby later this
decade. Mariner will provide much more detailed information
than the above picture shows; high resolution photography
should show features as small as a half mile across. NASA
photograph.
current flowed between the planet and the satellite,
which would explain Io's modulation of the Jovian
radio emission. Evidence that this current exists
was detected by Pioneer 11, which reached Jupiter
a year after its predecessor.
Pioner 10 was carefully aimed so that it would
pass behind Io ( as seen from Earth ) for a few seconds,
temporarily blocking the spacecraft's signals. Just
as the radio waves passed along the satellite's edge,
their velocity increased a precisely measured amount.
This could only be caused by passage through an
electrically conducting medium - an ionosphere.
Like Earth, Venus, Mars and Jupiter itself,
Io is surrounded by a sphere of ionized gas - ex-
tending to about 600 miles above its surface. Since an
ionosphere is produced by sunlight stripping elec-
trons from the atoms in a neutral atmosphere, its
presence around the satellite implies the existence
of such an atmosphere - an extremely tenuous one
- near Io's surface.
Another instrument aboard both Pioneers was
a small telescope sensitive to the far ultraviolet
light radiated by atomic hydrogen. This telescope
detected a strong emission from the thin Ionian
atmosphere, showing that it contained hydrogen as
well as the sodium which had already been found.
In fact, another emission seemed to originate in a
torus shaped cloud surrounding Io's orbit ( similar
16
03:-:
to the sodium cloud previously discovered ). This
second cloud also has its source on the satellite's
surface - but about 1,000 atoms of hydrogen exist
for every one of sodium.
While all the data provided by the Pioneer
missions was being deciphered and analyzed, one
fact was consistently brought home: Io is an .in-
credibly deadly place. Shrouded aA it is in the lethal
Jovian radiation belts, its surface is subjected to
constarit bombardment by electrons and protons.
Even the carefully fashioned and. "radiation hard-
ened" Pioneer spacecraft could barely survive a
few hours in its vicinity; anyone who dared to ven-
ture there would be dead within seconds. Although
astronauts of the futfire midht visit Callisto ( the
farthest from Jupiter of the Galilean satellites ),
Io will probably remaiii an alien world.
The Iklimpses that Pioneers 10 and 11 provided
of Io and its environment were only enough to whet
our appetites for further exploraiion. In 1977, NASA
willlaunch two more probes toward the giant planets.
These Mariner spacecraft will obtain more detailed
television images of Jupiter and Saturn than we now
have, and they will carry more sophisticated instru-
ments to aid our study of the planets, their satel-
lites and space environments.
One of these missions is tentatively scheduled
for a close flyby of Io. If successful, it should photo-
graph about half the satellite's surface with reso-
lution of about 1/2 mile; during closest passage,
the best pictures of a few areas #ill show individual
features as small as 100 yards across. This coverage
will be vory similar to that obtained by Mariner 10
of the planet Mercury. It's difficult to grasp the
meaning of such a tremendous jump in the amount
of available information. It will be like going in one
step from naked eye studies of the moon to today's
largest and finest telescopes - bypassing 350 years
of slow development from the time of Galileo to the
present. If future discoveries about Io are as bizarre
and exciting as those made in the past few years,
Io may be a household word by the end of this
decade.
As we learn more about the solar system beyond
the asteroid belt, we are struck by the incredible
variety we find. In addition to the awesome gas
giant planets, there are satellites composed of
water, ice or rock; the unique Beauty of the rings
of Saturn; its equally unique satellite Titan, with
its maissive atmosphere anil a surface of great inter-
est to exobiologists. But no world is stranger than
Io, with a surface unlike any other in the solar
system, wrapped in the embrace of Jupiter and ex-
changing lightning bolts with him. -
Dr. David Morrison is an astronomer at the Institute for
Astronomy of the University of Hawaii. Currently on leave at
the University of Arizona and Kitt Peak National Observatory,
his primary interests are infrared observations of planets,
satellites and asteroids. He is also involved in exploration
of the solar system by spacecraft. His book, Minor Planets
and Satellites, will be published in mid-1976.
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EXPI ODING STARS
by
Bill. Johnson
Picture a small star that has seen better days:
It has used up most of its fuel and is well on its way
to dull, uninteresting white dwarfdom. It's nothing
unusual as most stars reach this point eventually;
this particular star seems to be sinking toward
quiet, peaceful oblivion.
But abruptly this tranquil scene is completely
disrupted. In a sudden gigantic outburst of heat
and energy, the star blasts away its outer shells,
which fly off at top speed in all directions. Its bright-
ness begins climbing and shoots up so rapidly that
soon the star is blazing away with an intensity
that nothing in its previous history can match.
On Earth, a new star seems to burst into view,
altering a constellation's shape and rivaling the
brighter stars. Observatory schedules are quickly
rewritten, spectral analyses are begun immediately,
and the star receives the designation of nova.
Such a dramatic series of events as this took
place just last summer, when the brightest nova in
33 years appeared in Cygnus. And it excited more
than the usual amount of interest that an exploding
star arouses, for a nova that brightens as much as
Nova Cygni 1975 did occurs only a few times in a
century.
What caused this star's unusual behavior?
What could have habpened to the star that made it
increase its brightness · more than 40 million times
in a single night? Might the same thing someday
happen to our sun? In short, what exactly is a nova
and why does it explode?
Novae belong to a class of stars known as
eruptiue variables. A variable is any star whose
brightness changes over a period of time. Most have
regular, predictable periods and are fairly sedate.
But eruptive variables are different; they undergo
unexpected and rapid upsurges in luminosity.
Unfortunately, we can't assign any star to this
class until it actually does erupt. Before that, there
18
is nothing to distinguish it from other stars. In fact,
a good many prenovae are so dim they cannot even
be seen from Earth. It might be said that the most
interesting thing about a star that goes nova is -
that it goes nova.
Because there is nothing unusual about prenova
stars, there is no way of telling what is going to
happen to them in the future. As a fesult, scientists
have been unable to obtain their spectra, and we
cannot know for certain exactly what kinds of stars
they are.
A star's spectrum gs the scientist's most useful
tool for determining its characteristics, - mass,
luminosity, composition and density, among other
things. But in only one case do we know the spec-
trum of a star in its prenova stage: that of Nova
Aquilae 1918, the brightest in this century. When
the star brightened, astronomers eagerly dug out
its spectrum and checked it forunusual traits. But
there were none in particular; the spectrum was that
of a very hot, but otherwise nondescript, dwarf star.
( We could, of course, attempt to obtain a spec-
trum from every single star we can reach in the hope
that it might eventually go nova; but such a massive,
time wasting enterprise is better left uncontemplated.)
About all we ·can do is try and get the nova's
spectrum during the first stage. of its ·eruption -
which means as quickly as p6ssible after it is first
noticed. Spectra taken at this time almost always
indicate that the prenova prokably belongs to spec-
tral class B or A - that. is, it hai a high surface
A white dwarf, made unstable by matter from its companion
star and its own intense gravity,.is rapidly reaching the point
of no return. Great hydrogen clouds are being expelled from
its surface, and it will soon solve. its problem in the only way
possible - with an explosion. The hypothetical planet in orbit
around the system probably will be destroyed.in the blast. But
this eruption will not end its life; the star will temporarily stabil-
ize and then begin the process over again. Artwork by Victor
C6stanzo.
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 As soon as this surface hydrogen begins to fuse,
radiation pressure forces the upper levels of the cloud
away, thereby decreasing its pressure on the star.
The flare-up in core temperature subsides. Surface
heat again drops below the fusion ignition tempera-
ture - but it remains higher than its previous level
( diagram 7 ).
This p.rocess is repeated over and over. Hydro-
gen clouds agbin begin to subside onto the dwarf,
and the core ,temperature rises once more. The
bottom layers of the cloud igriite and blow away the
outer shells. Each time the reaction dies, the temper-
iture of. star A's surface is higher than before.
The energy level inside the white dwari rises
slowly as the pressure of the hydrogen cloud in-
creasds. Fusion takes place farther and farther into
the cloud, but its depth and pressure increase faster
than the'temperature rises.
At this point, star A's core begins to super-
heat L: and then everything happens at once. At
the same.time that a collapsing envelope of hydro-
gen gas presses. down, the surface temperature in-
creases. Hydrogen caught between these two forces
reaches fusion temperature and explodes. The middle
of the cloud ignites the outer cloud, fusing it too.
Meanwhile, the dwarf is compressed by the explo-
sion, and, a shock wave overheats the core which
pulses outwatd. An explosive blast wave eruIits
from the white dwarf, expelling the hydrogen cloud
in a shell beyond the gravitational capture of the
dwarf..
The expulsion of the outer shell is the equiva-
lent of a rapid incfease in the radiating surface. of
star A. As all the hydrogen fuses at once, the dwarf's
brightness immediately skyrockets, thus producing
the "ne# star" seed from Earth ( diagram 8 ).
After the eruption, the core temperature of
star A drops rapidly due 254o
the loss of the hydro-
gen cloud's pressure, and the' nova's brightness be-
gins its .downwdrd slide. However, the -gaseous
shell blasted away in the explosion continues to
race outward. Made visible by its own fusjoil and
light from the sthr, the shell will continue -grbwing
alid take on the appearance of a nebula surrounding
the star. Eventuilly it will dissiphte into si)ace.
Star B should not be seriously affdcted by the
explosion. Hydr6gen will eventually start to spiral
down. to the dwarf again,. buildiilg toward another
explosion in the future.
Novae do explode more than once. Unlike
supernovae which de§troy themselves in a single
cataclysm, there is no theoretical end to a nova
Every star can be assigned its proper place on the Hertz-
sprung-Russel! diagram, indicatir,g its state Ot evolution. The
normal processes of'•stellaf gr6wth will.fake a star from the
main seque'itcd; Whdrd'it.·spends•mbstof:its·life,-'ihrough the
giant phhse and (•6*il to thEl·white dwarf region: It'is here that
Aren,ova.stark are found:·4<but notlebery dwarf. will.becoind'a
novd.'A great deal depends·On.th'e circumstances surrounding
the dwa•,6 fpr«!ati,op.: A«6rk by V•ctor .Costailzo. :
system once the chain is started: Most of the mater-
ial expelled by the blast is, froin thd hydrogen cloud
around the dwarf, and the star itself actually loses
less than one' percent. of its own niatter. It lives on
to begin the cycle once Inore,- and will nova again
and again.
One group of eruptive variables are the recurrent
nouae. These are stars that became reasonably bright
novae, sank into dimness - and then exploded again
several decades later.
Even faster are the U Geminorum stars. These
exhibit large, sudden increases in niagnitude, and
then drop just as quickly to their original bright-
ness. The process takes only days. Although these
6utbursts are unpredictable, being irregular, they
may come as often as every 60 days.
What we are witnessing here may be nova sys-
tems at various ages. When a nova gets as bright
as Nova Cygni 1975, the chances are it is experienc-
ing its first outburst. Such a star is called a uirgin
noua. With a higher siirface temperature after its
explosion, the surrounding hydrogen gas cloud that
collects will ignite much faster the second time,
before a huge volume of it can be collected. The
result will be another nova, but one not as brilliant
as the first. The time elapsed between a nova's first
tw6 outbursts may be on the order of 20,000 yefrs.
But as it takes less and less time to build up
to each explosion, the cycle speeds up.. Eventually,
the point reached is.that of the U Geminorum stars
- a fresh outburst about every couple of months.
By now, the dwarf is gobbling up its companion's
hydrogen supply so.quickly that the constant ma-
chine gun fire . of novae •vill probably drive the
companion away - thus finally ending the cyde
and leaving behind just another white dwarf.
Such is the picture we have of nova formation.
And the greatest challenge to it may be coming from
Nova Cygni 1975 itself.
Nova.Cygni's decline in brightness was very
rapid - inuch more so than that of a common nova.
Its spectrum has shoWn complications that other
no'vae dqn't exhibit. But some astronomers have
calculated that these factors can be accounted for
if the nova's companion is .ignored, or if it doesn't
exist. Nova.Cygni may be something new: a' star
that did explode on its own, perhaps by accreting
matter from· inter:stellar space. If so, our current
thdory bf nova formation maf bd invalidated - or
shotn to be simply orle of several possibilities.
We should finally note that a common nova
contributes nothing to either the universe or to our
knowledge of it. They are freak accidents, and in
the last analysis, they must probably be found
guilty of sensationalism. -
Bill Johnson is an undergraduate student at the Univer-
sity of Iowa in Iowa Cit9, where he Is currently specializing in
journalism and·physics.
23
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, ·. publication of NASA's Office-tof Publiaf.•'C :'. d.'
Affairs,· Educational Programs '1Divi-'•2.•'•,;•:9......
sion, hnd is distributed free to teachqrs -9,Space Station: Key-to the Future
who wfite in 254,ith tltieir school addfess. *4# . --• '
.,. 04264-
40 pages, paperback, $ 45* + Pictorial Guide to Planet Earth
-- The timely and colorful :booklets and j : U S·:Government Printing Office by FREDERICK I. ORDWAY III
· ' Wall posters ·are {-excell(int ''tdachid•. ·.-,·..,s-eit.: - -,
, resources for. grade. sfli ®l:. and .liikh.' -\'.'.:,;63•:., ' .. 191 pages (Illus.), hardcover, $12.95
-school classes... ··' ,.- ..r-· .., .- =,.-,",:.fg., . C'OTheC only 'funded manned space Thomas y. crowell co (1975)
-:' • Every dstronomdr 6•iould have:.lii•'' t-ProgEfin ' on NASA's b66ks is the re-
own copy: of the.J'Spectrum'4- poiter':·fusable Space Shuttle rockettplane, due After brilliant reconnaissance of
•. just releaded b9.,•NASK.·Alonk'sidd,•'• ..t45'Beiiii[I•• .operations in· 41980. This cne ·· solar system from Mercury out to
· scale of eledtroma'inetic:I frequeili:iri, " littj4.tlf 254inphlet describes the .lqgical Jupiter and beyond, the United States
this chart .is'' illustrateil. with typical '1;:n 254xti.stpp:
.... *... . 'a manned
036, 036 space station space program is concentrating more
wavelength. :emitters .;:and - cdmmon ' perm»ently.in'orbit above Earth. of its attention - and public relations
: instruments for : observations at these ' ..- Stud«cpntracts. with aerospace -on Earth s£udies that can be justi- 7
wavelengths. i Several ' columns of' text contractors'::,hgve bnly ; recently been fied on the basis of short-term economic -•
' describe the-*arious tai'26ts of a-§tron=· assigned,:§8:'this)book canhot; describe return. Pictorial Guide to Planet Earth,
omical observations at different frd- the actual spac•.station,whichI'.Wijljb,e .though not a government publication, •1
9. quencies, :thei- -diffdrent.'. classds of - built..sorfietimiii:afto-Ii'1985. ,Howev-er,:·ris a perfect example of this shift of
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on gravity:and, s®nd-waves.;il· ..- :- .ture, and Ddtentials :of: spai:e,lstati•,ns'-:.well-reasoned, it reduces the grand
:'Viking Mission to, Mal·s'is-a shortj: i• general.;:: 036.,:·::it......S :.86 19-•·.•,-.•.3-4')
h-dventure of the exploration of space
r 'but»colorfiil 'p'•ifnphletfabputtli6 most'f.,4 Three dozen illustrations.'show.mkij) •to' humdrum dollars-and-cents argu-
6•pensive fipacd, pmbhs, ever' shot into B aspec'ts of life'on'space stations add tHJI''Wients,. that may convince a business-
space ( cachfyiking.'co•t more.'than a:· ascdembly df ·'the - large spacd' homek,· persohgbut will never inspife a boy or
.. . manned Apollo ,mooil -'shot ). A.• ·good ;', frdm smalldi,-modules bi,ou*ht up frb'm * girl' to!drkadi':of the wonders of space.
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mission is,given, along•ivith-a';unique ' 'sket6hes-ard well done.and appropriater' 042"twriteria«in•'this:volume he pursues
.icolor pli6togritph of 'some , terrestrial,' ..- 'Whf 'build •6 'spitge .-station 47611•t:.hig craft''car•fully 'and conscientiously.
, landscape>takon.with the same kind of,' Don't "6xpect' liew revelatioris -.or. ih-kBut for. all-it•Ptechnical accuracy and
camera whichison bdih:•iking landers. ,: . sDiratio'ns .hore; the-, oldiansi*ors : ki•6- •frealth•'6f fa•ts.and figures, this book
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- short bodklet• are'better:than:·those;iii· .valid. W,e ji,ant to- live in.space-fdr c•ritical mind -- s
, many hardcover books with hundreds ,-long periods; of- time because it· will . Ina chapE• c.9,>(ifibg
254 'SBN-e appli-
. · of pages.6 -'560,0 ·, iff... ·ii• 'I:; - '. be.:·good' •fo,r i meteorology, Earth re- -cafion in mappingj•geolggical,•studies,
.,'-Although' astronomers in, space.may- ·sources, materials 2,processing, - and ' monitdping•(,bi»dandi-snow, and ice
·'· always want to keep, their eyes,on ther. sciences ' such ·ais· astrononiv, biology cover,·. · survoys'·' ·'6f-:•:affridulture and 1
sky, another3'targettwillgbe :in.. view, and physics. Judging from Lhe results .fore•iti:y•Y;*id' st:0(116s''ifi'F886&nography
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the third NASA,Facts publication, and ...results,offthis,new frontier will-lie iIi sources and meteorological satellites
then i)rocddd&'t'6 piplain with amusing •·iydi*lidations'Sve'veyet to imagine. at length. As might be expected, these
- ...cartoons;,whyD'the'best view of.Earth 135,11:91'ke-Ye'SliA, no specifics about'actual 6ngineers and scientists consisteAtly
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036 mentioned: This is a pamphlet fit.·.Undoub'tedlk' their atgul•ents are
c:deservesocongratulationg on'.itA: ilew, ·...aililed:,dt; the,futureT- at j,qun-*''r6d- i predoillinantly acdura-te; 1•ilki,n•·together
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frequently points out the fragility of scientific mind -in contemplation of·-: and - learned more about the universe,
the terrestrial ecosystem and the rapid the next 15 years in space from the The driving factor was not the astron-
rate at which our natural resources scientific viewpoint - a sense of awe." omdr's intelligence but the instrument-
are being depleted. . He argues con-.r ··But the words are not backed up by maker's craft.
vincingly that intelligent use of data».real'-examples; the bo'ok'"turns to the Subtilled "A Hislory of the Tele-
: from the space program is ali 'integral:"' eliffinebring.rather thaA the, Sciehtific scope", -this book follows the devel-
.- - 25-
part of a more. rational ansl•les• .,.di frontiers. - opmant of that industry: lens grinding,
structive partnership between :homo In this role, the book •is, a valual,le - mirror manufacture, theory of optics,
sapiens and planet Ep•h. However,. .and infdrmative teacher. .Hore we radio telescopes, and ultimately space-
the constant quotation of essentially»learn about -thd . Miradulous SSME borne observatories. The astronomers
' the same self-serving•,afguments, Pre- · ( SIiace Shuttld'-Main - Engine ) which and their actual discovbries seem
1. r -, sented in the standar•:ugj.maginative,- Akkes the whole Space Shuttle rocket., secondary to the problems of extending
2·, 254--'bureaucratic language. 5 bfs,- technical- plane fediible. This new rocket booster' their ·vision.
S.' - C
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S-(, reports Lo NASA;' dulls tge"redder's is three times as pressurized as the Decade by decade, Asim8v traces
wits and leaves ihim convinced - but -- S•itum 5's "F-1" enginbs,.with ten the endineering problems and impli-
,·) suffering from a hBadache. times the exhaust temperatgre,,·. fi•ve cations of refracting versus reflecting
:.5 This.is a :Dictorial guide, and it times Whe turbopumbbpowet, -ten times. telescopes, as either type of instru-
is the Dictures' -- niore*tliAn 100 with the lifetime, half again t-h•Inagic num- ment prevailed for a few generations
_ ., about . half-''in full-page fofinat -:- ber of "specific impulse'.1;- liut only 1/3 until the other type advanced through
. that 2.pio•,ide the main•'rationale for the thnist. Ne,14 aerospilie. engines no•r' - ne,•v technological breakthroughs.
-"•" 2:4•."th7• booki Unfoftunately, the repro-·,,on the drawing boards '*·ill be even (This theme shpuld be of great interest
b.»-- 5-3:sladlf-ction quality, is generilly so.poor more powerful. 1 z : r. ; _ to anyone who owns his own telescope
;. =-4•. .- EhEit the pic 25461& losd most .Off-theiA-
beality and impact. The teiit. hifiddcap- -L-:Computers in spacecraft and new and wonders about its ancestry.)
tions frequently desci·ibe•'fostufed''Ehat cp.mmumcations technoldifies are also I Problems of - chromatic aberration,
are all but invisible bntzihe''illu•ira.c. covered in easy to undetsta-nd but very light gathering and resolution, lens
. -- · '. detailed presentations. ' Aitd if you formation. edge focusing, etc., all
tions. Only in 16 color P>lges·gr.03pe.d..•·thilik-•you've hea•Rl all there is to hear succumbed one by one - and Asimov
topiether at the.center of-tlle•.b,ook'are;;.,alib-ut r-tile.Viking missions to Mars, tells how. People who build their own
' the magnificence and clarity•o.f..the . 3'du are mistaken. A spe8ial report by telescopes will dnjoy these sections
space views of Earth revealed.8 1 9
i. ·p -1·- .: the. project directot discusses the about the techniques which led up to
Areader seeking a bo•.thdtipleases i'ngineering constraints of a sui:cess. the present methods.
the senses and inspires -th6: imagina- ful landing. in the same detailed, yet Showing how these problems were
tion would do .better toTbypass. the. lucid, style. overcome is a little harder, but this is
present voluine and instdad purdhase not the author's fault. The book's
I the excellently producedi'NASA.books Astronaili Donald Slayton, • chief
of• GehlmitIihotographs Lf;Eafth 42-and -of the-astronauts and veteran of, the photo section was unfortunately put
together,' by someone else, indepen- -
• td:.urge the govel·111*leilE;·,t• plil•l-ish _.Apollo/Soyuz flight, closes the Gook -.
dently of the text; the two sections are
1 . dimilar volumes of ERTS•;and Skylab with another visionary chapter entitled
not well-coordinated. A reader would
• : -" i fh•tography. David Morrisok.' 6: -"Astronaut of 1988". ,What kinds of
be advised to review the photographs
036-
. .42. r. .A/' 4 . people will 042 be flying in space that
- and sketches before beginning the
-1 - . : - 'y•/? Wliat 042Kinds of background must
'.He' - 44 · . , % ' -·:· they hai,e?,,What .kinds of duties will book, so he will know, when the te•t
trf' '4,they.befform? Slayton gives his views, has been supplemented by illustrations.
- w-
... 4 .... orf,ithis tbpic-:which must certainly be Asimov describes how a 17th cen-
The Sec6nd Fifteen Years of =iinter8st td tliousands of would-be tury astronomer . "discovered" that
.-
in Space. :f.. -. astronauts n6w in their tbens. · one of the Big Dipper handle stars was -
%•A . -I, really a double star "that could be
edited by SAUL FERDMAN • ' -• -, As.with"any conference proceedings,
- ...... ... seen separately by leIescope but not
this book is unc6nndefed and of varying
- •., ...... by the unaided eye". But American
201 pages, hardcover. $15 00* quality.ijillt' the individual papers are
Indians were using that particular
all of ifiterest and are all useful in
Chroniclers usually measure time anticipAEifigi:the engineering advances double star as an "eye test" for their
youngsters for centuries. A nitpicking
in units of decades, jul:,ilees, centuries of the n 254xt:f6*=9:ears in space. James
or- millennia, but this book is based E. Oberg:'6 -4 . - reviewer might also point oul that the
i ,-, · automatic drive of a telescope does
upon an American Astronautical So-
not "keep the stars in focus'' - care-
4• ciety conference which needed a catchy *Distributeif,2,/18(1 Univelt, Inc., less wording.
P 11 thenhe. Since space exploration began p. a Bo'x-746, Tizfiand, -CA 91356. All in .all, the book is excellent -
in earnest little more than 15 years ago, *- - ,(..'.
4&- l'
'a: the conferees decided to examine the :...'.'MI .... another "typical Asimov" survey of'an
e interesting aspect of astronomy. ( Is
•* next.15 years. f "The History of the Microscope" next? )
01 Almost all · the,•Decialists agreed
'- Along the way, the author painlessly
• that they would' bdidiffdrdnt from the
I . 042•.Ir- ,-, ' 34. , . - exposes the unsuspecting reader to
first 1-1/2 decades.:Th 254*theme of the Eyes on the Universe, ...i.f
P .., - ". ..036 P important lessons in history, obser-
future ,; will be Nexplbitation"
.< 7.Fi'...., rather by ISAAC ASIMOV
"':•SJI·'1 042 .:32.3 vation techniques, optics, mechanics,
than:.pxplo:atign'' and one,of:the key- - . - · .r·-37•..t. human nature, radio theory, and even
" I .
,•i«St-Trva•
•kyp•:«tz
.,•74u.gp•=•'1#•1,2•:3,15" $-8.1• 5.'.'..••• .-- 5n,3:,ret-•, 2;• ;It•onpoa••:• 036N•
bdcomes' an exploitable resourdis-,5. ndt Sw a . , .'•..--n-:' 1.-,E -P Asimor makes it a pleahure. James E.
• : ,*,ju-&t-'•:medium." · - -54",t.13*,71·432:.11 2--- 1. 7 ., .....
- 2, ...=% Actording*to-Gthis latest Asimov 'Oberg.
i I .. 1 ... :'*.dri -
E :. . «,f ' Stience, too, will benefit according - book, 'thu·hihtory of astronomy is really
F :f : · Fi'to a si)okesman for the Nationkil Science the history •of. telescopes. As soon as
1 ' 9 Foundation: "I can safely say that- each new bigger instrument wzis built,
.
:,AJ; there can be only one response for the observers saw new celestial objects ap
STELLAR FRONTIERS
HowFar Is Up?
by
Gerrit L. Verschuur
We take it for granted that the stars and galaxies
we see at night are far away, but.how do we know?
Not only that, just how distant are they? The prob-
lems involved in finding the distances to celestial
objects are some of the most fundamental and com-
plex - · and also some of the most fascinating -
in astronomy.
This particular jigsaw. puzzle contaihs many
pieces. The first important piece involves fihding the
distancd to relatively nearby objects: the sun and
planets. Modern astronomy does this by forming a
model of the solar system and of the planets' inotions
about the sun.
Planets orbit the sun according to Kepler's
laws of planetary motion. For our present purposes,
the most important of these laws is the third. Ex-
pressed simply, this law states that the square of a
planet's sidereal period ( the length of time it takes
for one circuit of the szin ) is in direct proportion to
the cube of its average distance from the sun. In
other words, if we know how long a planet's year
is - and it is fo,und simply by measuring the time
from one superior conjunction to the next - we can
easily calculate its distance from the sun in astro-
nomical units ( the average Earth-sun distance ).
Once we find these measurements, we knoiv the
relative scale of the solar system.
Today, astronomers can find the distance of
Venus from Earth much more precisely by bouncing
a radio signal off that planet and measuring the
time needed for its echo to return. This method is
called planetary radar; such experiments are carried
out in the field of radio astronomy. Since we kIiOW
radar waves move through space at the speed of
26
light, we can calculate the distance the signal trav-
eled by measuring the tinie it took for the round trip.
Using these observations, we can find the exact
length of the astronomical unit using simple. geo-
metry. This yardstick used by astronomers is about
93,000,000 miles ( actually 92,960,131 miles, give or
take a few j.
The result is more exact knowledge of the solar
system's' scale. Given these measurements, combined
with orbital calculations, we can find the exact posi-
tions in space of all the members of the solar system,
and can forecast these positions for many years into
the future. The practical application of this informa-
tion allows us to send spacecraft to.the planets.
To find distances to the nearer stars, astron-
omers make use of a phenomenon called parallax.
Its effetits can be simply demonstrated. Imagine you
are looking at a telephone pole 100 yards away,
located about 20 yards in front of a house. If you tako
a step or two to the side, the pole will appear to move
against the background of the house and will seem
to be standing before a different part of it. Next, look
at a tdlephone pole in front of a much more distant
house; this time, when you step to the side, the pole
will ai,pear to move a shorter distance before it. If
you perform the experiment on a similar arrangement
localid at such a distance that you need binoculars
to sed the pole, it will not ai)pear to move across
the front of the house at all.
The Large Magellanic Cloud (right) cohtains many of the vari-
ables known as Cepheids. Discovery of the C6pheids' period/
luminbsity law enabled scientists to find their absolute magni-
tude and distance. Measurement of the distanbe of the Ceph-
eids in the Magellanic Clouds prov6d their extragalactic nature.
Photograph by Hans Vehrenberg.
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 Ax ASTROLA
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 F•6
PHOTOGRAPHY IN ASTRONOMY
fistrophotography: fi Womani View
by
Diane L. Payton
After studying the main articles in the October
1975 issue of ASTRONOMY, my attention was
drawn to In Focus and the letter from Sharon Hoveln.
The truth of her observation that there are more
male than female astrophotographers came as quite
a shock. It does indeed seem that men have a mono-
poly when it comes to amateur astrophotographers
whose work is included in ASTRONOMY's pages!
Somehow this never registered, even though I
always read the magazine very thoroughly - in-
cluding captions and credit lines. After reading a
few issues you almost feel you "know" many of the
most frequent contributors, both by name and by
their favorite subjects.
Could it be that Sharon and I are the only
female ASTRONOMY readers who enjoy sky photog-
raphy? Eved though women represent only 7-1/2
percent of ASTRONOMY's readership, it seems un-
likely that only two aim their cameras toward the
sky.
But let's suppose only 1 in 10 of that 7-1/2 per-
cent ever shoots the sky, that only 1 in 10 of that
small number loves it enough to take the time and
effort to improve, and that only 1 in 10 again has
ever considered sharing their work with others
through ASTRONOMY. Then, combined with other
number-reducing factors, the percentage of women
astrophotographers is "astronomically small" and
it's conceivable that the resulting number could be
only two. It would make the world less lonely,
though, tb know there might ba others - some-
where - who share our interest.
Interestingly, there is a similarity here be-
tween astrophotography and general photography.
More men than women belong to general interest
32
photography clubs. Although these active women
photographers are not quite as outnumbered as
among ASTRONOMY's readership, we still hold a
one in five minority in these groups.
Why? The only thought that comes to mind is
that both astronomy ( astrophotography to a great-
er extent ) and serious amateur photography are
more technically oriented pursuits than are most
other avocations. But technical orientation alone
certainly doesn't explain why either subject should
be of less intdrest to women than men.
ASTRONOMY has been a very well received
"visitor" at many photography club meetings where
most people are not astronomy oriented. Sadly,
some would have difficulty even locating the Big
Dipper. But in spite of this, it's rare when my copy
is not only looked over with interest but also taken
home by someone who wants to look a bit deeper
than the pictures.
Particularly from an audience who are not
dedicated stargazers, maybe this says something
rather special about the iIhpressii,eriess of the mag-
azine. More likely though, some of ASTRONOMY's
appeal with the photo group can be attributed to
the fact that many of its members are ardent nat;tire
lovers, and quite naturally, much of their effort
is devoted to the many and varied facets of nature
photography. Beyond the Sierra Club or Federation
of Conservationists, it Would be very difficult to
find individuals with more concern for nature than
these, or who are more appreciative of its beauty
in all forms.
The connection between this and astronomy
may seem tenuous. But let's face it: The study
and love of astronomy and the study and love of
nature are equal and inseparable.
 1,1.Y-· 0*42 _6'L

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 Consider the sky for a moment. If only by vir-
tue of its overwhelming size,.isn't this world above
a prime candidate for study by any6ne with even a
passing interest in the rest of the world around him?
It is so unfortunate that many people, unaware of
the natural beauty surrounding them, fai1 to recog-
nize it and consequently miss much of the enjoy-
ment of the beautiful things that contribute to a
rich and fulfilling life.
Gauging audience reaction to nature programs,
many individuals express what could orily be called
amazement at the beauty and intricate interrelation-
ships inherent in even the most simple' natural things
- many of which they have been walking by all their
lives without seeing. As for astronomy, the dust they
kick up with their feet blidds most people to na-
ture's beauty in the sky above them.
Astronomy is the most exciting, beautiful and
challenging of all the fields of nature. Time spent
with the sky can be abundantly rewarding for any-
one with the eyes to see and the mind to inquire.
This can be just as true even if that seeing is coupled
with . only a basic knowledge of · the subject. It's
very easy to completely forget the clock,·then sud-
denly realize it's 3:30 a.m. and work starts in 4-1/2
hours.
Certainly, observing something as it appears
in the sky can be an emotionally uplifting encounter
with nature, and very few astronomy enthusiasts
would disagree. But studying the same thing as it
appbars on film can also be the source of both fas-
cination and wonder. So often the visual provides
only a ghost image of what is there. It seems in-
conceivable how anyone could look and not be driven
by simple curiosity, if nothing else, to want to
learn more.
To look at an object directly through the tele-
scope, then know the direct personal involvement
required to photograph it, and finally have your
own photo to compare with visual impressions -
this can also be a uniquely special experience.
It doesn't matter that the observatory photo
in the textbook shows inuch more detail. It is the
almost impossible-to-describe feeling of having
developed a oneness with what's up there - like
being on an intimate first name basis with the
heavens - that gives your total involvement with
nature through astronomy its meaning.
Yes, it's easy to look at these things with en-
tirely too much emotion and not nearly enough scien-
tific objectivity. But should this be a totally un-
common attitude? If it should be, then we - Sharon
and I -are the only women astrophotographers
among ASTRONOMY's readership.
As for me, I'm not at all hesitant to express
my emotional involvement with astronomy nor the
technical, photographic skill that all the more in-
tensifies my enjoyment and appreciation of nature.
The black and white photographs included here were
34
made the night of Sept. 6-7. This.was a particularly
beautiful,- enjoyable space of hdurs last fall - spent
first in a photo session, and then in a leisurely
hour or so just rambling through one of my favorite
parts of the sky with the telescope. The camera
was a 5.5 inch Celestron Schmidt (f/1.65) Piggy-
back mounted on the telescope. Exposures were 20
minutes using a Kodak #24R Gelatine filter with
103aE film.
The photograph on the preceding page shows
j
nebulosity in central Cygnus surrounding Gamma
Cygni - the bright star near the center of the
photo. This area is a rich and lovely part of the
/
Milky . Way that reveals its intricacies dramati- -
cally using a red filter. The camera filmholder was
turned 90 degrees to record the same region in a
different format for the top photo on the facing
page. An unseen satellite left 6vidence of its pas-
sage across the sky as a streak on the negative.
Personal preference is revealed with my crop-
ping of the North American and Pelican nebulae
( facing page, bottom left ). Most photographers
include only the ndbula alone. The incredibly dense
bright area extending away from "North America",
and the dark rifts and back#round darkness, seem
to better capture the feeling of deep sky.
Next to the North American nebula, my choice
of film and red filter combination for· the Cygnus
loop. probably leaves something to be desired for i
this subject. 103aF film - unfiltered or with only a
light yellow filter - is better able to record the
nebula's predominant blue color along with the red. 1
Past experience with this combination hasn't been
too successful from my location because the light
pollution level is too high.
The color photograph of comet Kobayashi-
Berger-Milon ( page 36 ) was originally from a GAF
200 transparency developed normally in GAF chem-
istry. I then printed the transparency directly on
Cibachrome, a comparitively new print-from-slide
process that is very appropriate for home dark-
rooms where the capability for color print processing
is otherwise impossible or limited at- best. By in-
creasing development time 30 seconds beyond nor-
mal, contrast was increased from the original trans-
parency to an equivalent of about one paper grade
in black and white printing.·Thid contrast increas- A
ing procedure is a nice feature of this new process
making it particularly applicable to astronomical
subjects where detail is often tenuous. l
True, it wouln't win praise as the world's most
detailed comet photo. It does, however, capture
perfectly my impression of this ddlicate celestial
wanderer.
My observing site lies in the center of a 2-1/2
acre field bordered on three sides by woods and a
hedgerow on the fourth - a very peaceful and
pleasant spot. It was from here that I watched the
comet many times, appearing adrift among a sprink-
ling of stars and falling slowly totard the tree-
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-1 III •111.11,1 1

by

Leo C. Henzl Jr. .'

When a new comet appears in the sky, it's
inevitable that some enterprising vendor, attuned
to popular fear and fable concerning ill effects of
cometary gas, will offer placebos of one kind. or
another in pharmaceutical jars labeled "Comet
Pills". Skip these on your next trip to the drug-
gist; but while you're there, why not pick up a few
rolls of "Comet Film"?
Local drugstores and photo retailers are sure
to have this product in stock, because any reason-
ably "fast" black and white or color emulsion is
suitable for shooting comets. Add a few accouter-
ments of ordinary snapshooting.- a 35mm or roll-
film camera with time exposure capability and f/2.8
or "faster" lens, a tripod and a locking cable re-
lease - and you have all the equipment you'll need
to capture comets ( and a variety of other celestial
objects as well ).
If you can see a comet, you can photograph it.
Here is what's in,)61*ed:
1 ) Set your lens wide open for full aperture
and infinity focus.
2 ) Set your shutter for, a time exposure ("T"
or "B" position 8n the ildicator dial ).
3 ) Frame the comet and star. field in the view- ··;';:' '.
finder, including in your composition scenic fore- th:•·.
ground material if possible.
4 ) Lock open your camera shutter long enough :G,
to record the comet, but not so long that background.,T
stars are rendered as trails.
Of these four steps, only the last - exposure - 3-•. ..
is likely to pose any particular obstacle to success. Ii: . ·
How long is long enough? This depends on the focal e'.1.
length of your lens and the declination ( or celes- 4*
tial latitude ) of the comet. With the normal 50mm lit .
focal length lenses on most 35mm cameras, the,·: i '
approximate exposure limits for pointlike star , ,;:1'
images are as follows:
Declination Exposure Time
600 to 900 30 sec. to 45 sec.
300 to 600 20 sec. to 30 sec.
00 to 300 10 sec. to 15 sec. •:,
For longer or shorter focal lengths - lenses other:4 :
than the 50mm used in this example - exposure.•:•
limits are in siinple inverse proportion. With a .
28mm wide-angle lens, for example, you can just •·:

.
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about double exposure times; with a 135mm tele-
photo, a reduction to the ratio of 50/135 is required.
Some experimentation is recommended here, as the
amount of tolerable star trailing is up to your own
judgement. How much trailing of the star images is
esthetically acceptable to you? You may wish to
sacrjfice some stellar image sharpness to record
additional extent of the comet's tail with longer
exposure times.
The greatest exposure you can use is limited by
the speed (f/ratio) of your camera lens and the
"motion" of the stars due to Earth's rotation. So
obviously, it pays to use the fastest film available.
Among color slide films, Kodak High-Speed Ekta-
chrome CASA 160 ), Fujichrome R-100, GAF 200
and GAF 500 are excellent performers. ( For addi-
tional information, see "What Color Slide Film
Should I Use?", ASTRONOMY, October · 1974.)
For black and white ph6tography, Kodak Plus-X
( ASA 125 ), Tri-X · ( ASA 400 ) and 2475 Recording
Film ( ASA 1000+, precise speed dependent on pro-
cessing ) are proven performers. Commercial black
and white processing is traditionally mediocre and
simply ·won't yield 'the contrast necessary for satisl
factory prints. So, unless you're prepared to do y6ur
own processing, color films will prove to be the more
satisfactpry choice: There is little advantage ( other
than satisfaction and economy ) in processing color
films at home.
Beware! When using color transparency films
for any astronomical purpose, always employ the
first frame th shoot an ordinary, easily identified,
terrestrial subject. .This averts the potential disas-
ter that occurs all too often when a color lab, unable
to distinguish between subject matter and unexposed
film separating frames, guesses at frame location
and allows the automatic film cutter to chop your
sky photos into random bits!
No matter how fast the film and lens, a sta-
tionary camera's limitations ivill result in a cometary
image · that is essentially underexposed. That is,
though the p6rtrait.may be a rewarding facsimile
of the comet's visual • appearance, longer exposure
would cet 254ainly
disclose tail structure many times
the extent visible to the unaided eye.
This is where guided astrophotography ( and
more sophisticated equipment) will be required.
Mount your camera piggyback to an equatorial clock-
driven telescope: This permits exposurd times that
---
A comet is faint and easily lost in light pollution or sunset glow;
a sky fog limit should.bp established to determine the duration
of exposure. These.views of comet Kohoutdk show.the effects
of sky fog: At upi]er left, in a 90 second exposure taken an hour
after sunset, ·the comet stands .out against a nearly blank
washed 6ut background. More ktars are visible at upper righi,
two hours ilfter sunset,. in:a 45 secolid exposuie. In another
photo taken two hdurs after sunset, exposure time is 10 sec-
ondsand'lessbackbround detail isseen. A five minute exposure
at 16wer right shoiys the comet: against a sky with little fogging.
Upper left: Photograph_by Steve: Rismille-r; Riglit: Photograph
bY Thomas C. Peterson. Lower left: Photograph by Larry Imper-
iale;. Right: Photograph.by,E«el•Schirmer.
are long enough to record the comet's dim outer
reaches. Your only litdits here to long, guided photo-
graphs are those imposed' by the. relative darkriess
of tlie sky at your shooting site and the comet's
own proper motion agaidst the fixed stellar back-
ground.
For city or near metropolitan dwellers, a bright,
light polluted sky is the greatest limitation. But
even if you have less than favorable sky. donditions,
all is not lost. It's easy to establish a sky fog limit
in advance of a comet's arrival by making a series of
bracketed exposures. With a stationary camera
pointed toward the area of the sky where predic-
tions indicate the comet will be best placed for
photograi)hy, make an exposure series of 5, 10, 15
and 20 minutes each at f/2.8. The ideal exposure
duration for you is just shy of the point where scat-
tered sky light begins to fog out the faintest star
trails.
If the comet had no proper motion of its own,
you could make guided exposures reaching your sky
fog limit in order to record the greatest possible
amount of detail and extent with a given combination
of lens ana film. But comets move - frequently
more than 10 degrees per day near perihelion, when
they're brightest. This translates into motion 6f 25
seconds of arc or more per minute of exposure time
- enough motion to be resolved in only: a few min-
utes by a high quality 50mm camera lens. So even
with y6ur camera clock-driyen, fair19 btief exp6sures
are necessary if you wish to photograph both comet
and stellar backdrop without · hopelessly blurring
intricate cometary structure. In spite of this, how-
ever, because comets are diffuse in the first place,
several-minute exposures witli fast telephoto systems
and medium focal length camera lenses are often
practical. As a result, the combination of fast film
and extreme speed optics allows exposures that let
you approach the sky fog limit for your astropho-
tography site. And a picture of a comet, though
imperfectly rendered, against a sharply defined
field of stars is a compelling portrait indeed.
Piggyback comet photography with very long
focal length camera lenses, or even through tele-
scopes, records only a portion of a particularly
bright comet. bark-site photos of comet Kobayashi-
Berger-Milon ( 1975h),· for example, show a tail
spanning nearly 15 degrees of sky, so the subject
simply didn't "fit" a 35mm frame through a lens of
, more than 135mm focal length. The purpose,then, of
photography with longer optfcs is to capture maxi-
inuin detail within the comet's nucleus, coma and •
ihner tail. For this task, the camera must track
the comet itself, rather than the sky. The net result
is a sharply defined comet aiainst a background of
stellar streaks.
Tracking a comet for a long exposure is a tricky
business. Ordinarily, in guided Dhotography, you
center illuminated crosshairs ·of a- high power guid-
ing dculat against theimageof a star near the photo-
39
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graphic target ( the guide star ). With the aid of a
drive corrector and precise declination control,
you strive to keep the sharply defined stellar image
centered for the duration of the exposure. If your
telescope mount is accurately aligned with the
celestial pole, declination corrections are infre-
quent, and a successfully guided photo hinges mostly
on your skill in using the drive corrector to undo
vagaries of clock.drive and atmosphere. In general,
to detect errors before they record on film, the great-
er the guiding magnification, the better.
Long exposure comet tracking is tricky, how-
ever, as it presents no sharply defined point as a
guiding reference, and its proper motion is as likely
to carry it across the sky in declination as in right
ascension. Fortunately, the nucleus of a comet often
looks starlike at modest visual magnifications, so
guiding may prove easier with a lower power guiding
ocular than customary. Again, owing to the diffuse
nature of the subject, a slight guiding error or; the
comet itself isn't likely to prove noticeable. Highly
objectionable, however, are background star trails
displaying the symmetry of a drunkard's stroll.
The ideal photo will show background stars as pleas-
ingly straight lines.
The few days of a comet's favorable appearance
are no time to practice this difficult art of guid-
ing, so why not contrive a similar set of conditions
in advance? Try deliberately misaligning your polar
Of the two objects apparently streaking across the sky in the
photograph at right, only the bright meteor actually did so. The
other is comet Kobayashi-Berger-Milon, captured in this seven
minute exposure with a 58mm lens at f/1.4. Comets have
motion of their own, as demonstrated by the superimposed
photos at left taken of comet Kohoutek on Oct. 29, 30 and 31,
1973. Left: Lunar and Planetary Observatory photograph.
Right: Photograph by Larry King.
axis a few degrees and running your clock drive
perhaps five percent slow or fast. Then choose a
fixed stellar object of cometlike appearance. The
Great Andromeda galaxy (M-31) is ideal. If you're
successful in guiding perfectly on this ( 6r a similar )
object, stars away from the center of your photo-
graphic field will look like symmetrical arcs due
to the field rotation that occurs with a grossly mis-
aligned telescope. This may take quite a few trial
runs to achieve, but it's doubtful you'll begrudge
the effort when it's time to go after the real thing.
There is no such creature as an ideal comet
photo. A simple stationary camera snapshot of a
comet poised over the skyline,of a city or mirrored
in a lake; a piggyback photo of this celestial tres-
passer buried among the star clouds of the Milky
Way; an elaborately guided portrait of the delicate
rays and filaments expelled from the nucleus - each .
has its own special appeal. Use what you have to
best advantage, and a visiting comet is sure to add a
few treasures to your photo collection. ci,

40
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Also New, The you both convenience and a range of
Criterion Scanning magnification.
Adapter Only
042 the CRITERION SPV permits you to
observe prominences all around the periphery
(Area Selector)
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This extremely useful new accessory permits rotating the eyepiece, you can easily observe
easy use of higher magnification with your the entire solar limb - not just sections.
eyepieces. When higher powers are used the
I Only the CRITERION SPV features an iris
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lines below describing your telescope:
A#qb.•.
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dic
GAZER'S GAZETTE
The Oibbous Meen
by
Henry J. Phillips
It is odd but true that as the moon progresses
from half to full phase, it grows increasingly diffi-
cult to observe. Naturally it is larger and brighter
with each successive night, but as we move away
from the terminator ( the dividing line between the
lit and unlit portions of the moon ), the details on the
surface become almost impossible to discern. Craters
turn to flat, featureless rings; mountains lose the
appearance of great height lent them by their sha-
dows; even the maria are not as sharply defined
against the background glare.
Close to and along the terminator, however,
the view is much more rewarding. When the moon is
in its gibbous phase ( the word gibbous is from the
Latin. meaning "hump" - referring to the moon's
lopsided shape at this time ), some of its most in-
teresting and prominent features move into view;
their splendor amply compensates for the growing
disappointment we may feel with objects we have
studied during the moon's earlier phases.
Craters always have a more dramatic appear-
ance when dawn is breaking over their walls; the
shadows that creep along the crater rings and floors
point up a fantastic amount of detail. When the moon
is about 10 days old ( halfway between first quarter
and full ), this fact is brought home by the jumbled
mass of craters we see near the south pole. The most
prominent of these is Tycho, probably the best
known feature of the lunar surface. Later, when the
moon is full, Tycho's system of rays will dominate
the entire surface of our satellite. But during the
gibbous phase we can give more attention to the
crater itself - and it is a magnificent one. The
slightest visual aid - even binoculars - will show
Tycho's central peak, situated almost in the exact
42
j
center of the nearly circular walls. You can see the
details of Tycho's high terraced walls in a four inch
telescope, and larger apertures will make them more
obvious. Such views emphasize the fact that every-
thing about Tycho must be expressed in superlatives.
This is also very nearly true of Tycho's neighbor
to the south, the giant walled plain Clavius. Second
largest single crater on the moon, it extends 145
miles from one side to the other and could hold the
entire country of Switzerland within its bounds. 4
Clavius is obviously h inuch older crater than Tycho,
for smaller, more recent formations are scattered
across its surface - in some · places even interrupt-
ing the large crater's walls.
Because it is so near the moon's edge, our view
of Clavius is an extremely foreshortened one; it
provides an excellent example of the effects of
libration. This is a slight swinging motion caused
by the eccentricity of the moon's orbit and the tilt
6f its axis. As a result of this motion, we can see
features near the moon's limb in slightly different
aspects during each cycle of phases. Try sketching
or photographing Clavius during two different
cycles; differences between the two will be obvious.
There are several other notable craters in this
extremely rugged area. Tycho is part of a rough
quadrilateral that contains three other large craters:
When the moon is about 10 days old, some of its most specta-
cular features swing into view - Including the great ray sys-
tems of Tycho and Copernicus. Note especially the brightly
lit walls of Sinus Iridum, nearthdnorthern end of the terminator.
A Cplestron 8 Schmidt-Cassegrain was used f6rthis 1/8 sec6nd
exposure on Kodak Kodachr6me 11 film. Photograph by John
Sanford.
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Maginus, Longomontanus ( both nearly as large as
Clavius ), and Wilhelm which is about the same size
as Tycho. All three are quite prominent on the
pockmarked surface of this section of the moon.
Moving north, we encounter Mare Nubium,
the farthest south of the moon's major "seas". Mare
Nubium does not have the well-defined borders of
some of the other maria and it rather straggles across
the area that it does cover. But there are many inter-
esting objects along its edges - not the least ex-
citing of which is the Straight Wall. This is· a nearly
straight ridge some 60 miles long, the western side
of which is about 800 feet higher than the ground to
the east. It lies along the western edge of the Mare
Nubium; although not quite visible in binoculars,
the smallest telescopes will show its threadlike
shadow, and in larger instruments you can see this
long escarpment quite well.
Three large craters are lined up northwest of
the Straight Wall outside the Mare: Arzachel, Al-
phonsus and Ptolemaeus. Arzachel, the farthest
south, is a ring plain with a high central peak, near
which is located a deep craterlet in Arzachel's floor.
Separated from Arzachel by a few miles of moun-
tainous terrain is Alphonsus, which also has a
central peak,besides several furrows and discolored
patches running along its floor. Alphonsus was the
center of some controversy in 1958 when Soviet
In the photograph above, a six inch Cave Newtonian recorded
the Straight Wall and the surrounding area. The three large
craters (top to bottom) are Arzachel, Alphonsus and Ptole-
maeus. On the opposite page, top left photo, the dark floor
of Plato is shown in marked contrast to nearby Mare Imbrium;
to the south are Mount Pico, the Teneriffe Mountains, and the
Straight Range. Both this and the accompanying shot below it
of Copernicus are 3/4 second exposures on Plus-X film at
f/83, taken through an eight inch home built Newtonian reflec-
tor. The deeply terraced walls of Copernicus are visible, as well
as a great number 01 tiny craterlets to the east. Moving south
along the terminator as shown in the right hand photograph,
the region of Tycho and Clavius is one of the most rugged and
forbidding on the lunar surface. This 2-1/2 second exposure
was made using a dark yellow filter and Kodak Verichrome
Pan film through an eight inch Celestron. Above: Photograph
by John Sanford. Opposite, top and bottom left: Photographs
by Howard Zeh; Right: Photograph by Martin Germano.
astronomer Nikolai Kozyrev, using the 50 inch
reflector at the Crimea Observatory, reported a
reddish glow and an emission of gas at the base of
the central mountain. Earlier observers had noted
such a faint glow but others have detected nothing,
and Alphonsus has remained quiet throughout sub-
sequent diligent study. Finally, Ptolemaeus, largest
of these three craters, is a rather badly eroded one
with lower walls and a smoother central plain than
the others. An observer in the middle of Ptolemaeus
would be unable to detect the outer walls due to the
closeness of the horizon, and there are gaps through
which someone could walk without finding it neces-
sary to do any climbing.

46

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, In the eastern· part of Mare Nubium, 9Pposite
the Straight.Wall, is the bright crater Bullialdus;
it is of the same species as Tycho with a high central
peak and circular terraced walls. Just north 6f the
Mare we can find Fra Mauro, near which the Apollo
14 mission landed in early February 1972. This hilly
region forms an enclave into the Mare; without this
interruption, the.' lava field would run straight
through to the crater Copernicus.
Copernicus dominaies its area just as thor-
oughly as does Tycho farther south. It is almost
the same size as Tycho - 56 miles across to Tycho's
54 - and hak the same high, terraced walls and
prominent ray systein. The only mhjor difference
between the two is Copernicus' lack of a major
mountain within its walls - although it does con-
tain several smaller ones.
During the gibbous phase, the rays of Coperni-
cus are much more noticeable than those of Tycho at
the same time. Tycho's rays are the glory of the full
moon, when they spread across almost the entire
face of the lunar, surface. Copernicus' rays are not
as long; they do not dxtend past the marelike area in
which Copernicus is located, but they are more
closely packed around the crater and - at the 10
day old phase - are ds bright as Tycho's.
Several miles northwest of Copernicus is its
"little brother" Eratosthenes. Similar in most res-
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pects to its larger neighbor, Eratosthenes has a
central peak topped with a craterlet of its own.
This is visible under good conditions with a 2.4
inch aperture telescope; larger instruments show it
perched atop its mountain and almost giving it the
look of an overturned funnel.
Reinhold and Lansberg are two more craters
visible southeast of Copernicus, with Lansberg
containing a bright central pdak. They are compar-
atively small but easily found, being placed in a
smooth area; if they were near Tycho, they would be
virtually indistinguishable from· others just like
them.
Eratosthenes is located at the eastern end of
the Apennines, the most spectacular mountain range
on the moon. With the Carpathians north of Coper-
nicus, the range forms the southern boundary of
Mare Imbrium, one'of the finest and most extensive
of the maria. Perhaps the smoothest of all the lava
fields, it is almost completely free of the large craters
which dot other maria, and most of the prominent
features in this area are situated along its edges.
At the western side of the Mare, near a small
bay named Palus Putredinus ( Marsh of Decay ),
lies Archimedes, a walled plain with well-defined
borders and a smooth lava floor. Two very deep
craters, Aristillus and Autolycus, can be found
just to the west of Archimedes; when exactly on the
47
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terminator, they look like two shining doughnuts
on the edge of the moon, as their floors are com-
pletely in shadow.
Like a sentinel pointing the way, the solitary
Mount Pico stands half-drowned in the Mare Im-
brium, just south of the great crater Plato. The
same catastrophe that formed the great lava fields
of the Mare flooded this 60 mile wide crater, which
is now one of the darkest spots on the moon. Com-
pare its floor with that of Archimedes; although both
contain smooth plains of frozen lava, the difference
in brightness between the two is striking. You will
probably need at least 10 inches of aperture to study
the tiny craterlets and color variations in the floor,
but with any optical aid, Plato is an interesting
sight.
The lava flows that filled Plato at least left
its walls intact. This was not the case with another
formation to the east - the Sinus Iridum. In its
present form, the Bay of Rainbows is an offshoot of
Mare Imbrium. But apparently before the Mare was
formed, this was an extensive walled plain much
larger than Clavius. When the Mare was created,
The above photograph shows much of the detail visible in a
six inch reflector of the area at the western edge of the Mare
Nubium. Nights of good seeing will highlight some details
more sharply. Photograph by Tim TomIjanovich.
the southern wall of this crater was broken down -
inundating it with lava and reducing it to no more
than a bay of the larger "sea" nearby. Its circular
form can still be detected; the outer wall is now
known as the Jura mountain range. When the Sinus
is just coming into the daylight, the Juras are bright-
ly lit while the bay itself remains in shadow - giving
this area the appearance. of a diamond necklace
reaching out from the Mare Imbrium into nearby
blackness.
The moon can be studied in more detail than
any other celestial object. There is no end to the
number of breathtaking sights visible on its surface
and changing in appearance daily, and every ob-
serving session can reveal something new. Be grate-
ful for the moon, not merely for the reasons of its
causing tides and solar eclipses, but for the sheer
visual beauty it provides. 4.7

48
 I.
111*
.. a.

, FOR SALE.- 6" f/8 Edmund reflector.

equatorial mount. drive, 2 1/ 25 wave
mirrot . $200.00. 2-1/ 2" photographic AUTHORS WANTED BY
equatorial.·refractor with 2" guidescope, SPACE NOW!
drive, actessories; $200.00. Both in per- NEW YORK PUBUSHER
fect condition; must. be . sold. Contact Leading book publisher seeks manuscripts of all TO EXPAND AND ACCELERATE THE
Michael Flick, 1643 Elder Ct., Ft. Wright, types: fiction, non·fiction, poetry, scholarly and THE NATION'S SPACE PROGRAM.
KY 41011. Phone (606) 331-0052. juvenile, works, etc. New authors welcomed. For THESE ARE THE ENDS TOWARDS
complete information, send for free booklet W-79.
FOR SALE - Over 200 assorted optical Vantage Press, 516 W. 34 St.. New York 10001 WHICH WE APPLY OUR STRENGTH,
precisioh lensels up to 6" diameter (most JOIN US. BECOME PART OF THE
smaller); some moOnted; includes some FORCE THAT MOVES MAN INTO
prisms. Suitable for telescopes or other METEORITE RINGS SPACE. ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP
instruments. Price: $50.00 plos shipping. A diamond polished chondritic aerolite set $10.00. FOR INFORMATION SEND
Write Ernest Franke, 3334 Woodburn Vii- in a sterling silver ring mount. Only. $28.50. S.A.S.E. TO:
lage Dr.,' Annandale, VA 22003. The only ring on Earth with a stone from SPACE NOW SOCIETY.
outer space. For free informatjon write: 1601 N. MAIN ST., SUITE 203
FOR SALE -.8" f/8 Cr•terion Dynascope, House of Rings WALNUT CREEK, CA 94596
extra heavy duty. mount. clock drive, 7"
Box 6127
circles, camera and sun screen mounts, 8
Kansas City, MO 64110
oculars. Bar16w, sun filter, ocular turret,
8 x 50 finder, sloW moti6n control, special
rotating tube. Price: $750.00. Contact ATTENTION DYNAMAX 8
Emery Hildebrand. 3838 Kdnilivorth, Ber-
wyn, IL 60402. Phone (312) 788-8839. OWNERS
Our laboratories have developed the
FOM SALE - Back issues of ASTRON- following Custom Engineered Accessories
OMY: August 1973 through December foryourtelescopp.
1975 (missing October 1973). Mint condi- A
042Light Weight Tribod
tion. Best offer. Write Alpha.Hinz, 1623 A
042NO-DU 442 Cap
Banks Ave., Superior, WI 54880. A
042
A
Right Angle Finder
POLARIS POINTER SYSTEM TM
042
LOST
FOR SALE - Celestron 8 with, custom
mahoganywedge, various eyepieces, slow
motion . control ( DC), countetbaldnce
weights for astrophotographg.1,Must sell.
Send for FREE Dynamax 8 Catalog
sheets today
IN
New, $1,050.00. Price: $625.00 plus MONEY BACK GUARANTEE ON ALL
shipping. Contact David J. Hodny, 5470
Williamsburg Way - *309, Madison, Wl
PRODUCTS
(201) 232-1786 SPACE?
53719. Phone (608) 271-2716.
ROGER W. TUTHILL, INC. Box 1086A
FOR SALE.- Dynamax 6 §chmidt-Casse- MOUNTAINSIDE, N.J. 07092
grain.With many extras. 65 books on as-
tronomy. First 3 volumesofASTRONOMY; AUTOMATIC STAR TRACKER Let us be
other tistronomy magazines. . Price: Build your own 2-axis photodlectric
$1,650.00 for all. or make separate offers. your gu,de
guiding device for astrophotography
For further details write Frank.Holderby, The I. R. Associdtes design uses sensltive
102 Wynn PI., Warner Robins, GA 31093. photomultiplibr tubes capable of tracking guide
Stars as faint as 8th magnitude using a 3-1/2
FOR SALE - Leltz trinovid 10x40 binocu- inch guide 'scope. The design features:
042
Unique reflex eyepiece permitting vieWing
lars; rated by Leitz as excellent for astro- of the guidestar on the crossed knife edges.
homical· use. Almost new, perfect condi- 042
Variable field Illumination.
tion. New, $525.00. Will .sell for $325.00. - Variable frequency motbrdrive with two axis
Write bori E. McCIeve. M.D.. 15861 Wit'i- manual override for precise positioning.
042
All solid state electronic circuitry. Please send me your home study
chester Blvd., Los Gfitos, CA 95030. 042
Recorder output for photomeiry. course catalog
Complete plans and instructions include:
FOR SALE - 8" f/7 Cbve Newtonian 042
Detailed circuit schematic diagrams.
lightweight ddluxe Astrola reflector with 0 Full.scalp artwork for printed circuit boardd.
equatorial mount, stanEI., heavy duty elec- 042Complete parts lists. name
042
Full scale machine drawings of all mechan-
tric clock dtive, Barlow, 4 oculars (6mm. kai components.
9mm; .12mm; 25mm}, ' 6 'filters. Asking 042'
Step-by step operating procedures. address
$600.00. Contact Michael:101itchel!, 1117 Send $25 for plans and Instructions to:
Perry Rd.. Chattanooga, TN 37421..Phone 1. R. Associates, Dept. AM, city state ZIP
(615) 892-9202. Deer Hill Rd.. Eebanon, NJ 08833 Accred ted Member National Home Study Council

49
 FOR SALE - First 24 issues of ASTRON-
SPACESCAPES by Don Dixon 4 OPTICA b/c CATALOGU ES OMY, all in excellent condition. Will sell
singly or as set. Best offer over $5.00
Color Slides of Astronomical Art each. Send inquiries to James J. Cook,
( 1)"Telescopes and Accessories" - complete
instruments, observational accessories, over 11308 Quinn St., N.W., Coon Rapids.
104-L•.1/.4.Mwd --
-7*i.-7-: 250 items. (2)* Astrophotography" - largest MN 55433.
61'75» c selection of astrophoto systems, supplies.
'. special films. processing materials, over 500 FOR SALE - Celestron 5 with 2 lenses,
«.8
.>K.:5 :,·-- .= items. (3) "Publications & AVA" - over 300 case. Used twice in past year. Price:
--
$334 books. atlases. maps. slides. posters. record- $400.00 or best offer. Contact James V.
« '. ings, globes. (4) "ATM - complete selection
7 4522 of goods for the amateur telescope maker. in- Cook, 1330 W. ath St. - Apt. 6, Corona,
I.4:*··./*'- tif tegrated fiberglass sytems, over 400 parts CA 91720. Phone (714) 734-4995.
-.. ..:...::rili ,-. . ....:,3 plus materialsand services. Each catalogue -
...4,5 509, all four - $1·50, for handling and post- FOR SALE - 10" f/7 Cave reflector,
P age. Send cash. check. or U.S. stamps. Also 2.4" firiderscope with heavy duty Cave
receive FREE Astronomical Events Calendar mounting. Excellent condition; 1-1/2 years
- a wealth of useful information.
old. Price: $475.00. Contact Jon M. Baker,
The Viking lander begins its powered R.R. #2. Box 78, Parker, SD 57053. Phone
OPTICA b/c Company,
descent 5,000 feet above the Cydonia (605) 297-3293.
region of Mars. From Set Twelve: Sales/Service Division
4100 MacArthur Blvd , Oakland. Calif. 94619 FOR SALE - Custom 10" f/6 Newtonian.
Project Viking. Null figured primary. very heavy duty
Slide Sets Currently Available This Quarter Of The Universe mounting with electric R.A. and Dec.
controls. off-axis guider. Photos and
SET EIGHT: The Terrestrial Planets ls OURS! details on request. Price: $700.00. Contact
(A Handbook For Bui/ding Three
SET NINE: The Gas Giants Dimensional Starmaps) Chuck Burton, 2301 E. Ball Rd., #174,
SETTEN: Other Suns Includes computercoordinate translations of Anaheim, CA 92806. Phone (714) 635-
SET ELEVEN: Origin of the Solar System the entire Gliese Near Star Catalogue ot 3930.
SET TWELVE: Project Viking 2,000 stars to 30 mode (X,Y,Z and top view
Polar) in unit parsecs scale; 30 coordinate FOR SALE - 8" Cave Cassegrain with all
All with descriptive notes and data tables. list for stars within 6 parsecs at 3"/pc and accessories. Fine condition; few months
unit parsec scale; 6 parsec exterior 1ront old. Write C.E, Carroll, 1200 Alta Vista
$7.95 per set of eight slides, postpaid. view key; complete instructions and dia-
grams for building a beautiful 3 foot 30 map Dr., Kettering, OH 45420.
NOTE: Many SPACESCAPES originals of the 80 + nearest stars within 6 parsecs;
are now on display at the Adler planetar- 30 list of the approx. 500 nearby stars with FOR SALE - 3-1/2" Questar with Cer-
ium. Write for price list and information absolute magnitude of 6 or less, the working Vit mirror, broad band and low reflection
oncommissioning yourown original. computer program; general advice in coatings, 3 eyepieces, Nikon adapter,
starmap design. This exceptional book is extension tubes, counterweight, Sanford
DIXON SPACESCAPES the result of 5 years work. $6 US ppd.
and Davis tripod. Excellent cohdition; 1
Box 723 AM Rialto, Calif. 92376 ORDER FROM:
year old. Price: $1,100.00. Contact Robert
Telephone ( 1-6 p.m. Pacific Time ) THETA ENTERPRISES, Huntley, 10.Summer St., Hyde Park, MA
714-832-0652 114 N. McKinney, Dept. AM,
Richardson, TX 75080 02136. Phone (617) 364-5634 after 6 p.m.
FOR SALE - Eyepieces of various makes

Learn <10 CASSEGRAIN OPTICS and focal lengths. Mint condition; less than
one year old. 25% off original price; post-

*,
Magic
at Home •»··= 4-
With •- lihf * A
The M, rkWilson
Course in Magic
Millions have enjoyed Mark Wilson
perform Magic on Television and in
person. Now, Mark has a home-study
course in Magic which carefully ex-
plains more than 300 tricks in over 450
pages of step-by-step instructions. Over
2,500 illustrations reveal how to make
these tricks bafiling and entertaining to
your audience.
Discover how easy it is to enter the
Wonderful World of Magic: Send $1
for your PREVIEW LESSON of tricks
from Mark's course, plus information
on the complete course.
© 1976 MWCIM 8530 Wilshire Blvd., Beverly Hills. CA
Mark Wilson Course in Magic
P.O. Box 440--AM
North Hollywood, CA 91603
I enclose $1. Send PREVIEW LESSON, •
and information on complete course. •
Name (Please print)
Street
Ci ty State
fil Astrosystems Incorporated manufac-
tures Cassegrain and Newtonian sys-
paid. Send for list. Write George Larner,
Rt. 1, Box 278, Old Greenville Rd., Staun-
tems, as well as individual componehts ton, VA 24401.
for the amateur and professional as-
tronomer. Prices start at $43 for a 6"- FOR SALE - Criterion.Dynamax 8 with 3
F/10 Newtonian system which includes eyepieces. Like new. Price: $750.00 or
an elliptical diagonal; and $110 for a best offer. Write David E. Lee, Box 2053,
Norman, OK 73069.
6"- F/15 Cassegrain system, including
secondary mirror. FOR SALE - Back issues of ASTRON-
Please write department OS-1 for tech- OMY: March 1975 through February 1976.
nical and product information. All in very good to excellent condition.
$1.00 each or $10.00 for set. Write Peter
Astrosystems Incorporated Turkowski, 8719 Gaskin Rd., Baldwins-
ville, NY 13027.
P.O.Box 520, Gardeng California 90247 FOR SALE - 10" Cave custom deluxe
Telephone (213) 325-6220 Newtonian, chrome plated, electric clock
drive, declination slow motion, 2 oculars.
Mint condition; housed in observatory.
Equatorial Price: $600.00; will deliver within reason-
able distance. Contact Anthony Vaquero,
233 Slawson Dr., Camillus, NY 13031.
Air- /7 Mounts Phone ( 3151 487-6351.
FOR SALE - 3-1/2" standard Questar
10" I.D. Rings
with accessories, standard camera adapter,
Drives · Circles DOAA power guide, illuminated reticle
1 +S *
Slow motion for both axes
eyepiece. Will ship in original drum. Price:
$1,150.00. Contadt Robert Weikel 111.
405 W. 8th St., Owensboro, KY 42301.
f
1.,
••
*
Complete mounts - 6" and 8"
Individual Castings and parts
Phone (502) 926-1054.
FOR SALE. - Celestron 5 with wedge,
tripod, camera adapters; $650.00. Simex
Age . LL Mounts start at $104.50 junior sextant; like new; $160.00. Plath
• • W,ile f., free co•ig marine sextant; used; $100.00. Write Al
0...----
Tacific Instruments
West, 5416 Vicksburg St., New Orleans,
LA 70124.
Zip P.O. Box 1876A, Pacolma CA 91331 (213) 896-3016
. continued on page 56

50
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- ,s. · h ri,<*-2. ..i h r-' .-/

SKY ALMANAC

(Ir©[Doe'E 029(180(2 IBIpele)[10'Ee[I•i•93

The brightest planets are still visible in the and presstime predictions hold out hope that it will
evening sky this month, but time is running short; be a bright and rewarding sight in the morning sky
February will be the last month for some time during a few days later. However, comets are noted for their
which Jupiter is high above the horizon. Mars and unpredictability; due caution should be taken against
Saturn also are slowly abandoning the sky; by the the possibility that comet West may be as much of
middle of spring the field will have been left clear for a disappointment as the infamous Kohoutek of 1974.
the much dimmer, outer planets. If things work out for the best, the comet should
Comet West (197511) extend brightly several degrees above the horizon
Comet West will reach perihelion on Feb. 25, just before sunrise on the 29th. It will sweep with
increasing speed through the constellations Aquar-
ius and Pegasus during the mornings of early March
FEBRUARY SATELLITES OF JUPITER ( see the accompanying diagram ). As comet West
9:30 p.m. EST, 6:30 p.m. PST rises earlier each morning, the sky background
against which it appears will be,progressively dark-
1 43120 ..
«, 4 16 43012 ' ' er, thus compensating to some extent for the loss
2 ·4302 17 43102 .. .. of magnitude it suffers as it races away from the
sun.
3 4201 •eft ... 4 18 42103 0 042 042•
042
If West does not reach its predicted bright-
4 21403 • J.' ... " 04219 4013 042 .. ness, finding it may be a challenge. Depending on
its actual magnitude, you may be able to pick it out
5 01243 •'t• • I 042-
20 41023 ..
with the naked eye if you look closely. But your best
6 10324 •6:. 21 23401 .... bet will probably be binoculars or a small telescope.
.-
Mercury
7 23014 .. .. 22 32104 ... ..
Too close to the sun for easy viewing at the
8 31204 ". 042
23 30124 ... beginning of the month, Mercury will gradually
move into the morning sky during February and will
9 30124 .. 042
24 31024 ....
reach its greatest western elongation on the 16th.
10 1304 m.. 042
- 25. 20134 ... The angular distance from the sun that Mercury
achieves ( 26 degrees ) will be the greatest for any of
11 21034 2 042i'
• 00 26 1034 ..
this year's western elongations. And yet this is an
12 111243 *... 27 10234 unfavorable time to see the planet after all; owing to
the low angle of the ecliptic, Mercury will not be
13 41023 .ly:.'... .. 28 20314· ....
very far above the eastern horizon at sunrise. If you
14 42:111 1 ... .. 29 32104 ..... have an absolutely clear view of the eastern horizon,
you might catch a fleeting glimpse of the+0.1 magni-
15 &:1210 ..
tude planet. With low angle, horizon haze and rising
Jupiter's four iar6(•st-mo6ns are so bright you can see them heat waves rendering telescopic observation use-
easily in even th* smallest telescope. Orbiting swiftly around less, you're better off waiting till April when this
Jupiter in 2.to 17 days,fth'eir p6sitiohs as viewed in a telescope innermost world will reach greatest eastern elonga-
change from night'to night. Sometimes, especially when two
moons are cl6•6.t6.6'gch oth6r, their motions become evident tion, well placed for viewing in the western sky.
with only a few'Ai«(,tes' observation. Eastern and Pacific Times
are provided; subract pr)6-hour for Central Time, and add one Venus
hour for MountainTime, First column (left) gives dates; second, Venus remains the brightest object in the morn-
the moons rdlbt!>i«to Jupiter (i =16,2=Europa, 3=Ganymede,
4=Callist6. O=lupiter's•disk);.third,' the approximate positions ing sky throughout the month; its magnitude is a
of the moons ·as'seen in an · "inverted 'image': brilliant -3.4. As its distance from Earth increases

51
 '13,- ...
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8:19.91/ 7. s 5,
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R;1:EFIR,TR:'A BErm;1 FID (IMTImmzA GI') fENI;m (21, mIR:m 611 mm fai;lim:T:Tillml /1WR:11111,#IM (SI:R•,IriN!;9, Ani'1311
ilillillisliti6 ZilID ERED (119 tjilii<CrilliE* liEIG] ( litjili* @ilmilD Elial 111iiliff flaill 021 GEimB-263'filli,

( from 119 to 133 million miles ), so does the amount The map and table above show the path of comet West (and the
of its disk that is illuminated. Venus' "waxing gib- sun) in February and March of this year. Perihelion (closest
approach to the sun) will be reached on,Feb. 25, after which
bous" phase will move from 80 to 90 percent.
the comet heads back out to space. The drawings on the op-
Mars posite page demonstrate comet West's. appearance in the
morning sky just after perihelion.' At upper left, comet West
Now well past opposition, Mars has resumed its is a bright streak in the predawn twilight; its estimated magni-
forward motion and is moving away from Earth tude at this time is about +1.0. Three days later (right), the
comet has faded slightly but is farther above the eastern hori-
again; its distance from us increases during February zon at sunrise. As comet West recedes from the sun, it will be
from 77 to 114 million miles. As it hurries away, its visible earlier in the morning in a darker sky, as shown at lower
magnitude falls from -0.2 to +0.5. High in the sky left; the star near the comet's head is second magnitude Enif
(Epsilon Pegasi). By March 12 (right), comet West will have
at sunset, it is located between the horns of Taurus faded to fourth magnitude and will be dwindling rapidly in
the bull. Mars is brighter than Aldebaran in the same size. Map and artwork by Victor Costanz6.

52
 ..'3•
0 4062
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A..../. I -" ....6. I

1 - -•.ERIPHili tilZf#•liZ•Jp•IM<All•Ar+34*913,124•tiI
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111.»•.» . 4: ili ,-'%;*,"& 5*L-'

e.,the MBRM J• &

•'•6ruary 29 March 2
6:00 a.m. 6:00 a.m.

March 7 March 12
5:30 a.m. 5:15 a.m
 A,

p,
.r.V...
74/4
. 1 .61.iri. I
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/,· ··.1•....•#lillI,•I'l
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W ': tikprv
Ili:i•lillpill. I ."Ill:*61195**&EE*;2/.:-, 42>:.s».24/74"WV/NI
constellation and:iseasily.identified. Ygu will notice
a gradual decrease iIi: the: amount of surface ·detail · ..b
visible through the telehcolid as · the plahet shrinks •
from 11.13 to 8.64 seconds of arc in diameter.
Jupiter
Jupiter is in Pisces, going down in the west at
sunset; by tha 28th, it sets at about 9 p.m. Its magni-
e
*
tude. is now.only.-1.8 ( as tompared.to -2.5 at oppo-
sition last Qctober); it has IiO competition nearby
and can be found easily. On Feb. 1, Jupiter is 488 0
million miles from .Ealth. It, too, is moving away
from us, mid its distance at month's end will be
522 million miles.
Saturn
0
The ringed planet Saturn is just past opposition,
still. mdving retrograde. Thus it .heads back iIitO
Gemini from Cancer this month, but remains near 0
these constellations' boundary line. It is high in
the east.at sundown and visible most of the riight. d
Altliough it is receding from Earth, its distance
does .not change greatly and it shines at a steady i:

magnitude 0.0 for most of February. Rhea, Saturn's 3(

second liirgest moon ( magnitude 9.8 ), will be well
placed for observation ori the. e*enings of Feb. 8, 9
/-
17 and 26, as it re•ches its greatest elongation east
of. the planet. ( See "Locating Saturn's Moons", page
36, January 1976.)
Uranus, Pluto
On the evening of th6 10th, Uranus is stationary
in. the · sky and begins its retrograde motion as it
approaches opposition ·later this year. Located al-
t:·4
*-.e-,...:.',i....=1&.1 29& ,• 499#Obbwad,"6./al...
4 '14%44*94&9480**NUAN
..,
Inost:exoctly on the Virgo-Libra border on the iOth,
it moves farther back into Virgo during the rest of
.
the month.
The dim, distant Pluto is also engaged in re-
*.-9
Al
036'.-
r. e e., 1." ..
.. 4

trograde motion during Feljruary as it creeps·toward

a March opposition date. For· those who are avid
Pluto hufiters, it can be found not.far from the star
Elisilon Virginis, which is hikh in the south at about
3 a.m. 44

The lunar eclipse of Nov. 18; 1 975 produced a flurry of aciivity .'
among photogiaphers. .Thefeelipse· was nearing'.its end at J
moonrise over North Anierica; and man!i pibtures .:- including · '.4· r.
the seven second.exposur«-bitob.left 'T were taken ilgainst
a fairly..light sky. The 20:-66cond:exposure beloW it produc6d fl.
an even brighter backbroub-di'Tlid moon's gradual 6m6rgdnce 4 -1*
from Ebrth's shadow ;can,!id seen 14 th-e picture at lower lefti
the effect was produced life.xposing the:film for 100 minutes.
Near the end of the edlipfe;lthe: moon was..visible through
clouds ov6r· Florida; diposure :time was.four.· heco.nds..An
eight ihch home built, Newto'nidn was itsed for the 30 seconti .
exposurd just bdlow it;,considefa6le detail on'.tlid' shiidowed
sdifbce is visible. A. ihiee ihch--Unitron refractor.and ye116w
filter ciptured the :mo6-n fortwo. niinuies dear totality. The
photo at bottom right r6•6ihid tivo seconds throOgh a Ce16stron
8. A :one seqond expeur'©lifough.an eight inch home built
Newtonian yielded·the.picturd at:top right on this page, while
10 second exposures at10 minute intervals brought tbe moon
from totailty to noar:edliBsele•d'.Opp.osite: Left, top. th,bot- -
tom: Ptiolographs:by BilliMiles,:Jeffrey Notkowitz. Ralph Winl
rich. : Opposite: Right,1.top,ito bottom: P.hotographs by, Walt '
Zalph; James K. Rouse•Stahlep H. Bonney, David Healy. Top
right: Photograph by. Bob' Kimniel; Bottom right: Photograph
b9 George F. Donnellan:

55
 /-...

$555 fe A 1.
ding motor drive
and se'Iing circles.
941 More Seeing 11I continued from page 50

= « per Dollar 1 FOR SALE - 3-1/2" Questar Duplex with

...- I -1.
i.. Get Familiar With the Eight Inch Discoverer •,
And You Won't Settle for Anything Less :•
042
Outstanding Optics - Unsurpassed by
any other eight inch telescope.
042
Precision Engineered - Exclusive sidereal
rate drive - Direct reading circles.
For complete details, send 20¢ (stamps) for a comprehensive
brochure. We will include, free, a descriptive Messier catalog
field tripod, table tripod, oculars, etc.
Seldom used; all in mint condition. New,
$1,800.00. Price: $1,300.00 plus shipping.
Contact Gary J. Moors, 2517 Dunks Ferry
1 Rd., Apt. C-307, Cornwells Heights, PA
' 19020. Phone (215) 638-0975.
1 FOR SALE - 10" f/5.6 reflector; Superior
i Optics; glass tube; electric powered

comere brocket and

declinotion control
00.-
optional at extra
C 'tl_
- Contact J.P. Muth, 2 Pinecrest Dr., Hunt-
; 14, A.
. York. Priced from $525.00
ASTRONOMY Volume Files
Cust(,in designed magazine Volumt
Files ate now available for ASTRON
OMY subscribers. These sturdy, washable
cases have a rich brown leatheretti
finish, and ASTRONOMY is embossed
in elegant gcild on the spine. Each
case hc,Ids 12 8()-page issues ( one
complete year), and comes with
of over 100 spectacular deep sky obiects.
THE OPTICAL CRAFTSMEN, inc. :t
focusing, declination, clock drive; Criter-
ion heavyduty mount; 4-1/4" f/10 reflector
20962 Itasca St., Chatsworth, Calif. 91311 / Phone (213) 341-5231 • piggyback on 10" with off-axis mount.
"Serving Amaieurs ond Professionals since 1958" Price: $675.00 plus shipping and crating.
ington, WV 25705. Phone (304) 736-5946.
FLARE!
The DayStar 442 Hydrogen FOR SALE - Dynamax 8,6 eyepieces,
solar filter, counterweights, porro prism,
Alpha solar filter and the Cel- achromatic Barlow, Pentax adapter. Pur-
estron telescope produced chased June 1975. Price: $750.00 plus
these results. This flare was shipping. Also 30 x 70 binoculars; $55.00.
* photographed on August 21,
Contact Joe Ogiba, P.O. Box 421, Somer-
6 ville, NJ 08876. Phone (201) 359-7646.
1975 by Edwin Hirsch of New
FOR SALE - "Star Trek" .gum trading
cards. Very rare; printed in color in Eng-
including bandpass tuning. land in 1969. Price: $20.00 or highest
i. Filter mounting accessories offer above $20.00. State offer in writing
., to John Patulak, 295 Arnold Ave., Perth
available.
* ' Del N. Woods
Amboy, NJ 08861.
P.O. Box 1290 FOR SALE - Miranda Sensorex 35mm
Pomona, Calif. 91766 camera and Bauer E-252 electronic flash.
714/629-0600 Includes 3 lenses ( 28mm, 50mm, 200mm );
New York area: 914/786-3738 Series VII, screw-in filters; El aut6 sensor;
HV battery pack; cases; extras. $300.00
for complete outfit. Contact Warren Spi-
'rr./.'ll.I.• vack, 6625 Avenue M, Brooklyn, NY
11234. Phone (212) 763-7237.
Advertise it free in Astro-Mart.
°nly $4.95
WANTED - 4" to 8" RFT for less than
4 4 95 •,,1,·h 036r
1 •514,(Mi. 6 i 036r
524 1*} $100.00. Preferably with altazimuth mount.
Write John T. Cathey, 12522 LaAventura,
San Antonio, TX 78233.
WANTED - Celestron 8 tripod, astro-

a slip of 64 )Id signature foil
tc ) t'ill in volume number
and year, Keep the World's
Most Beautit'ul Ast ron omy
32'raz,t;t., 1711:,lt'Is Year
inipressive addition
to y<)ur library.
To order, simply fill in and mail the aitached coupon today!
Ug' th i•,1(idi·-ONLY k )r Vt,lumt· F :1*, c Ircli·r, .in(j ( •irrf,•p, in(li·nci· rc,garding thi,ni .
ASTRONOMY Volume Files
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Philadelphia, PA 19141
Enclosed is $
1 for $4.95
Name
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City
U • A i,rd(·r. ( in/, Al/(i\, i iit·,·A. i'(ir (/i·/i,m
Fu// tikint,v bac·k guarant,4,
X---«
camera, accessories. Correspondence
with persons interested in astronomy.
Also information on filar micrometer, spec-
troscope. All equipment must be in good
- ,i
condition. Write Mike Corn, 861 Cypress
Dr., Boulder, CO 80303.
=
WANTED - Back issues of ASTRON-
OMY: Septemberthrough December 1973;
January, February, August 1974. Must be
in excellent condition. Write Dan Cramer,
125 5th St., Chatfield, MN 55923.
WANTED - Celestron 8 tripod, either
modified or unmodified. Will pay up to
$100.00. Write Dave Lyon, 89 Colony
Manor Dr., Rochester, NY 14623.
in payment for the following ASTRONOMY Volume Files:
1 for $14.00 6 for $24.00 WANTED - Correspondence from star-
gazing enthusiasts, astronomy clubs in
western Oklahoma area. Write John B.
Mast, R. R. #2, Box 41, Weatherford, OK
73096.
WANTED - First 21 issues of ASTRON-
Statp 7ip OMY; must be intact and in excellent
condition. Will pay $100.00. Please write
to confirm sale before sending magazines.
Write John H. George, 3018 Esquire Ln.,
Garland, TX 75042.
 , .
ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY BUY YOUR BASIC COUNTDOWN
- RECORD ·BOOK- CELESTRON:'
eASTROLOO.
Sor 8

£66 CEAK] IAT FULEY 11,0001Rm. UqL Saf FROM TUTHILL

Concise organizid log fortablilating
all pertinent astrophoto.exposure data.
STOCK DELIVERY'
042
Dew resistant pages
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Comb bound
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360' swing open bindings ..... :t.1-····...·'. '····:·.»·A
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$4.25 ( inct. sbipping)
Outside U.S. add $1.00 'CA add 6% tax
i21 3*10-%54#M
'2 ...•......t to October 23,1976,
·1 · 1 -, ·. 3.1
ASTaOLOB re.' 1 :... 2.
has begun!
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Model 1210 - Price $48.00. Send stamped, self- Why not gild your lily with some of our Custom is now planning a Deluxe 13-day
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tour to Australia including the total
1. SETTING CIRCLE ILLUMINATORS (not solar eclipse of October 23, 1976.
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Both for $75.00 and
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num tube, 2-3/4 degree field. $75.00 matching grey finish. Heated or unheated
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eyepiece, 6- by 26" aluminumtube. $110.00 3.7 X 50 RIGHT ANGLE FINDER Large
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042transfers and tips
ion eyeplece holder. 40mm extra-wide-angle adjustment for crosshairs.
Kellner eyeplece. 25-mm Kellner, 9mm Ortho- From $37.
scopic, and 2X Barlow lens. $165.00 4A.POLARIS POINTER SYSTEMW We modify Estimated cost: under $1500
Rich-fields are unmounted and sent f.o.b. your wedge. Makes tripod leveling unnec- per person - dpuble occupancy
essary. Lets you adjust for pole alignment
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SUPERIOR. OPTICS 48.00 IT YOURSELF POLARIS POINTER Send deposit of $50 per person,
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5., MICRO-DRIVE 442 A Right Ascension gear
a reducing assembly. Easily mounts with Itinerary tentative - subject to change.

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Ltint !'urgetI 1
ASTRONOMICALCALENDAR 1976
: . .allen screw. Gives 10:1 reduction for
i. · smooth small positlon movements of R.A.
·. ··manual motion. No interference with
clutch. Only $44.50
S.E.E. (Solar Eclipse Expeditions)
Suite 1212,1680 N. Vine St.
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Ottewell 0Sponsored bv Furmati 6. ADJUSTABLE CELESTRON TRIPOD
University and the Astronomical League -- (32"-40" tri height) Permits seated viewing.
l'Uy Only $174.00 0Enclosed is $ deposit. Please
* '30 universities.
charts and 'i Orwe modify your tripod legs. Only $28.00 reserve spaces for the 1976
eclipse tour.
.. ri:h in
'4 ci,untries anu 7. HANDY CARRYING HANDLE. Heavy
Usea in - See
diagrams. 56 9 ,. . Duty. Eliminates awkward handling and
Sttel fuller advertise,nent in the worrying about dropping your valuable
OPIease send more information
Uar 4 10 Or scope. Only $12.95 immediately.
December issue We'invite your inquiries. Send for FREE NA IVI F
3495 postpaid 103.96 each 12)r '96/3 catalog. SATISFACTION GUARANTEEb
illore) from Physics Department. Box Itical
67. OR YOUR MONEY BACK.
FurmanUniversity,Greenville.S.C./1"'
_ AnnRFRR
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checks i,arahle 1(,Astrc
ROGER W. TUTHILL, INC.
.ake t' C · • Box 1086A'
Calendar. Zip
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57
 "fiti •' 8.- </4- ' /4#. -..»:.:IiI., .,0 , "'llillilli.
'14 ,*3·*>..,;• ..IM- WANTED - Vehrenberg"Atlas.Stellarum"
( north). Please state price and condition.
Write Ben Hudgens, 505 Woodstone Rd.,
Clinton. MS 39056. '
WANTED - Scieoce club at boys paro-
IA % - •••,"ftilii'L...-44 •:O24'd,• EY
chial high school seeks donation of tele-
scope or kit. Limited funds available.
r... I- - Ark •2• &3• Write Rick Johnson, Science Department,
1., Central Catholic High School, 2401 S.E.
,
Stark,'Portland, OR 97214.
WANTED - 35mm SLR camera body in
useable condition. Alsq August 1974 issue

i.ir&09• of ASTRONOMY. Write David Lee, 5501

W. Washington, Apt.' 248, Groves, TX
77619.

ASTRONOMY'• •Im»• 1 eal#

WANTED - Coftespondence with per-
sons interested in organizing an astronomy
club in the Lebanon (NH) area. Contact
Stanley J. Lopata, Box 246, West Lebanon,
NH 03784. Phone (603) '448-2509.
Guide to Back Issues WANTED - Correspondence from per-
Reader interest in back issues of ASTRONOMY magazine is higher sons ( ages 13-18}interested in UFOs,
than evet. As a result, our stoBk of back issues- is swiftly dwindling. astronomY, Bermuda Triangle, science
Below is a guide to ASTRONOMY back issues that are still available: fidtion..Write Steven Fennell. Rt. 1. War-
For your convenience it is updated monthly; issues not listed are renton, VA 22186. '
depleted.
WANTED - Correspondence from astron-
When ordering, please clearly state quantity, volume, number, omy, science fiction and/or military en-
nnonth and year for each issue ( first issue was August 1973 ), and include thusiasts. · I have RV-6 Dynascope. Write
payment with your request. If issues ordered are no longer available, Mike Navjoks. 108 Framingham Rd..
unless you instruct us to forward a refund or substitute issues, we will Maelboto, 'MA 01754.
automatically extend your subscription appropriately. WANTED - Professional astrologer/
astronomer seeks correspondence with
Sl.50 per copy
persons ( 15 to 24 years old ) interested
U.S. - Add Sl.00 per order in astronomy, astrology, UFOs, extra-
Canada/Mexico - Add S2.00 per order terrestrial intelligence and communica-
All Other Foreign - Add $2.50 per order tion. For research project. Write Marc
Vito, 652 W. Oakdale, Chicago, IL 60657.
Vo. 1, No. 1 - August 1973 Available Vo . 3, No. 7 - July 1975 Available
Vo. 2, No. 3 - March 1974 Available Vo. 3, No. 8 - August 1975 Availible WANTED - October 1973 issue of AS-
Vo. 2, No. 4 - April 1974 Short Supply Vo. 3, No. 9 - September 1975 Available TRONOMY. Must be in excellent condi-
Vo. 2, No. 6 - June 1974 Available Vo. 3, No. 10 - October 1975 Available tioh. Will pay $10.00. Contact David Yoh.
Vo . 2, No. 7 - July 1974 Available Vo. 3, No. 11 - November.1975 Available Rt. #1, West 'Uniori, SC 29696. Phone
Vo. 2, No. 9 - September 1974 Available Vo.3, No. 12 - December 1975 A*ailable (803) 638-2387. '
Vo . 2; No. 10 - October 1974 Avai'0ble Vo.4, No. 1- January 1976 Available WANTED ·- Back issues of ASTRON-
Vo. 2, No. 11 - November 1974 Available Vo. 4, No. 2 - February 1976 Available OMY:' September through December
Vo.3, No. 1- January 1975 Available Vo. 4, No. 3 - March 1976 *NYP 1973', January, February, August. Decem-
V6.3, No. 2 - February' 1975 Short Supply Vo. 4, No. 4 - April 1976 °NYP ber 1974. Will pay any reasonable price.
Vo . 3, No. 5 - May 1975 Available Vo. 4, No. 5 - Mdy 1976 °NYP Contact E.J. Zahumensky, 149 Tecumseh,
Vo . 3, No. 6 - June 1975 Available Vo . 4, No. 6 - June 1976 °NYP Montevallo, AL 35115. Phone (205) 665-
Vo . 4, No. 7 - July 1976 *NYP 2457.
INFORMATION WANTED - On theor-
* Not Yet Published etical or experimental work on interplane-
Please allow at least four (4) weeks for delivery. tary or iriterstellar propulsion and general
design of possible future 'space probes.
Rosemary L. Pickart,
Als6.where. to obtain "Catalog' of Near-
ASTRONOMY Magazine by Stars" by Wilhelm Gllese. Write Louis
757 N. Broadway, Suite 204 J. Boshan, 1310 Poplar St.. Wausaukee,
Milwauk I 53202 WI 54177.
C 1<i ).776-26 9-- INFORMATION WANTED - Professional
and amateur pbservations of comets in-
5/ 4 04 (.9 --
cludirig m•ignitude estimates and tail,
-,41:. ·· ··, ..ib. '11 , / comaand nucleusdimensions. Both photo-
--'·.Z•:9*'< graphic and .visual data welcome, but
. ...·r:.Ji 11-.4#;. 2 44 -'..
os- please specify. Write Gary W. Kronk,
6< 9- R.R. #4, Box 149, Edwardsville, IL 62025.
..
INFORMATION WANTED - Am working
- •• A S'i' lt()NO Al\' On tompu-terized ephemeris. Need most
reliable solir system orbital data avail:
AST RON C) Al Y able from researchers. Write Neal Maia-
shock, 915 N. 48th. St. - #17. Omaha,
NE 68132.
•.. .#.27•.11\ 't14%'ft:•it:it-li•98:Ilf A
"61""i•'BL#* *•4,$•#Ae;LA&Pjl F> INFORMATION AVAILABLE - Service
for "Star Trek".' Sond questions with
SASE to Eric..J. Anderson. Star Trek
Welcommittee. 906 2nd St.. N.W., Ankeny,
IA 50021. '

58
 CLos•e AIr*G-• & -Photographs
A i\!lew Calendar.Concept.From.ASTROWIOMY
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A collection of ·ASTRONOMY's most Exciting ASTRONOMY 1976 Sky Al-

dynamic, full color art and photographs, that's manac is designed so the subjects
what ASTRONOMY 1976 Sky Almanac is. Features may be framed (instructions are
The pictorial beauty of black holes, exploding All
042 Full Color provided). Included is a description
stars, distant planets, interstellar gas clouds of the art or photograph, a monthly
Frameable
042 Art &
are all displayed with the distinctive hallmarks night sky map, and an illustrated
Photographs
of quality, beauty and'timeless relevance that almanac of special events or in-
o Maps of the Sky
ASTRONOMY magazine is noted for. This structions on locating planets, meteor
o Monthly AImanac
series of 12, highly ·varnished reproductions showers, etc.
is a full color slice of the universe itself - a Highly
042 Varnished
For Timeless
treasured collector's item that will keep its Beauty only $5.95 each
value long after 1976 has passed.
1976
042Calendar ( Includes Postage and Handling.)

ASTRONOMY, 757 N. Broadway, Suite 204, Milwaukee, WI 53202

 ·*·i,WM ·I·- 036.,

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D•mand has increased daily for ASTRONOMY to reprint "The Zeta Reticuli Incident"
by Terdncd Dickinson which documents the astronomical implications of a famous UFO
incident. Since the issue in which it originally' ®feared - December 1974 - is no**Iut
of print,,ve «re proud to offer the article .s a full color reprint. ... 4't,f • 1
'11 -1 5.1, .'
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Apsilf. 'f.
...kf•F 'r....
* "The Zeta Reticuli Incident" by Terence Dickinson.. - iys:'....
4, ... .A:Oplr..1.'f...
The Age of Nearby Stars" by Jeffrey Kretsch. .... '036
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** 'fCenter.for UFO Studies Established", Astro-News, March • . 1#9'09.p#r:
.+441
4 1974.
avER':'AA
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* Commentary, Discussion & Rebuttals from In Focus by Terefice
- , .%14,2..'•Ilit•':Ame"··.·'
Dickinson, Jeffrey Kretsch, Carl Sagan, Steven Soter, Robert .'*•/:0, I. ''WS-,I•/4•;.1
'4· 042'·•1;;:-Il:···'··=t
&.-''
Sheaffer, Marjorie Fish, David Saunders and Michael Peck.

. 2 2; Foimat similar to ASTRONOMY magazine.

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Latest News From'the World of Astronomy

Pioneer 6 is 10 Years Old

On Dec. 16, 1975, NASA's Pioneer 6 measured the sun's corona, returned Its sides are covered with solar energy
had been circling the sun and returning data on solar storms, and measured the cells, and divided by a narrow circular
good data for 10 years. This is believed tail of comet Kohoutek. It has made band with openings, from which four
to be the longest operating life ever discoveries about the solar wind; solar experiments and four orientation-and-
attained by an interplanetary space- cosmic rays, and the suns' magnetic timing sun sensors look out during the
craft. I 042 field - all three of which extend be- full-circle scans the spacecraft makes as
Officials are delighted with this Yond the orbit of Jupiter. , it rotates.
performance, especially because Pio- Pioneer 6 and its three sister space- Pioneer 6 has three antenna booms
neer 6 design specifications originally craft, Pioneers 7,8 and 9 ( also years 120 degrees apart providing its own
called for a minimum life span of only beyond their designed six month lives ); data handling, temperature control,
about six months. make up a network of solar weather communications and power system. It ·
Since launch in December 1965, the stations, generally moving millions of contains more thah 56,000 parts.
140 pound Pioneer has, like a tiny miles apart from each other. All of the Five of the six scientific instruments,
planet, circled the sun almost 12 times, current Pioneers - 6 through 11 1- · • and all other systems aboard Pioneer 6,
covering a distance of just over six bil- wdre designed as rugged, relatively continue to'work well. The six instru-
lion miles. During its 10 year life, simple, low cost spacecraft, and all are ments include: a magnetometer ( of
the spin-stabilized, solar-powered craft ·, still operating. They were built, by which a key part has worn out ) to
has radioed back measurements 24, TRW Systems and are managed by measure the sun's magnetic field; two -
hours a day from all sides of the sun. NASA's Ames Research Center, Moun. instruments to study' the million mile
Pioneer 6 made the first detailed - tain View, Calif. , ,, per hour solar wind of charged particles
measurements of the interplanetary Pioneer 6 is drum shaped, about 35 which constantly streams from the sun;
medium. The workhorse spacecraft has inches high and 37 inches in diameter. a radio instrument to measure large
scale segments of the solar wind be-
tween Earth and the spacecraft; two
cosmic ray instruments that study the
high energy particles that originate
in·the sun.
An experiment in celestial mechanics
has used the spacecraft itself to mea-
sure the Earth-sun distance, plane-
tary orbits, and relativity data. Since
.-=,, Pioneer has no energy inputs, but is,
..'*
powered by its solar cells and stabi-
'' · , . liz.ed by its frictionless r.p.m. spin, it
easily shows small gravity effects for
»i, ' » these, measurements.
• 4 Pioneer 6 helped to chart the solar
wind and the twisting magnetic fieldh
'- · threading it, plus the streams of high
energy particles that follow the fields
· · • out from the sun, All these phenomena
co-rotate " with . the sun every 27 days.
Masses of such data have allowed bet-
ter understanding of the solar corona
( from which the solar wind "boils off"
· into space ), as well as the sun itself,
for Pioneer has investigated particles
of the sun that have been thrown off
./-,6,* "from its surface. When the spacecraft
moves behind the sun ( relative to
Pioneer 6, which recently marked its 1 Oth year in space, is shown here id an artist's
renditi6n. NASA artwork. Pioneer 6 continued on page 64

61
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 Pioneer Aims for Saturn 1st Extraga\actic
'..
Pioneer 11 successfully · completed
its most.risky course-change maneuver
on its historic trip to the ringid plihet
Saturn, according to NASA · officials.
.. : all of which will lye less -difficult than covered the first pulsar outside the
Controllers of - the _spacecraft in-
- creased its velocity.by 67 m.p.h. to ,
ensure that Pioneer can, take one · of
the best options for a close flyby of
Saturn: to pass between the rings and
. thd planet itself, or to come in beneath
the rings and continue upward outside
of them.
The controllers had to cut off com-
munication with Pioneer, which was
287 million miles from Earth, for se4-
eral hours. During this time, the space-
craft- followed previously giyen com-
mands to change position, fire its thrus-
ters,,and then reposition itself to point
its .antenna back t6ward Earth and
resume communications. This is the
only maneuver during whkh contact
with Pioneer was broken. · mass equivalent to that of the sun
The main risk of the maneuver was
that if problems had developed while
Pioneer and its high-power, narrow-
beam antenna were turned 25 degrees
away from Earth, controllers would
have had no information from the
spacecraft about its status. They. could
· have radioed commands to correct,any-
thing that had gone wrong, but would
have had to guess the proper correc- •
tion to make. ( A series of such contin-
gency commands had been prepared.)
Though Pionee-r 11, has proven very
relidble, the operation of firing thrus-
ters and making position maneuvers
NASA Launches
With the NASA launching of another
satellite in its Explorer series, scien-
tists are continuing close 'scrutiniza-
tion of Earth's atmosphere. A major
part of Exploar 55's duties will be to
investigate the ozone layer in the equa-
torial region of Earth's atmosphere. - satellite last spring by NASA as pa.rt of the atmospherd.
An ozone detector called a back-
scatter ultraviolet ( BUV ) spectrometer
aboard Explorer 55, NASA's newest
Atmosphere Explorer ( AE ) satellite,
will provide information on the ozone
layer in the area of the globe between
latitudes 20 degrees north and 20 de-
grees south.
Immediately after - the instrument
. was activated on Dec. 4, 1975, control-
lers at NASA's Goddard Space Flight
Center in Greenbell, Md. began re-
ceiving data on a -checkout basis. The
BUV spectrometer became fully opera-
tional within the month. ' in the ozone cover, and subsequent in- to the other. 4-
without communications could have Pulsar Discovered
caused difficulties.
There will be several more mid-course · Naval Research Laboratory sdien-
maneuvers over the next three years, tists in Washington, D.C. have dis-
the niost' recent one. Scientists will Milky Way galaxy. Located in the
need to track the , satellite for four Small Magellanic Cloud at a distance of
months to determine the exact effects about 200,000 light-years, it produces
of the 'velocity - change on Pioneer's x-ray pulses 84 times per minute •ith
trajectory to Saturn. But the probabil- a force about a million times as strong
ities are high that the target change was as the sun. -
accurate: -
The discovery was made with_'data
Pioneer 11 will obtain the first close-
obtained from. an x-ray telescope used
up photographs of Saturn and its
during the Apo,116/Soyuz mission last -
brightly lit rings when it reaches.thg Ju19.. ·· · - -
planet in 1979. It flew past Jubiter in
December 1974, photographing tha£ - The pulsar, designated SMC-Xl, is
planet's polar regions for the first coupled to a'blite giant star to form a
time.'Recent picture taking has shown binary pair - the members of which.
that its electronic ctimera is still work- . revolve about each other in a 3.89 day
-
ing well. Its current trip from Jupiter period. Gaseous matter is believed to
to Saturn spans 1.25 billion miles, flow from the giant to the tiny, rapid-
6cross the solar system. ly spinning neutron star/pulsar. Be-
' cause the neutron star may contain a
Dilring the Jupiter flyby, Pioneer ,-
tra*eled faster than any previous man
made object ( 107,000 m.p.b.). Its cur- c-ompressed to a diameter of only ten
rent speed of about 40,000 m.p.h. -is miles, it possesses an enormous gravi-
due to th6 boost in velocity it,received tational attraction nbar its surface and
a niagnetic" field a. trillion times as
from Jupiter's grayity and orbital mo- -
. powerful d EArth's:
, tion, Becaude of this high speed, Pio-
ncer 11 has already covered 1/3 the ilis- ' The wind of gas from the companion . .
thnce between 'Jupiter and Saturn -, becomes a. hurricane as' the neutron
about 400 million milei. ' star pulls matter through its magnetic
lf officials and scientists decide to and gravitational funnel- dozvn to - its ·
- aim Pioneer inside the-rings, it should · magnetic poles. The temperature of, the
also get a close look at Titan, Saturn's infalling gas rea•hei a billion degrdes
sixth moon, en route. Titan, larger as it piles up over - an area of about a
than the blanet Afercury, is one of -the square mile at each pole. Intense x-rays, .
liest candidates in the solar system for produced in the superhot gas Aurround-
harboring life..,s, ' . , ·, ', ing the pulsar, flash out, into space
and past Earth like lighthouse beams.
Although two other pulsars have been
Explorer found in binary systems located in the
Milky Way,.the newly discovered-star -
- in the Small Magellanic' Cloud is tlie
fastest and most powerful of the three.- 042KS'
Six other instruments aboard the Ex-
plorer, which was launched Nov. 19, -
already had- been activated, and five crease in the' amount' of · ultra»iolet
more were turned on after the BUV light striking Earth, could lead to. an
spectrometer went - into operation. increase in. skin. cancer, as : well as .
The ozone detector was added to the changes in the average'temperature of
the agency's program to measure the Information returned from the BUV
atmospheric distribution of ozone on a - spectrometer in conjunction with th-e
global scale. The etluatorial region is other experiments abdard Explorer 55
th6ught to be one of the most active may represent a major step in under-
regions of ozone production in the ht- standing the interaction of upber at-
mosphere. - mospliere compbnents with ultraviolet
The ozone layer is a»planetary cover light and the resulting'irilpact on the-
that shields Earth from m6st of the ozone layer. -
sun's dangerous ultraviolet radiation. In addition to ozone information,
Scientists have expressed concern that instrumentation aboard the AE satel-
man made pollutants are bdilding up - lite is designed to return data on
in the atmosphere at such a rapid rate Earth's heat balance and energy con-
that they will begin depleting the ozone version mechanisms, and on the flow of
layer before 1980. A serious reduction heat or energy from one hemisphere
63
 - - . - ..- -• •. ...•••., 036...t..'..:
... ..i•,;..•440£*VLMEb:
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. s.•' '·,:,•i:."516,••,•'Agl•:•'•'1
":Yit,».:1*i . 'st E

soviet *8ce shots Pulsars May Be Sulid•fliilili •-

Point to Manned The Ihysterious stars khown as pul- , ,• To m'hke .their.: measurements,. rthe j,< ':ir i
sars are probably fluid 1.-or, inorefre- Columbia' scientists£,desig-pe•»p,ecial'.;•.2- - 3. ,
Interplanetary Flight cisely, superfluid, :'i ··.' • .'. • C , - x-ray detection devices-that.were placed: ''' r>t.
A superfluid is mKiter in •n'exotic' aboard rocket&'laiiR&1123#· I .'...8..©:. I No'vdmberr..
. - ..0,
state which flows -Nvithbut.,frictioni. and December 1974:,Asla,fi.rst:stdp in ..'•4-,-
- once stirred int6 motioni-a superfluid their temperature-taking:•116(8.Kad to '.i.-,
The flightA of Soyuz-20 and Cosmos- will swirl forever. Helizim at a tempera- distinguish x-rays giv.«6ff:byuthe pub i * ,:S
782 late last year underline the USSR's ture near absolute zero'is the only such sar itself from thdse, emittdd':bgilthe , 1 .' . -6.-
... .. ..... . I. '-'
strong inter 254st. in long-duration mattet known on'Earth; it defies drav-- entire nebula. , ":',:92r 042,:'.-, 4". 2 ....1.» ... ,-:
manned and unmanned space missions. . ,-, " -J'. -, '2,1. ''.'i· *" , '. -.-. ':
ity by climbing ovi•r the rim of its con· Scientists took 2 ad*anthge•35}f faii .-• t.
They point up , the · seriousness of ·
tainer. - ·.7 ,- -· - 'eclipse· of the Crabl'-lieli•110'469.-th'e. -- ·:.,1
Moscow's announceil intentions to
make a ' manned:interplanetary flight - Columbia University astrophysicihts -moon 1. an' event which ,'talils":Dla66 .- , _-3
as soon as possible. have determined byx-ray studies that s about every 11 years and *A•-the first ·I '., A . --
the surface iemperature'of the- pulsar ' siiice Dulsars were disc6vefed•·iA31967.' '..,3 .
Soyuz-20.wah Plie latest in- a series at the center of the Crib nebula is no - At the moment the' moon 6416ck64. tlie ·· •• 6.: - ,,
of about 50 spacecraft of that type mord than nine million: degrees Fahren- . pulsar's rays, emissiohs 'f•i#.i the· redt-' 2._I'-
( unmanned, test flights were called - heit. Such a low temperature rules put . of the nebula alone,,werd).frecford.ed:. 0362.,-
"Cosmos" · or, -"Zond"). This Soyuz any state of' matter other than super-• When the eclipse ended ad)11{rddibtio-8 . 31,·,,
4
was sent into, brbit,Without a cfew td fluidity in this spinning ndutron star. .from the pulsar was aghin part ·fif,: thf 1· 1 R.
test an automatic system of resupply- Theorists havil predicted that if. the ' total data being received, the scientists-' 2 9
ing' Soviet Salyut space ·stations. - Crab pulsar ivere bot sulierfluid, its could accurately- separat•faildtid•htifg'.,- 2-i
Two days after ,launch, · Soyuz-20 surface temperature would be 16 mil- .it. Pulses of x-rays burstffr•Ililthe.' hh
docked automatically with the Salyut- lion degrees Fahrenheit; this tempera- rapidly spinning star ., 3•0 d: times -: per.-,..•.
4, space laboratory ( which had been in ture should be about 5.5 ibillion degrreeeess second. ..1., 18•'.i':9i:;.-t•"C ;4: ,..6, •
orbit slightly less than a year).-Soviet for a superfluid. Dr. Robert Novick of Next, ' the scientists'looked; lietwddli-cl 3.j'
space offitials described how future Columbia believes - that the observed these pulses for a different- ki•ld. 1;f . · 't:.
missions of this type, would carry upper limit of the pulsar's temperature x-ray --a r continuoils-: ( nonpilldilig),;: i.lj•
food, water,' Acientific equipment and "falls so strikingly far below the 16 mil- thermal k-ray. They foubd none'L thus' -'i'.
oxygen 60 the marathon crews who lidA degree figure that it excludes the establishing the upper limit of the pul- ., 2: 03
are expected to , spend three or four · possibility that the pulsar is not super- sar's surface temperature at nine mil-
months- in space bn board ·Salyut-5 fluid." · - ·- • ' -,.: . :· · -. lion degrees. Thermal xtays could be, ,,· 'F -
next year: Most of our knowledge of.pulsars is generated only at higher temperatureiT-.
Though a biological· hitchhike- ex- still theoretical,· he said, ·"but this - The findings do not establish a lower . i., L.2.
periment was installed in the cabin of finding is strong and 'convincing evi- lithit - on the -pulsar's temperature, .,-IC.,
Soyuz-20, the mairi .purpose : of the dence that at least this pulsar, and per- but Novick believes that on the basis of ''.3.1-'
flight was engineering development of haps every one, is superfluid. If- it is current theory, there need not be one. - : -..
more flexible · ground-to:space supply not, then tlie theories are .wrong.".--, to prove superfluidity. • 042* ·' • '. •'• · 2,3
systems. This •oal was cdmpletely
satisfied:
craft measured solar phenomena dur-
Coiilcidebtly with the flight of Pioneer 6 continued from pagq 61' :inga fortuitous three-spacecraft lineu•. 2'
SOS'uz-20, the Soviets launched the Earth 1, studiA of its rridio signal ailded Pioneer 6, -inside Eafth's orbit, made A •' ..3 .
third in a series of biosatellites. Named ·to our kilowledge of the solar corona. study of the solar wind, while the much .• A- -
Cosmos-782,,- it carried biological through which th'e-sigiial passes..' -'.- younger Pioneers 10 and-11 measured- . ,-.'. ,:
specimens, for testing the effectsi of The four sun-orbitinit Pioneers · lielp ' the same stream abgut 10 days'later ttl-. j-, ,• •'5
weightlessneds and - space radiation, predict solar. storms. when -they..are ' m,ost a half billion mil•,s;•*'•,rt,ay,,•nea•yt,fo•', «at
alid a new type of centrifuge for the pohitioned behind the szili;·'they-i Gni Jupiter. . 4•.r'." 7.... fw" -,ii .-4,-.,4.':- 1
artificial simulation of gravity. . ' record events on the sofai•'-sfirfac•e" 6•. T In September 19'75,-•;i••ii•,•'liii'- ':U-2 •{
The biological experiments weren't to two weeks before they b 254cddid"vis: f able to team up with the•,Ile-i,V,tvgited,j........ I
all from Russia. Other Eastern Europ- ible from Earth. Huge- bufits of.-soliir -·Stites-German Helios sati•llite; :which....7 - .,
#- " '.. I .... . 9
ean countries, France and the United wind can buffet ' and .vastly distort -was six million miles inside ,the:'orbiti :1-
States also ' contributed. This was the Earth's magnetic field for as long as a.'of Mercury, closer to thQ sub thiin any.1 ....: 5
first American · experiment launched week: Such "geomagnetic storms" spacecraft has yet gone - thus complet-'·, ' f.'
by the Soviets. . may trigger Earth's loing-term weather . ing the total picture of data cbmpiled '-. • ,.'
The satellite - actually a remodeled patterns. Pioneer's instruments have' from near the sun, very. far awai. froid .' s•
version of the- old ' Vostok spacd cabin also provided new understanding of it, and homewhere in betweefiH -' 60 , '..ir • :,
- dircled Earth for three iveeks before Earth's magnetosphere. which shields Because · newer missions , hay6f:rdl...I: i.3:'.
landing. Wliile . studying the Cosmos us from high energy.particle. radiation. · quired tracking time on the "big diah".·- .16
speciments,' projedt scientists began The longevity 6f -Pioneer 6 has al- antennas of NASA's Deep ' Space: Net-. -r...
planning for the next biosatellite lowed important studidd lof,.the - s'ola•, .work, Pioneer 6 has often been': pushed _ t'.
mission, scheduled for eitrly 1977: '. . wind by two spaoecraft• one millions · aside. But it has continued; trdnsmit- · . .'· .
- These studies, •of space, medicine; . of· miles -downwind" from the othep. ting. information, and 'ab8ut half. of '-.:
environmental control · systems, f· and . In N6vember 1969, Pionler -•6 ( in;ide · the 50 billion bits of data it-has sent · , ..1
space resupply vehicles are all'part of Earth's orbit ) tind Pioneer 7 ( gutside, have been received on Earth.','·)•5,...: 1.
...
- an explicit Soviet g6al: the· ability tci it ) ivere aligned onthe same iiolar.wind-·P•'.h:'Pioneer6 is 'such h good ' siiace- 1 · -1 *-
keep cosmonauts in space for 18 months stream• and magnetic field linds.. A craft," comments Project Manager ' ,1.
or more.-- long enough for, a flyby similar lineup occurred With Pioneer 8 Charles F. Hall, "that ' we may get ,;"'.
mission to the planets. , - in September 1970. In March 1974 the another 10 years out of it." 4,1 - •· ,-

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James Mullaney and Henry J. Phillips
Throughout the winter months, Orion the hun-
ter doniinates the sky as does no other constel-
lation during any season. The dazzling brightness of
all its major stars and its distinctive manlike pattern
inevitably draw the attention of every stargazer,
and other constellations take second place to this
dominant figure. They cluster around Orion like
people of the court surrounding a member of royalty,
or ( to use a more modern comparison ) like fans
around their favorite sidger.
But these other star groups have attractions
of their own; some of them-:tontain ,brilliant stars,
and it is only the overpowering presence· of the
#
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hunter that seems to diminish their interest. Ac-
tually, almost all the winter constellations - if less
bright than Orion - are quite as distinctive. The
ancients recognized this, and the great majority
of February's star patterns date unchanged from
antiquity.
This month, the eastern side of the "great
circle" of first magnitude stars reaches the zenith,
and several of the constellations connected with them
become more noticeable. Pollux is one of these stars;
it and its companion. Castor are the two "head
lights" of Gemini the twins. According to Greek
mythology, Castor and Pollux were the twin sons
of Zeus and Leda; in one of his .most flagrant at-
67
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constellation and would be one of the glories of our
sky if it were farther north. There are many ancient
references to the dog, generally as the companion of
the giant figure nearby. But most modern experts
are. fairly certain that these are not references to
the entire constellation, but to Sirius alone. It is
inescapable that Sirius - as the brightest star -
should have countless legends and myths connected
with it: It is the only star that can be definitely
identified in Egyptian records, for its rising at the
summer solstice marked the beginning of the inun-
dation of the land by the Nile River. This annual
event led to worship of the star as the beneficial
influence that brought about the flooding.
The name Sirius means "sparkling" or "scorch-
ing", and it was generally thought that the presence
of both Sirius and the sun in the sky at the same time
was the cause of hot weather - thus the origin of
the term "dog days" for the hottest and most sultry
summer days ( something the average stargazer is
not likely to remember when viewing Sirius in the
winter sky ).
It is only natural that the dog figure should
eventually have come to form the entire constel-
lation Canis Major, and it has never had any impor-
tant mythological significance other than as Orion's
dog.
Between the two dogs, and separating them
from each other, is one of the few modern constel-
lations found in the winter sky. Monoceros the
unicorn was invented by Bartschius for his star
catalog in the 17th century. It contains no stars
brighter than fourth magnitude and, in fact, the
Milky Way is fainter in Monoceros than in any other
part of the sky. Like most modern constellations,
its primary purpose seems to be to fill up unoc-
cupied space between the classic figures.
Astronomers who introduced such figures as
Monoceros were not interested in mythology, for
the most part; as a result, the constellations they
introduced are not nearly as picturesque as the old
groups. Some of these modern constellations seem to
have been invented on a mere whim. For example,
the astronomer Hevelius once remarked that to
distinguish anything in one area of the sky, a per-
son would need the eyes of a lynx. Accordingly, he
concocted the constellation Lynx and placed it in
that area. It can be found in the northeast between
Gemini and the Big Dipper. Hevelius' crack is
certainly justified, for Lynx is notable for little
but its emptiness.
Mercifully, most of these synthetic constel-
lations have disappeared forever from our star
charts, and there is no need to try and find ·such
groups as the Typewriter ( which one scientist placed
just east of Sirius ) or the Sceptre of Brandenburg
( between Lepus and Eridanus ). However, we still
have Fornax the furnace - located in a bend of the
river Eridanus and found just above the horizon
in the southwest.
72
Another 17th century invention lies far to, the
south, just above the horizon in our latitudes. This
is Columba the dove. When first formed, it was
intended to represent the dove that brought the olive
branch to Noah's Ark. This interpretation is still
available to those who want to use it; others may
prefer to see the dove of peace in this small group.
Its stars are not very bright, and you may not be
able to make it out through horizon haze.
As here on Earth, in the sky we also find the
poor rabbit perpetually pursued by the hunter. The
celestial counterparts of this familiar scene are
Lepus the hare and, of course, Orion. On February
evenings, Lepus can be found north of Columba,
1/3 of the way zip the sky from the southern horizon
and directly beneath the feet of the great hunter.
Overshadowed by the brilliant winter constel-
lations ( including Orion ), the Lepus region seems
largely neglected by observers both past and present.
No doubt this star group's low altitude and the
frigid nights of midwinter also contribute to this
neglect. However, as Barns points out, Lepus "offers
a feast of bounties with fair seeing".
Considerable uncertainty exists about the
origins of this constellation. One account tells us
that Lepus is a reduplication of the moon, and an
astonishing amount of folklore connects the hare
with this subject. This may have arisen from the
many widely separated peoples who saw the figure
of a hare in the maria of the moon ( including the
east Indians, Aztecs and Bantus ). This association
may have worked in the opposite direction, making
Lepus into a sort of relative of the moon.
As Lepus sets in the southwest,Corvus the crow
rises in the southeast - apparently contributing
to the ancient belief that the hare detested the
call of the raven.
Early Arabian stargazers regarded the four
brightest stars of Lepus as camels drinking from the
river marked by the adjoining constellation Eri-
danus. In fact, Nihal ( the Arabic name of Beta
Leporis ) comes from the name of this particular
configuration, while Arneb ( Alpha Leporis ) simply
means "hare". Yet another account relates that the
Egyptians recognized Lepus as the boat of Osiris,
the great god of that country who was identified
with Orion.
Perhaps the most appealing legend - at least
to hunters - is simply that the hare was a creature
that Orion especially enjoyed hunting; for this
reason it was placed near him in the sky upon his
tragic death.
One final note of interest concerning the hare:
Clouds and low-lying horizon haze at times corn-
pletely obscure the bottom portion of this constel-
lation. On such occasions, only the ears and nose of
the figure remain visible, and Lepus looks like some
curious cosmic rabbit surveying the heavens about
him from his celestial hutch!
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Table of Objects - Lepus Region

Object Type Mag. -Size/Sep. R.A.( 1950 ) Dec.w•

R V:433d 5.9-10.5 - 41,57 m -140531
FKappa *2 4.5/7.5 3" 51,11m -13000'1
* M-79 GC 8.4 3' 51'22m -240347
aAlpha *2 2.7/10.5 35" 5•3lm -17051'9
* H-3780 *4 7/8/9/8.5 76",90", 51'36 m .17030'4
127"
*7 Gamma *2 3.8/6.4 95" 5•42m -22028'

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OC Open Cluster PN Planetary Nebula

GC Globular Cluster El Elliptical Galaxy
EN Emission Nebula Sp Spiral Galaxy
RN Reflection Nebula Ir Irregular Galaxy

V.Z:,#3•4hm•outZl':ttr.S•rriod
days. hours, minutes
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Mae. Magnitude SeD. SeDaration
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•.·....#4•.....9....
't·.·•. · • 8 b #; lution. Equatorial mount; rack & pinlon focus-
Ing; aluminum tube, 6X finder, 25 mm F.L 45X
and pictures on HOW to build, HOW to buy and
HOW to use your telescope. Actually gives step-
Kellner achromatic eyeplece & Bar- by-step Instructions for both simple and am-
low -lens to double and triple power bitious projects. Great for beginners, indispens-
to 135X. Incls. FREE Star Chart, able for advanced amateur, excel. gift. 892" x
2 Books. 115 192 pages. No. 9094K2...........$4.95.

»«,
No. 85,107K2 (CLOCK DRIVE) .... .$199.50 FOB Case-Bound Library Edition No. 9385K2$11.95.
Shpg. wt. 45 lbs.
No. 85,105K2(W/0 CLOCK DRIVE). .$159.50 FOB
Shpg. wt. 42 lbs. fin NEWI OFFICIAL NASA PHOTOS. Our Solar
\\
6-1 System In Full Color Slides This set of
N R51 TRUE ZOOM TELESCOPE EYEPIECE. Saves
LIJ time and money--does the work of manyl
Provides greater speed and versatility for your
scope. Stays sharp at all powers whether you're
20 full color super slides represents the finest
telescope and satellite photography of our solar
system Detailed artist s renderIngs are also In
cluded to i explain planetary orblts motion and
at 8.4 mm or 21 mm focal length. Fully ortho- relative d stances Guide incl
scopic, coated lenses give wide flat field. Typl-
#.....--==-
/.3---•.-IL cal magnification: 58 to 145X (increase 2 to 3 No. P-42,350K2...................$6. 95 Ppd
times with Barlow).
1
-ral//a I
«*se:•Im,• No. 60,362K2....................$52.50 Ppd.
1•1 LOW COST VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE &
f•| SHOOT SKI SCOPE SIGHTS Polaroid® In
LJ strument Astro Camera records what you
L.-1 SLOW MOTION CONTROL.' Quality unit can see in the heavens You get a permanent picture
10 -,381'33:.tijillilillilij Ir'#Illillil
sal:'-r..,•F·,->1\'E:1· - .· ·•"•·•
be used with any electric drive telescope to 8".
Adjusts Instantly to track at sidereal, solar.
lunar, planetary rates. Uses 12v DC. Just 51/4"
In a minute or less No knowledge of photog
raphy needed Uses regular Polaroid® Land pack
rim
1 ' color or black & white Fits all standard
eyepieces (universal adapter Is included) Cam

'**a, (t.*•7
i
X 2Vs" X 21/8", lightweight metal cabinet, fused
for overload. Drives 110v AC motors up to 12w. era (41/2n X 71k" X 10u) is rugged hi Impact
No. 71,877KZ....................$63.50 Ppd. plastic With 10" cable release 1114" x 2" dia
focusing tube Instrs
W,i"/RE- 3/ 411.,1 . 0 Stock No 1619K2 ................ $71 95 Ppd

9 036-
'F LARGE APERTURE 20 X 60 BINOCULARS
1-J SELECTED BY NASA FOR USE ON APOLLO-
t%•:*-1 E
fieMPerk•mca•ce'a:x••enes il•7'11'losna•upr••hbeN. li516X DELUXE FINDER WITH TWIN-RING
Ocular was used by U.S. astronauts 157 miles ,-4 MOUNT. Finder with glass crossline reticle.
out in space. Fully coated optics, 20 X 60 de- 50 mm dia. objective offers excellent light-
sign, and coated (BK-7) Porro prisms. Center gathering power. Wide-angle eyepiece gives
focus wheel, rubber eyecups, case incl. exceptionally large field. Wrinkle finish black
A-i»-&-1-1-B No. 1556K2......................$99.95 Ppd.
* Quality 8 X 30 Binoc.
No. 1559K2.......···············$27.50 Ppd.
cast aluminum 61/2" x 5" mount has 6 adjust-
ment screws (3 on ea. 27'8" 1.0. ring)
No. 71,175K2....................$49.50 Ppd.

(BiZITIMIi][• liiZE Glaa mITIRiIB QI•9

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Edmund Scientific Co., 300 Edscorp Bldg., Barrington, N.J. 08007
illrNilial,ilit.Lill, 0 SEND FREE 164 PAGE CATALOG'*2 036Send me the following:
| Stock No. | Quantity · | Price Ea. | TOTAL

iNATmT'
i

1-:
•··3·'1# 1 • la
0 Charge my BankAmericard
1
1
111
111
111
0 Charge my Master Charge Add Handling Charge $ 1.00
Enclosed is 0 Check 0 M.0.
Interbank No.
•1 EIDMWIRMID in amount of $
Card No. Signature
•te) SCIENTIFIC CO.
Name
300 Edscorp Bldg., Barrington, N.J. 08007 Expiration Date (Please Print)
ASTRONOMICAL HQ. USA Address
30-DAY MONEY-BACK GUARANTEE. You
America's Greatest Science, must be satisfied or return any purchase City
in 30 days for full refund.
Optics and Hobby Mart. State ZiP 3
0
HELPING TO DEVELOP AMERICA'S TECHNOLOGY FOR OVER 30 *
YEARS
Engineered ForThe Last Word In Breathtaking Performance...
Priced For First Choice In Value...
Fully Equipped With Many Extra Features!
You'll Marvel At How
Including... ELECTRIC
042 DRIVE (Patented)
The Superb Optics Of
This Portable SETTING
042 CIRCLES ROTATING
042 TUBE
e -a
-.2 - .... A Complete Instrument, No Costly Accessories Needed!
6-INCH RV-6 9-6/
e\./. )/4 4
\
Model RV-6 Complete
with Dyn-0-Matic Electric Drive
and All Features Described Below

DYTELJ, S•@FIE 1•. $22995

Give The Same Exquisite Definition
-7• f.o.b. Hartford, Conn.
Shipping Wt. 77 lbs.
As Far More Expensive Instruments!
Express Charges Collect
This staunch leader of the Dynascope line has won widespread rec- $15 Crating Charge
ognition from s, :hools, colleges, and professionals, as an outstanding
achievement in a 6-inch teldscope. Since it was introduced a few years
ago, our files have become filled with complimentary letters from I
excited amateurs and professionals all over the country. Each one is
truly amazed al the superior 'optical performance of this RV-6 6-inch ...\
Dynascopel Her e is large aperture in a quality instrument at a price
that compares v rith many 4-inch telescopes. And this /ow cost inc/udes ,\..
such exclusive extra features as electric drive (patented), setting cir-
cles, and rotati 7g tubel There are no "extras" to run up your costl
The superb c ptical system resolves difficult objects with definition I.
that is absolute ly breathtaking. The close tolerances of the precision

construction as sure an accuracy and smoothness of operation once
associated only with the finest custom models. The heavy-duty mount,
complete with electric drive, provides the stability so essential for
satisfactory viek ,ing, yet there is easy portability, because in a matter
of minutes the e ntire telescope can be dismantled into three easy-to-
handle sections
Only Criterion 's engineering ingenuity, coupled with volume produc-
tion and modem manufacturing methods, makes this handsome 6-inch
model available at such reasonable cost. You can order it with com-
plete confidenc 3 that it.will live up to your expectations in every way,
for this assuran ce is guaranteed·under our full-refund warranty. Send
your check or rr oney order today. Or use our liberal time-payment plan
and take month: to pay.
You Could Pay $100 More Without Getting
All These Superior Features (Except on Another Dynascope)
1. EXQUISITE OF TICAL SYSTEM INCLUDES f/8 6-INCH PARA-
BOLIC MIRROR m ade of PYREX-brand glass, accurate to better
than Vs wave, zir· :on-quartz coated, and guaranteed to reach the
theoretical limits of resolution and definition. Teamed with
elliptlcal diagona I mounted in 4-vane adjustable spider.
2. NEW DYN-0-M ATIC ELECTRIC DRIVE with smooth self-acting
clutch that engag es and disengages automatically as you seek
different objects. Will not interfere when manwal operation is
desired. Safety h oused case. Plugs into ordinary AC socket.
3. TWO EYEPIEC ES: Achromatic Ramsdens 70X (18 mm.), 140X
(9 mm.). Also av ailable: 100* ( 12.7 mm.), 180X (7 mm.). Achro-
matic Ramsdens, $14.95 each; 220X (6 mm.), 320X (4 mm.). Ortho-
scopics, $18.50 e 3Ch.
4. SOLID NEW EQ UATORIAL MOUNT, extra-reinforced design to
provide pillarlike stability.. No annoying side play or wobble.
Adjusts easily to a ny latitude.
5. SETTING CIRC LES for both ,right ascenslon and declination.
Handsomely engr aved and. finished· in fine aluminum.
6.6 x 30 FINDER SCOPE, ACHROMATIC, COATED, with accurate
cross hairs and 1 ine focus. Durable cast-aluminum bracket with
6 adjusting screw s allows-positive collimation.
7. ROTATING TU BE FOR MAXIMUM VERSATILITY AND VIEW-
ING COMFORT. Solid-cast, chrome-finished rings are generous
1" wide with felt lining. Newly designed construction, with over-
sized knurted .ad justing knobs,. affords maximum rigidity and
allows quick disassembly and portability, with or without tube.
8. STRIKINGLY H ANDSOME WHITE 50'• BAKELITE TUBE with
porcelainized Du rallte finish, durable yet' light. Walls are 1,6"
thick, completely insulated, and,anti-reflective blackened inside.
9. BRASS RACK-A ND-PINION EYEPIECE HOLDER has precision-
cutrack and'gea r for easier, smoother, more positive focusing.
Takes standard 11/0 oculars, negative or positive.
10. STRONG, VIB RATION-FREE, ALL-METAL TRIPOD with easily
removable legs. Drovides sure, steady support, plus lightweight
portability.
1
...
.'
S"
* ,t
..
'CG
-
'- Orders for the RV-6
Have Set New Records!
1 Demand for this fine instrument, so well proved
1 in use, has been soaring, as more and more
' serious telescope buyers, have come to realize,
by comparison, what an extraordinary value
-- it is. To keep pace, we hurried along a planned
' L expansion into facilities more than three
times as large as before.
1#jilf
We stepped up production as rapidly as we
could but remember this Is a precision handcrafted
instrument Indiv dually built to our exacting standards, and
ndividually guaranteed In addition, our industry like most others has had to
contend with shortages. At times, critical materials have just not been
available. In spite of all efforts, order backlogs grew, and we have felt obliged
to offer refunds to anyone who did not want to wait. (Very few accepted
-which itself is significant.) Today our backlog has been brought down a
great deal, though we must still reluctantly keep you waiting a while. Our
apologies...but it is comf6rting to know that when your telescope arrives, it
will be in every respect the easy-to-operate, outstanding performer you
ordered-an RV-6 Dynascope.
Criterion Manufacturing Co. Dept. AS-39
620 Oakwood Ave., West Hartford, Conn. 06110
0 Please send me, under your unconditional guarantee, the RV-6 6-inch
Dynascope. Payment of $229.95 plUS $15.00 crating charge is enclosed.
0 Send FREE ILLUSTRATED LITERATURE describing the RV-6 6-inch Dyna-
scope and all the telescopes in the Dynascope line.
0 Send FREE ILLUSTRATED LITERATURE on your new DYNA-TRACKER 442
Variable-Speed Control for RV-6 or other electric-drive telescopes:

Name
Criterion Manufacturing Co. Address
620 Oakwood Ave., West Hartford, Conn. 06110
Manufacturers of Quality Optical Instruments 1 City State Zip
 - ... b

\: 3 i-i.'* 1

Presenting »'
71/
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the $595 5 - .----3:11(-':11.•, 1 .-1,/.1-ijj, ''.,

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Celestron 5 ,·'..·'...: ,: S:, y ' , #.1 042

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Effective immediately, for an indefinite period of time,

the base price of the Celestron 5 is reduced from $750 to
$595.
It's still the same Celestron 5 - famous the world over
for its brilliant, razor-sharp images - famous the world
over for its compact portability, elegant simplicity of
operation and incredible versatility.
It's still the same telescope selected by serious ama-
teur astronomers, and by professional astronomers for use as &1 , ''
a personal portable - the same telescope selected by science
centers for research projects and by casual observers for
nature studies.
•,t-'.,--• t '.,• "71'r,r,a •
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It weighs 12 pounds, swings down to 7x8x16 inches

and has a useful magnification range of 30 - 30OX.
It will show you the polar caps of Mars, the remarkable 1: 1 :4. G't '\-1-k ....,c'.,-
rings of Saturn, the ever-changing belt structure of Jupiter
or the eerie filamentary glow of the Great Orion Nebula just
as plainly as it'11 show you the dust on a piece of thread " g ...l '-- .,1 «2 '13.-r):... ,« f '-9
at 100 feet. 1, 2. f ,•• : . ..:11.16; -b
For terrestrial photography, convenient photographic - 4, i#
adaptors let you couple your 35mm SLR in seconds, and the
4-pound tube even demounts for hand-held shots at 25X. For
astrophotography, other accessories make planetary photog-
raphy a snap, or convert the instrument into a deep-sky ..0 I , . .1. ..' I
camera that produces glorious color portraits in minutes.
In a word, it's still the same Celestron 5. Nothing's 1/ L Alifi ./1 . I
. 'ff., 6/v ''1 )1 • Ii,1
changed about it.
Except the price.
So act now; send for your free color catalog. r .,· * .,7•14 ·4, .·.644

t. 6 21:' 5*NT
'"Iri.•Jil.r•:-'.1**i·
=.4,)_ 'I
Because a buy like this comes along once in a blue moon.

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The Celestron 5, ' a .
with star-locating circles 0
and electric star tracker, set up :
for tabletop astronomy.
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