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A Tmew art repritmt callemidar from ASTROINOMY
'I =«»
Cosmos 1977 carries into its in ASTRONOMY. From the with.lagt year s.calendar, contr
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was born - to'•iprovide you the to <vorlds beyond at the heart bound ' Kid' hole punchedtso{
most visually stunning view df of a distant star cluster, 'the that the calendar may be con-J
the universe:pdssible. colorful, pictorial universe is v•niefitly hung. ( Both hole and
This year's calendar brings displayed in a format that wire spiral are within»the,white
our promise,to you in its ulti- ''begs" that 'the subjects be border,/ away from the
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1977 is a framed. illustraliotfs.)
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THE
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, In 1519,.Ferdinah-d *[A•ellan and his group of
sailors set· out in"·their. :flddt af five ships to. sail
tarbund the, world._On19·oile ship completed the trip,
and. Magellant:-liiI#66lf'ilied in. a rather pointless
battle in .the-PhiliDD'jijes. His historian, . Pigafetta,
w•as the.first to Wfficially describe. the "clouds"
that- Magellan's,-men :hhd seen; since then, they
have. bornd thename .of: the famous explorer.
, The MagellaniE.Clouds (MC) appear hs two hazy
Datches of light (in";t-he dark: skies.·near .the south
pold. You can't;'sed:them. from. the United States,
But: south· bf. the·eq«Ator' they. are easily visible to
610 naked eye on·a clear -night. Gendially they are
inubh more easily visible than the gal•xy M-31 in
Andromeda: But th#IMa-gelldinic Clo-uds are,.them-
selves, galaxies; ·thep.are dimply much closer.to our
Milky Way than:is the Andromeda kalaxy.
The skies around· the south Dole contain few
bright.stars, antl'the:dust clouds of the Milky Way
adil to the kenerally· 'ddrk· Appearance of the sky.
Thus, the clouds are Wa•iBr.·.60dbot thih they might.
othefwise be. Th-ere *f oh-19 Ewb stars Of iiny. bri•ht-
ness in their vicinity-f,C=arippus.(used as,:the. prime
istar for orieftting·sp•.66*#f,E
)' and Ach6rnar.
At first glance.the:¥agellanic 254louds.
tesdmble
ordinafy clouds .036
se4mibgly fallitly filluininated,
dHftinif overho•id. Th«·•are·-not.Urrestbil: cloitds,
howevor. but Are enbrdOUK' §tardlouds. ·
Magellanic, Clouds , are- . classed .as irregtilar.
galaxies - a narrid:-thatirefers to.their; appatently
Plisordered structtird. Ljttle sign of spiral atmi ot
#611-d.efiried. cent'it&•teabily visible in· other italakief
can.be sden. Tlid· Liir• Magellabic Cloud does have
a-.barlikd region.. of·. stafs .within it... With a littlb
A long briilge. of.hydlcib«gas«cdnnects tAe Smali MAgellanic.
(16ud: photbgrapi,«0'e-rel wiih iihj,42661 cbhlijbn•on.-k,46 sMc
cpntains a much(hid-hi'r,•Bfoi0rtion,of intefsteilar,;h98rogeft'-1'
perhaps 25.percent 6filtsemas's»than'elthdr;the LMC· or..the·
Milky. Wai•. ·About hall'tl•iSize of•th6 LMC,:th'ezsmSII-cloud is:
30,000 light:years.,more-dista•nt...Also' seenilinfthis- photo·. is'
47 Iucanae (NGC-:104)£Albi]ghtjlobular:cluster.:Cerr6-361016.:
Inter-American··Obser,vatbrill:phot66ralih,:,cbpyright* bli: the
Association of U,ii*eigiti«fof,·R,66;a'rch in Astrbhomy, Ibc.
-"'«its'- -:i.29"·-'
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imagination, yoU can see spiral,arms emerging from
the, bar, but . this structuie quickly dissblves fal-
thet.Brit.
The Ma•ellanib.cl6udh are. the nearest galaxies
to our own Milky Way.:But:why should two.galakies
be so close to our.own Milky Way in .thd:first place?
WiJ1 they always be there? If they aren'ttmtich fdrther
froni .us than some of . the globular clusters - and •
they aren't - isn't it possible that .they dre merely
some, unusual objects that belong to our. kalaxy?
There are several possible·ekplanations.for the
existence of the MC. The most popular suggestion
is that they are satellites of our galaxy. In our
universe, this is not an unusual situation; indeed,
many other large gafaxies dre known to have small
satellite galaxies orbiting them. M-31 Has two ob-
vious satellites, readily seefi in photographs, as well
ds several faibtet'alid smaller ones iIi-orbit about it.
If the clouds are .satellites, they do'n't differ · much
from globular clusters - ·at. least- in.the sense. thht
th6 •clouds and globular cllisters would have · formdd
from the sanie Di·otogalactic cloud that bdcame the
Milky Way.
An alternative explanation is that the Magal-
lanie Clouds are "visitors" frofif:,ddep si)ace, just
hapDe-Ifiri2 :td bd passifig near lis.-Thili.is unlikely,
howev•r, in View of the small velocitids the clouds
have with respect to the cdnter,Of; th6 Milky Way.
W6 would expect galaxies that happen to be passing
by ( like the proverbial shipS iIi the night) to be
trhveling, much faster thin th6 clouds' 30 miles
(50kni) per second.
A third. liossibility is. that. the·.6109ds · are the
remains of matter ejected from the center of our
galaxy Willions of years.ago and no,•. drbiting the
Milky Way. Their ejection would · have.. been the
result Lf. a violent explosion, : similai ·to those seeh
in. sonid othei·. distant galaxies even now. Most
astronoiners·. subscribe to · the firilt of these three
theories - that the'clouds are.satelliteh - because
it' seems to be the most- likely hybothesis.
• IIi any Eahe, we are fortunate in having the
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Magellanic Clouds so nearby, for they give us a The major features of the Magellanic Clouds can be photo-
graphed with any 35mm camera. Tri-X film was used to record
clear, close-up look at two other gilaxies. Unfor- the LMC (left) and the SMC (riglit) in two 15 minute exposures
tunately, since they are irregular galaxies, we can't with a 50mm f/3.5 lens. The bar of the LMC is most prominent,
learn much about the evolution of dormal galaxies followed by the many nebular regions to the right of the bar.
In the SMC, shown at the same scale, only the stellar center
by studying them. Nevertheless, we can learn a is visible. Compare both pictures to the color Cerro Tololo
great deal about stellar evolution bj, studying the pictures. Photographs by Chris Smith.
stars in the Magellanic Clouds. In them, we have a
sample of stars all situated at the same distance not be a distance effect. The phenomenon obviously
from us - an important fact to adtronomers, and had something to do with the properties of the
one that can help reduce the difficulty in measuring stars themselves. Whatever determined their period
the distance of celestial objects. Based on the faint- also controlled their brightness, or vice versa.
ness of the hot young stars within them, we know Even if one didn't understand why Cepheid
that the clouds are very distant. Since the thick- variable stars varied at all, this discovery was
ness of the clouds is small compared with their exciting; clearly, sofrle basic law that governed
distance, we can reasonably state that all the stars their behavior was operating. The next task was to
within either cloud are at the same distance from us. find how bright Cepheids of a given period really
This concept was particularly Vital in the earlier were compared to how bright they appeared t6 be.
part of this century, when stellar distances were This could be done by measuring distances to
initially being measured. The Magellanic Clouds Cepheids using one of the various ways astronomers
provided an ideal "labbratory" for studying stars had of measuring distances to nearby stars - a
- particularly Cepheid Fariables which are now used task made difficult by the rarity of nearby Cepheid
for distance measurements to distant galaxies. variables. Once the true brightness of Cepheids had
Harvard astronomer Henrietta Leavitt noticed been found and the peri6d-luminosity law calibrated,
that Cepheid variable stars in the Small Magellanic astronomers coild immediatdly look up how bright
Cloud ( SMC ) seemed to have a period of variability a Cepheid of a given period should be.
that correlated with their apparent brightness. The Returning to the Cepheids in the Magellanic
brighter the star was, the longer was its period. Clouds, if one finds a Cepheid of a period whose true
Since all the stars were at very nearly the same dis- brightness is now knOWn, it is an easy task to com-
tance from us, the differences in brightness could pare this with the measured brightness, in turn

10
I .-. ,
allowing a didtance estimate for the Magellanic
Cloud Cepheid° to,be:made. Hence, the distance to
the Magellanic Clouds is found. The same trick can
1 be applied to any other (observable) Cepheid var- ,
iable as well - which is why Cepheids are used to
measure distancds to galaxies in which they can
be resolved.
• This great breakthrough gave astronomers a
.reasonably goodidea of.just how far away galaxies
really are. Although distance measurement tech-
niques have become much;:more refined since then,
it was the early research work done on the .Magel-
lanic Clouds that paved. the way for our present
knowledge of the:scale of galaxies and the universe.
The Large Magellanic Cloud' (LMC) turns out
to be 150,000 light-years away. ( compared with two .
million light-years · for M-31 ). In fact, the LMC is
so close to us that some globular clusters belonging
to our Milky Way.lie farther away than it does; at
least one of the Milky Way's globular clusters
is located no less than 200,000 light-years away.
Since the diameter of our galaxy is 100,000 to
120,000 light-years, the Magellanic Clouds do not
lie· much more than a galactic diameter away. The
SMC is 180,000 light-years distant - a bit farther
away than the LMC.
- The sizes of the Magellanic Clouds; as compared
t6 our galaxy;.,are :sinall: 'Our galaxy,has a mass
about 200 billion times'that of the suni The LMC,
however, contains only 5 billion solar masses, and
the SMC about 2-1/2 billion. Their diameters ( as
far as the clearly visible star distribution iscon-
cerned ) are only eight and four degrees: about 24,000
and 12,000 light-years respectively. Our galaxy,
when viewed from the clouds, would be spread over
40 degrees of sky. ( For comparison, the whole con-
stallation of Orion is· about 15 degrees high.) Any
astronomers who might exist in the LMC are rio
doubt having a wonderful·time studying galaxy
formation by looking at our Milky Way, even though
they pr6bably continue to be puzzled by their own
system of stars.
The, lack of clear spiral structure · in the Ma-
gellanic Clouds is not so surprising when we con-
sider the ,enormous pull of gravity our galaxy
exerts on them. If the clouds have been in orbit
about the Milky Way all their lives, they simply
wouldn't have been able to evolve in peace, con-
stantly subjected to tides from the Milky Way much
as the moon produces tides on Earth. The effect is
mutual, thbugh; the clouds pull on the Milky Way
- is also seen. The outer parts of our galaxy show a
bending ( similar to a hat brim bent up and down ),
believed.to·be cauded by the gravity of the clouds
acting on.the Milky Way.
A close look at the LMC reyeals a somewhat
bar shaped central region, reminiscent of the centers
of barred spirals. A very bright emission nebula
11
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;,-- , j..
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Hubble.Typ6 Sb ( 9} -97 1,. 442-
Inclination Z i,:. Ff :ft . 270
8 .9 1 -
, .16'k]Physical Characteristics . .
Total'M.ass .. •.0 :· .,f.. ;:.· :-.7.x·1099:7:'· • 39-r.:1.4.x- 10 19.-· · •2.1 : .·.3.7.x 1011...
- 2.5'.•Yd• -
( in solar masses ) . ·.--1 L ·,I.:2.-...:.. .>Ij4'- - ...t.23-... t.,f• :;2-...:... e .. · . ...2:-2.5 n.:..
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,".,Magnitude•f:1 2,. ·..3.r •.- .:,,:2.4..•,2,.r·f'.··:.--18,•.' ••:':'n·,··B) 44216 1 ' -215
....1 kpe 1 kilop,irs«c ) ·- 3,28'fight-years: " .....f-:I:'i.•i . Ilt. ....1....- 11..: •

called 30 Doradus lies in the bar. It emits light and
radio signals because it consists of hot gases. These
gases are hot primarily because of the hot stars
within the nebula. But the light and radio radiation
from 30 Doradus also shows the existence of so-called
nonthermal emission, produced by cosmic ray
particles spiraling about magnetic fields - a
phenomenon characteristic of nebulae that are the
remains of supernova explosions. The combination
of both types of:emission is rare in one object. A'
similar phenomenon is also found in the center of
our galaxy, from the radio source Sagittarius A;
in fact, the overall· Rroperties of 30 Doradus are
like those of Sagittarius A. However, 30 Doradus
1 is not obviously at the center of the LMC; for that
matter, the LMC does not even have an obvious
i center.
The clouds are also known to contain some
extremely luminous stars. Most famous is the super-
giant star in the LMC; .knoWn as S Doradus. This
star, a million times more luminous than our sun,
is the m6st luminous:siar known anywhere. It is
also truly enormous -',fan ldrger than any 'of the
giant stars ( such as- Bdtelgeuse or Antares ) we know
of in our Milky Way.· It would certainly include the ·
orbit of Earth within:· its. confines, if it were to
replace the sun in· our-·solar system.
There are some vety young globular clusters
in the LMC. Some are younger than 100 million
years, but globulaks·,over 10 billion years old are
l also found there There may be as many as 10,000
clusters in the LMC, and virtually all are open
clusters ( similar .to. -the. Pleiades or the Double
Cluster in our galaxy). This is an inordinately large
Shown in gaudy cdmpule'rt.6h-hanced color, the.Large,Magel-
lanic Cloud is.strigij•4Ii'Aujffeieni-in.ultraviolet·light.',The.dark ,
sky background is'reproducod as'blue, anki. rod.sh#ding through
green to yellow indicates:increasin0 brightneds.·,In this' part
of the spectrum,·onlf:verye'hot· bliletstars·aie -r6corded; the
cooler reddish, stars,emit-,almost 'no.· ultraviolet,-light.. This
picture was takeo .fromitlie:surfa'be, of the 'liioonduring the
Apollo 16 mission..NASA. photograph.
number compared to the galaxy, in which only
about 1,400 clusters have been catalogued. The
clusters also usually contain aore stars than do
similar clusters in our galaxy.
The Magellanic Clouds are littered with regions
in which star formation has taken place. Stars
appear to have formed in "pockets" and in time
intervals lasting around a million years. The pockets
cover areas about 3,000 light-years across, and seem
to have formed about every two million years on the
average. However, there appears to have been no
underlying pattern to the process. These conclu-
sions come from a recent study of the ages and
locations of some 1,200 clusters.
The chemical composition and·age of stars and
gas in the clouds is basically similar to our own
galaxy, and there is reason to suspect that life may
have evolved equally well in the clouds as in our
galaxy. In the Milky Way, interstellar hydrogen is
situated in the spiral arms, while hydrogen in the
clouds is very patchy in distribution. The LMC has
about 50 important condensations. of hydrogen gas
in it - often associated with clumps of bright and
young stars.
In addition to a bridge of hydrogen between the
large and small clouds, there is an enormously
long arm or stream of hydrogen gas stretching
several thousand .light-years into space from the
clouds. Its origin is still unknown. Perhaps it is
matter, left over after the formation of the Milky
Way and the clouds, which never became concen-
trated enough to form stars.
Unfortunately for us, the clouds are not visible
from any of the major northern hemisphere observa-
tories. Consequently they have. been . studied with
large telescopes ;only during the last few years.
With the putting-into operation.of major new obser-
vatories in the southern hemisphere ( in Australia
and Chile ); undoubtedly our knowledge of the clouds
atid the stars they contain will expand considerably
in the years to come. •

13

u':3'Ait»«.·x» ·.4-,' -·
 -•..+'.-: '' :' ...S:4:".....4.-:'...... ..
- 61 'Ql-hi-•-11.Fl.:e
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9//Fl'.1/MI. I.,IAVIR'....M./1.ol.li 9..i
••.••.1•1
by
James Oberg
Durinlk mcist of its existence, astronomy has
been.a science based upon • accidental evidence -
totally depehdent on light or radiation that managed
to r6ach, Eartli, 6r upon piecei of meteors that suk-
vived our atmosphere. Despite the increase in
knowledge, astr6nomy was hardly an experimental
science.
In the past 30 years, this has changed markedly.
Asttonomers now deliberately send instruments deep
into space to measure phenomena undetectable from
Earth. If there are nd pieces of other planets to
study, scientist•. send ·spacecraft to the moon to
retiieve them, or, send Iirobes to Mars and the Jovian
moons - targets for-an extraterrestrial. rock hunt.
Part of this 'revolution - the field of active
glectromagnotfdidxploration - has largely occurred
unndticed,· eveh :-though its results have provided
sdme of the greatast. §uriirises of the new era. The
niain areas of' active electromagnetic exploration of
the soldr system.,are laser and radar. astronomy.
Laser study, (so .far) depends on precise mirrors
Iilaced on satellitAs, ·lon,..the •moon, •and poshibly
( jvithi)• a decad6 ).oni..•he. durfdce: of.other .pla.nets
and asteroids. Lids« 3astronpmy also. depends on
laser altimetiy'· Ihda-stirdidents
--'. ....1 .. ... : .- , :made from orbit
tround the target #0-rld.,-Rhdar: astronoiny. involves
the transmission of·p•'werful·:burstsof fadio eiiergy
.-
towai,d h target ·in:s•pjiE4·,4ndth6 receipt bf the tiny
echobbunced bkibkit»El#Eli gfto d nearby spacecraft.
The history of fadar astrohomy.was concurrent,
with the history 'off radar. European enginebrs de:
1 tected tlie bounce:df:rAdiosigilals off Eafth's·iono-
sIihere in the i910s, ,and.were puzzled by i·are, long-
ddlayechdes(LDEsy·whoseorigin was,ahdis obscure.
During World Wi.· lI, radar stati6ns tracking
Reaching out for -, rat.her t•an passively recelying - infor.
mation·from the·solar,-,system listthejessence of»dar.astron-
omy. Radar:lieams, Iliif/,-8-,20(6bd'd .the ifttleri planets, yielding
Very precise orbits; aijeihai,6.•u),cpyeidd·the-pidden rotation
rate of Venus:.andz,thp,•mistaken preradar.:rotation tate·of
11116rcury. Mars'· sOriacg ·roughness.atith« Vikin,g,lander' sites
was checked by lifdar; andiJti•iter's moons'hdOe, been probed
in. the · search for - their ''86mdosition. ArtWork' by· •Mark
Paternostro.
. . .-, -2....,3.-6.
.
:.f"...bullihi=.
./ U...,
enemy aircraft also tfacked strange High. altitude
objects that appeared and disappeared, oftdn in a
patterri. They turned out to be the ionized ttails in
the upper atmosphere left by meteor passage. Three
new major daytime meteor showers were disc6vered.
In 1946, several teams of scientists in Ameri-
ca and Europe directed rhdar beams to the mdon, and
detected their faint echo. For the first time, a
manmade effect had touched another world.
Power problems prevented any further Wdvance
for 15 years. Radar signals vary.as.the fourth Bower
of distance, since the outgoing signal .suffers an
inverse square loss and the returnitig signal suffers
an inverse square loss again. The power required to
detect the moon was 1,000 times. as great as that
needed to detect an airplane.120 iniles away - even
though the moon is very mucli larger! Assuining the
same radar reflectivity, · engineers ' calculated that
detection of another planiat ( Verius Was.tha obvioils
target ) would require an Additional ihcrease in power
of over five million times - an increase which was
then impossible.
Meanwhile, radars were built to kee0 track of
artificial satellites- circling Earth. Poweiful, radio
antennas were built. to send.arid.ruceive signals for
distant.space probes.-Radar sitds devoted to immedi-
ate problems of space communications add national
defense became· mord advalic•d and powerful every
year. By 1961, these radat-gathering instrunbents
had become powerful enough to begin interplanetaiy
radar astronomy.
In 1961 and 1962, several teams of scientists
around the w6rld successfully received. fadar echoes
fr6m Venus, Mars, Mercury add,the sun. Within a -
decade, echo•s. were detected from Icarus, Erbs,
Saturn's rings and Ganymede, dnd were being dought
from comets, new asteroids and other moons. In
some cases the Signals Driginated. from spacec.raft
orbiting. the target world, and not on Earth. Radar
astronomy had been establilhed and actepted.
Just what does radai· astronijmy .tell astroho-
mers about a :'target, world"? Several factors are
immediately obvious, but as tachniques, equipment
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gaps left by the Apollo expeditions. Radar was used
in surveying the possible ·Viking landing 'sites, and
has been used to check the theory of relativity by
tracking th6 advance of Mercury's perihelion and
the retardation of radar waves near the sun.
The spin of a planet can be detected in one
way, and utilized to map the world in another: As
signals bounce off the receding and approaching
limbs of the planet, the Doppler frequency spread of
the echo carries information about the spin velocity
independent of the relative velocities of Earth and
the target. Once the spin has been measured, the
induced Doppler shift can be used to determine sur-
face features. But this effect must be used together
with another technique called Delay-Doppler Radar.
Since the outer edge of the planet is farther
from Earth than the sub-Earth point, returned echoes
take longer to reach Earth. When measured precisely
enough, the amount of delay can be used to determine
how far the source of reflection is from the center
of the planet. Combining Doppler and delay-time
leads to the Delay-Doppler maps which can locate a
source of reflection - to within less than 100 miles
for Venus. But a problem remains: There is an am-
biguity between echo sources north and south of
the "Doppler equator". That is, two different places
on the planet will both give the same delay and the
same Doppler shift to a radar signal.
The resolution of this ambiguity requires fur-
18
I.
.,3 .7 .5*&,4/*. rit",10/IM. 4
.-
Above left: A radar overview of the planet Venus is pictured
with the circles representing previously shown areas (featured
in ASTRONOMY, August .1976). Jet Propulsion Laboratory
photdgraph. Ab6ve right: The lava flow Maxwell, named for
its discoverer, is shown in a d6tailed versi6n depicting surface
variety which is impossible'•to see on the larger versions.
Maxw611 is a compbratively'large feature and is approximately
the size of Oklahoma. NASA photograph.
ther computer work or additional equipment. One
technique, interferometry, makes use of a second
receiving antenna at some distance from the main
site; this has been ·used very successfully on Venus.
A second technique, based upon only one antenna,
takes advantage of solar system geometry in that
the Doppler equator of a target may wobble 5 or 10
degrees over a few months. Separate observations,
both ambiguous about a different axis, are made;
computer processing is then used to separate out
the north and south sites. ( This works well for the
moon but not for Venus.) The· computer techniques
used are very complex - in fact, the analysis would
be impossible without rapid, large matrix manip.ula-
tion hardware and software. A typical map involves
solving several • hundred thousand equations in
several hundred thousand unknowns again and again.
The resulting image shows radar reflectivity
across an grea surrounding the sub-Earth point.
The strength of the radar return, depending on the
frequency of the radar beam, may tell scientists
about the size of the surface particles, the elec-
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Above: Three varied, asp6cts of Venusian topography are
evident. In the upper figlit·portion is the lava flow Maxwoll. ·
The center portion,featuresian impact basin which resembles
maria in the moon.. Ridgds scatter6d through the photo may
have been created by mountain building forces'similar to those
whi6h formed 6n Earth. The'photo& were.taken by the Arecibo
Radar Obsorvatory ini Puerto Rico, with a new.Srband system
that increases sensitivity 59 times. NASA photograph.
trical properties of the surface, and the consistency.
Once the surface reflectivit;y .has -been charted,
computer specialists go -back to the original data
for new calculations. The delay of the signals can ·
be fine-tuned over ·the surface to determine the
precise distance to the surface and the shape and
topography of the planet.
Finally, the planet's atmospheric absorption
of radar signals could be used :to produce atmos-
pheric density estimates - not just establishing an
average planetary atmospheric value, but variations
around the planet. Good estimates' of ; altitude dif-
ferences over the surface could have implications for
internal planetary structure, crlistal strength and
composition. This technique, competing with plahe-
tary orbiting spacecraft, _is still in the theoretical
stage.
Lastly, a feature· of the radar beam called
"polarization" cari be utilized to determine surface
characteristics. A - beam of eledtr6magrietic light
that is reflected has: its poldrization altered, ex-
cept ·when it lohes its polarization by many reflec-
tions. Therefore, areas of depolarized radar reflec-
tions are areas of extreme roughness on the planet's
surface. Either result can be used to make "educated
guesses" about the surface, which.help guide new
experiments and on-site' exploration, as radar did
prior to the Mars landings by Viking spacecraft.
In one aspect of on-site exploration, an orbiting
spacecraft could catch radar beams from Earth
that bounce off .the planet's polar regions. Or, the
spacecraft couldtransmit radar signals whose echoes
can be picked up back on Earth. This type of experi-
ment, which has already been aDplied to lunar
studies, is one way to beat the inverse fourth power
law. The most advanced experiment would consist
of a satellite that both transmits and receives its
own radar signals. Venus - with its murky atmos-
phere - is the obvious target for such a vehicle.
. Such a radar probe satellite is now under study for
a p.owerful Venus-mapping, satellite.
The field of radar astronomy still has many
areas for improvement and still can make major
contributions to the exploration of the solar system.
Electrgnics engineers and mathematicians may not
be typical astronomical workers, but their presence
reflects both the high technological level of con-
temporary instrumentation and the urgent require-
ment for clever new data processing techniques.
They are some of today's most far-ranging astron-
omy frontiersmen. -
19

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 F '...·lr=.r

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SKY ALMANAC

Fou, Planets B,ing Yeai to Close

As the annual Christmas rush descends upon us

December Satellites of Jupiter
11:00 p.m. EST, 8:00 p.m. PST and planetariums gear up for their yearly "Star of
Bethlehem" programs, it is worthwhile to escape
1 -4103 ·' 042042
'6, 042•
16,42013' i..'1•0 I for an occasional night into the peace and beauty
1
of the December sky. Several bright planets make
2 2013 • - 042&•
• 042
. 17 4103 · .•
for interesting and rewarding observing sessions;
3 10234" • ·,•• .0 . 0 • ' 18 , 43012 if you believe in spending Christmas Eve with the
.. ...
stars, the planets should make your evening more
4 ' 30124 . 042
• 042.
0420428
19 31204, 042.
0420,• 042 enjoyable before the warmth of the Yule log beckons.
Mercury
5 32104 111 0 .1.. 6 111 . 20 -' 32014'.I"- 042
042
•, 042_
042
.'" -
The smallest planet will shine at magnitude
6 32104 ' • 0 ..• A . 21 3024 · •.• ,0 .' -0.3 when it reaches greatest eastern elongation
on the 20th. Due to the low angle of the 'ecliptic
7' '30124. ''- 1 042•..
0 22 ' 0234
042 ... over the horizon, however, this elongation will not
8 '10234·' '' ' 1 •. ...Ir. 23 20134 • '· 042
• 042'•042
042 present observers with a particularly good chance to
observe Mercury, as it should be situated only about
9 · 20143 042•, 042
042
. 24 042
12034 -- 0420•
0 i 10 degrees above the horizon at sunset. But if you
10 10243 • ., 0 •- 042
• 2i 013• have a clear horizon to the southwest, you shouldn't
... .=
have much trouble finding it. Telescopes will reveal
11 43012.' " .' 042042042•-
26 31204 042
- 0 ,00•• 042,Vi'
-_ Mercury's gibbous phase on the 20th before the
planet swings around in front of the sun, heading
12 43210 ' 042 042.27 042
3201 042•
- .' 0 ..
for inferior conjunction ( between the sun and
13 4320 ' 01 :0 • r 28 43102- i ;',-•·1 Earth ) on Jan. 6, 1977.
Venus
14 4301 .. 042 0• 042 ' 29 4032 . 0 • 042 042 As it approaches its own greatest eastern
elongation on Jan. 24, Venus continues to grow more
15 41023 0. ' 0 •. 0 30 42013 - 0, 042
· • ' 042
042
brilliant. Its December magnitude of -3.7 easily
31 41203 0- '- ..• |.. outshines all other planets and stars. Since Venus
will be visible for about three hours after sunset,

The four major satellites of Jupiter orbit the giant planet in
periods ranging from just under 2 days to 17 days. They can be
seen to change position from night to night. Sometimes their
motions become evident after only a few minutes' observation.
Only a small telescope is required to detect all four of the sat-
ellites and several can frequently be seen in rigidly held bin-
oculars. This table shows the approximate positions of the
moons at aboutll p.m. (EST) on the evenings indicated. First
column on the left shows the date. Second column of numbers
identifies the moons and their positions relative to Jupiter's
disk. (1 -lo; 2=Europa; 3=Ganymede; 4=Callisto, and 0=
Jupiter's disk.) The third column approximates a telescopic
view of the satellites' positions. The orientation of the satellites
is shown inverted as seen in a standard astronomical telescope.
20
Upper left: This photo of the last quarter moon was obtained
by the afocal method; a 4-1/2 inch f/8 reflector and 28mm wide
field eyepiece were used. This is a 1 /8 second exposure on
High Speed Ektachrome. Photograph by Edwin Perley. Upper
right: Comet d'Arrest was low in the south when this photo
was taken on Aug. 29, 1976. GAF 200 film was used for this
30 minute guided exposure through a 200mm telephoto lens.
Photograph by Bill Gordon. Lower left: This 20 minute ex-
posure of the Trifid nebula (M-20) was taken with a cold camera
on High Speed Ektachrome pushed to ASA 400, through an
eight inch Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope. Photograph by Bill
Iburg. Lower right: A 50mm lens at f/1.8 was used to obtain
this striking photo of the summer Milky Way. This is a 3-1/2
minute exposureon GAF 500. Photograph by Howard Lazerson.
 1
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December is a good time to compare it with Sirius, The 1976-77 path of the asteroid Vesta through the constel-
the brightest star in the sky. ( Neophyte observers lation Gemini is plotted on the map above. At brightest, the
asteroid should shine at magnitude 6.6; opposition date is
are frequently suri)risedathow much brighter Venus Jan. 9. Opposite: This stunningly detailed photo of the Mare
is than the star.) In a gibbous phase similar to Nectaris region on the moon was made,through a 12 inch f/6
Mercury's, Venus' diameter increases during the reflector. The large crater at bottom right is Theophilus; at
upper left is Fracastorius. Note the pitted mare surface, which
month from 15.6 to 19.2 seconds of arc, while its contains several "drowned" craters. Phot6graph by Robert
distance from Earth decreases from 100 to 80 Price.
million miles.
Mars
Satellite Shadows on Jupiter 042
Just past conjunction, Mars is too close to
the sun to be seen. This situation. will last until n.17"1..• 0 -V
2 ..r..lwfA/?4. Satellite , Transit fQpi•ilsid
about mid-February or early March, when the red F,··.·:··.- -_u..1:lbr. 036.'Begins ( ESTjfli:dii#fl•-ST). ,
planet will reappear dimly in the morning sky. Bi .;2.ha• 'Pe** : 4%--1*#T,1·9
t' '• :Dat:41#', 2 Zva,0 :l ' ·
. =45. -2 'f...« . · 3: 16 p.ni.• '':,'.*q8$6ii..,=/
Jupiter
6, . '-»...2 tp-' 29 12'.21 a.lil.e•E.:*iji;i•.; 9,
The giant planet· is visible · almost all night, Bt 036
·· - 042' '31 -. . •TI• I :
d ·. . '- * · ;,· ,·4 ar -·1 4 4:14 a.m...& ·,6:24.a·m:·#.5
· 0424 042,•:,.•/. ) 042.-·.-*·,
, 042ir.
having passed opposition last month. As Earth
begins to draw away •from it, Jupiter's diameter
i.y=•Ite,•, 1,•
*'..ra ,:'P·'•t·'• :L • ..1.·
11:43 p.m. 'PM12:52:*#.b.1....1
5:11 p.m».i'.*elfeR#6,1
decreases from 45.2 to 42.6 seconds of arc, and both /:•.'.1/:,
·.t ..it.9..3...'.!.2 tiS'• 2 '
_rv, A-/i•• - 1."11%• - 2:58 a.m.'••1•;fo•#12,1
f ·- • ' " -il•"' · -'EAA:. 3 5:25 p.m )14,3.1/Ptii•,f= •
planets' motions increase their distance from 377 i / • ' 'd8r51.WEKB 1. 4:'16 p.m..·7•*•i-•BAA. 6
to 400 million miles apart. Its magnitude' decreases 2 7 •,27£,' ''f:,E 1:· 12:38 a.m.•7. 042:-,.•,f•.••"
•1
slightly from -2.4 to -2.2. As its retrograde motion i . 506:,8*34»'·106 I 7:OG Bra"j, •14p•t., ,£
continues, Jupiter crosses the Taurus/Aries border 6.., ". ...6182'2•...:'.w&" . ..
,• ».:. C ..4'F FA,i., 9:26 p.ni. r•:3.,1=. :-,2
.. ... 21:9i".../-3.' 042 # '· 4
into the latter constellation on ·Dec. 23. 6:53 p.m. 4%11-9.i26:D,ill.
L. ,%.1.. -··>. jt..7$11..1
Ir- ,
Saturn r' ""·:22,·· -·, 036•..;
TE,6 1. 9:02 Am..96-0•711243:II1.1.. 01 5
6 .di#t·...•··'.. i• 4 1. 3:30 Am.619.., 0426t
tS:•1 4
Located near the boundary of Cancer and Leo, ::' ..19.2.•...6: 1•,•.t:.. -3 *
Saturn creeps westward into the crab while moving i'.I•,1-16*.•'f,'•1,«2 9:30 Am. ··,i· :01-3** ,·0#
retrograde. Brightening from magnitude +0.4 to -:662$'•81Al.0*16,
-r-' *'•Fk··,.-9•-!rmp" ·
1; , 4:28 a.in. "4,•4302Bt,;'1',
+0.3 during December, Saturn's diameter increases ••29:30 YA ' 1 10:57 Am.,j54iJ-blfaihih'··'•
...Plow 042S'Z'
I
from 17.1 to 17.8 seconds of arc. Saturn will. reach , *f.3142'F '«' 1, 5:26 p.m. ·J«'7:36.'p:m.A*A.
opposition on Feb.. 2, but is in an excellent.position .
1=Io 3 = Ganymede
for observing duringa period lasting about three
2 = Europa 4 = Callisto
months on either side of opposition.
22

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Vesta
Vesta, known 'as the .anaked.eye.asteroid, " is
rapidly approaching it's 036Tan.
9 · opRositioh in. the
constellatibn Gemini. Unfortunately, 'Vesta will
hot approach naked.eye..visiblity even at this date;
it will achieve- a magnitude no brighter.than +6.6.
The.reason:lies in, Vesta's' orbit: Few asteroids have
orbits as close ·to:. circular- as:thos-dof most· of.the
lildnets;. as ·a result,: perih6lion ':and *p.hdlion dis-
tances ( farthest and neardst fo:the: sun,-respectively)
differ by a much greatet ptoportion. In·this instgncd,
Vesta's opposition.arrives near the time of its peri-
helion. It ·will:· therefor-e not reflect :as much •·sun-
li•ht-,.and will appeaft'dimmer than i•s m»ximum
magnitude of abotit.+5.7.
For those interested in viewing yesta- through
binoculars or ·a telescope,: or..in-pliptokraphing :the
small body, ·a map of ' its. liath 1ndar its' .opposition
date appear on phge 22, '. .i
Meteor ShoWers
The Geminids and tlie- Ursidsr round out. the
1976 meteor shower,season..:The Geminids - sacond
only to the Perseids - iIi brightiness; :number aild
reliability - suffer the .sdme : fate this,m6nth that
their brighter countdrpatt endured darlier in the
year: The last gliarte,2,•oon-Will effecti.vely destroy
any chance fon·WoftlAvlifte'•6bseri,atid-h. Its glare
will blot out :all··but-,.t48,91;001 254est,meijibersiof'
thii
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:Three photographs of Jupiter,'. taken.only. days apart as.the
giant planet· neared . oppositioft,;49»14it:fpercebtible differ-
ences in·detail. Note the subtle.Variations iIi, tha-:clbutl bands
from.one day.'to. the. next.'From fleft,,tok.riolif;..the.Tilib,tos'were
ft!ade on Sept. 14,.:22 bRd.,1.23,2,1976;Ordx-06sures.times were
seven; six and seven second#.resp69ti03,191.All»p«ures were ,.4
obtaitied Ton· High. Contr•st- Copy, filmift•hrgugh -a 14 inch
Schmidt-Cossegrain 'tplestope. :Photographs by James · K.
BOuse: .
Ahower, which,411 reach.its,Deak on the night of -3
Dec. 13-14,
The Ursids - neitlier. as -dense.nor.·as'bright a
shower as the• Geminids -• readh•iiaximum 6« Dec.
22.:Beacuse this ig just:twoday'§ ·after'·new moon, '1
the,Ursidd should· present a,sli2•tly.-:better oppor-
tunity for: skygazers who are.detehnizied to end the
year. with a· good•·meteor-observing: seshion: Radiat- .,
ing .from.hear Beta: UrsAe Minoris, the Ursids'
- peak strength ·is about 15 per:hoilr. .
..9
. Winter Solstice
' 3
As it moves along the: ecliptic in.:its annual 1
path. around· the, sky, '.the'.sun -reaches its most
southerly. ·point within, the' •borders .of. the con-
stallation. Sagittarizis. Thi § poiht, kno•vn as the
winter solstice, is reached on,Dec. 21 at 12:36 p.m.
EST;.winter' will'begin.in the northern h6misphere,
while people in the southern ,hemisphere 1*ill'enjoy
northwhrd.nhovement.' 042-
Summer. Aftef the, solstice, the - sun will revert to
1
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ASTRO
* 10 *********** 10 10 20 10
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are a tbatil. A very unusual team indeed
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1
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cameras you probably already own - to
the. use' of telescopic equipment - to
locatioil and observation of planets,
constellations, asteroids, comets, galaxies,
double stars, star clusters... to all the
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Book revjews guide your astronomy
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History of American Astronomy
And now, ASTRONOMY Droudly
presents ii very special bicentennial
ctlebration issue entirely devoted to the
evolution of aitronomy in the Uniteki
States.
This exditing full color epic . takes
you from the prehistoric astronomy
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the birth-of astrophysics and development
of astrophotography, throigh 20th cen-
tury American· astronomy - the dis-
covery of quasars, pulsfirs. black holes.-
and the itart of our nation's third een-
tury, "Toward Man's Dream- of Worlds
Unseen".
Noted authors - Von Del Chamberlain
(Sniithsonian Institution), Trudy E..Bell
(Scientific Anierican editor), ..Richard
Bdrendzen (Ameridan University, Wash-
ington, D.C.), Michael Mendillo (Boston
University), and David DeVorkin (Cen,-
tral Connecticut State College) - un[dld
the. history of American astronomy with
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STELLAR FRONTIERS •
Red Giant Stars
by
Bill JohnSOIl
Stars come in all sizes and colors, from the
emptiness of a black hole to the brilliant blue of
Zeta Puppis supergiants. Stars are classified by
their luminosity and surface temperature, and are
placed accordingly on the Hertzsprilng-Russell
(H-R) diagram. A red giant, as the name implies,
is a gigantic star with a cool outer envelope; its
low surface temperature makes it red iIi color. Red
giants include some of the most familiar stars in
the sky: Arcturus, Betelgeuse, Antares, Aldebaran
and Mira ( Omicrbn Ceti ).
Red giants are the product of stellar evolution:
After a star conipletes its life on the main sequence,
it changes into a giant star. There are, in fact, two
types of ted giants: those from ·the lower main
sequence, and those from the upper main sequence.
The difference between them is their mass. Stars
at the lower end of the main sequence are less mas-
sive, and become red giants. Their mass must be
less than 1.5 solar masses - otherwise they wouldn't
become red giants. Those of masses greater than
two to five ( the divididg line is not precisely known )
evolve into an extremely rare group: red super-
giants: Stars between 1.5 and 6 solar masses
somehow join one group or the other, apparently
losing material if they are initially too massive to
become red giants.
Upper main sequence stars spend less time on
the· main sequence because of their laI·gir mass and
luminosity. Massive stars are so luminous that they
radiate their energy away, using up their hydrogen
fuel much faster than smaller stars. Therefore, they
run out of hydrogen to burn before the smaller
stars do. ( Stars do not actually "burn" elements
nor leave "ashes" in the terrestrial sense, but it is
the term most often used to describe how an element
is used in nuclear reactions.)
Betelgeuse, a red supergiant, was once a blue
star. In the first few million years of its existence,
it used up most of its hydrogen, causing the radia-
tion pressure which partially supported the star
to weaken. Without this pressure to counteradt
the gravitational pull of the core, the star began
26
». 1
3
to collapse.inward, thus evolving into a supergiant.
Since the core is compressed by the collapse of the
outer. envelope, the temperature around the core was
raised. Hydrogen that had never·previously reached fi
ignition teihperatute began to fuse ( a nuclear reac-
tion by which nuclei combine to f9rm more massive
nuclei while releasing energy ). Radiation pressure 4
then halted the initial collapse of the star, restor- 1
ing the iriternal equilibrium.
Eventually the "burning" hydrogen shell
immediately surrounding the core also became ex- 1
hausted, and the core began to collapse again. As a
the star's core continued to collapse, the upper
layers of the infalling hydrogen were used for fuel;
until it too was exhausted and a second fuel ( helium ) 3
came into use. Fi
Every time the core becarhe hotter, the outer
hydrogen envelope of thl star expanded further. As
:1
the outer regions of the star expanded, they also
cooled. Thus, the color of the star shifted toward
the red.
41
3
The by-product of hydrogen fusion at the core
is helium "ash". The ash accu:mulates at the core of
-31
the star, but it cannot fuse until a temperature and
pressui,e far higher than that required for hydrogen .1
fusion is reached. In massive stars, the gravita-
li
tional collapse of the star does raise the temperature
1
in the center of the core enough to begin helium •i
fusion. . Helium fusion begins in the core, while
hydroken fusion continues in a shell around the core. 3
Radiation pressure forces 'the oriter envelope of the
star farther away, cooling it to a dull red heat. t
The star is now called a red supergiant. 2
t
Red supergiants are pulsating stars. As the
From H.G. Wells' The Time. Machine: "The sky was no longer
blue. Northeastward it was,inky black. pverhead it was a deep
Indian red and starless, and southeastward lay the huge hulk
of the sun, red and motionless." Over.f•ur billion years in the
t
future, a onc6 friendly sun glows menacingly over the scorched
remains of a deep ocean floor. This world, once dominated by
life, has been sterilized by an unmerciful, monstrous red giant,
and no eyes remain to gaze upon the scene. Painting by Adolf
Schaller. 1
*4
El
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of the outer en»16pf':so thht.,the sunlfill:filaintain
nearly its present Eirfa 2546'ternpi,ratur¢.
However,.:ih .dii,dtlief·-half:-billionv years,· the
sun and its brightness:(or.luminosity)'.Will' increase ·
by 50 percent over::present,;.and its diameter will
expand about 25•Derdent.. 89 theri, ·the sun.will ·-
have.exhausted.:alri16§tall the hydrokeh at its bore.
The helium "ash"Ydt -th-e core will h.a*e condensed
into a ball at thd·ceAter of. the star ( a helium core ),
but the temperatura•.and pressure in this core would
not have yet reached the: point where helium can
begin fusion. .With only a thin layer of hydrogen
fusion around · the cfore, most of the core of that
future sun will· be a dead region.
The sun will-.tabidly glow in size. until it is
2.5 times as big as.it·is now. The surface tempera-
ture will decrease: In the core the heat. for hydrogen
fuhion in the, outer layers:is provided by the-intenbe
heat Eoming from bontraction in the core. Eventually
the core becomes:degenerate.-so compressed that
it acts like a metal instead 6.f a gas. Helium cannot
compress itself more,· and increases in temperature
in the outer rdgions cazise the co•e to expand only
slightly.
As radiation pressure from the hydrogen burn-
ing shell around tha. core • pushes the outer surface
of the star farther and farther away, the core con-
tinues to collapse, providing more • heat and railia-
tion pressure Which'pushes the outer erivelope of the
sun farther and farther ·away. By 254hen,
the surface
temperature of the: s-lin'•will have droDped, and the
color changed to thf.ruddy glow of a red giant.
Mercufy's orbit-wi11 be swallowed. From Earth,
the red sun would appear to cover 1/3 of the sky at
noon.
Degenerate core. material does riot contract
easily, but without. any iriterior energy source to
support the core, it· must continue to shrink. Final-
ly, at the. centet of the. core the. temperature will
become great enough to bekin helium fusion.
Helium fusion. does hpt begin gradually in a
lower main .sequence .star as it does in an upper
main sequence star. ..The defienerate· core ,is so
tightly compressed:th*ti as the helium at the:center
begins to fuse,. th'e' cbre•·6xpandsonly a little. The
temperature throughout .the core rises rapidly,
because the core is more like a sphere · of metal than·
a compressed gas. Helium fusion begins throughout
the core instead of just at ·•the center. Within a
single day the sun "will pass .from .tlie stage of
beginning helium fudion·.to a stage of uncontrollekl
helium fusion: Chlled helium flash, the stage re-
Two stars are shown. as they, evol4e'away from the main:se-
quence. The upperone=iwith almass.five times:'that'61 the sun,
efids its career by bacoming•als,u-per-nova. ·The:lower one has
the same lilass as,the)suilj•ft6-r·/6aohing the •red giant stage,
it cools and shrinks to bepome,a,white-dwarf. and ultimately.a.
black dwarf. The band in·th6.66nter is themain se•luence -
the band along whidh'· ftornibl(stars-spend most'of their exis-
tence. Artwork by Mark Piter'nosfr-o.
sembles · nothing so mucli As,.an uncontr(illable
duclear explosion.
Helium •flash will drasticiilly: Ehange the com-
position·of th6 interior:»f ·tkie.,suni but.·this. Will ·
not be immediatelf visiol 254··onth6 surface of the
star. The hydrogen shell·,ai-bui;d the, helium core
( which until the Helium· fi ash provided most of
the eriergy for the sun 1 · will · be blown apart. With:
out the hydrogen burning shell, the core will drop
rapidly in temperature as it eipands, causing the
sun to actually drop in brightn6ss.
Our red giant sun will become smaller and less
bright, but its surface temperatzire will again .in-
crease. Its energy provided by the helium burning
core. and an outer, hydrogen burriink sliell, the sun
will move back toward the main sequence.
Eventually the helium at the core will be ex-
hausted and the sun will again increase in bright-
ness, increase iIi, size, .and decrease in temperature.
Instead of a heliurri core, the sun will have a core
ofcarbon and oxygen, th6 waste products of heliuni
fusion. Evolving. in much the. same way as it did
before helium fusion, the core will contract; the
heat of its contraction igniting the outer layers of
heliuril and hydrogen, and in turn forcing the outer
envelope of the star away. Once again the sun turns
back into a re-d giant. Eventually the pressure at
the core of the star ignites. the carbon, and a carbon
flash, much like the earlier heliurri flash, disrupts
the outer shells.
This is probably the last time the star can
become a red giant. At this point there is not enough
mass to collapse and burn the residue of carbon
fusion. Wheri the carbon burning· phase ends, a
lower main sequence star will collapse for the
last time.
Collapsa brings abotit the formation of a.dege-
nerate core, surrounded by a shell of hydrogen-
helium that continues fusioh. As this shell is ex-
hausted, it collapses on the core. As time passes,
more and more. of. the ·star collapses on the core,
which slowly begins to change.
Since not enough mass is left in the star to
overcome the repulsive forces between electron
and proton, the sun cannot eventually form neutron-
ium hs neutron stars do. The sun will never become
a neutron star. When the last of the star has col-
lapsed into the core, the resulting star is a white
dwarf.
A white dwarf is a very stable star. Its heat
and light are provided by the gravitational ehergy
of its collapse. A star the sike:of the sun will collapse
into a white dwarf little bigger than Earth. But
even white dwarfs die, though very slowly. Even-
tually the gravitational energy 8f the white dwarf
is exhausted and ·the star cools. When it descends
beiow a certain level of temperature and luminosity,
a white divarf is called a black dwarf - the end
point of all lower main Psequence stars; a dark
crystalline ball the size 6f Earth. 4-
31
.....=.,..,nnu,.1,11.. 036m.=. 036
GAZER'S GAZETTE
The iliessier Calalog: Takinit 1 Second Look
Henry J. Phillips
Let's assume you've owned your first telescope
for a couple of years. Whether it's large or small,
refractor or reflector, you've been eager to make
good use of it without quite knowing where to start.
After a few looks at the moon and planets, you re-
membered that quite a few of the sky's showpieces
- stunning photographs of which are in all your
astronomy books - are included in something
called the "Messier list". You decided to try what
other observets have done: Find, and look at, every
object on this list.
Finally, you're finished; you've located all 105
objects. You've gone into ecstasies over some and
been keenly disappointed in othersi You've found
some on your first try, ana located others only
after long hours of frustrating search. At last
you've.reached the end of the list, and after placing
your check mark next to the last number, you sit
back and bemusedly think: Now what?
At this point you're unlikely to take very kindly
to any suggestions that you start over and do the
whole task again. But stop and think a minute.
How many of the Messier objects did you really
look at closely, and how many did you find just for
the sake of finding them? How carefully did you
dtudy each object ( especially the dimmer ones ),
and how often did you go back for a second look -
if at all? What is this Messier list and what purpose
does it serve?
Various lists of "nebulous stars" existed be-
fore Chailes Messier compiled his catalog of clus-
ters and nebulae in the second half of the 18th
century, but these other lists were usually pre-
pared as appendices to star catalogs, not entities
in themselves. Such lists were often made without
the use of a telescope, and included asterisms or
nonexistent objects; most are notoriously unreliable.
Messier's list was the first accurate catalog of
nonstellar objects available to both scientists and
amateurs. Later observers have prepared far more
32
036,. 036 036.. 036=H=•uwaH•HaVi•••V
by
systematic catalogs: Sir William Herschel, for
example, placed every nebula or cluster he found
into one of eight different. categories. And yet
Herschel's catalog is virtually unknown today,
while Messier's continues to be the standard list
of the brightest or nlost accessible objects, despite
its haphazard quality. Why?
First of all, the Messier list presents the
observer with a limited objective.. There are only. a
little over 100 objects on the list - a number small
enough to prevent intimidation at its extent, but
large enough to provide a good deal of variety.
Second, the very randomness of the catalog is part
of its attractiveness. If all the globular clusters
were numbered consecutively, for example, or if
the objects were placed iIi older of right ascension,
the list would certainly be more straightforward -
but would lose a good deal of its charm. There is
something indefinably enjoyable about the way
the numbers jump all around the sky in no parti-
cular order.
Finally, as we've already mentioned, the
majority of the sky's most spectacular and beautiful
objects are on the list, encouraging the observer
to inspect those which are less bright or exciting,
and to go on from there to items that are not on the
list at all. There is perhaps no Iilore useful way to
learn your way around deep sky objects, and to
know what to expect from theni, than by charting
your way through the Messier list.
Before beginning your secohd journey through
the Messier catalog, therdfore, take a little time to
.
study what it includes - ivhat kinds of objects,
their shapes and brightnesses, sizes ahd distances
- in order to become aware of what you're going to
see the second time around.
Planetary Nebulae
Over 1,000 planetary nebulae have been dis-
M-101: Photograph by Evered Kreimer. M-22 and M-11:
Photographs by Christopher Bowland.
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covered in the Milky Way, but most are extremely
small, faint and hard to spot. Messier included only
four. on his list: M-27 in Vulpecula, M-57 in Lyra,
M-76 in Perseus, and M-97 in Ursa Major.
Despite their name, planetary nebulae have
nothing to do with planets. They were named by
Sir William Herschel, who noticed that many of
these 6bjects exhibit pale greenish disks, quite like
those of true planets. In fact, planetary nebulae are
expanding shells of gas thrown off by small, hot
stars. Often, this expanding nebulosity takes on
strange - even bizarre - shapes, and each of
Messier's planetaries has received a nickname
derived from its apparent shape. M-27 is the Dumb-
bell nebula; M-57, the Ring; M•97, the Owl; M-76,
which bears a slight resemblance to M-27, might
Derhaps be called the Barbell nebula.
M-27, the brightest of these four objects at
magnitude 7.6, is quite prominent in the sunimer
Milky Way. M-57, though smaller and fainter, is
even more distinctive, glowing like a faint smoke
ring. Messier suspected that the Ring nebula was
"composed of very small stars", although he was
the first to admit that even the best telescopes
could not distinguish any.
M-76, on the other hand, is the dimmest object
on the entire list, and M-97 runs a close second;
both are 12th magnitude. Messier himself stated
that both were extremely hard to see. Considering
34
M-81 and M-82: Photograph by Greg Griffith. M-104: Photo-
graph by Clarence Custer.
the small aperture of most of his telescopes, it's
surprising he was able to pick them up at all!
Diffuse Nebulae
Messier lived and worked long before the age
of photography, and could have no way of knowing
about the many bright clouds of gas that filter
through the extensive reaches of the Milky Way.
Only the brightest of these were accessible in his
telescopes, and only seven got onto his final list
of objects. Most of these are associated with clusters
of stars, and Messier usually described them that
way. M-8 ( the Lagoon nebula in Sagittarius ) is
described as a "star cluster which appears as a
nebula when seen in an ordinary telescope". M-16
( the Eagle nebula in Serpens ) is a "cluster of small
stars, mingled with a faint light".
Today, of course, we• know what diffuse nebulae
like these are: immense condensations of gas and
dust where new stars are being born. What we don't
often realize is that we still see these objects 6xactly
as Messier described them. Our minds, harking back
to long exposure observatory photographs, inter-
pret what we see into what is actually there. If we
could train our minds to see exactly what Messier
saw, we wouldn't be as disappointed in these ob-
jects' telescopic appearance as we often are.
 Messier's Method
Charles Messier ( 1730-1817), compiler of the catalog of clusters and nebulae that bears his name,
was actually not very interested in these objects; we might almost say he made his list in self-defense.
Messier's main interest was comets, the nature of which was only beginning to be understood in the
second half of the 18th century. Scientists knew that they approached the sun from the depths of space
with a characteristic cloudy or "nebulous" appearance. Accurate measurements of position were required
for orbital calculations - the more the better. Therefore, the earlier a comet was seen, the more positions
could be obtained.
Messier discovered 15 new comets during a half century of observing, and carefully followed and
plotted many others; he was one of the first to observe the initial predicted return of Halley's Comet
in 1759. Not a theorist, he was interested solely in observational astronomy, leaving the explanations
to others.
His reasons for compiling his list are best stated in his own words: "What caused me to undertake
the catalog was the nebula I discovered above the southern horn of Taurus on Sept. 12, 1758, while
observing the comet of that year.... This nebula had such a resemblance to a comet, in its form and
brightness, that I endeavored to find others, so that astronomers would not· confuse these same nebulae
with comets just beginning to shine. I observed further with the proper refractors for the search of
comets, and this is the purpose I had in forming the catalog."
Several points can be gleaned from this quotation. First, Messier's comet searching was done almost
wholly with small refractors - which is why he could not resolve such objects as globular clusters, even
near the edges. Also, his list is not as haphazard as some believe; occasionally Messier would look es-
pecially for nebulae and clusters, and his list is by no means composed solely of "accidental" discoveries.
Otherwise, he would not have included Praesepe or the Pleiades, both of which had been known at least
since the Greek era. For those objects that Messier knew had been previously observed, he scrupulously
gave due credit. Many of the objects on the latter. part of the list were discovered by Pierre Me*hain, a
younger colleague; there was no rivalry between Messier and Mdchain, and they freely traded observa-
tions back and forth.
Toward the end of his life, Messier intended to revise and extend the catalog, listing the objects
in order, of right ascension. The upheaval of the French Revolution prevented this publication, however,
and it apparently was destroyed. -1

The Orion nebula ( M-42 and M-43 ) is the most
famous member of this group, and most of the others
- M-8, M-16, M-17 ( the Omega nebula ) and M-20
( the Trifid nebula ) - are well-known. Only M-78
languishes in relative obscurity. M-16 and M-17
are the most distant of these objects ( almost 5,900
light-years ); by comparison, the nearest - M-42
- is only 1,500 light-years away.
Open Clusters
Messier was always on the lookout for comets,
and most of the objects that eventually found their
way onto his list had the. nebulous appearance that
a comet normally exhibits before it swings close to
the sun and '!grows" a tail. We might therefore
wonder why Messier chose to include open clusters
on his list - even those that could not possibly be
mistaken for comets, like the Beehive (M-44) or
the Pleiades ( M-45).
For the answer, we must turn to Messier's own
comments on the objects he.observed. The Messier
catalog is arranged, for the most part, in strict
chronological order: Objects with high numbers
were discovered or observed later than those earlier
on the list. When we examine the first few open
clusters in the catalog, we find that they looked
nebulous to Messier under certain conditions. M-6
66
appears as a nebulosity to the naked eye", as does
M-7; M-11 "resembles a comet" in a small telescope,
and M-18 "appears in the form of a nebula" with the
same telescope. Not until Messier gets into the
20s does he begin to list open clusters on a regular
basis; perhaps it was at this point that Messier
decided he had a good thing going and determined
to include open clusters in his list.
Whatever the reason, we are fortunate that
Messier chose to catalog open clusters, for his
list contains ·some of the most breathtaking in the
heavens ( although he inexplicably omitted the
Double Cluster in Perseus ).
Among such a varied collection, there is no
"best" open cluster, and doubtless each observer
will have his own favorite. Some will favor the wide
clusters like the Pleiades, viewed with low power;
others will prefer the tight, condensed M-11 in
Scutum ( the one that Messier thought looked like a
comet ). The three Auriga clusters - M-36, M-37
and M-38 - each have their own special attractions;
their proximity in the sky provides a good basis
for comparison. You might also want to compare
M-46 and M-47 ( close together in Puppis), or M-44
and M-67 ( both in Cancer ). M-44 - the well-known
Beehive - is looser than M-67, and you can decide
for yourself which type you prefer.
Most open clusters are nearer than their
35

. , ,-'.-+·-/'. .C.«·ti·:61-'.3.·:4·,». '..., A. • ,- 042·


globular counterparts. The closest is M-45 ( the
Pleiades ); at a distance of 410 light-years, the
Pleiades are the nearest of all Messier objects.
The farthest of the Messier open clusters is M-103
in Cassiopeia, 8,500 light-years away.
One of the open clusters on Messier's list is
not a true cluster at all. M-24 is actually a detached
starcloud of the Milky Way; it does, however,
contain a true open cluster - NGC-6603 - which is
small, faint and hard to spot. A six inch telescope
is necessary to find it; the "true" M-24 is best seen
with extremely low power, or even with the naked
eye. Those who wish to substitute NGC-6603
for Messier's M-24 should be warned of its difficulty.
Globular Clusters
The Messier list abounds in globular clusters
with 29, including most of the brightest ones vis-
ible to observers in the northern hemisphere. Mes-
sier's telescopes were ill-suited to any activity
other than comet hunting, and his comment about
most of the globular clusters in his list bears this
out. Time and time again, Messier describes a glob-
ular cluster as a "nebula without star" - even M-13,
the largest and brightest globular in the northern
sky and one that is easily resolvable in small tele- ..
scopes. Only M-4 and M-75 were described by Mes-
sier as being composed of small stars, and since
M-75 is faint and difficult to resolve, Messier's
comment is even more surprising. Messier, however,
was not trying to resolve these objects as we do
today, so we shouldn't be too hard on him for not
doing so.
You'll immediately notice that, unlike open
clusters which are distributed fairly evenly around
the Milky· Way, globular clusters are concentrated
into a comparatively small area. Over half those
on Messier's list are contained in three constella-
tions: Ophiuchus, Scorpius and Sagittarius. All
but one of the others can be found in the summer
sky, not too far from this main concentration. The
exception is M-79, located in the winter constella-
tion Lepus.
This arrangement is not coincidental. A halo
of globular clusters surrounds the nucleus of the
Milky Way galaxy. Since this nucleus lies in the
direction of Sagittarius, the globular clusters
appear, from our viewpoint, to be packed tightly
into this small area. Actually, many of them are as
distant from the nucleus as they are from Earth;
the nearest to the galactic center of Messier's globu-
lar clusters is M.62 in Ophiuchus.
As a rule, the globular clusters are much more
distant from Earth than are open clusters. Of
those on the Messier list, the nearest ( M-4 in
Scorpius ) is about 7,500 light-years away, while
the farthest ( M-75 in Sagittarius ) lies at a distance
of 78,000 light-years.
M-13 in Hercules is certainly the best known
of Messier's globular clusters; at magnitude 5.7,
it is also the brightest. Other bright globulars
36
- . :-2 . ..1':75'1:·,."i- ' -
include M-22 ( 5.9 ) in Sagittarius, which was the
first globular cluster discovered; M-15 ( 6.0 ) in
Pegasus, and M-92 ( 6.1), also in Hercules. The
dimmest globular oh Messier's list is M-72 in
Aquarius, with a magnitude of only 9.8.
Some observers tend to dismiss globular clus-
ters, after seeing a few of them, with the comment
that "they all look alike". While they may present
a smaller variety of appearances than open clusters,
this statement is certainly untrue. Some have more
obvious central condensations than others, and some
cover a much larger area than others. Compare M-69,
with hardly any central concentration, to M-15,
with its exceptionally brilliant center and readily
resolvable edges. Notice M-3 in Canes Venatici
and M-62 - both "off-center" globulars of marked
asymmetry. In short, there is enough variety among.
the Messier globular clusters to reward the patient
observer again and again.
Galaxies
There are 37 galaxies on Messier's list - a
larger number than in any other category of celestial
objects. Messier, of course, didn't know about their
true nature, and merely cataloged them - like
globulars - as more "nebulae without stars".
There are several galaxies not listed by Messier
that are as bright or brighter than some of those
on the list - a graphic illustration of Messier's
method. Most of his galaxies were chanced upon
during comet searches; even in the crowded galac-
tic reaches of Virgo and Coma Berenices, Messier
J
missed a few of the best.
What did Messier see in these objects? His
i
description of M-31 is that it is "shaped like a
spindle". He states that he "has examined it with
different instruments and has not found a single
star there". M-51 ( the Whirlpool galaxy ) is called a
"very faint nebula without stars...itis double,
each having a bright center... the two atmospheres
touch each other. One is fainter than the other."
M-81 is a "little oval", while M-82 is "faint and
elongated".
Modern observers, reading these and other
descriptions, and remaining blissfully unaware of
the state of cosmology in the 18th century, are apt
to snort in contempt at Messier's lack of knowledge.
But the fact is that Messier has recorded remarkably
accurate descriptions of these objects' appearance
through the telescope. Again, we must remember
3
that we view galaxies from, a completely different
perspective than Messier's. Two centuries from now,
men may regard our knowledge with equal contempt.
1
It's true that small telescopes will show only
as much as Messier saw, but we can appreciate
more fully today exactly what it is we are seeing.
This is nowhere more true than with the galaxies
on Messier's list. We know, for instance, that M-31
M-3, M-46 and M-47: Photographs by Brad Wallis. M-17,
M-34, M-37, and M-38: Photographs by Robert Provin.
1
 . .. .
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M-34 M-37

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.
M-38 M-46 and M-47
 - the spindle shaped nebula - is actually the near-
est galaxy similar to our own Milky Way, lying at
a distance of 2.2 million light-years. In a clear
sky, through telescopes of eight inches aperture or
larger, M.31 is certainly one of the most impres-
sive objects in the heavens.
The smallest and least massive of the Messier
galaxies is M-32, one of the companions to M-31.
In comparison to M-31's 320 billion solar masses,
M-32 contains about three billion. Second smallest
is M-33, which covers a large area in the telescope
because of its relative nearness, but contains only
eight billion solar masses. M-31, M-32 and M-33
are all members of the Local Group of galaxies - a
cluster that includes the Milky Way.
The most massive of all the Messier galaxies
are the ellipticals M-49 and M.60, each of which
holds about one trillion solar masses, and M-104
( the Sombrero galaxy ) which contains about 1.3
trillion.
The most distant Messier galaxy is M-77 in
Cetus, about 52 million light-years away. The
nearest, aside from the members of the Local Group,
are M-81, M-82 and M.83; all are about 8.5 million
light-years away.
The brightest Messier galaxy is, of course,
M-31, visible to the naked eye at magnitude 4.8.
M-64, the Blackeye galaxy in Coma Berenices, is
magnitude 6.6, and M-33 is 6.7. The faintest Messier
38
M-64: Photograph by Orien A. Ernest. M-65 and M-66: Photo-
graph by Evered Kreimer.
1
galaxy is M.98 in Coma Berenices, which has a
magnitude of only 10.7. Although it is closer to us
than the many members of the Coma-Virgo galaxy
cluster, it is not as bright as the most luminous
members of that group.
Just as the globular clusters seem to be con-
centrated in the summer Milky Way, so are the
galaxies apparently condensed into the spring sky.
Only five of Messier's group are not visible during
spring. Here, again, we are witnessing an illusion;
because the Milky Way blocks our view of the space
behind it, we cannot .see into intergalactic space
except when we look away from it. The Milky Way
lies on the horizon during the spring, so its dust
does not obscure the galaxies behind it; therefore we
see more. The other five are visible in the fall 1
again when a large portion of the sky is unblocked
by the Milky Way.
Crab Nebula
It is perhaps fortunate that the unique object
known as the Crab nebula, which falls into none of
these categories, is numbered one. Messier described
it as "a whitish light, elongated like the flame of a
candle". Today, of course, we know that M-1 is the
remains of the supernova of 1054. It is one of the
most intensely studied objects in the heavens, and
i
 ,··.': :'I:·4.- 042'I'.'.'t.:·. '' ''•'''• ''•'••'••"·-""
Additional Messier Ob•ects
.T
.-
0.
•i;:No NGC No R A'gl•r-«ibec
...
.04 ;07-2, 4594 ", fR"3334
i*. 1,51
...
- -Al
1085<
Al# 4107"
3379
4258
6171
10n457, - 7- *f42-051'
16 h29 m
1211161;1«3 .«47235,1' _- Sp 3.15 19 5'x'7'
S•26:'1(10•1 3556
111108•-*_,r 1415555'r
60 4/0941 3992 , 11 b 553.
bUL..#60- ....''
GC = Globular Cluster El = Elliptical Galaxy Sp = Spiral Galaxy
contains the firbt. discovered pulsar. Notwithstand-
ing, M-1 is quite difficult to see, and you'll probably
have trouble picking it up in· a small instrument.
Missing Objects
Four of the objects' on 'Messier's original list
of 103 items 'either are not true clusters or nebulae,
or are missing entirely. To help observers avoid
confusion, and to explain those dashes or blank
spots in most printed lists, we'll run through these
items briefly.
M-40 is a double star in Ursa Major known by
the name of Winneckw 4. Why Messier included it
is a mystery, since· even he admitted that he saw
only two stars here. The object had appeared on a
previous ' list of riebulous items. compiled by an
earlier observer - most of which simply don't
exist. M-73 is an ahterism of four stars in Aquarius,
not a true cluster. It is quite inconspicuous - no
more prominent than any other chance arrangement
of stars.
M-91 and M-102 are the missing objects. No-
thing can be seen in the positions Messier raported
fof thesd numbers. M-91 is described as "above
number 90", but the object which most reasonably
fills this requirement is NGC-4571 - and this
galaxy is dimmer than any other galaxy on Messier's
list; it could be that M-91 was actually an unrecog.
nized second observation,.of M:58. M-102 was re-
ported to Messier by.his cblleague Pierre Mcfchain,
and was included in Messier:s published list at the
last minute before·Messier had a chance to observe
the rep.orted positidn -himself. M•chain later ad-
mitted that M-102 was probably a duplicate observa-
tion of M:101; sqme lists award the M-102 title to
NGC-5866, a galaxy in.Draco.
M.47 and M-48, for years regarded as other
missing objects,,have been • convincingly identified
as, respectively, :NGC-2422 ( an open cluster in
Puppis ) and NGC-2548 ( an open clustef in Hydra ).
Additioh,91 Objects
Although Messier intended to coptinue his list
beyond the 103'items he published, age and failing
health prevented'hihi from.iloing so, •and the'"offi-
cial" list remains at.·1032 There have been ·recent
attempts to extetid the Messier list past this number,
to include items that Mes§ier 'did not publish but
'•'" '"''•" '""•'••'•••••••I:.'0.:'l':.'(......0.... '...'. 036:
l
. Type :,t... . Size Mag Constellation
-,
- .*Sly ' " Sp
- .. 47., ,; • 6'*2 5'
87 Virgo dpy
.--
2. .1 '. -'i El'* .re 22'x2'
<,12-12957'- GC 8'
92
89
90
Leo 94
Canes Venatici
Ophiuchus
...
-
i
.
.
...
- Sp '1•317 7'il 3' 10 7 Ursa Ma•or
-' +53039' Sp -4 6 2135'
... 10 8 Ursa Major
...
si} L:) 91 t
undeniably knew about ( as evidenced by letters
or private notes ).
These additional items have gained wide ( al-
though not universal ) acceptance as genuine Messier
objects, and the catalog now goes as far as 109.
Ngt yet included on every published list, the extra
items are listed in the table above'.
Needless to say, 109 numbers don't include
everything. Messier left out quite a few bright
objects; the most notable omission is one we've
mentioned earlier - the Double Cluster in • Perseus.
Messier also did not list the Rosette · nebula in
Monoceros, the North America ind yeil nebulae in
Cygnus, the Helix ziebula iIi Aquarius and NGC-6543
in Draco ( both planetary nebulae ), plus a large
number of bright globular clusters and galaxies.
In additi6n, working as he was from the high
latitude of Paris, Messier had no • access to the
southern sky and the splendid objects there·
Even so,astrophotographershave, in the Messier
list, a wealth of varied beauty available to their
cameras; unfortunately, .the same few Messier ob-
jects seem to get photographed over add over.
Diffuse nebulae are the favorite subjects; tliere may
be more photos of M-42 in existence than all other
subjects dombined. Among globular clubters, M-13
is popular, but why doesn't · anyone .photograph
M-71 - an object in Sa•itta so . peculiat that it
could be either avery loose:globular or a.very com.
pact open cluster? Good phtitogra•hs of open clus-
tersi besides the Pleiades, the ·Beehive and M-35
are rare. Everyone wants a pictur6 of M-31 because
it's large and bright, but other galaxies like M-74,
M-77, M-83 and M-101 - all beautiful spirals -. are
almost 'completely ignored.
From today's light. polluted cities, the objects
of the Messier catalog are undoubtedly less im-
pressive than they werd to Messier. But- in a dark
country sky; even a small' instrument ivill reveal th6
beauty and grandeur of many objects oh the Mes-
sier ·list, and larger telescgpes will Drdvide views
that are simp.ly indescribable. Messier provided a
more -valuable ·list than he kneW:He· may, perhaps,
have preferred to be rem6mbere'd by · a.huge, bright
"comet Messier", but his catalog of clusters, nebu-
lae afid galaxies provides a firm, much less ephemeral
tribute to his name. ae
39
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RACK-AND-PINION FOCUSERS - Precision metd construction. Ail · 3 models rates...562.50 Ppd.
i include helic21-cut.rack fcr. ultra-smocth focusing wilhout tacklash. Universal . 26 - Model #33 - Uses 1.2v. D.C. cr 110v. A.C. 0:her leatures ider,bcal to Model
bases fit al W.le size:. Stan:ta,d 1-1/4" ·eyepiece holders: Each locussr is 29...589.50 ppd.
guaranteed to be the finest obtainable in its class. ACCESSORY CASES · Rugged po·ycthylene.'for dust-fiee orotectior of eyepieces;
21'- Model#67 -Strong, lightweight des:gn for 4" to 10'' telescopes. 2-3/16 f:Mers, Barlows, etc: For either 1 -1/4''.or .965" accessories. Die-cut toam litling.
travel.Anexcelentvalue...S14.75 ppd; 27-Model#51-7"xg-1/2"...57.95 ppd.
22 · Model#640 -·A heavy-dutyde!uxe Eccuser :or 61' to 16" le:escopes. Fu!1 3" 28·Model#548" x 12":..$10.95 ppd.
trave':for bo:h visual :nd p,Mographic applicat•ons...521.75 ppd:
'23 Model#680-Ou: finesl focuser. Accepts both 1,A /4 " and 2" ey:pieces. Full VIEWFINDERS - Each with coated, achromatic objective and crosshair eyep:efe
3'' 1:3:21 torphoto ci visu:; observing with 6'' to 16'' telescopes...529.95 ppd. 29 ·6x 30mm: Fine, 4° wide-field tinder. Thousands now in use. 2-ring brac Ket
included...514.75 ppd.
30 -7xSOmm: 1.2:g: 50mm aperture. Sharp. brilianlimages. ( Not for use with ,
prism.),.,S21.75 ppd.-Brackets:$7.95/pr.
31 -7x SOmm Right-Angle: 50mm Derture. for both straight-thrcugh anti rignt-
angleviewing. Prismincluded...529.95 ppd. Brackets: $7.95/Pr.
45 32 -7x 50mm Right·Angle: As above. but with bracket for Co'estron 8. .$44.95 ppd.
33 - PHOTO.GUIDE TELESCOPES - (Phone or request catalog for 'details.)
2"...534.50 -2.4"...565.00 -3,1"...5138.00
34 - PARABOLIC· PRIMARY MIRRORS - Protessional quality hand figured Pylex
milrors. aiuminized and quactz overcoated. Each mirror is guaranteed to reach all
thecreticallimitsof performance. 6" f/8...$49.95 ppd.- 10-1/6...$119.50 ppd.
8"1/6Orf/7.5...579.95 ppd.-12-1/2' 1/6...$217.500pd.
I '9•il' e
35 - ELUPTICAL SECONOARIES . For ootimum perlormance me any primary
mirrors. A!uminized, overcoa:ed. As OptIC3lly flat 2: master opticians can make
them. Mincr axis sizes shown. postpaid: 1.30"..58.00 - 1.52".:.$11.50 -
1.83",•.513.50-2.14"...$16.50.-2.60":..$19.50. '
36,-OBJECTIVE LENSES - As used in Meade guide telescopes and equatorial ·
40 retracmrs. Air·spaced, achromatic, fu'ly (03!ed Mounted' in machined, threaded
44 cells, Demip and dusicaf) included: 2- 1/12:..314.50 ppd. -·2.4" f/15...$29.50
pi'
f. . i 1.:.
ppd.-3.1'' 1/15...$74:50 ppd
37 - SETTING CIRCLES - Die-cast aluminum, 6" diameter. Machine'engraved.
'1 . Precismn gua,anteed: Standard 1-1/2" bore:...535.00/pr. Other bcres (flom.
1/4''102'):add$1.50percircle.
•ty · ' •,. , 38,39 - MIRROR CELLS AND SPIDERS/DIAGONAL HOLDERS are available to fit
the'tobin.g below. Pnone. or request cata'og, lor details.
e , t= . .
40 - FIBERLITE TELESCOPE.TUBES - 20% more rigid, yet 40% lighter. thani

i-..9.6
r°*fl.*- 1A.
/4,@ 4 *.'
p·,tre fiDerglass, with low thermal conductiyity. Polished end rings 2Va:lable at
-« 11
...'' 2.·. i•· . .
nominaloost. Partial Dricelist: 7" 1.0. x 50"...529.00 -9-1/4" I.D. *60"-..$39.00
12-3/8" 1.0. x 62"...$58.00·12-3/8" I.D. x 72"...$74.00
e...Pack'.19 chprge on tubes...S4.00.
C ./
43
Ak
·' •,..·'
.i-& 0= ..,t.'''1f COMPLETE OPTICAL TUBE· ASSEMBLIES ·- Fully Assembled. Each assembly
7 . inciddles the premium quality Meade compo.ents d:scri:)ed above: Fiberlite tube .
with end rings. primary mirror and ce'L spider and secondary mirror, Model #67
"-"tr,
m .
3,3.* I; 9/.
9 .1
Focuser,' 8 x·30inmviewfinder. S hipping charges col:ect.
41 -6" f/Stubeassembly...S144.95
42-8" 1/6 lubeassembly,..$189.95
i· r r *im; 4/1 . 1//2,/44'& *-=.
1 1,0. 1 11 ., 1 ' Packing charge on tube assemblies...54.00
.AA2 MEADE EQUATORIAL REFRACTORS - Wnetne; beginning or serious amateur, one
" 01 these superb instruments willfit your observing requitements. Phone or request
-- cata,M for details.
.Z 1/
i.'' ' '*6\
..4'...:,3 .41 - 43 -Model#291:2.4" Equatorial Retractor...5195.00
44 - Model#300: 3.1" Equatorial Refractor...$325.00
1 //5,4 m 45 -. Models.#420 -#440: 4" Equatorial and Photo·Equatorial Refractors,
& lf. i available with guide telescope, Illuminated reticle eyeplece, motor drive, frequency
i lik=-t, cotlerror, astrocameta. From S1068.00
7 , <,•A 1 h. r .14 Equatorial Mounts - Each Includes comolete mount, circles, 2 cables, hardwood
4 ,'. ..: "036=
'mE
0:
1# 0"
I
P i
"'1 4..... tripod. Mount for Model #291...$95.00 -. Mount for Model #300...5157.00
4 1,1 I , i 46 - 20 x 80mm ASTRONOMICAL BINOCULARS - Coated optics. Magnificent for
. 036 deep-spEce obsmving...$127.50 ppd:
BushneHTripod: folly aolustabie...549.50 ppd
1/,•. .S •
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MEADE INSTRUMENTS
- ''
1\St . :.1 . ,. t.,
721 West 161h Street, Costa Mesa, Calif. 92627 042
(714)646·9281

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•-'', MAIL ORDERSE Circle numbers for it6ms desired ' "•
-:...' ' f.. ./ i .a , /4 1 , .2, 1 •. andwrite your specific requirements on a separate .· •
'i l , ..· . shoet-or'Use thdorder form-whith accompanies . r
----- 1" 1/'141, ,4
4
, ''9
' our catalog.
1 036.2 3"'4 5 .6 7 8 9 10 11.12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
• ' •. 7. U 0 1 1 11 1, 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
31 ·
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or credit card (BankAmericard or Master Charge)
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I SHIPMENT:All orders are processed for shipmeot;
• •• 'I within24hou»bf receipt.
Amm*•..) pire-&-*A il ·
(7• 25 *.•2'64/:•.•E•' 17 ' • FORBGN O.RDERS: Add 20% to cover Air Parcel P.ost charges-any excess will
./.40 11 , I be refunded. Paymentmust be made by bank checkin $ U.S.
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• COMPLETE CATALOG 77·C - $1.00(Catalog free with any order)
»- 254=i,
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Cileaning Your Te•e•cope MITITor
Clean telestope optics transmit more light,
give better, crisper images, and are more likely to
provide satisfac•tory telescope performance. Of
course, you shouldn't let them get dirty in the
first place. A close-fitting plastic cap ( a shower cap
works well ) over both ends of the tube keeps out
dust when the tdlescope is not in use, but sooner or
later you'll look • at your mirror or lens and notice
spots and dust. A bit of dust does very little harm
to the image, but if you can see it from the end of
the tube, it's time for a wash. A word of warning,
however; Too many washings can damage the mirror
coating. Don't wash the optics if they don't need it.
Washing a mirror is simple: It's dunked in warm
soapy water, the dirt comes off, it's rinsed clean,
and then dried. But remember that you're washing
a surface that can be scratched very easily. If
there's gritty or scratchy dirt on the surface,
you must remove it first. At no time can you scrub
the mirror surface as that's a sure way to scratch
or sleek it. Finally, you'll have to take extra care in
drying the mirror to prohibit marring. the mirror
surface by tap water deposits.
There are 1bts of recommended procedures for
washing telescope mirrors, and it doesn't essentially
matter how you do it as long as you get good re-
sults. Following is a method that works well.
1 ) Remove •the mirror from its cell. Resist the
temptation to wipe the biggest piece of dirt away
immediately; to• do so is to invite a big scratch. Hold
the mirror up to• a light and look through it. A good .
coating should be opaque. If you can see through it,
or if it's full of •oles, the mirror should be re-alum-
inized. But cleahing won't hurt.
2) Gently blow off any dirt that will come off.
If your dirt consists mainly of lint, you may have
no need to clean any further. Photo stores sell cans
of compressed gas for cleaning film that can be used
for mirror cleaning too.
3) With a •very soft camel's hair brush, about
1/2 inch wide, brush the worst of the dirt and dust
off the mirror. Use short, exceedingly light strokes -
don't wipe right across the whole width of the mirror.
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EQUIPMENT ATLAS
by
Richard Berry
If a sharp bit of gravel were to stick to the brush,
you'd drag it right across the whole remaining
width of the surface and probably leave an ugly
mark. After most of the dust is gone, you can try a
bit harder on some that won't come off.
4) Using room temperature water, rinse off
the surface, letting the water pressure remove every-
thing that it can. Gently warm the mirror up by
slowly increasing temperature until it's lukewarm.
Sudden changes in water temperature must be avoid-
ed. You can see the dirty areas on the surface by
the disturbed flow of water over them. The water
rinse removes water soluble dirt.
5) Pour a cup of warm, soapy water on the
mirror. Let it soak a few moments, and then rinse it
off. Soapy water will loosen oily and greasy kinds
of dirt.
6) Using a cotton wad with no pressure at all,
wipe the whole surface of the mirror with short cir-
cular strokes. If you feel a sudden drag or pull,
stop immediately. Wash it again with soapy water.
At the end of this step, no dirt should be left on
the surface.
7,1 If the surface has light colored stains,
spray the surface with a good ammonia based window
cleaner; the stains will usually come off. Don't
scrub or buff the surface. As a last resort, dilute
nitric acid. ( no scrubbing with acid either!) will
usually take them off.
8) Thoroughly rinse the mirror in tap water,
and then rinse it at least twice in distilled water.
( You can buy distilled water in the supermarket in
gallon bottles, but it takes very little water to
rinse a mirror.) Then leave the mirror standing on
edge ( a kitchen drainer is quite safe ) until dry.
Resist the tempation to speed up the drying.
The same method can be used to clean a re-
fractor objective, but if possible, avoid · removing
the objective from the telescope. If simple blowing
and brushing does not remove the dust, you'll
have to remove the objective, wash it carefully, and
reassemble it. Preventive medicine is best: Don't
let the objective get dirty in the first place! ,
43
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:1 ' One of the most important accessories .on the • be placed exactly in the center · of the telescope's
observer's telescope is a miniature version of the field. · Now carefully lock 'the main telescope into i
• larger instrument called the finderscope. Since position to prevent any movement. After securing
I this is mounted on the side of the main scope, it . ' it, make sure' that the object is still deail center. i
; is vulnerable to bumps and bruises that can easily
Look into your :finderscope.· , If the object
; put it out of alignment:
you've sighted on isn't exactly in the center of. the ii
1 Having it misaligned is bad enough, but it's
reticle ( crosshairs), you'll know why you've had i'
i even worse because you usually don't discover the
; problem until you try to use the finder. Instead of trouble finding things. Carefully loosen the screws !.
• jiggling the finderscope back and forth in the dark in one of the mounting rings and center the tele-:
I in an attempt to get it to work, take time out some · phone pole on the vertical axis of the crosshairs.
I afternoon when you have lots of light available. It's important to have a light touch in doing this; ,
•• Objects are much easier to see in daylight and less any jarring motions may throw the object out of
I confusing than stars in the night sky:that all tend .' the cunter of the main telescope's field. Usually, 1
• to look alike. . finders are easily aligned with adjustable screws ' ·
,• The first step in aligning your system is to that are simple to manipulate. After your finder- '
& set .the finder roughly parallel to the main tele- 'scope is secured, check the main instrument to be
fscope. This way the finder will be parallel. to.the sure the object is.still exactly centered.
•optical axis of the telescope., So there you are - a few careful adjustments
Next, sight the telescope on a distant vertical durin• :the day can save you- considerable frustra- ,
2 object - something like a telephone pole is a good tion at night. leaving you with more I. time.:for
] choice. Some recognizable p6int on,the pole should F observing. *p

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--: I. ..1..... 1. -6 .1 21.

ASTRONOMY's cumulative Index to Volume 3, 1975 is now available. This

subject index covers the months of January through December 1975 which
includes issue Nos. 1 thr6ugh 12. Index to Volume 3 is available for $1.25 each,
plus 25¢ per order for first class postage and handling.

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 IRM&
PHOTOGRAPHY IN ASTRONOMY
EPIPARalti118g
70/ir
A•-tr®Iphotograa•pflne
MFart 1 •
0 7-rn
Emmene •riimt.niaTI•*mg
./61.
David Hudgins
Bringing the .tiny images from your negatives
to life in enlargements is one of the more enjoyable
aspects of astrophotography. It's easy and rela-
tively inexpensive for anyone to set up a home dark-
room and make prints that are better than those
done by commercial processors. By doing your own
printing, you can provide special care and use tech-
niques required to repro(luce the faint images typical
of most astronegatives. Equipping a home darkroom
does require some investment - about $100 to
$150 if the equipment is purchased new - but the
rewards are correspondingly great.
Your darkroom can be as simple or extravagant
as your interest, pocketbook, and available space
allow. A permanent darkroom with all the frills
can be convenient, but a temporary setup in the
kitchen, bathroom or basement is more than ade-
quate. The important things are: 1 ) to have a small
undisturbed area that you can darken completely
46
e •
by
( a blanket over a. window is often sufficient ), and
2 ) a countertop or space for a card table where you
can set up your equipment for·a few hours. Running
.water is handy, but a water-filled bucket is fine for
holding prints until you can get them to the bathtub
or sink for final washing. ( For a list of equipment
needed, see "Setting Up An Astrodarkroom",
June 1976.)
Black and white enlargements basically involve
projecting the image of your negative onto a sheet
of photographic paper that is coated with a light-
Printing astrophotos can be done on' any waterproof counter
surface that you can darken. The basic steps in making a
print are: 1 ) cleaning dust from the negative; 2) focusing the
enlarger, using a "grain focuser"; 3) placing a sheet of photo-
graphic paper on the enlarging easel; 4) making the exposure
on the paper; 5) sliding the paper into the developer tray and
6) removing it after it has developed; 7) washing the paper
after stopping and fixing the print, and 8) drying the paper
(shown here on towels). Photographs by David Hudgins.
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sensitive emulsion. The paper sheet is then placed These prints made from the same negative (showing the red
ina developer solution that makes the image visible, nebula near Gamma Cygni) illustrate the changes that occur
when you increase print exposure. For maximum detail in the
and then in a very dilute acid stop bath to arrest
nebula, you would find an exposure betw6en six and eight
further development. A final solution, called the seconds best - seven might be a good compromise. For ma*i-
fixer, makes the paper insensitive to further expo- mum impact on display, a darker sky (but not black) is desirable
- perhaps 14 seconds is best. Longer exposures obscure the
sures to light. Finally, the paper is washed to rid
nebula. Photographs by David Hudgins.
it of the chemicals, and dried. A darkroom is nothing
but a place where you can carry out this procedure buy a better lens later ). In selecting the focal length.
using specialized - though readily available - of the enlarging lens, you'll need a 50mm lens to
equipment and materials. produce a suitably large image size for 35mm nega-
The single most important piece of equipment tives, and a 75mm focal length lens for 2-1/4 x
in the printing operation is the enlarger. Although 2-1/4 films.
they look complicated, enlargers ·are simple devices Other important items you'll need are three
consisting of a lamp with a lens system to condense 11 x 14 inch trays, print tongs, an adjustable easel,
the light, a holder for the negative, and a lens to red or amber safelight, a lens cleaning brush or
project the image. The enlarger "head" has a mech- aerosol can of compressed air, and a darkroom
anism that lets you raise or lower it so that you can thermometer. Discount stores are often good sources
adjust the image from wallet size up to about for three quart-size plastic bottles, a kitchen grad-
11 x 14 inches. uate, sponges, clock or timer with visible sweep
The enlarger will probably be the most expen- hand, and a magnifying glass for sharp focusing.
sive single item in your darkroom. You might con- Assuming you already have a suitable clock, all
sider a used enlarger if you are on a tight budget; these items will cost about $35. As your interest
an older but still serviceable model can be purchased and enjoyment of darkroom work increases, you may
for $25 to $50. A new enlarger of reasonably good want to buy a "grain focuser", paper cutter and
quality will cost from $75 to $125; Bogen, Durst print washer.
andVivitarare among several manufacturers of good, Selecting chemicals for developing prints is
low priced enlargers. The price will frequently in- even easier than for film. Beginners and pros alike
clude an inexpensive lens which, although not the generally use the same three Kodak products -
best, is quite suitable to start with ( you can always Dektol developer, Indicator Stop Bath, and Rapid

48
 Fixer. These chemicals can be used for all enlarging
papers, although plain water works just as well as
an acid stop bath. for RC papers ( explained below ).
Carefully mix the concentrated li4uids and powders
with water according · to the instructions and store
them in labeled plastic bottles. Be sure to keep all
measuring cups, stirring rods and mixing containers
clean to avoid contamination of the chemidals.
Dektol developer is normally used diluted with
water - one part Dektol to two parts water. Many
astrophotographers prefer. to use ta stronger .mix to
increase print contrast. Both Dektol and Rapid'
Fixer have shelf lives of several. months, and will
process 25 ( approkimately ) 8 x 10 inch prints per
quart of stock solution before they should be re-
placed. Kodak Ihdicator Stop Bath has an almost
indefinite shelf life; the working solution is good
until its normal yellow color turns blue.
Of the many variables in the printing operation
that influence the final print, probably the most
important is the choice of a printind paper. Printing
papers are basically like film; light-sansitive silVer
halides are suspended in agel or emulsion coated
on a high quality paper' backing. Compared · ta
filma, however, printing papers' are much less sensi-
tive to light - particularly red light. They are
made this way. so that you. can handle · them easily
in the darkroom by the dim illumination of a red or
orange safelight.
1:/-.,Nilt·,«gil•2-9-3...·.i:Jj#4•·'Ie='MEd;,·4·1,4-,-1-6'.l,6-u#•..»:·"RIK-,6, 042,.'-•,M.
. .·Sll."·
Printing papers are available.:in a wide variee
of surface textures, image tones, weights, and
contrast levels. With such a variety, how do you
know which is best? The i,equirements for astro-
photos are specific, so it's easy td learn what to
look for.
Good astrophotos have brilliant highlights,
rich blacks, fine detail and maximum tonal range.
Only glossy surface papers produce the clarity re-
quired for astrophotography; matte, silk or linen
finishes will cause a loss of detail in your fihal
print because of their comparatively rough surfaces.
Glossy surfaces are produced on conventional print-
ing papers by Squeegeeing a wet print face down on a
polished metal suface, and then allowing it to dry
( the process is called ferrotyping ). An easier way
to get a Derfect glossy surface is to use one of. the
new resin-coated ( Kodak's "RC" tradeinark ) priht-
ing papers.
RC papefs are coated on both sides With a
water-resistant plastic that prevents the Various
processing solutions froni being taken up by the
paper except at the edges. The emulsion is applied
over the plastic so the developer and fixer cah reach
it. Since chemicals cannot soak into the paper, fixing,
washing and drying are much faster than with con-
ventional papdrs; in addition, the shiny surface is
created in the factory, · thus eliminating the tricky
ferrotyping operation. These time-saving benefits
49
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give you more time for the experimentation required Low contrast and high contrast prints from the same negative
to produce the highest quality astroprints. show the great control your choice of contrast grade gives
you when you make your own prints. This moonscape was
Look for the same qualities in RC papers that printed on normal contrast grade 2 paper at left; at right it's
you would seek in conventional papers. The label on high contrast grade 6 paper. While both renditions have
on the package should specify image tones that are their merits, one is too flat and the other too "contrasty". In
this case an intermediate grade 4 paper would have produced
neutral black and white. Cream colored papers the best print, showing detail in the terminator shadows as
used in portrait work are not suitable for photos well as the brightest crater rims.
of stars and planets.
Next, check the label for the paper weight,
usually specified as either single-weight or double- In recent years, variable contrast papers have
weight. Double-weight paper is heavier and costs become popular. These papers will yield different
more, but is much easier to work with because it levels of contrast, depending on which of several
resists bending during processing. ( Due to the filters is used under the lens of your enlarger.
extra stiffness provided by the plastic coating, This means that you only need one box of paper in
some RC papers are available in only a medium- your darkroom instead of three or four of various
weight grade.) The last thing. to look for is the contrast grades. While handy, variable contrast
contrast grade, usually specified as a number from papers cannot produce the extreme contrast levels
1 to 5 ( the #1 produces very low contrast prints, of #5 papers.
while #5 yields prints with high contrast ). Instead The first rule in printing astrophotos is clean-
of numbers, some manufacturers use letters to liness! Fingerprints, dust and scratches are pain-
indicate contrast. For general astroprinting, a fully obvious when enlarged against a dark sky
moderately hard paper such as a #3 is most widely background. Every printing session should start
used. with a cleanliness check: brushing the enlarger

50
 . ,
lens, periodic sponging of the inside of the enlarger,
cleaning of condenser lenses, wiping tabletops arid
easel, making sure clean cloth or paper towels are
handy, and finally a careful washing of your own
hands.
Pour the developer, stop bath and fixer into
their trays, and then check their temperatures.
Solution temperatures are not as critical in process-
ing .prints as they are for films, but developing
times are most controllable in the range of 65 to
78 degrees Fahrenheit. Use a plastic sandwich bag
partially filled with either hot water or ice cubes
to bring your solutions to this temperature range.
Now you are ready to start.
First, carefully examine ·and clean the negative.
Use an antistatic cloth, aerosol can of compressed
air, or a soft lens-cleaning brush to clean both sides
of the negative. Put the negative in the carrier,
brush everything off once again, and place the
carrier in the enlarger. Turn off the room lights and
give your eyes a few moments to adjust to the dim
illumination of the safelights. Turn on the enlarger
lamp, open your enlarging lens to give the brightest
image, and select the print size you want by moving
the enlarger up or down ( relative to the easel placed
beneath it ). If you use an adjustable easel, you can
set the blades to make a 1/4 inch white border
around the print. Since most enlarging lenses are
not very sharp when wide open, you should close
yours down about two f/stops. Carefully focus the
image on the back of a piece of processed enlarging
paper placed in the easel; either a grain focuser or a
magnifying glass will help. you get the sharpest
image possible.
To find the best exposure time, first make a
test strip using a piece of enlarging paper about two
inches wide and five inches long. For photos of
stars and nebulae, place the strip so that it will be
expose8 to areas of. dark sky; later you can judge
the proper exposure based on the time required to
darken the sky background to the optimum darkness.
By watching the second hand on a clock or
listening to the ticks, expose the entire strip for
five seconds. Next, using a piece of cardboard,
cover a portion of the strip about 3/4 inch wide
while giving additional exposures of 5, 10, 15, 20
and.25 seconds. In this way, you'll get a series of
progressively darker bands corresponding to the
various total exposures.
' After exposing the paper, slide it smoothly
into the developer so that the emulsion is rapidly
and totally covered by the solution. Rock the tray
gently to keep fresh developer washing over the
paper. Dim images will. begin to appear.in about 20
seconds. Total developmeht time depends on the
kind' of enlarging pa•er ygu. are using; conventional
papers should be· develoDed for 90 to 120 seconds,
while RC papers require 7about- 60 seconds ( check
instructions that comd ·wi),h the. paper). Watch your
clock carefully, and then use tongs to lift the paper
3·; ,•11•'i;*,·<·.5:4:t•"
2'7:·... ·S. «.'·.k:, 'i._,6.· 042.
7·. .
from the developer at the correct time. Allow the
paper to drain over the tray for a few seconds and
then slide it into the stop bath, being'careful not to
let the developer tongs touch the stop bath solution
since this could contaminate the developer.
After 30 seconds in the stop bath, your test
strip goes into the fixer. Proper fixing takes about
five minutes for RC papers or 10 minutes for con-
ventional papers, but you don't have to wait that
long for a test strip; you can turn the room lights
on after about 60 seconds. A word of caution:
Don't try to "read" a test strip under the safelight;
you must see it under bright room lighting to judge
its darkness properly.
Your test strip for star photos will show a
series of progressively darker bands corresponding
to exposures of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 seconds.
Examine the background density carefully, looking
for the exposure that produces a dark, but not jet
black, background. The night sky never looks totally
black through the telescope, so there is reason to
portray it that way in your prints. More importantly,
the slightly lighter background always reveals
more stars and nebulosity than an absolutely black
one can. Since planet images are usually too small
to make a test strip like the one described above,
it's better to make separate exposures on small
pieces of enlarging paper - about 2x2 inches in
size - after first writing the exposure on the back
of each in pencil. Process them together to save
time.
After deciding on the best exposure, turn out
the room lights and expose a full size piece of
enlarging paper. After processing, you must fully
wash your print to remove chemicals that would
otherwise badly stain the paper. RC papers should
be washed for five minutes, and conventional
papers for 20 minutes or longer in your bathtub or
sink. Let the tap run slightly to maintain the
continuous circulation of fresh water, swirling the
prints occasionally to keep them from sticking to-
gether. After washing, wipe the excess moisture
from the prints using a soft sponge; then let them
dry face-up on a towel. RC papers dry fairly flat,
but regular papers will curl; a day or two under
heavy books will usually flatten them.
Good printing requires practice, but it won't
take long before you'll make better astroprints than
most commercial processors do. The best way to
get the snappy prints all astrophotographers want
is to establish good habits in your darkroom work
right from the start - clean negatives and hands,
precise and consistent development time, and use of
fresh and uncontaminated solutions. If you observe
these simple rules scrupulously, you'll avoid 80
percent of the print quality problems common
among astrophotographers.
Editor's Note: Another article on specialized
printing techniques and their applications in astro-
photography will appear next month.•
51
- 9
 I.

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5 minutes 15 minutes 30 minutes .0

GAF 200 GAF 200 GAF 200 0*
 .':9

Mr,

8,
 #&...
r:37

IN FOCUS

Sir / In the November 1974 issue, there
was a picture ( page 34 ) of the "cluster"
of moon and planets that took place in
August 1966. I am very curious as to
when this event will happen again.
Can you tell me?
JORGE H. JAIME
Pharr, Tex.
Mr. Jaime / The event you are referring
to is called a "conjunction". Conjunctions
between the moon and a planet are fairly
frequent; those involving two or more
planets are rarer. Conjunctions in 1977
witt take place on Feb. 12 (Mercury and
Mars), June 3 (Venus and Mars), July
30 ( Venus and Jupiter), Sept. 4 (Mars
and Jupiter), and Sept. 18 ( Venus and
Saturn). From 1977 to 1982, the outer
planets will be aligned on the same side
of the sun providing a real treat for
observers who enjoy conjunctionsi
Sir / While reading your October issue,
I came across what appears to be a
misprint. In the Astro-News article,
"Construction Continues on VLA
Radio Telescope", you state that "the
most skittish known quasar is esti-
mated to be six trillion light-years
away." Isn't the six trillion fikure
in error?
JOHN K. KUNDRA
East Hartford, Conn.
Mr. Kundra / You're right - the figure
should be six billion. The error arose
from a faulty transtiteration of the figure
"six thousand million" - the British
term for our number six billion. In
British terminology, "six billion" is
identical to the American six trillion.
Sir / On the night of July 22, 1976,
I observed two odd things. Just before
10:30 p.m., a seventh or eighth magni-
tude starlike object with a red-yellow
tint entered my telescope's field of
view, traveling north about one degree
in two seconds. Last year I observed
a satellite that my telescope resolved
to a disk - unlike the July 22 object,
which was just a pinpoint of light.
About 11:35 p.m., something else
flashed across my field of view. I
think it was a meteor, since it moved
through the field in a split second. It
passed so quickly and unexpectedly
that I can say only that its magnitude
was between five and eight.
Can you tell me what these objects
might have been?
PATRICK TOBEY
Milltown, N.J.
Mr. Tobey / Your guess is right on the
second object: undoubtedly you obserued
a meteor that just happened to cross
your field of view. Such occurrences
are not terribly uncommon.
Even if you could not resolve your
first object into a disk, a satellite is
what you saw. Keep in mind that satel-
lites come in many different sizes and
orbit Earth at many different attitudes,
and your telescope is not Ukely to be
abte to resolue them alL
Sir / Where can I find information
concerning the number of stars in
different globular clusters? I'm
aware that the range of the number of
stars within globulars is approxi-
mately 1,000 to 1,000,000. However,
I'd like to know more specific sta-
tistics on individual clusters such as
47 Tucanae, Omega Centauri, M.2,
M-13 and NGC.2419 in Lynx.
JAMES R. CYPSER
Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
Mr. Cypser / You are asking for a
statistic which, at the moment, is
impossible to determine with any cer-
tainty. About all we can do is make
estimates, but not even the best obser-
uatory photographs can come close to
showing exactly how many stars are
contained in a globutar cluster. Inciden-
tally, the first figure you mention is
far too small; almost all the globular
clusters known hold at least 100,000
stars.
You can find uarious bits of informa-
tion about the globulars that are on the
Messier list in this month's Gazer's
Gazette.
Sir / I recently read the article "Red
Light Sky Photography" in the August
issue, and found it particularly inter-
esting because I had just purchased a
125 foot roll of spectroscopic 103aE
film. Since the sun and solar promin-
ences ( and corona?) also emit light at
the Hydrogen-alpha wavelength, I
was wondering if there is some rela-
tively cheap method by which I could
get good pictures of prominences and
possibly the corona using spectro-
scopic film.
I also enjoyed, in the ·July bicen-
tennial issue, the article dealing with
old Indian legends explaining the
constellations and the Milky Way.
Would you know of any books dealing
specifically with those legends?
KEVIN HUBBARD
Skokie, Ill.
Mr. Hubbard / Taking your questions in
order: You can obtain pictures of sotar
prominences, but you'll need an inter-
ference filter because of the narrower
band width of the spectrum required to
separate the sky background from the
H-alpha wauelength. Unfortunately,
you can't get photographs of the corona
because it is an extremely weak emitter
of radiation at any wauelength, and H-
alpha filters won't make your results
any better ( or worse). ASTRONOMY will
soon be running an article on solar H-
alpha photbgraphy.
The information in "Skylore of Indi-
genous Americans" was obtained from
several different sources, including an
encyclopedia of mythology. To the best
of our knowledge, there is no single
book currently .available in which aN
this material is presented.

STATEMENTOFOWNERSHIP. MANAGEMENTANDCIRCULATION
(Act of August 12,1970: Section 3685, Title 39. United States Code). 1. Title of publication: ASTRONOMY Magazine. 2. Date of filing: September 30.1976,3. Frequency of issue:
monthly. 3A. Number of issues published annually: 12.38. Annual subscription price: $12.00. 4. Location of known office of publication: 411 E. Mason St., 6th Floor, Milwaukee,
WI 53202.5. Location of the headquarters or general business offices of the publishers: 411 E. Mason St.. 6th Floor, Milwaukee, WI 53202.6. Names and complete addresses of
gublisher. editor and managing editor: Publisher, Stephen A. Walther. 411 E. Mason St.. 6th Floor. Milwaukee. Wl 53202; Editor. Stephen A. Walther, 411 E. Mason St.. 6th Floor,
Milwaukee, Wl 53202; Managing Editor. Penny Oldenburger. 411 E. Mason St., 6th Floor, Milwaukee. WI 53202.7. Owner: AstroMedia Corp.. 411 E. Mason St.. 6th Floor. Milwau-
kee. WI 53202. whose owners are: Stephen A. Walther. 411 E. Mason St.. 6th Floor, Milwaukee, WI 53202', David L. Walther, 222 E. Mason St.. Milwaukee, Wl 53202.8. Known
bondholders. mortgagees. and other security holders owning or holding 1% or more of total amount of bonds. mortgages or other securities: none. 9. For completion by nonprofit
organizations authorized to mail at special rates (Section 132.122. Postal Service Manual): not applicable. 10. Extent and nature of circulation: loA)Total number copies printed
(net press run): average number copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 62,228; actual number copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 72,425.108) Paid
circulation: 10Bl ) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors and counter sales: average number copies each Issue during preceding 12 months: 1,357, actual number
copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 1.241.1082) Mail subscriptions: average number copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 49.750; actual number
copies of single issue published nearestto filing date: 56.115. loC) Total paid circulation {sum of 1081 and 1082): average number copies each issue during preceding 12 months:
51.107, actual number copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 57,356. 100 ) Free distribution by mail, carrier or other means. samples, complimentary and other
free copies: average number copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 1.010: actual number copies of single issue published nearestto filing date: 916.10E) Total distri-
bution (sum of C and D): average number copies each Issue during preceding 12 months: 52.117, actual number copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 58,272.
1 OF) Copies not distributed: Fl ) Office use. left over. unaccounted, spoiled after printing: average number copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 10,111: actual number
copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 14.153. F21 Returns from news agents: not applicable. 10G) Total ( sum of E, Fl and F2 - should equal net press run shown
in A): average number copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 62,228, actual number copies of singte issue published nearest to filing date: 72,425.12. For completion
by publishers mailing at the regular rates (Section 132.121, Postal Service Manual): permission requested. 11.1 certify that the statements made by me above are correct and com-
plete. Penny Oldenburger, Managing Editor.

54
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Possibility' of E9aporite Deposits

' Contribute t6•M•iti4n Water Theory
I '» . ••'.·i•,i»•·•
)••-iji,·tt••«5·•M3*W#*.4:, I . .,
Shortly' after Viking 2 landed. 042 8Ii 1.Aulfatel.'mat•rial, found:,iti·dd,sert - soild. ·3' for.· sampling. It was a hard place to
Sept. 3, 1976, it returned photos' rdg;: Anotliei9 -' 6326*ipl&:,ij:idbthe:-,·,whitish <reach with -Viking·2's sampler arm,
vealing a flat landscape littered withi-matelialith#t<f 254r•is'.•dthtub•.rirlgs int'•since it could be seen with only one
- rocks,up to three feet •cross, resemb- hard'wat«areas.-rit" -162:'-A ,-:3• .,#·.· - ...· camera,. ruling out the stereo coverage
,ling dark gray basaltic lavas of Earth.:'2'. With.t'£-oildliIi>iR).che.eki ihe.'Vikin•-,·•norrilally used to guide the arm. Ho 254,-
After Viking 1:s dunes, rocks and hills, 9-staff. b-el:'bR, rd-fdrring-'to= this patch as .-ever, on Sept. 25, Viking technicians
the Utopia plains looked rather 86no._the' •:'Bohii•illd'. Flatt',.'after Earth's... guided the arm unerringly to the
tonous .to Viking scientists who had·.'famous i Rgi66'9)f;flat · evaporite, depo- .., layered soil and scooped the first
hoped for a touchdown in terrain even,jAsiti. 'Mo-re seribusly,-' they speculated sample processed by the ' Viking 2
more varied than the Viking 1 site. 1 X 'that this - eight by nine inch patch elemental abundance experiment.
But one feature of special interest 1 might really be remains of an evaporite 1 ( One earlier sample had gone to bio-
caught scientists' eyes. A shallow,' I deposit. Measuremeht of an- evaporite- logical experiments on Sept. 12.')
gullylike .depression lay northeast-- like composition such as caltium car- Ihitibl 'evaluation of the compo-
of the lander. To Viking geologists, bonate would be strong evidence for sitioli measurements showed tliat the
'it resembled the small, eroded' arroy.os,,: the emerging theory that Mars had . composition was very close. to - if
.t ·'.: or, dry riverl•ds, found on Earth. A · .'abundant flowing water in many parts ' not identical ' with - composition of
foot-or ti,io across, it seemed fredi of of · its surface at some time . in the · , soil sampled at the Viking 1 site. That
rocks than the surrounding terraini past., :6 ,-· ·'f . -S • •' - . - site was found to contain silicate
perhaps ' being partly filled ,wjth, i, There ivas even thought that such. minerals and not to be comp8sed of
drifts of Mirtian dust. '. :.2- .,Ic-- patches might ' be widespread, sinEe, · pure»carbonates, hydroxides or simi-
. ,.-.,
'Neat'th-e closer, end of this channel -, other less Pronounced bits of crusty lar nonsilcate materials. The calcium •
, was ari•eiiglit by- nine inch' patch:.of · · soil were scattered. around the landing . content at the Viking 1 site was es-
- -' light :colo'red; .layered, crusty ,lookijjEf. sitc, and similar bits had been seen in • timated · at only three to eight per-
soil. 'T-his ·'Da 254ch
reminded Viking · ge-4 the region swept by Viking l's lander -.' dent, and the measurements from the
ologists.-of terrestrial deposits called engines. - On the other hand, color Bonneville Flats, still being reduced,
· euaporites - minerals formed from dis- pictures showed that the spot was as are appardntly similar.
B
solved salts and depdsited as water ' red as the rest of the soil, even though Inorganic chemistry team member
evaporates. One example is catiche' - a bit lighter.
a white, 1 ,'calcium carbonate/calcium The spot was chosen as a target Viking continued on page 56
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7'heorie•st•'ihal.•'thd: 1908 'Tunguska,Ttimatt:er), -IdAdtibnt'PF68 ' this'fdnd•:'i,thBF. carbonates or sulfates. • •' r. Zi., I ..%
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r- .1· wouldin till•Ii•have resillted i•an eaAifi'7•e••plosi(}Ilt94tthati 254•liqi.'Oth<35r=testiit•,
•;Indence i.of....
-rarirriGOCstlS( 036•effe'qtjvi,CcI:SR'.--3
•. -
1 · calculated Ilptel·,of:'carbon-14 increds611.·-mado,·. in)I!,u'ropfalso· 042cpnfirml.Lib•y'.sp'irlcilting·
'pfocesp,-j,n,-th,9: surface -Siii,•r t:.3--<;
9., t.. - Libby' 6.carclidd foi· such a,8 incrpa», -r•,s,u.•st•s-.•-•'4.4•6 :'%... f -·.7.-f.3':3 ··- ..:•• •0-f'*.A-tat§.:.po:siblis...Il••,"•0'-lifiiElifffiiipf.:1. :pt if)
•• - salts'froni,rock'.,particles;under modi,rn-5 15. ..:
in rings gfow'A bf:the treein 1909,: thet,- 42&60-.n,6,-••'•42.dobkinuef•»st,u'd92•••Mt·,c'OftdiEIdn*,<:fdrmibgt•Wi,dcipL,•tid'EGitof
.- year follo.wing-thd 1)la.stfh··'*1.- 036•,'+•,'.,.•f
)"1,,1"4"Tuhguikbi-fve«ad•d".«ss•,1;lf•
rel•.et.•e•a•orili•'s't su'-•fi• 036•AE'3i:Kilfaieit.-&'-,·'car-'*,
3.t -- -'t
. -· . The aBse)16816f.'an>/' mitrl<-dd' 'chant•)•,:rneteofid':6-•I)lgslfi'n$·dT-4-91.1.10,kil),et49<,13 4. boiiailiA ili .Iindetectd841-aiI;otili«-· :.i,ut.£4•ki-fif=-
' ' ' in the carli'66-'14' level led Libb> ,·to:- •uc•.,IIii.•ir•,diAi9.tdiration•.an••burnt-=.
' ' 'place • A 1•#injuill 'UFPer limit, •f :tht......out'(,orilet .nuclei*- has·receive #Pe66nt»·appatedtly .the.r·•ilijifiggaAdeik·--,h#ye-'-,*tf
- '- • •1• tf•rttpd,o•s,••,••i:2.' 036mttff•3«*»t•f.nvo•.•to•f•.:•di•
. , •dfy- -lakebeds' 1,1,·'i37•(*ridlf dii•its.,··S.'tE,:,-'
E .· · Tunguska'ex:1)1OSibb"A'S a niht.t'ef/ariti*sti•brl't••e-Arib.Plyeai':-.i•i•..c,-54:·
i'•l '.:i .13inc•e thil,MartiaA 814'Ct·1: suffade 466;illi ... f.....O'...8-
:..... f Yf•'*St,%- ',''I,%,t•%»3.,•:».i«y,-'r.•
Slt.tit,-«.-: 1..•," •£•6•,1.•i•l•:,cobtrolled
liy'.inildllo,fh'·'dizst thibk 'till«'.2
- N.*,41<PE.»i. 4- '...D:t...4144,VE. 'Nt.:.TAF&.07 n.•47.1 94 )1,_2-'i.-.'j53.1,3:•.--,6,•Cent deposits.,46-41-d n:t lie dipected . -•:L *4:
Y

...
-: 1. . ·:=«f" r•:·t,'hi-':': 1 ·,ir' •3••••'•F•14 '.:,•...:.-5.-,AA.29:1 47' ,»-3....•.S.1-27.Dgfor.the general sithilarity of»composir,id.7 ........
·· ••, , , ·,·.: 1 he, threeexpdriments desi*ned'to»barded zby' -ultra-vi6let:ytidiAtioil.2.fidnF•:tio-A'-at the Viking 1 and 2'-hites, mbrE '.'.4.z;.:-32,-
, seek life•on ' M.Ass>lidve all :producddi•the sun/the'MilidizjdinilbertilA.of,M•rhi.1; than 4 000 miles ·Ap'aft. -:.1 '.1 .....:.'.::;1'' "• ·,iri 49
..'. f. ¢.2. : R" ....re '"Pt.3..i ,-4.,;.. fl , 65 4 4
: ·· What., mightf,be <cal.6d..:'Ambiguous*Drdsd*t'Vediffekdht.5611•6&• -•'Fi/dhifil>69;;is''report ID - f;;bd 'bSigk•jOBf.' 44*-, it •
. positive"upe,s••.fs.. 036ik..tests
'at Viking'. •.•6•t•Ttlitm.thiittfovn-d.-6*'•.•.,E.8.,•h•'•.••••A•<2 . >,zagazibet:s·Vihi••13<
di**Dn:·' -,,":-•..:
_,I"' • ,•'t,i,•dit;;gtl*•. t•t.,Ilfea,tre•na.5•••t•,•1,••.•.•t.•
.... 036:,
.Milian, K..Itark•ff•:•i••••2.•,*'•:.6-••:'1. ',•
n I•• 2 - - · -

r.', . a••n,•, ••.r•••••••••••..a••••••••••n••••a••••••••,dr.•.•,•••••••••••i••g•••f•. d.,e.T'•••••• 1•4•*19*-I'* . r...4''tt=itf,E»timif--'-»95.i·,

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'..
.... '00#anfte'fon,01,·6hment '¥i•h'lim"••*,0,leculi•«•f.f-'•st,ad•s..4.•1,;•E'.,'6idst*(s:6nference,
Vikingi'i,»ent,st•Ger'•ld
)',' )tt, fi
.': " orRAnisins..,;Thede:'changes are'·'sought'•2.10.-'·81.1.'---9rtianis,rb-81.0-•&(Th,•s6•oeleEules82 Soffen -.cautioned th•it tweIh•,6Yd.fily-,f -A. 'e
-· · '- ' :'in- chiIiAbli•;ilitb·-wliich,Mtirtitil;:isdi-17,1:a,-m,.9,q•.«,dlt(•,•1:#n6<bl•t'the,··,c8n-s.urilp:=-s»lpled two sites arid -••rdt·.•i )111:4*99-0.i«B,•,•A&
, i• · i•''Dlated,N,,I•n-,all):
036 Lests, the •Puili612d.gtive ·gadd,:· rdDfoauctive - processesf +ofit,-, sure, of . the interpretatidA'•thdre.LVI-Ie ' .. -14 y:
· ' .. . -typeof 911)3mical chanke has·liee 254.fo•iid;. z life .als we define it. They would have -wish,•d f,9-r.- 036sa•flples.of dee'•62.93*ENa<7' •,tj• 161•2
-·,. · .but: ndt'with' the rates expectedtonrthe· accumulated in the soil if life had few ineters :d•*.62>Xlrilt• hoI•,iia'Etlititi-:..1,5.--.
:-,· , litisid:.fof•Mt,t&htAMoff"EA'bth-7-8r/anihnis. existed recently. Yet Mone of these soilfrom".underneath.tliB·-r8ck-<5161,od·•·t.2.-,9,9-
'. 036*,:.i:.i.·,Inst'dA(17,166£46#or·of the samples,has molocules haVe been found native to on Oct.'.8,',fle.93'.b••ng"'68'6A '•)'8tbel'i:45:25:*,
-. 4:.' ...4 036 , ..
.• J:r<1-3,16d..m-,any biologists and chdinists - Mars at either the Viking 1 or 2 site, ted from .solar,Jultraviolot...ti,kiysi,•82$,4 4.42,-31'
·'- · · '- 'bbth inside and, outside the Vikink Though Viking scidntists are not ..reveal something different:'4$.f;.. ·: '' . .3 -..1. 'P.
project - to susEiect that nonbiolo- quit:ii ready to rule out life,- the mood
gical chemical changes in the,soil are .at the Jpt. Prop=ulsipn Labor,Atos, is* ...... Adviertiseii,t'free·in *stro-Mart, 6 - -., p :.

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f•lt•i,50 41.f•%•-1...'-'r.: - : F
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,...... 11.-9.... 'i·,2*4'ti''t·.'2,96··•,3.fKi»ii...,*:,1 8.19' •512 *.,.B-'•-$»i..*,»R:*5,f »,4Fi**·,134 )::2 ·f%,iti-9
Space Shuttle Orbiter Unveiled:
Tarnet
V Date Set For Early 1979
America's new space vehicle, the from Palmdale to the Dryden Center instruments or rendezvous radars.
winged Space Shuttle, is now a reality. along a . specially prepared - route and The thermal protection system
In aceremony at its construction plant causeway: The total distance of About (TPS) insulation tiles will be simulated
in Palmdale, Calif., the Space Shuttle 20 miles will be covered at three m.p.h.- by plastic tiles which weigh the same
vehicle - numlier · 1 was "rolled out" ( The ddsign speed. of the Enterprise and have the same air drag.
before hundreds of space dignitaries, is 18,000 m.p.h.) Extra equjpment will be on board,
rocket engirieers, members of the press, Transporting the Orhiter from fac- including two standard · jet aircraft
and several actors in the former tele- tory to Cape Canaveral ,would be im- ejection seats. In case of control
Vision series "Star Trek". NASA or- bossible by land, so alternate schemes problemi; -after separation from the.
ganized the Sept. 17 event to intrciduce have been developed. Too big to fit 747, the two astronauts can eject
the rocket PJane to the nation. into another aircraft or be slung under safely from the doomed Orbiter.
The vehicle shown was the Orbiter the wing of any aircraft. and too - • Following the 1977 flight tests,
section of the whole space launch, heavy' to travel by · rail, the Orbiter the Enterprise will be ferried by air
sy.Atem. When orbital missions begin . will be flown piggyback atop a to th6 Marshall Space Flight Center
in early 1979, a large external tank modified Boeing 747 cargo plane. in I Iuntsville, Ala. The Orbiter will.
( with fuel for the Orbiter's three Space Test flights af the unique configura- be mated to test SRBs and an ET, set
Shuttle Main Engines ) and two solid- tion will be made from the Dryden zili' vertically in a special test tower,
fuel rocket boosters will also be at- Center bekinning in February 1977. and subjected to vibration launch into
tached to the Orbiter section. They To test the landing characteris- orbit. When this program is completed
will be jettisoned on the way .into ties of' the Orbiter, manned drop tests late in 1978, the Enterprise will be
space; the solid . rocket - boosters will also be made in 1977. Astronaut returned, to the Palmdale factory .for
( SRBs ) will fall back to Earth and be crews will pilot the 75 ton space cqnversion into a flight-ready vehicle.
recovered. for reuse, while the external glider to "dead • stick" landings after - Meanwhile, Orbiter 102 - which
tank ( ET ) will burn up in the atmos- being separated from the carrier will be tha first Space Shuttle to
phere. Following its mission, the aircraft.- The first drop test ( NASA actually fly into space b will have
Orbiter ;i·ill return to Earth, landing calls them Approach and Landing been under construction. Its missions
on a two 'mile long airstrip. · Tests, or ALT series ) will be made will begin in early 1979 from Cape
Since these spacecraft will be used in July. Canaveral, where the old Saturn launch
over and over again; they are true Two pairs of astronauts have been complex has liepn modified, and where
spaceships and not throwaway onetime selected to take turns flying the ALT a long landing strip is also being built.
space capsules. Hence, NASA decided missions over a test program of six The first landings of what NASA calls ·
to give each vehicle the name of a ship dr more drops. The first flight will the Orbital Flight 7'est program ( or
made famous in early American history• be made by astronauts Fred Haise . OFT ) will be at the • Dryden Center,
Originally, Orbiter 101 ( as. • the and Charles Fullerton, while later after which Orbiter 102 will be air
vehicle shown last September is offic- flights will be made by Joe Engle and ferried back- to Cape Canavebal for
ially known ) was td have- been chris-' Dick Truly: - another .flight.
tened Constitution. - However, in · Since the Enterprise will only be The Enterprise. will mak6 its first
response to a massive letter campaign · making five minute glide tests at orl,ital flight in early 1981, followed a
from "Star Trek" fans, President Ford , speeds np greater than several hundred year later by Orbiter 103 ( the third
named the ' spaceship the Enterprise. m.p.h., many features of the operation- dame selected , by NASA is Constel-
Plans for the Enterprise include al Orbiter vehicle Will not be installed · lation ). These vehicles, and two
extensive flight testing at Edwards for ALT. Thumain rocket engines will additionhl Orbiters under development,
Air Force Base in California, where be simulated by ballast dummies. as will support weekly flights into
NASA operites its Dryden Flight will the orbital maneuvering system orbit by the middle of the 1980s.
· Research Center. Early next year, the rockets. There will be no fuel cells, The Orbithr is limited to flights
Enterprise will be wheeled ovdrland heat exchiingers, stellar navigation
in low Earth orbit, perhaps up to 600
miles or higher with small payloads
. MAIN ENGINES BEING TESTED and additional rocket fuel. To send
As the Space Shuttle is prepared for to obtaili component and systems satellites into higher orbits or out to
· service, testing of the Space Shuttle operation data. Long duration firings the moon and planets, an additional
Main Engine (SSME) proceeds at a are- being carried out at gradually rockef stage will be needed. Shortly
rapid rate. Static - test firings of increasing po\•,er levels above inain- before the Enterprise was rolled out.
increasing frequency and 'k,nger stage. Other important parameters an aerospace contractor for this upper
duration are currently being made such as. engine throttling control, stage.was- selected.
at the. National Si)ace Technology engine start and shutdown sequence, Since later configurations of the
Laboratories (I 042:Sl'L)
in Bay St. Louis, and engine po•ver ·balance have l,een shuttle will'carry a much more Sophis-
Miss. The longest tesl fiting of the tested in previous firings. ticated rocket, the ·present solid-fuel
SSME to date was made in late Sep- Each Space Shuttle engine will be booster is called ,the Interim .Upper
tember; one of two engines was success- fired at NS'l'L before being certified Stage. It is being built by Boeing for
fully fired for 650 seconds at mainstage -for flight. The teiting is 1,eing carried the United States Air ' Force, Which
operating levels ( 50 percent rated out under the direction of NASA's will make units available to NASA,
thrust levell. . .. Marshall Space Flight Center in Hunts- Just as NASA will make Sliace Shuttle
- . flights available to military payloads.
The current series of tests is desjgned ville, Ala • -

.57 .
 7 5.: 7
.,2·,1, .•·. r.'•6.-Ii·'titip'.'99: 3•61 -• I . . . ".....:;.,6.:.;.i'.i:Vt.-'•
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:16-be ..... , :C-':r 1 y lf ..1.. 841-1. r . I . t. ..9.:...
036

Soviet Moori«-DrilIrpi6neurs a Nev•'•dit

Automated LUii•t'-Exploration Pha•6:
,· ··· •:r•,7: - -.i'. 1,:' 'r.--: ':...2- ' :.':,'.US.. . -. ,-:t•-*461 .9.-S.4 , - .
· .• 2036:
, •.1,2,445• •:,1'14 ...c:,••- «'3£%•**•.'P •.
Th, duccess,, «;-'li•, soviet union·, 1-'.r 036s,•i.•-•61•,6,
•••••••2'«:tj••i'-•
-111•hough sovie,1 -,i21•1.•:• .,
Luna-24 moon drill may open a'new :',W-ithillyilrogen Pfroxide'; publlied down , continue to stress the -economy• fle,iioili
phase in the Soviet program of, auto-'-,ito )'a'vdcuum;.·and.' then' repi'essurized . bility and safety df ubrharine4.'lunRK'ti:
1.... ......:

two Fleters ( 6.56 feet) was accomplished '::t•ei•.bhoicq of:the. Mir• Crisium site ·-' bear out their contention.-. A-s td. costd"9,
after more than two years of •iblay and ·was:lia'sed on•its relaiive'low elevatidn. Washington..D.C. Soviet space anI alyst'2 ·· - •p:·•:
042'.4.
-
• earlier failures. Other projects which a'nd .4 pdssibld.,comliarati*6, 90-uth,.as . Charles Sheldon ( of the Congreshion'All:i.-:' '
were, postponed until after the success .f•Oi,<•._as. 49..the- •mhss chncentration Research Service of the .Library 3'Oft: fi
· of this special. effort.can npw be- (mas'con) -detected below:-the surface Congress ) -recently estimated -tliat' a'i>,t.:.
· carried out. , : . :.., , - - -, . . gf r'the·:b'6'3in#1 2 impdct·. basin'.:. Initial .Soviet robot moon ,probe , probablk*•iD,7
' The flight''of Luna 24' last, August results from analysis at the Vprnadskiy costs about 20 to 25 percent the brif.ve'•'•2 . - .
carried out the third 'retrieval of ..Instituto,-were =p-rodisin•.' 'as' icien- of a manned expedition, -,but•: thaE:pa·; /Jl-- - -.
lunar samples.- by Soviet: unmarined ..tists+dele'Ated '•everal distinct 'layers - dozen unmanned launches".would ib•<a.. . . -
pr6bes. In 1970, Luna 16:brought back· 6 of f.depohitioii, . and different densities required to approach the scialitific-':.272,
.,
.100 grams ( about 3.5 ,pundes ) of soil,•in the layers.,Both fine-duit»d small returns of a single manned .shot.'.:As' :3 ' -
. ... ."t•. '.
drilled to .a depth of 350mm,varid in·..ipafticleh Wire'collected:.''i·:'2 - ,,- · -- tb flexibility, all ' Soviet samD16.'- reI: 6. '
1972, Luna 2.0 brotight back. an,addi- '• 036.T':7••stf•vidi':,'previous'.lun•r.·'siIinples-turn missions have' been restricted,,ti;iJ-- -
tional' 50 grams. .Total samples col-' ' •rdtrievifd by the'Apollo -and Luna pro-• ' ·tho far eastern equatorial ,tgions; 6.f:t.<.P ' F
•lected by six -darined Apollo' missions ··· grams; sciefitists.thrpughout the world the moon due to severe constraints " on£'h:,lt.. . ;
wdgh 380;000 grams. Mosc6w has • <,will'· sliare -in-the analysis.·Amdrican guidance of the return flight.,·Thi,ri,t:,-':'-
4 6/1 ,
not disclos•de).he weight of the Lund - 1Rhar..geolodists "aie' e,kpetted-·to be ·. are not an infinite number of ·interest#'79•2 •
24 Samples, but specialists estiniate 1:livited:to..¥oscow early -in '.2977." to'' .ing sites in this.'small area-of.the mdoi•j;1 21 . :
that· they · weigh , several, hundred . re'ceiye-several representative- seleck . Soviet ' scientists , will '· continue ; tblt'•'.'
grams.
· ... '.'lions·from the lunar coroisample.'., •' ; ;E. 'study . this new lunar ' sample;i' whild';1:,-<..
The 5,800 kilogram ( about 6.5 tons ) 3... Xmbrican'. scientisis •ro -eilget" 1-8·..Soviet space engineers J,proceed"ivithi'.4-'9-, t
spacecraft was launched fr6m Russia's.. fi dRAipare,this set of dedp sdritpli•s With.'•new Izinar prolies.·lt has been sdv(Glilt,95,· '
central. Asian space center ·by:·.the;:.»res made (in Apollo-,15,:(tw'o ' drill- 'iears since the last Luhakhbd'·rn664•1•Z'T
largest ' operational •·.'Soyiet '; space .'-ingh to•' ddpths ,of '1.61'i •e'te'i·§ir.RAd. rover Was placed on the lunar surfaed'.5.F.*· 1
booster, the. "p"it,n': After oh,itink .-''AP,11...77,16'.' -d:11"f»)9..·,3t't' ti• ••o•:•rr,1••.t:.o' ,••t,t"...t:"246•::i:i·,
- : _:
the moon for fgur days. and Casting .6,f 2:6·Ihetets )2 - . ' "·-··i'·· ·· 036'
:;'te'•2 0362'•
ttek•,•mu•••i4
a ..i.Iti,4,04,i"'l,·:1.'·f
036r, ;i:··»'i'26,.119-St'.t,- : .,. - . , ,: :.it»i'.;if".ti»'tt.,•-,r--- s

A remotd controlled • drill arm: posii-

tioned the• • drill head, over an area ·'
- selected by ground controllers *ia telii-, -·
• vision. The drill oDerated for sevdral · 4
minutes and ' penetrated two: meters,i
extracting a core about • eight milli-
meters wide: Th(i drill tube wad ·coiled:E Earth Return .
up and inserted idto the return cai,Aule.. A-Ascent Stage
.. atop the vehicle's aicent rockot stage:.
The next vday,'I :the '.'As'dent sttige ' Stereo Facsimile Cameras (2) ·-· '- · 1
· blasted off froin .the 036moon. After. 5 2 '
3-1/2 day return trip, the '40kg entry. / Modified Soil
- capsule ( with a diameter• of about 1/2 / Sample Assembly
meter ) plunged.' into., Earth's atmos-" Concept •
phere over the Sofiet-Union..The dire8.-
descent with an entry angle of greatef
than 30 degrees resulted - in decelera- 2 /. 4
tion forces of 300 times the' forcd' of '14*. .e.- . , :1
gravity. · 'r·. · -· ·
At an altitude .of - 15., kilometers i
( 9.32 miles ),.. the ' pr-obe's:·'small..para-'' 2 -
chute opened and'·ay: recoyery.ibeacone.4
began to transmit difectiohal (digh-ali'.,;'
- •Recovery ..cfdits ).in 7Heliifoiiter•. lidard2 ' /Landin•da,
/ Antennae
: the beacon,ana clo'66'd iii>.biit-,didi·'no't .1
, reach • •ie'•f°fthdo'wlj,•re-a-for' seviral •=E 60' Azimuth.'-C) / 1
*.'':PiLE&.A:hours ," 1· - Drill Site Selection ..1
,.: The sample was taken to a special - .- 1
fi ,' "t,: receiving laboratory at the Vernadskiy - j
4..1 0 :.r:i'.'Institute in Moscow The •prcssurizedp iLuna 23 configuration concept Copyr ght © DR Woodb
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THE NEW EDMUND 41/4", f/4 NEWTONIAN R.F.T.
Patent ' :':'·.' •·.· ····:.:, : .:·
Pending ki ...
t,· , , ·, ; . . . IN STOCK FOR IMMEDIATE DELIVERY!
Al. ......../..
1., ./ I. NO. 2001 K $129.95 Ppd.

Clear bright, 1'•j' i 1.'.:.•t. Buy NOW For Christmas! 15i:ALINTRODUCTIORY PRICE!
'- ·* --- '<'-"' In less than a minute you're scanning the heavens. No heavy lugging
spectacular out and in. No complicated set up, no involved collimation. Just pop in the eyepiece,
focus, and its 31/2° field ofview gives you more stars in asingle view than any othertype of
Wide angle telescope. Bright, crisp, finely resolved images, plus ease of use and portability, make
this beauty an ideal scope for every skygazer. It's probably the easiest to use telescope
views of stars, ever... overyourshoulder, in your lap, on a tripod. Orjust rotate the spherical base on
moon, comets its own mount for use on atable, carhood. Take it anywhere (only 17", 10 lb.).Top quality
optical system: 41/4". f/4 parabolic primary mirror (1/B wave, 17" F.L); prealigned 1/8 wave
. . . instant set up diagonal on a coated pptical window seals optics from moisture and dust; std. 28mm
Kellner eyepiece (gives 15X, higher with other eyepiece or Barlow). Fast posi-grip roller
. . . portable l focusing (25' to infinity). Bright Scharianian red (doesn't impair night vision) with
adjustable carry strap. A precisely engineered, quality instrument at a great price (with
no hidden crating charges). A second scope "must". There is no other telescope like it.
Edmund
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1609)547 3488 L----______________
-

i i' l. 0-42
 ''.U

ASTRpNOMY REVIEWS · ': i> 4

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.Strange Universe - ASoutc.65•'»'heath»-«Fobscurity, anci indifference, can rdgard aA' 'understood are:,.the
book of Curious'Astrs,nomical,3. .,j.lirini•i•ng them to the light of day for origin of the 1.7 day period ( cause:
Observations ; f.'.4..t, fresh minds toponder. James Mullaney. binary motibn ); the origin of the 1.2' ·,
compiled by WILLIAM R. CORLISS '-• :-· ,•'··'
'. 042·3 • 042,
,% 042 036,, second period ( cause:·the- rotation of,3 --
r . a compact star); the - origin of x-ray
' 7 279'pages, hardcover, $7 95 W ':
The Sourcebook Project (1975) 'X-Ray Binaries emission ( cause: mass accretion onto
"edited by ELIHU BOLDT and YOJI a - compact star ); the origin of the
This volulne is·.one in a growing' KONDO . large optical 'variations ( cause: . x-
ray heating of the photosphere' of Hz
series of sourcebooks ( currdntly- 758 pages. paperback •16 25 042 Herculis )." But some of the "more ob- G
numbering seven ) providing in handy 'NASA ( 1976), -· . r
looseleaf format a remarkable collec- vious, incompletely understood phen-
u Thids· is'..anothpr·fcasq 036-of
scientific omena" include the origin of a' 35 day :r
tion of unusual and unexplained obser- ovatkill: You can read mu8h· mod than.
period, the origin of historically long ·
- vations in various fields of sciBnce. X6u evdr,wailt@d to 'know, about x-rag inactive periods, the nature and origin .
Strange Universe deals with astronomy.:' bifiarieb.: Every paper p'reseilte'd ·in a
ofthe x-ray spectrum and pulse sliapes,
· and ·so is of specjal interest to reafift-•sthri•elhhy NASA symposidm in late and
an explanation for occasional
a ers'Of ASTRONOMY. ,·3 - ::· 4,1975 i©eprinted in full , -
4 ...6 6ptical pulsations. Now, with this list 9
Altholigh his'work has been• likened - · 1:Fordthose flready. inl-drested and
...'. in mind for reference, the read•ir can
to that of a rilodern day Charles Foft, ': sbine 254hat :faniiliar with the topic, examine the panelists' papers with a
Corliss simply calls himself a cpm-, Athis dollection could l,e a valuable
sense of perspective And a real feel for
0 'piler of' the vast amount of matetial' .source.' Recent satellite and rocket
tlie exciting mysteries of•this initidlly
presented. Hdivever, he has done'•an .tests are described. Individual panels somewhat esoteric specialization.
incredible job of research, culling 'then discuss specific x-ray sources:
overlooked and forgotten enigmas from Hercules X-14 Centaurus X-3, Cygnus . In a discus•sion on Nova Monocer- .
a · multitude of scientific • journals And. -X-1 and X-3. thd transient source AO- otis 1975, the transient x-ray ' source .' '
public,ations dating from<•before 'thd- '620, anil two others. Other possible AO-620-00, NASA astronomer Stephdn :j
Maran summarizes the .little·- that':;is. .
invention of the telescope right up to x-ra-y binaries are also discussed.
the present day. _ Observational programs with a wide known, the much that is: a'sked,• aiid ' '-='',
the bit that is guessed aliout this - ,
Complete references for each entry variety of instruments are described.
strange,but not unique object, and ties ,•
- in the sourcebook are provided, · but Behind all the technical papers is it to tHe question of recurrent novae ' ,3
c. interprettition is carefully: left to the an informal oiganization of astrono- and possible black holes. ''
imagination.and resourcefulness of the mersrdevoted to a coordinated world ,
- reader. Here is · abundant food - for program for observation of x-ray bi- With these observations, generall:
... izations leading to new theories become o
- mind-expanding speculation and naries. The astronomers exchange in- :
possible.
investigation! . 4 formaio'h, suggestions and recommen-
'' .. 036.dealing,.with, anomalo'us ·. dations, and also try to designate
Sections Dozens of' possibilities have been
·3 observations of the mocin and 'Dlanets specific dates for combined observa- - suggested but not.yet observed; says ,, -
are sure to interest the amateur ah: tions. e(Here they ran into serious Herbert Gursky, adding: "It is likely .1- :
tronomer whohenjoys using his tele- problems with .the long lead time of that we have, only just begun to un-
scope.· A good' observer should always scheduling ground telescopes versus ravel' the diversity of physical condi-
I ./ with a sense' of the quick decisions made with satel- tions leading to x-ray emission frbm
approach thei eyppiece ..1-
- anticipation - 'on the lookout for, any- lite observatories.) galactic dbjects."
thing unusual, be it a moving light on The collection contains few general This book shows how knotty the
.' the lunar surface or Aupernova outburst survey papers; evdn gdod intro•duc- unraveling can be, and also how far
, .Lk in one of Messier's:galaxies, ,-... tory remarks are rare. The book could this entirely: new•'astronomy , may be
D Strange Universe is guaranteed to r .be far more interesting to the asti·oh- able to see. James E. Oberg. ..
keep you alert at the telescope,, and, 9my enthusiast with the inclusion of a * Stock number NASA 'SP-389: for
- •will»probablychange your. butlook ·on-.' summary of "knowns" and,",unknowns" sale by National Teclinical Information
).. 1 science as well. The..adthor has done I . I an.3 about Hercules
. X-1.
- Service, Springfield, VA 22161.
r · immeasurable service in resurrecting According to panel chairmtin John
so many, unsolved mysteries from a Bahball, "Among the properties we 4//1
,. 'r.
3 60 .'-
-1 91
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it• :· 8-:I#•Suff IE
2 r -· ' · -1 *·Whether vou -- begibing ·or advanced Z
2 · gs:»*",Ci3ki-2 - astronomer, to•A any object in the sky. IIi
SALE 4 4.»*9'*
7,1. t>'. .r Ar..,3-
you must convertyour localtinfetosidereal
time units.
IE
IE
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11.1.,•.:.. ./.: ,/7/PI * Accustar:does it quickly without paper and IE
Ig
GOING OUT OF BUSINESS
3 \X..f•-3-•>. >17 • •S'l:t•3% 32;'ci'=':"Ict;:l:: 1•
Bargain Prices On: i I ...2/ 1 is usedby observatories, universities, and lE
• ---I -r-- astronomers throughout the world. L
- * EachAccustar packagecontains:The basic |•
New Astronomical Telescopes E SIDEREAL TIME Accustar instrument with star chart, Sky &
T ANYPLACE - INSTANnY - ACCURATELY Finder overlay, and the Accustar 90 page •
Used Astronomical Telescopes text. Order yours todayl $11.95 ppd.
iE
Telescope Making Components 5 1
Shop Equipment & Supplies 3 OBSERVATION BINOCULARS BINOCULARS FOR
5 mi• DEEP SKY E
Books, Magazines & Manuals «/fD• OBSERVATION •
2 - 17,7 .a.r:/: A
We are now carrying a number of E
% -1 - 036-'
<1, FA.. .=• largebinocularsof special interest E
to astronomers. All models have E
Send for information sheet describing items 2 -0.-40.-- fully coated optics , center focus E
design and. come complete with a E
to be sold and the bidding procedure. 3 These are some af the finest large nice quality carrying case. The 11 E
11 aperture binoculars we have ever power modelhas a·4.5 degree field E
All bids must ba submitted by January 5 seen! 20 power with 80mm. object- and the 10 power 'model a 5 degree E
15, 1977. 3 ives. Americantypeframes. Erfle field. These models represent the E
1 eyepieces. Over 17 inches long. ultimate in rich -field viewing. •
3 Built - in sliding tripod adapter.
3 Fully coated lenses with luggage 8*56 RCF 1 99.95 ppd. E
3 type carrying case with lock. :====I==3== •
• 20*80 BLCF $232.00 ppd. 20*80 ZCF $129.00 ppd. •
Davis Optics
EK
5250 E. MADISON
F• Send for our complete catalogue of telescope parts, eye - E
FRESNO E CA 93727 • FTnT;IrTI''P pieces, mirror kits, finders, focusing mounts, books, E
and accessories. It is yours for the asking.
PHONE:' (209) 252-1774 a P......illf E
• 042
OLD042AN
AND EXPERIENCED SUPPLIER TO THE TEL•SCOPE FIELD" E
-, .....-4.... 1,/.. .1=
g r23 Uniuersitu Ontics.InE. :11'.t:.'.:i.r.::rt. .a••.E -

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 ='.

Astro-Mart is a free, readerservicedepartment availableonly to current, paid, noncommercial subscribers; 2 ads are allowed per year.
Each ad submitted must not exceed 40 words in length (including name, address, etc.]. All ads are subject to editorial review for
suitability. Be sure to allow 3-4 months foryour ad to appear.

FOR SALE - Sears 60mm ( 2.4") refractor;

achromatic, coated objective; altazimuth
CELESTRON mount; eyepieces ( KE 20mm, HM 6mm );
4,$' I. star diagonal; sighting scope, sun, moon
S" and 8"
filters; 2x Barlow. Price: $60.00. Write
UNITRON
Terry L. Berns, 1290 McGowan Blvd.,
The Complete Line Marion, IA 53202.
TASCO
FOR SALE - Back issues of ASTRON-
The Complete Line OMY: November 1974 through July 1976.
Excellent condition. Price: $42.50 post-
In Stock For Immediate Delivery paid. Write Arthur J. Bestrop, 18810
Densmore Ave. N., Seattle, WA 98133.

•1 EX-1 EC-11-K-1 8--1 FOR SALE - Coulter 12-1/2" f/5 and 3"
diagonal homemade Newtonian; fiberglass
tube, fork mount; no clock drive. Price:
75722 N. North Ave. $380.00. Contact Rocky Butler, 16582
Milwaukee, Wis. 414-442-3441 Sabot Ln.-#1, Huntington Beach, CA
Midwest's Finest Selection Of Optical Equipment 92647. Phone (714) 842-6318:

TERSCH SLIDES
Here are 35mm slides at their finest
- from the world's largest producer of
astronomical slides.
VIKING I AND MARS
Slide Set 162 - $14.75 ppd.
This set of 40 slides is a must for the
student of Mars. The set begins with the
you get life on Mars experiments showing how

'81'
-hat you
pqy for .... Illillimillizillillilpr lillililaillixilillilli
//// 77'47'41,111
036 il fl 11 ( 1 1'111 *l ii li•
Most drive correctors are overloaded with
complicated (and expensive) circuitry including
a pile of IC's, transistors, pushbuttons, and a
big, hefty transformer. The finished conglom-
erate works OK,' but it's still big, heavy, compli-
cated and expensive.
Enter: TeleDrive, the Small Wonder. A single
IC drive corrector, a single IC for the DC decli-
nation control, and the whole circuit fits com-
fortably in 82x3 inch space. A small, efficient
transformer that still gives plenty of power to
drive a dual-motor Celestron. The finished
package is an incredibly small 2x3x4 inches,
weighs a little over a pound, and, (you guessed
it!) is less expensive than any of the conven-
tional dual axis drive correctors.
But, here's the best part. We threw away the
pushbuttons to give you the smooth, variable
rate joystick that TeleDrive pioneered. Admit-.
tedly, more expensive, but it allows you to guide
your telescope with precision and ease un-
Im-
matched by any other control system. We also
include a small but powerful DC servo motor
that is much more precise and less expensive
than a synchronous motor declination control,
and gives a very wide speed range. Again, far
superior performance at lower cost.
Now, see how more can cost you less? The
Phase IV shown above is only $110. Other
models from $26.
TeleDPive COMPANY
1571 Piedmont Rd.
San Jose, CA 95132
[408] 923-5344
Colorado Springs. Colo. 80901 (3031597-3603)
they are conducted. Next the spectacu-
lar orbital photographs are viewed
revealing old river beds, volcanoes,
impact craters and much more. Last,
but certainly not least. are the surface
photographs showing all of the fine
detail that the Viking cameras are
capable of. All slides are B&W with the
exception of one surface color slide.
THE ASTRONOMICALUNIVERSE
AROUND US
Slide Set U - $65.00 ppd.
This unique and beautiful slide set
contains 80 color slides and 10 in B&W.
The set deals with telescopes, the sun,
moon, eclipses, the planets, meteors,
meteorites, comets, the aurorae, stars,
novae, clusters, galaxies & nebulae.
The set provides instruction and enter-
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This is the first time such a comprehen-
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Note: All slide sets come with
programmed information sheets.
A free catalogue listing over 3,000 slide se-
lections on astronomical topics is available.
TERSCH ENTERPRISES
P.O. Box 1059 Dept. AM

62
FOR SALE -.3.1". Meade refractor. no %,4...:, I.......: ....
mount; indludes 'mouging brackets· foK CELESTRON 8's
use as photographic guldesER.pe. Never 9 1:'REfractor .
used, perfect condition..»ice: .$'130.004 - $30.00 OFF -
Also T-mount cameraladapter,,for· Celesf
tron 5 or 8; $8.00.'Write Christ Hell, 14708 FREE SHIPPING 1• REbrandt 'ft
Cobblestone Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20904. ON EVERYTHING WE SELL. (
FOR SALE - Haggart-Aquila 6" Schmidt
Cassegrain, f/15. 90" f.1.. 7 x 50 mono- SAVE $30 REsolution
Cular finder. 6 oculars (3 orthoscopic), ON C-8's, $20 on C-5 s,
4 glass filters. 2x-3x Goodwin Barlow. No •
mount or tripod. Excellent condition. SAVE $10 5: 19... ..•.,
//Tr'.''••
'..... ... I-··9-4
..1..:•,lri
Best offer. Contact Alejandro Hernandez. ON TELEPHOTO LENS f ... /2.., Ir r. S ..:1 --I
:".1
271 Vernon St., Oakldnd.' CA 94610. ..•1 - I .: I.. :-7..,4
il, ' .r. '··19•'.1
FREE 50 FOOT ... · .·. · t ·•'*-• 0
FOR SALE - Critdrion RV-6 Dynascope -2 5 » 34'•-.-/ ./'4» 036
with clock drive, 4 eyepieces (4mm, 110v EXTENSION CORD WITH '' •298:•:I::*I'l'',/:*f-9..I,·,.':P
7mm, 9mm, 18mm ), SolarISkreen, Excel- EVERY CELESTRON 5-8 2
lent condition: Price: $190.00. Contact OR • The R. E. Brandt 8" f/13.3 air-
William Cassara, 149-38 Hollywood Ave., spaced achromatic objective lens
Flushing, NY 11355. Phone (212) 762- DAYSTAR FILTER ,
is one of the finest available
2408. DEMONSTRATIONS anywhere in the world. Guaran-
FOR SALE - Edmund merchandise in IN ALASKA WASHINGTON OREGON IDAHO. UTAH
mint condition:' 7x right angle finder BRITISH COLUMBIA & MONTANA teed to perform to the theoretical
(#50.249). $25.00; 1-174" rack and pinion SEND US YOUR NAME AND ADDRESS. WE'LL NOTIFY limit or your money will be re-
eyepiece holder (#50,077}..$15.00; YOU WHEN WE DEMONSTRATE IN YOUR AREA furided.
6" mirror grinding kit with pitch lap map DEALERS FOR
(#70.004), $20.00. Contact Duane Lesher; CELESTRON. DEL N. WOODS. UNIVERSITY OPTICS Mounted in a machined alumi-
RR #5, Box' 423, Chambersburg, PA DOU MEADE INSTRUMENTSANDMANYMORE num cell and reasonably priced at
17201. Phone (717) 375-2274 between 11 YEARS EXPERIENCE IN OPTICAL RESEARCH EQUIP- ' only $g95.00 (uncoated) postpaid
3:15 p.m. and 6 p.m. MENT SALES.
and insured in the U.S.A.
FOR SALE - 40" diameter mirror blailk oi ORDER NOW FROM R. E. Brandt
Schott Duran-50 material:. Fantastic.pro. :
ject for organization capable.of.financing; B. E. MEYERS & CO. L @
.. 3021 Chichicoi Lane
constructing - an instrument this : large: 2717 200th AVE. S.E. Prescott. Arizona 863011 1-
Also 20" Pyrex blank. Serious inquiries
DEPT. AM Phone:602-445-5469
only. Contact Dick Nelson, 2190 Shasla
Send for more information along with a
Way. Simi Valley, CA 93065. Phone (808)--RiCM 042ll,MiRIAIMY:110[el:K 042]0:31:[tkn
niodern folded refractor design.
526-7209. -0/.- -

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35mm Slides.& 8min Movies tal•n by
astronauts·on Apollo· moon Tliglits will
better than can be seen on the negative. only be: a'vailable for. 9·.LIMITED ·TIME.
Above left is a conventional print; at ri'ght
one with detail enhance• and. graininess
removed by use of a LRTF. The LRTF ( used MOVIES & SLIDES'-MAbE. FROM NASA NEGATIVES.
with any enlarger) is priced from $25.:For A.· A•ollo 17, sei of 24 Color Slides ·.......1: .$1Of •<FOOTPRINTS ON
additional information. write: B. Apollo 16, set of 24.Cblor Slides ...........$10 <,
P.hotographic Enhancement C. Apollo 15, set of 48 Color Slides .... ....$186
13 Burke Ave., Dept. AM, D. Apollo 14, set of 48 Color Slides ..........$181'
THE MOON"
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J. Apollo 11, 450 Ft: Colot Movie ............$509. Photographs; many
K. Skylab 4, set of 60 Colo'r Slides ...........$256
p'/7 , ifabmE/" L Skylab 4,400 Ft Color Movie ..............$401'
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Box ·2589, Hollywood, Calif. 90028 Foreign Orders add 10% For AIRMAIL Postage.
write: HOUSEOF RINGS
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City, State, Zia

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PA
434" PRO 425 $149.50
TELESCOPES
2 'iz k1
6*
A Cohen, 12 Argyle Dr.. Edst Islip. NY 11730.
8 OMY: February, ,July, August 1975. In
7»
8" DISCOVERER $555 up
TO ENHANCE ITS OPERATION
= TELESCOPES
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121h; 14'/4" $1975 up
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Send for FREE Dynamax 8 catalog today
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THE OPTICALCRAFTSMEN, INC
2190 Shasta Way
Slmi Valley, Ca. 93065
(805) 526-7209
64
FOR SALE - 2.4" Tasco refractor; 6mm.
i . Be. I + 12.5mm ' eyepieces; 2x· Barlow; sun fil-
v' ' f.
9.4 ./. 2* * r. - ter; diagonal prism; 5 x 24mm finderscope;
V . metal -altazimuth tripod; accessory tray.
. 1:-
Al Very good condition. ·••Great·beginner's
• .V t
Scobe or guidescope. - Price:' $35.OQ.
372 Contact Steve Q'Bryant, 2100 Calle Vista,
©6
% Florissant,- MO 63031. Phone (314)
831-6267.
-. 1
:4 ,
FOR SALE - Optical Craftsman 10"
f/5.6 Newtonian with 4 Meade rekiearch
. . 6'-/ grade eyebieces. 2x Barlow. Mint condi-
tion. 1 year 6ld. Pricd: ·$975.00. Contact
t ' Tim O'Connor, 24 Co'ndon Circle, Rock-
.. land MA 02370. Phone (617) 871-2637.
M .
Y
FOR SALE - Cave' 8" f/8 model "B"
deluxe Newtonian; clock drive, 2 finders,
d.. 6" setting circles, rotating tube. 3 odulars.
:%
many : extras. 'Sacrifice ' for $425.00 or
' /1
ii'...
Al,4
best offeE. Contact Todd Owen, 200 Devon
Pl., Boulder, CO 80302. Phone (303}
t
f
036,
0 , I
•' ; 1
443-4877.
.
... AL -•·' 254ill: FOR SALE - 2.4- refractor, 5 lenses, 2x
'A Barlow, 18mm-Bmm zoom lens, star dia-
2B4
' 1 3, 5. 1 gonal, reversing prism: sun, moon, fil-
ters; giant marine compass mounted on
tripod. Price: $100.00. Contact Russ
DYNAMAX 8 ® Phone (516) '581-7805 or (518) 784-
2611.
OWNERS FOR SALE - Back issues of ASTRON-
CUSTOM-ENGINEERED
ACCESORIES
top condition. Price: $5.00 each or $20.00
for all three. Write Chris Phillips, 110
FOR YOUR SCOPE Lydecker St.. Englewood. NJ 07631.
FOR SALE . RV-6 in mint c6ndition
( used 6 months). Price: $180.00; will ship
Portable
042 rugged lightweight tnpod collect in original packind crate. Need
with fingertip latitude adjustment 2.4" or 3" guidescope. Contact Charles
Includes the famous POLARIS H.'Robinson, 89 Nottingham Rd., Spring-
POINTER 442 system No need to level field, IL 62704. Phone (217) 546-1912.
the tripod or know your latitude to FOR SALE - Back issues of a popular
find the celestial pole astronomical journal. For details, write
042NO-DU 442
CAPS Removable mold Paul R. Signorelli, P,0. Box 6068, Colo-
ed black flock lined antidewing caps rado Springs, CO 80934.
04250-mm 7 power right angle finder
Large prism elbow diagonal Six
degree field Mounts in present finder
mounting rings 11/4 Focusable
FOR SALE -'Back issues of ASTRON-
OMY: August 1973 throtigh December
1975. Good condition. Price: $50.00
including shipping. Write J.B. Strong,
5733 Waverly,- Kansas City, KS 66104. .
eyeplece
Slow
042 motion manual declination FOR SALE - Celestron 8 with Celestron
control Five times finer adjustment pier, drive corrector, T-adapter, tele-
than original equipment compressor, telextender, Barlow, weibht
042VELVETTOUCH 442
hehcal eyepiece set.· extra oculars. other - accessories.
EOerything like new. Total invested,
focuser Overcomes mirror focusing
$1,500.00. Price: $950.00. Contact Robert
Image shift
West, 3535 River Rd.,· Decatur, GA 30039:
ITELE COMPRESSOR Reduce Phone (404j 243-3152.
your photographic exposure time to
25% FOR SALE ·L Superior Optics 4" f/8
reflectot, 2 eyepieces, sun.filter, wooden
Coaxial
042 mount for 35 mm cameras
tripod; $50.00. Tascd 40mm refractor. 25»
Mounts with helical stainless steel
ring clamp to rear casting 30x-35»40x-45x-50x variable eyepiece,
10" · table · tripod. Price: $25.00. Write
ISOLAR SKREEN 442 and CELL AS
Brent Wilkinson, Rt. 1, Watonga, OK
SEMBLY Famous patented ( USA 73772.
#3 897140) sun filter SAFE because
It keeps all the heat out of the scope F6R SALE - Unitron 4" refractor ( model
1526) with Unihex, motor drive. All in
excellent tondition. Contact Ken Wisian,
2801 Bonnie Rd., Austin, TX 78703.
Phone (512) 478-6032.
on all products Gi FOR SALE QR TRADE - 5" RET refrac-
tor, optics, equatorial head; all mounted
ROGER W TUTHILL, INC on excellent hardwood tripod. Price:
Box 1086A, Mountainside, N J 07092 $289.50. For details, contact James
Telephone 201 232 1786 Scala, 29 Clover Ln., Upper Saddle River,
NJ 07458. Phone (201) 825-3226.
 WANTED + Correipondence with owners .
of' Celestrori·.telescooes'in iowa, Illihoh, .' : CELESTRON
Iridiana.•·.Write '.Terr9. 'C: Berns. 1290 '
McGowan Blvd.,.Ma•rioff, IA 52302.
astro r.. DEMONSTRATIONS
Under Night (or Day) Skies
WANTED - Marcfi -1975 issue of AS-
TRONOMY. Rlease state condition and
Ptice. Write Karl .Fribd[.8. 261 Central
murals Need help in selectin6 a icope?
Or chdosing-a system?
St., Coricord. MA'01742. Want to see before you buy?
WANTEb - NeN members..for Tacoma
U. S. NAVAL
We will dem9nsjrate the Celes-
Astrorjomers.. Inc.,(2riEI'bldeht asir6riom- OBSERVATORY
ical society in U,S., and cohbsts of 1977 tron system ( or any of the fine
NW Region Astronomic#1''Leabue Conven- products listed below) and help
tion). Eor. infotmation contatt Steve you choose just the right compo-
MAckey, 2211.N. Whitniari ·St., Tacoma,
WA 98406. Rhona (206) 759-8903. COLOR SLIDES nents for y6ur visual and photo-
liraphic needs. Celestron 5,8,
WANTED -. "Rendezvous in Space" by Many not avaiiable in color from
binoculars and all standard
Martin Caidin;· "Mike-Mars at Cape Ken- any other observatory
nedy" by Donald Wollh6im; "Mike Mars accessories are kept in stock
and. the. Mystery Satellite" by Donald aldnd with. a selection of 6ther
Wollheim. Write. Galy 'Sahger. 1581 Three sets of five slides each:
quality products, books, and
Ed•emere Dr., Rochester, NY. 14612. Set 1. Gdneral atlases.
INFORMATION'WANTED.: On star par- Set,2. External Galaxies
Decided what you Want?
ties and/or teldscope derrionstrations in Set 3. Galactic Nebulae
New Jetsey area.· Particuldrly interest*d Phone and mail orders are
in ,Unitron,. Celestron. Critefion scopes. One set: $3.00 accepted.
Write Richarti J. Gigljo; ·1771 Hughes Three sets ( one of each): $8.50
Terrace, Pischtawlay, NJ 08854.
David A. Potter
INFORMATION WANTEb - On how to Domestic maii pastpaid. Overseas 723 Cedar,Dept. A, Sandwicli, IL 60548
acquire NASA satelliie photographs. purchasers add $1.00 to cover costs.
Most interesteB in high resolution photos. (815) 786-8168 F•.ii,7
Listing available.
Wme Danny M. Skarka,.; 649 Northville
Turnpike, Riverhdad: NY 11901. Dealer For:
Astro-Physics telescope controls
POSITION WANTED - Amateur astrono- astro-murals Celestron telescopes,& accessories
me£/profebsional .pilot. ,seeks pilot/co- box 7563-A DeIN. Woods DayStar filters
pilot position; 2OOOTT; 10001VIEL. CFIAI. DOAA drive correttors & PLS camera
Washington, D.C. 20044
Am single, 25; have B.S. degree in aero- University Optics oculars & mounts
nautics. Contact Curtis .L. Levgis, 3730 703-280-5216
Vernonscope oculats.
Erdderick. Shreveport. LA 71109. Phone
(512) ·793-2743. ·
*Day.Star Filters*
Advertise it free.iri *stro-Mari
*Hydrogen Alpha
POSITION WANTED - Any phase of
planetarium work. Aave B.S. plus 25 *Calcium K.-line
credits (space stience education). Direc- *Corona filt6rs
tor of school planetarium with much com-
munity work (7 years). Total of 11 gears *Laser line filters
teaching. Writa·Fred Marschak, P.O. Box 1
151, Duncanspille, PA 16635. 2::-·, *Half-bandwidths:
- 1,1,52 0.4 • to 100 R
POSITION AVAILABLE . - Planetarium .f .
Technical Curator.- Crdative.,dnthusibstic *Wavelength range:
purson with knowlbdge,bf. ·eldctionics, 3700 • thru 2.5 u
optics. metal working.' TO• inalotoin ilnd *·J·
further develop 'wide array: of.spgcibl ef-
fects ·and Goto Mars fla®t'arium. proj6c-
DEL N. WOODS
tbr.. Starting . salary: .'$ 1•1;30•; excellent P.O. Box 1290, Dept. AM,
frjnge ·benefits. Send·,re'suine,·t*6.prd- Pomona, CA. 91766
lessional and iwo persorial.references. to: Phone:714/629-0600 ( N.Y.) 914/786-3738
David L. DeBruyn, Roger; 8. «-Chaffue
Pldnetarium. Grand. Rapids·· 136blic·''MO-
seum, 233Washington'S.E.,'Grand Rapids, 40
MI 49503. Phbne (616)'456-5494. -0*i'ole ,. ditii On
POSITION AVAILABLE .- .Teacher/
techhician to aid in instruction of Iritro- '9"I" - 19 : t•••••dooti•no••;t::is·« •:,,/-
ductoty Obser*ational Astronomy labora-
tories, including mainteriance of tele- 1/,1:: «.2 ,»BL'»,St.. . -
scopes. .plarietarlum e'ggipmekit. Basic
requirements: Observing -:skills, .BA 004:,Aircidef do'i '·«led'63'4(<•r$0·32•4•••6.••'•<•*£<OBO#V
degree. Contact Personnel-Offica, Santa
Barbara City College, 721 Cliff Dr., Santa
036Ble·ls'i"th'ri
- . »ee:., efist•,V : ,»5 1.:t:S • 8,-'SAS,0, "'lI
Barbara, CA 93109. Phorie (805) 965- stlyorid .t,t, e'%,B", i,B«>A,•ti•
c,f,05 -• f 036'
-
0581.
ANNOUNCEMENT, - Attention ' Ne*,
b*v B.o.,•%• "' 60••09>.• "» 1 *e" / /
, et"Stes'%
Yorkors! Frustrated b)I.'.IRihtd'.afid- haze? -«»»4 «-4- / '
Sdend a night uhder tM6:atdr§ at monthly
star parties held at:.Caumsott State Park.
Llmid Neck.. NY. For· de§cfibtive folder,
Write, Hall of Science, P.O. - Box 1032,
Flushing, NY 11357.
..
93»»t«»»« Ne ...<BER,....0«...15;KEJ'B

65
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light blue, 47-violet, 58-green. Includes in.
structions. A must at all telescopes
7. 5 0 Ppd
Send Check or Money Order to:
FT. WAYNE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY INC.
P.O. Box 6004 Ft. Wayne, Indiana 46806
• •• Aluminum, Fiberglass. Steel •
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• Z•i• 1 7='=c Future Positions with ASTRONOMY
The following positions do not currently
,8.••IJ-gr.,•- exist but representjobsthatwill materialize
at ASTRONOMY as we expand during the
next 12 to 36 months. If you will be grad-
371 Commerce park br. / P. 0. Box 885/Jackson. MS 39205 uating from college during this period
Phone 1601 )982-3333 ·
or if you'd just like us to keep you in mind
as positions open. we invite you to send a

Apelfec••••d••g•f•t•• letter of application and resume for

ourfiles.
*Copy Editors/Staff Writers *
Requires .knowledge of amateur and

ASTRONO-MICAL CALENDAR 1977 theoretical astronomy in varying degrees

from sophisticated amateur level to college
degree in descriptive astronomy and ex-
perience as planetarium program writer/
lecturer. College degree a must with major
in magazine journalism. Creative ability.
TY . driving motivation and enthusiasm are
desirable qualities for these positions.
Salary open and commensurate with
education, ability ahd previous, related
• 1.. by
"......,-'•,'.i••i••a-••s••
Guy Ottewell
i, the A....,ri'ic., L••.. employment experience.
*Editorial Researchers /Indexers*
Requires str6ng familiarity with amateur
Used In 41
seho«Is, countries
clubs. Co.I and 2many
largehundreds
036nt'. of universities,
facing pages planetariums,
to; eact' month; also 3ver- and theoretical astronomy. College degree
a must with major in.English and course-
view of Astronomy,
cession, Position,
Magnitudes, Time, Constellations,
Elongations Ecliptic,
Sun, Young Moon, Zodiac
Tides Jupiter s work in writing. journalism and library
Satellites, Comets, Meteors, Brightest Stars, Events of 1976, Space Explo- science. Lib'rary science deg.ree is
.P.0· desirable. Salary open and commensurate
ra•ion in 1977, Weather, Special Charts.Glossary, Quick Reference, more. with education/employinent experience
'The most complete guide for celestial.events the reviewer has ever
seen. . .unusuallyfree from omissionsand errors"-
"-JournaloftheA.L and ability,
11 find yourself spending many pleasant hourswithits maps, charts. *Editorial Scientists*
Ph.D astronomer(s) with both the abilitj
4 ,·You'
diagrams .a joy towrite for a nonscientist audience and
*4 "For those whotobelieve
own" -Tonight's Asteroids are there to be observed"
celestial happenings
' Recommended to all serious observers" -A.A V.S.0. broad knowledge of professional astro-
nornical research beingconducted in fields
' "1've been teaching astronomyfor close to 30 yearsand have neverseen other than your speciality. Salary opeh
P• -Rose Hill Bramble ' -Prof and commensurate with scope of know-
such a good collection of information' . W.W.Dolan ledge and ability to write.
95 postpaid from Physics Dept., Furman Univ., Greenville, SC 29613, *Proofreaders/ Style Editors*
.,
Requires strong familiarity with amateur
54, Make checks payable•t••i•tronomicalfat•ndar..... . and theoretical astronomy. College degree
in English or journalism ( preferred),
p 4.ba:--9- 1
./I- although some college with coursework
in English and journalism is acceptable.

66
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Guide to Back Issues
Reader interest in back issues of ASTRONOMY magazine is higher than
"OUTER SPACE PHOTOG-
ever. As a result, our stock of back issues is swiftly dwindling. Below is a guide
RAPHY" or "TELESCOPES
to ASTRONOMY back issues that are still available. For your convenience it is
FOR SKYGAZING" ( list $9.95
updated monthly; issues not listed are depleted. The July 1976 History of
eah personally autographed by
American Astronomy issue is specially priced at 53.50 per copy plus postage.
the author, Dr. Henry E. Paul.
When ordering, please clearly state quantity, volume, number, month and
All this for only $50.00 ppd.1 year for each issue ( first issue was August 1973 ), and include payment with
08er expires December 31, 1976. your request. If issues ordered are no longer available, unless you instruct us to
Limit of one order per customer.
forward a refund or substitute issues, we will automatically extend your
For the complete line of VERNON- subscription appropriately.
scope products, please send for free
brochure. Sl.50 per copy
U.S. - Add Sl.00 per order
TESTIMONIAL
Gentlemen: Canada/ Mexico - Add $2.00 per order
Over the past twenty years I have used All Other Foreign - Add S2.50 per order
every conceivable ocular design commer- Vo.1. No. 1 - August 1973 Available Vo. 4, No. 2 - Febmity 1976 Available
cially available (including the Clavt Pltissl, Vo. 2, No. 3 - Match 1974 Short Supply Vo . 4, No. 3 - March 1976 Avairable
I might add). These have· been used on ama- Vo. 2, No. 6-June 1974 Short Supply Vo . 4, No. 4 - April 1976 Available
Vo . 2, No. 7 - July 1974 Shon Supply Vo .4, No. 5- May 1976 Available
teur instruments ranging from 2- to 16-inch Vo. 2, No. 9 - Septembe, 1974 Short Supply Vo . 4, No. 6 - June 1976 Available
aperture and observatory (•rofessional) in- Vo. 2, No. 10 - October 1974 Depleted Vo. 4, No. 8 - August 1976 Ava/able
stnimentation with apertures of 13- to 30- Vo. 2, No. 11 -November 1974 Short Supply Vo . 4, No. 9 -September 1976 Available
inch. I have not found an optical design that 110 . 3, No. 1 -January 1975 Short Supply Vo. 4, No. 10 - October 1976 Available
Vo. 3, No. 5 - May 1975 Available Vo. 4, No. 11 - Novembs,1976 Available
has outperformed the Brandon, or per- Vo. 3, No. 6 -June 1975 Available Vo . 4, No. 12 - December 1976 Available
formed as Well, to be more specific. Vo. 3, No. 7 - July 1975 Available Vo . 5, No. 1 - January 1977 .NYP
The Brandon deSigIi has provided me with Vo.3, No. 8 - August 1975 Available Vo. 5, No. 2 - Febmary 1977 ,NYP
superbly enhanced views of the Martian disc Vo. 3, No. 9 - September 1975 Available Vo. 5, No. 3 - March 1977 -NYP
Vo. 3, No. 10 - October 1975 Available Vo . 5, No. 4 - Ap:il 1977 •NYP
as seen at opposition with the 13" refractor Vo. 3, No. 11 - November 1975 Available Vo.5, No. 5· May 1977 'NYP
at Allegheny Observatory over the past two Vo. 3, No. 12 - December 1975 Available
decades. The flatness of the field with its all-
over color correction and razor sharp optics
have allowed me to see more miniscule dc- *Not Yet Published
tail than with any other design. Brandons Please allow at least four (4) weeks for delivery.
are also ghost-free and have excellent eye
Rosemary L. Pickart
relief.
ASTRONOMY Magazine
I purchased a set. of Vernonscope filters a
few months ago. Used on various subjects 411 E. Mason, 6th Floor
they're absolutely priceless. lf the observer Milwau I 53202
only knew the possible enhancements to be C 1••B ·
gained when using these filters many more 35 -il/.
. 04.
would be sold. I'm working on this aspect
with our local group. 94, P
Let me close by simply saying that the 141-4 . . e .2,1'**:2 .·I.
01».0 .. .. --. -..::• f.... 1.-.:.. .1
Brandon - VERNONscope reputation over
the past quarter century for an American
':,.I ..:.-.:·.':.1. '--· ·
sf 'z , fg#-.' 6· ·· '
pr6duct is unbeatable. I. :•'... 7'C...-;•. .
& '.:'- p
Sincerely,
R. Schmidt i AS-
Pittsburgh, Pa. BY , R ON O AAY
VERNONscope & Co. ASTRONO
5 Ithaca Road -//1 --- 8,
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Telephone, 607-6594301

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 Travel through
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 D0
- 1« .8-407:2/Z 4 & 1. C I. more than 3/4 of the way throligh- the
adjoinin-g constellation Pisces. In
fact, the vernal equinox is still some- 2
t12 1= =1=* V JUL·•..•1,• ·. times called the "First Point of Aries"
.· - · a title that more properly belongls
- by to the pseudosciehce of astrology than
'- to astronomy.
James Mullaney and Henry J. Phillips
The remainder of Aries stretches
December is a month of transition. lations whose stars resemble the ob- toward the east. The small triangle
The old year is about to end and give ject it is supbosed to represent. A consisting of 35, 39 and 41 Arietis was
way to the new, aiid we move from little thought will reveal that. unless once the separate constellation Musca - 0
C autumn ta winter, with all the resultant they are arranged in a straight line, Borealis, the northern fly - depicted
climatic changes. So it is only natural any three stars will form a triangle •r as hovering over the ram's rump. This
that the December sky is also in a so we shouldn't feel too amazed at group has since been absorbed into
period of transition, as the compara- 'I'riangulum's startling likeness. Aries, and the only insect in the sky is
tively dull skie& of autumn are grad- Among this . tiny constellation's the original Musca, located south of
ually replaced by the bright, crowded points of interest are the alternative Crux the southern cross.
winter stars. ::-/2£4•.:- . .' •: titles for. its..star-:Alpha: Caput ·Tri- East of Aries. situated in Taurus,
"
By about. 10:304).friiiwith -the;rising angulicand.fRaialiddthallah - rather are .the Pleiades - the · best known
'...
of Sirius, the Great; Citcle 6f first,ma••di- 1dng names,for,·S fourth magnitude open •luster in the sky. A compara-
tude stars that mi@kt the ·,Pkiiter sk•··"sta'tiiAS•hiiiall star groilp• In addition, tively young cluster, the Pleiades are
is completely above.:thd hdrizon. The the'fiist.asteroid. Ceres, wa's discovered belieyed to be only about- 20:inillion
conhtellations in' •which' :Ehese bright sher&02tkie first evening df4he;39th years old; some of these stars., are
stars are located ardeIiGninent036. and:Eentil-19 · by Italian astronomeF.Pidizi. -still shrouded' in the nebulosity' from
interesting. so it must 1)6, 042,a rareitar- ; Finally, M-33 - a spiral •illa*2 and '.which they emerged. It appears as
gazer who can resist tli*impulse te 'member of the Local Group that<some delicate wisps of gas in long exposure
-jump the gun" and begi 254.his stu*kof observers can detect withbuttojitical photographs.
the winter stars two -m•ths=-.elifly,6 aid - is located in Triariguhlm,t.near . The Pleiades make up M -45, the
1 The Great Circle will nd•ti>cro•s'Rih&.
...'....... the 036Pisces border. *294. 10, »'.· '
........ h largest, brightest and nearest of the
meridian in the early eVddingfuntil'--' '. . A. few,(]Fg•efbelowdthe,striangleS,Messier objects. This is not to say
February.) -:z E ... 4 '' . is a delicater, cu24. of thiest'itar.$'2of ttiat they were discovered by Messier;
Aleanwhile, the last of the autumn 7 - /.. sd•cbn-d,dthitd
.... and fo-lirthr,diagr#tude,s• tho.Pleiades have been arnong the most
constellations. currently high in the sligi.•TH«s-e'Atirs are-the brighteot ·mbibbers fa-Aiiliar star groups since earliest
deserve at least s•,me of our attention: of»ries the ram. All three stafs.have 'time. They, too, once marked the
All contain items of interest to the lovely names. Alpha, the bright«t.7ist-*posiEion of the vernal eq•uinox, and
observer, and only the overpowering called Hamal, which' was the A'r#bjali., their importance in the ancienl -world
competjtion t o the east makes them namb for the entire conitellatio*;Ythe-1-was' such that they were usually coli
seern insignificant. word means "sheep". Beta's name- is sidered a constellation in themselves. -'
South of Andromecla are twc, small Sheratan, from the Arabian word It was only late in the G reek era that
constellations with three conspicuous meaning "sign" and referring to an they became associated wilh Taurus.
stars apiece: Triangulum the triangle important function that this star served More - stories, legeilds and bits of
alid Aries the ram. At first, we might in the past. For about'one century B.C ·, folklore exist about the Pleiades than
expect Triangulum to be one of the Beta marked the approximate site of any other star group, with the possible
imentionh of the 18th century F. ench . the vernal equinox - the point on the exception of the Big Dipper - despite
astronomer LaCaille. who placed in ecliptic at which. upon the sun's reach- the stars' concentration in a small
the sky such groups as Antlia ( the ing it, spring begins. Finally, Gamma is area and the faintness of its mem-
pump ), l'yxib ( the compass ). Horolo- named Mesarthim; the derivation of bers . Almost overy old reference
gium ( the clock 1. and Telescopium and this word is uncertain. Gamma was one mediions the "Seven Stars", but only
Micro•copium C which do nc,t na,cl of the first double stars to he discovgred six can be clearly delineated with the
translatic,ns ). Insteacl, ne eliseo\·er ( by Robert Hooke in 1664 ). naked eye by most observers. Does
that Triangulum has been around at The vernal equinox • as located this mean that one of the Pleiades has
least since the Greek era: it was one within the present borders of Aries faded within historical time? Credence
of the constellations enumerated in the from 1730 I3.C. to 420 A.D. Because is lent this theory by the ral•id rotation
Phainomena of Aratus - . the first the year traditionally began with the of some of the stars in the cluster;
extant Greek star catalog. The Greeks. first day of spring during that time, perhaps if one of them lost enough
11(•wever. called it Deltoton, from their Ariel became known as the first of the material, it could have gradually
capital letler Delta ( 6). zodiac constellations -- a distinction dimmed over the centuries. On the
It is frequently pointed out that it still retains. despite the fact that other hand, the number seven was a
Triangulum is one of the few constel- 'the vernal equinox has since traveled "perfect' or "magic" number to more
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didn't,1 the stars would circle eacli of this system shines ata steady·magni- to :Gamma.(7 ) I'ersei poini•"directiv
E.1 . .' · otlier without eclipsing. Thus, from tude 2.1. Once every 2 days 21 hours. 'toward.it, easily visible to the zin-
soine 8ther vantagb point ·in space, ' 'however, Algol drops more than a aided eye.
.P Alggl would not be·'recognized as a magnitude to.3.3 in. just a few·hours' Here we find 3,9 and 8.6 magnitude . · "• 1
3·· ••riable star! • • •. .· (3. ; • : time. Minimum liglit lasts only about stars a roomy 28 secon,ds apart, easy.
'3 •··a Most of the. titile the combined light 20· minutes,.follo·wed by · an equallY to see in a three inch·refractor or four •··• 1

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to..use in checking, 'Algol's brightness color·•contrast is eviddnt despite the t: •
iVI-76 ·•' ' is 1.9 magnitude Mirfak. " • . . differerice in brightness;· this . becomes ... r. ··
* . ' .- ·. It's fun to see if S,ou.,can catch the • more striking with increasing aper- · • 0
%· demon star winking · al • "yi,u across ·•ture. While · some observers have
\ ' - spacd from its distance.of more than listed the primary as ·white in hue,
0 100 ·light-years. Should you •see tit most.see ·it a intense yellow or even, -· . · •·
changing liglit, gaze at it in owe.. be- orange. All.agree in calling:the com-
• ·· fore our eyes, without any optical aid, panion,deep blue, for. its rich color is' 0 . '·
we are,witnessing the mutual revc )lution unmistakable in, six ·inch ·and larger
· .of one sun about another. ... •·; •.,instruments. :'·.•''j:';··2,r,,:
I»..:. .· "· • . At least one' and possibly • several ... .Webb ' mentioned ·tliat ;tli•re• are at • • '...• .
·other unseen coinpanionscto Algol are.·, least -·five .faint i'comp•nions to-.Eta, ·• . :,·
. suspected. resulting in "an enormously. :sodies6f which·,Are fsHown,in-our draw-
"· complex s»tem' in.the words of the ing. Theseniay bejust'p•rt.of:the back·
r,noted double star observer, Aitken. ground glitter fromthe Millbi'Way••that . . .·,
.- '-Telesci,pically. there are several,we -havelialready noticed, but.·the 8.6
-•faint Ivisual attendants - the brights.· bluE. sttif is drifting with ihii Di·imary
-. ' · . esE being a loth magnitude star about 1 throughi space as a pair1of•66mmon
- · 80 seconds of arc (listant,... •• . ·· :·, I properrAotion, Eta itself' i5,a spectral
100X · • i' N · . · ·· · · Eta (Yl) Persei , ' . •class ·KI,'Aun C agreeing well"ivith the •· • .- "
.• · ,, ••.." Typical ·'of .the intiny clouble and visual.· Color.·impr•Ssjon)1'.ankl ist·about « - :'0.-

'C' :·.. ·• t: · bright primary and ffint conipanions .'··'6"· 3'·.'·. :,·. M • 76 ·••.· •..' t•·,•.· .. ..·.
0 ... -'. •·:.is the star Eta. Aflind.fromA Alpha'
· 3 1.
r One, 036of thi. mot,t . clusife Aftssier
.. ......1. '· objects·'lurks near the Perseus-Andro-
•'1•'M-76/known as the 8-arbell nebula, is a meda border, just a degree north of
member of · the planetary nebulae class. fourtli niagnitude Phi (01 Persei. This · · •• •'- .-
At magnitude 12,.it is the dimmest 6f all is the dim planetary nebula •VI-76,. '·'..•:6 ...
Messier,.objects; only large aperture in- considered by some authorities the. ·:
strumen•·showit. to best advantage. The faintest entry in Messier's list. 'f B
dra•fig shows M-76 as seen through a 10
inch reflector; the field of view is 30 min- : NIost finders fail to show it. and it
utes of arc. Eta Persei is a magnificent is best found by s•reeping its position
A •polor contrasting double star. The brighter .with a wide field eyepiece in the tele- > i
4 component is a deep'yellow or. gold color, scope. A four inch aperture at 45 power _:
,; while the fainter.star isarichblue. Several reveals a faint, elongated glow on a
'· ' ;dimmer field stars give this obiect the dark night .if.you •. use averted vision,
, 4' · appearance of a small open cluster of stars. and asix incti at ;p to 100 power makes

·N- · ",11 -" 1'"- •;a,Tg•r•Zn••Tytf,2Nsu"3,0.82""te,s -give the kind of view shown in our ,
C c 100*: 036
,- r . U... c ':. .. .. .0:.,- ... , : .':drawing. • .214,2
.' trL.•.• •·r * · ..5'•'•,'.·.....1.1.·..2 M-76 is a 12th.+m,agnitude cloud.•.• "..,... ,
6. •.- measuring about.160:by 90 seconds in.·
Selected Obiects - Perseus Region
I. size. 'soniewhat pinched id. the middle "
Object Type Mag. Size/Sep. R.A. (1950) Dec. ''t·,a,nd brigliter at either'-end. Many ob-.
PERSEUS .'servers ·have likened it to. a small 'ver-
*M-76 PN 12 157"x87" 11,39"' +51019' siok.of ' the well-know•nz Dumbbell 3.
*NGC 869 0C 44 36' 21,17= + 56054' nebu14·.(M-271 in Vulpecula..and.it is
*NGC 884 0C 47 36' 21•9 m + 56053 ' therefi*e sometimes referred to as the
r h. + NGC 1023 El 10 4'xl' 2•7 m +38052 ' Little'll:)ilinblie.11. Wb Piefer to call it • :• I
k, g -'
*M-34 0C 55 30' 21•9 m + 42034 ' the Barbilll:nel,ula! ; ,' ·
S *77(Eta ) 2•47 m + 55041'
*2 39,86 28" Lpoking.much,liki a double nebula.
0 *#(Betal V:2.88d 2.1-3.3 3't05 m +40046' M:76:carries,a dual· New General Cat:i-
NGC-1245 0C 6.9 30' 34lm +47003' ·516'•idesignation( NGC-650 -.6511. and .: .
C(Zeta ) *2 2.9,9.4 13" 3%lm +31044' , '· was' given .separate ·nkimbers by Sir ·
8(Epsilon ) *2 3.0,8.1 9" 31,55"1 +39052' , William:Herschel:;Itis classified among •. . ,
*NGC-1499 DN 145'x40' 41'00'n + 36017' . planetaries as "irregular'• and has a
NGC-1528 0C 6.2 25' 41,1lm +51007' .very faint. ctintral star listed at 1 Gth . r
hiagnitude. Does it look.double to You? ' 2.
t*. *Detailed in Close-Up •• Webb called this. object a " Pearlv .,
), wifit63.hebul a. double -·. 'curious miniQ-,;wii,2 .
e ••t,ure of-,1•1-27 . . . preceding"Clobe ) a • 1.11,,c
0 . .0 ' httlifithe brighter." Herschel included 2.
itliti:his class 1 ( bright nebulae ) rather . • ..,
D D th'an cl.IS IV ( Plagi,tary nebulae ), atid
.., 11'·:.•:...: ..·
1 78 . 0.. 9

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 Lord Rosse thought it Spixal in form. NGC-869 and NGC-884 telescorie. The fic 042ldi: simply sc,wn witli
Even ilarns was fooled as his descrip- scint,illating stars and the 'contrasting
Saving Lhe best for last. we now
tion of 11-76 shows: 'Double spiral'. ri,lors are very l,eautiful." Barns
,• · examine one c,f the grandest telescopic
nebula, joined. with ring. added: "Two splendid naked eye clus·
sl hI ' to 1*. found anrwhere in the
This. cosmic impersonator lies at h•vitis. This is NG•-896.88·1. the ters : .overlapping, so as to appear
least 8,000 light-years from us, burird fanied Double ('.luster of Per 042·(,us. physically connected... stars 1 )lue-
in the endless strata of stars of our whiti, :ind intensea:Zy. vivid ruby re.r-
Ea9ily 042ieen by t he linaided eye on iable in 88,1.--
,',4 Milky Way galaxy. a' dark night ah a di,uble conci'ntra-., : I
42 . NGC-1499 I et another impi:bssion was given
tion in thi, winter •lilk,r Way. this riw )
bv Aluirden: '•A low p,pwer reveals two
If you find M-76, next try an can he fouiic! by following the line of
brilliant open clusters, carli larger
even inc,re elusive object. This is the stars IDelta lb ). Ali)ha. ,Gamma and
th:in the mc,(in, set side by side against
•. large but faint diffuse nebula, NGC. F.ta Pers,(,11 northwi,st t<,warci Cassio-
a background granular with taint
1499. betu•r known as ' tlie California Pi'ia. It also fornls a triangle with thc' #lars. Thi 042, is a supdph <,bject, one to
'nebula because. of its unique shape. stars Delta ancl Epsilon ( 2541 Cashic)peiae.
which the obser,er returns again and
'; Often pictured in observatory ph<,tos. NGC-869 has an integiateil magni· again: (}n£'. never tili:s of surveying
it's apparently seltiom looked at by tude of 4.4. and NC;C-884 is 4.7. Bc)th this dazzling array of suns, amI Lhe'
astron(,Irly enthusiasts cluslers have apparent diam i'terq only 'pity is that few te.lesi•opes can
'1'his ghostly smear of lumines- tanging from 3() to as large as 50 include both clusters fultz· in'''the same
cence measuies ]45 by 40 minutes Cor minutes of arc. d•.pendink on whicli field of view."
several degrees ) of arc in extent. and authority you consult. 'iheit centers · I.ike man> other ol,servers, Smytli :,i
is sq spread out that no definite magni- lie 10 to 50 minutes apart. so thilt ranked tho Double Cluster ab -affording
tude can be assigned to it. You can find Iller actually (A clrlap. Stal counts gh e together one of the most brilliant
it centered one d(,grce north of foul th 3F,() to ' :100 menil,ers. respectively, tel ,scopic objects in the hdaven,,",
magnitude Xi { 4'1 l'ersei Slow and care- agreeing with the vi•ual itnpres·,ic,n and mi:ntioned a rutiy and a ' garnet ··
ful sweeping with wide field Instru- that 869 ih richi·r than 884 star in 884, as seen in his six inch re-
ments that include at least, a degree of Akhough visible tc, the eye and ht.rik- fracti,r. Wel}bs descriptioii' also men-
the sky will reveal it on a dark night. ing even in binocul:irs, 3,Iessier tioned red stars. ''1'wo gorgeous cluh·
Scanning back and forth across it is strangely failed to include the Double ters .... With 64 4 power ) these superb
the only way to see its entire outline (',luster in his tarnous li:.ting. Some say masses are visit,le t oget her, as well as
with normal telescopic fields of view. that it,•astoo well-kno• n and, ob\libps,abright part north.5 5 inch (retrac,tor)
A t;ix inch reflc.,ctor at about. 30 pore pr to be mistairen for a cc,Iziel. and·t.11'(•1•i•f·•',•,,11t,wed a reed ,;tor belw•: 03611
them . .
' will sliow. it fainlly glowing against the fore was not logged ]f this is.tl;e case, 923 inch (reflector) shows five red
, sky',bAbkground. w hat about the Beehive (•94) and •ars in all.
..f« 4:» M -34 the l'teiades (•1.43) clusters,'"..which 4- Other observets mention eight or
... /* e. leere included?
Ch After straining · your eyes and pa- .,i.. , 042,.-©nine
i eddish' gtars. mostly associatec!
-2 tience trying t11 glimpse the California As it was, it fell to the thori)ugh with 881:• These M.type supeirgiants.
.i nebula, treat ithem to M-34, one of eye of Herhcht,l to catalog the Double sprinkled amid the many blue';,·hite
i Perseus' spl•shy open clusters. Sit- Cluster during his great sweeps of·:the:. ·hot stars of types A and B, provide a
4, uated a litt<&'less tlian halfway along heai·ens. They are numl•(irs 33 and 34 "9.display of celeslial color that has' to
a·-lineffrom Algot to Gamma Andro- in hih class VI ( very compressed''and.:-' thrill and excite any star loder. Even
rneciJ•;,•ihis bright grouping can be rich clusters of stars ). It was large'ly a lhree inch telescope will show these
seen with the unaided eye on a good tht, work of William Herschel and Contrasting hues, using averted vision
night; and is a fine sight in binocu-. his son John that formed the l,asis of ·:,and fully dark adapt(,d eyes.
lars and finders. tlie,NGC listing still in use today. Have these comnientaries misse•1
M.34 id a rather loose concenb a- Even a 2.4 inch refractor at 3(1 power anything of importance concerning Llie
tion of some 8() stars in an 'area the will give a thrilling view of this object. visual appearance of the' Double''Cllis
size of the full moon ( 30 minutes of easily including both clusters. A six ter? juecidedly yes! I.ook at the 'ar-
arcl. Ils members have a combined or oreight inch reflectorat 50 power places mogement of the fainter slars as they
., integrated magnitude of 8 3, account- them at, opposite sidi,s of the ey(,piec:e concentrate toward the center of each
ing f•,Ols visibility to the eve. ilost of fidel in a speetacle that is difficult to cluster with brighter one• surrouncling
thi, stars art, blue-,5 hite in color and descril,e in wordb. As a rule, larger them. It's like looking Into a tunnel
arranged in pairs radiating outward apertures can only fit one cluster at of stars - 'A very definite and 4trili-
from a hoxlike center. " a tiine fully in the view. ing depth effect'
IVebb called this Cluster a "very What, 'do ob'servers have to say The vicinity around these clus·
grand low -power fidd, one c,f the finest al,c,ut fl;he Double Cluster? The NGC ters is aisc, of interest. Note e:speciall>
,5
objects of its class":; As usutil, Barns description is -Remarkable!" Picker- the wide duster of stafs- designated
outdi,es even·one with his excited des- ing included them in his famous list NGC-957. tolloving just over a degree
cription. 'A ceic.stial aegis hung of the 60 finest 01,jects in the sky,..20, the east. Using his 10 inch reflec-
aloft in splendor" which covered ix,th northern and·south'i,-6-,i·, Barns said of this area: "Field
' 1•1-34 is trilIT' itunning in three to *,in hemisph•,res. Hower·er. he com- . shot with diahiond-dusti
six inch inst.rumpnts at low power, mented that -neither taken separateiv The distance of the 1)ouble Cluster
but a• teleReope size inc:teaces and is the equal of 41-41 or Ji-35." Some it st,lf is more than 4,000 light-years.
' field (,1 vimr' dc,creases, its app(·al observers may ,disagree with this or nearly 25 quadrillion miles from us.
fades rapidly. Tn a 1'1 inch r(,tractor, assessnient, but it should be realiyeci As we gaze into the colorful cores pf
for example. at. 150 pow•,r ancl 1/3 that, frc,m pick(,ring's obserring tile'su glittering stellar a,mmunes.
degic''e appari,nt fielcl of view. ' this htation in Jamaica. the Double (,luster the thought that there must be some-
.: 1'.
' object is disappointing. As wi, har·e Ba4 much low(,r in the sky than it is one "out there" comes, forcibly to
seen i,efore, soine celf'stial shoxi pi('Ci•h for us mind. So strong is thii'fi'eling that ze·(,
look bptier in small backyard tele. Olrolt said: -A •ronderful object.. may find the simple. haunting words of
sci,pes than in the large•t obser•·atory It shoutl be obse'rveil with a low power. Enrico Fc,rmi on our lips: "\Vhere. Are
Instrum<'nts! One ot the fined clusters for a small they?' di,
..., 6-. 79.
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