HORSEPOWER

• Defined as the amount of energy or work required to raise a

weight of 33,000 pounds a height of one foot in one minute.
• 1 hp = 33,000 ft-lbs/min

Review on Engine Terminology

 Bore – size of the opening of the cylinder almost equal to
the the diameter of the piston plus the rings
 Stroke – distance traveled by a piston from the TDC to
the BDC
 Top Dead Center (TDC) – the uppermost position of the
piston during the compression and exhaust stroke
 Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the lowest most position of
the piston during the intake and power stroke
 Engine or Piston Displacement
(PD) – volume displaced by a
piston in one stroke

 Clearance Volume (CV) – volume in the combustion

cylinder when the piston is at the TDC position

 Compression Ratio (CR) – ratio of the total volume to the

clearance volume

 Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) – amount of pressure

generated during the power stroke of the engine
 Revolution – one complete rotation of the crankshaft
 Cycle – series of event occurring one after the other in a definite order and repeats the event
after the last one has occurred
 Firing Order – The sequence of piston power in multiple cylinder in delivering the power stroke
Sample Problem on PD:

Sample Problem on CV:

Definition:

 Indicated Horsepower – the power generated at the combustion chamber.

 Brake Horsepower –
 Friction Horsepower – power loss due to friction of piston and other component parts of the
engine.
 Rated Horsepower – power as specified by the manufacturers.
 Mechanical Efficiency – ratio of the brake horsepower and the indicated horsepower
 Thermal Efficiency – ratio of the brake horsepower to the power available at the fuel.
 Firing Order – sequence of delivering of power stroke by the piston in multi-cylinder engine
 Specific fuel consumption – amount of fuel consumed by brake horsepower of the engine
INDICATED HORSEPOWER or INDICATED POWER
• Is the power developed in the engine cylinder.
• This does not represent the actual useful power delivered by the engine.

PLANn
IHP  IP – Indicated Power, hp or KW
2c P - mean effective pressure, psi or kg/cm2
IHP = BHP – FHP L - piston stroke, ft or m
= IHP x e A - area of the piston, in2 or cm2
Where: N - crankshaft speed, rpm
IHP - indicated horsepower, hp N - number of cylinders
BHP - brake horsepower, hp C - 33,000 ft-lb/min or 0.746 KN-m/s
FHP - friction horsepower, hp
e - engine efficiency, decimal

• Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) or Effective Pressure (EP) or Pressure (P) – amount of
pressure generated during the power stroke of the engine

BRAKE & EFFECTIVE HP

• BP is the actual horsepower delivered by the engine to the drive shaft.
• power available at the drive shaft or the crankshaft of an engine

BP  IHP  Friction

• EFFECTIVE HP is the final power delivered to the equipment. The difference between IHP &
EHP should be only around 25%.
• FRICTION POWER - is the power absorbed by the engine in generating itself with a given
speed and without any load.

• Mechanical efficiency – ratio of the BP over the IP x 100.

BP
ME  x100
IP
Sample Problem:

• Given: BP = 75 KW ME = 84%
N = 400 rpm
P = 760 KPa

4-stroke, cycle single cylinder

a) Determine the IP and
b) Size of the engine if B = S
B = bore (diameter of the piston);
S = stroke (length of travel of piston)
Example: Suppose a 4-cylinder engine has a bore of 3.5 in. and a stroke of 4.0 in, what is the piston
displacement of the engine?

Given: No. of cylinders =4

Piston diameter = 3.5 in.
Stroke = 4.0 in.

Required: Piston displacement

Solution:
PD =  (3.5 in)2/4 x 4.0 in x 4
= 153.9 in3

DRAWBAR POWER
• The power available at the drawbar hitch located at the rear of the tractor.
• Drawbar HP is the final power delivered to the equipment. The difference between IHP & EHP
should be only around 25%.
• Use for pulling, dragging, and other tractive works.

DP  FS DP = Pw – Pl
= Pw – (Ps + Pr
• DP = Drawbar Power Pw - wheel axle power
• F = Force Pl - power loss
• S = Speed Ps - power lost due to slip
Pr - power lost due to rolling
resistance

FIELD CAPACITY
 THEORETICAL FC – rate of field coverage that would be obtained if the machine were
performing its function 100% of the time, rated width, and the rated forward speed.
 EFFECTIVE FC – actual average rate of coverage
𝑇𝐹𝐶 = 𝑆𝑊𝐸
where
S = SPEED
W = WIDTH OF CUT
E = FIELD EFFICIENCY = 100% (in computation, it is express in decimal)
𝐸𝐹𝐶 = 𝑆𝑊𝐸
Where E - is the actual efficiency

Field Efficiency (FE) =

𝐸𝐹𝐶
𝐹𝐸 =
𝑇𝐹𝐶
FE can also be solve in terms of time:

𝑇𝑜 1
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑥 100 To  To
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 TFC Te 
K

Where Te = effective operating time

Ta = Time lost which are proportion to the area
Tn = Time lost which are not proportion to the area

Solve:
1. A farmer using a 3 bottom, 16 in. moldbord plow at 3.5 mph covers 15 acres in 11 hrs. what is
his field efficiency?
2. In harvesting grain with a 5 m combine, the time required for emptying the grain tank averaged
5 min/ha. Turning, adjusting, and other miscellaneous interruption amounted to 12% of the
effective operating time. The average width of cut is 0.3 m less than the rated width and the
forward speed is 4.8 km/hr. Neglecting other time losses, compute the Field Efficiency and
Effective Field Capacity.
3. A farmer using a 4-41cm moldboard plows at 6.5 km/hr covering 8 hectares in 9.5 hrs. the draft
is 15 KN. Calculate
a. Field Efficiency
b. Drawbar power (KW)
TROUBLESHOOTING

Question…
What do you think is the most common reason given when an engine is brought
in for repair?
Answer: It won’t start!

The second most common reason is…The engine runs poorly!

Engine Fails to Start

1. Fouled spark plugs or faulty breaker points or
faulty condenser
2. Loose battery terminals
3. Fuel tank empty
4. Too rich mixture
5. Faulty diesel pumps/injection nozzle
6. Incorrect valve timing or ignition
7. Seizure of crankshaft, camshaft, piston,
cylinder liner, or bearing
8. Air in the fuel system
9. Water in the fuel system
10. Fuel pipe clogged
11. Fuel filter clogged
12. Fuel with low cetane number
13. Compression leak in cylinder head
14. Excessive valve clearance
15. Improper valve seat alignment, valve spring broken, valve seized

Engine Fails to Develop Full Power

Air cleaner clogged
Poor compression
Carburetor too much or too lean
Diesel fuel is dirty
Incorrect spark timing
One or more cylinder misfiring
Overheated engine

Engine Overheats
Fan belt elongated or damaged
Low water level in the radiator
Radiator shutter closed
Carburetor too lean or improperly adjusted diesel injection system
Wrong grade of oil used in lubrication
Over loading
Engine Smokes
Either White or Blue Exhaust Gas is Observed
Excessive engine oil
Piston ring and liner worn or stuck
Incorrect injection timing
Deficient compression
Either Black or Dark Gray Exhaust Gas is Observed
Overload
Low grade fuel used
Fuel filter clogged
Air cleaner clogged

Engine Knocks
Overheated engine
Spark timing or fuel injection too far advanced
Carburetor too lean
Excessive carbon deposit
Incorrect type of fuel
Incorrect type of spark plug

Excessive Fuel Consumption

Fuel line leaks
Carburetor adjusted too rich or faulty injector
Engine in poor mechanical condition
Dirty air cleaner
Adverse operating condition – prolonged operation in low gear, overloading, hill climbing, etc.

Excessive Oil Consumption

Wrong grade of oil
Engine temperature too high
Piston rings’ gaps facing the same direction
Oil ring worn or stuck
Piston ring groove worn
Piston & liner worn
Crankshaft bearing & connecting rod worn
The 5S Housekeeping Systems

WHAT PROBLEMS DO YOU COMMONLY ENCOUNTER AT YOUR WORKPLACE?

• High absenteeism
• High turnover
• Demotivated employees
• Disordered/ cluttered environment
• Mistakes/errors
Problems possibly due to lack of 5S

WHAT IS 5S?

• A Japanese management technique derived from the Toyota Production System (TPS)
• Housekeeping System
• Helps Create a Better Working Environment and a Consistently High Quality Process
Method of work organized in 5 stages with the goal of significantly improving the order and cleanliness.

IDEA BEHIND 5S

In order to achieve high levels of quality, safety, and productivity, workers must have a conducive working
environment.

• 5S is the name of a workplace organization methodology that uses a

list of five Japanese words which are seiri, seiton, seiso, seiketsu and
shitsuke.

• Transliterated or translated into English, they all start with the letter
"S". It is synonymous with standardized clean up.

The list describes how items are stored and how the new order is maintained. The decision-making process
usually comes from a dialogue about standardization which builds a clear understanding among employees of
how work should be done. It also instils ownership of the process in each employee.

THE 5S PRINCIPLES

• SEIRI – Sort out/segregating/Organization

• SEITON – Systemize/Orderliness/Self Arrangement/

Straightening

• SEISO – Shining/Cleaning (Neat and Clean)

• SEIKETSU – Standardize

• SHITSUKE - Sustain/Discipline

Seiri: Sort means eliminating anything that is unnecessary for the equipment to work properly.

Seiton: Straightening is the best way of eliminating pointless searching and having all the material necessary for
functional production according to the principle: "a place for everything and everything in its place."

Seiso: Shining means keeping everything so clean that it shines.

 • In a clean environment, any leak or other abnormality can be detected faster.
• Working in a clean environment improves motivation and safety. This is a prerequisite for quality
maintenance.

Seiketsu: Standardizing means respecting the previous 3S.

• The 3S are actions to take; so that cleanliness and elimination of the causes of untidiness become the
norm, it is essential to write them down as ordinary rules, as standards.
• Seiketsu helps to overcome the natural tendency to slovenliness and a return to old habits.

Shitsuke: Sustain after a period of 3 to 6 months (depending on the size and complexity of the workshop), the time
has come to evaluate the situation by means of an in-depth audit. The audit is based on a very precise
questionnaire, which assesses the previous 4S, and which leads, if successful - to the site being certified.

Ways to do 5S

Can you spot the difference?

SEIRI Sorting/Segregating

Consequences of not following SEIRI:

• The wanted is hard to find, when required.

• More space is demanded.

• Unwanted items cause misidentification.

• Misidentification causes errors in operation.

• Maintenance cost of the equipment increases

RED TAG TECHNIQUE

• Give staff red labels

• Ask staff to go through every item in the work place
• Ask if needed & those that are
• If not needed,red tag it
 • Store in the red tag area
For wavering items,
• Place the suspected items in the red tag area for one week
• Allow the staff to reevaluate the needed items
• At the end of week those who need items should be returned

SEITON (ORDERLINESS) - “setting thing in proper order for easy retrieval”

• Placing from most used to less used.

• Use labels to signify where the materials belong.

• Identifying places to arrange the things and placing them

in proper order for prompt usage.

• “A place for everything and everything in its place.”

Consequences of not following SEITON:

• Things are seldom available when needed

• Items get lost
• Items get mixed up
• Visual control not possible
• Failure to achieve targets
3. SEISO (CLEAN/SHINE)

“CLEANUP, maintain tidiness and cleanliness.”

• Create a spotless workplace

• Identify and eliminate causes of dirt and grime
• Sweep, dust, polish and paint
• Focus on removing the need to clean
SEISO (Shining/Neat and Clean)

• Sweep your workplace thoroughly so that there is no dust/dirt/scrap anywhere.

• The area should say “ Who I’m” and its neatness should give you a natural welcome.

While doing Seiso keep in mind :

 Cleaning should be done regularly.
 Use the best cleaning agent .
 All the nooks and corners should be cleaned.
 Keep all the labels intact.
 All the labels should correct, visible and legible to all.
Consequences of not practicing SEISO:

• Performance of machines deteriorates

• The quality / aesthetic quality deteriorates
• Dirty place is unpleasant and hazardous to health.
• Sends uncaring and irresponsible message to the team members and society at large.
• People working at dirty areas are generally found to have low desire to excel and their motivation level is
low.

4. SEIKETSU (STANDARDISE)
“It is an attitude of cleanliness and consistent habits for
keeping things clean. Not just clean, but actively clean. The
clean and unclean are separated. Unclean things should
not be introduced to clean areas. Periodic checks are made
to find and remove unclean things.”
• Always aim at maintaining the standard level of
cleanliness, hygiene and visual control.
• Keep all the 4 M’s ( Man., Machine, Material and
Method) intact, a lapse in any one of them will make
you loose the rest of the three

While doing Seiketsu keep in mind :

 The standards should be arrived at unanimously.
 Always keep the standards flexible to changes and
improvements.
 Standards should be known to all and displayed.

Consequences of not following Seiketsu :

• Dual standards yield multiple results.
• Multiple results lead to conflicts and confusions.
• Rework increases.
• Rework increases the basic cost of the finished product
without any value addition

Seiketsu creates the job lists, assignments and scheduling

for the other 5S activities.
Job lists name tasks, describe procedures, name the
person or persons responsible as well as the time the
task is to be done. Job lists are created for the
relatively straightforward tasks to be performed daily.
Lists are also created for more complex weekly and
monthly reviews. Just as in seiri (sorting) and seiton (organizing), all tools and materials have their proper
place, in seiketsu 5S duties are scheduled for their proper times and integrated with other job activities.
5S isn’t something added to jobs, it is an integral and necessary part of everyone’s job.
It means "sustain" or "sustained discipline".

It is a Japanese word that carries a wealth of cultural meaning:

 – Discipline and training imposed upon a
person:
• Children are taught by their
parents to brush their teeth after
every meal
– Self-discipline:
• Children grow into adults who
brush their teeth after every meal
– Shared cultural self-discipline:
• Everyone is expected to brush their
teeth after every meal
– Personal discipline to continually practice and
improve:
• Golfers practice putts and drives – they do not simply play a round on the weekend
without practicing in between
If you are disciplined:
• Rules will always be followed.
• Laid down targets will be achieved.
• Improvements will be promoted .
• The no. of defects will be reduced.
How to practice SHITSUKE
• Train all team members on 4-S
• Correct wrong practices on the spot
• Punctuality is the backbone of 5S

LITMUS TEST FOR 5S

• 30 SECOND RULE

• ONE MUST LOCATE THE ITEM WITH IN 30 SECOND IF 5S IS PROPERLY IMPLEMENTED

• ALSO APPLIES TO THE ELECTRONIC RECORDS RETRIEVAL

ADVANTAGES OF 5S

• If tools and materials are conveniently located in uncluttered work areas

• Operators spend less time looking for items
• This leads to higher workstation efficiency, a fundamental goal in mass production
• A clean and tidy workplace leads to greater well being and increased motivation
• Company image improves
• Health and Safety is ensured
• Machine maintenance
• Time saving
• Quick retrieval
• Accidents & mistakes minimized
• Increases space
• Creates workplace ownership

In other words:

• Improve safety
• Improve the working atmosphere and environment
• Improve the quality of work and products
• Enable efficient maintenance
• Enhance your image and customer trust
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING STANDARD PAES 105: 2000
Agricultural Machinery – Symbols for Operator’s Controls and Other Displays
– Common Symbols

Foreword

This national standard is a revision of the Standards Administrative Order (SAO) series of
1980 – “Symbols for operator controls on Agricultural Tractors and Farm Machinery”. The
revision was initiated by the Agricultural Machinery Testing and Evaluation Center
(AMTEC) under the project entitled "Enhancing the Implementation of AFMA Through
Improved Agricultural Engineering Standards" which was funded by the Bureau of
Agricultural Research (BAR) of the Department of Agriculture (DA).

This revised standard was reviewed by the Technical Committee for Study 1- Development
of Standards for Agricultural Production Machinery and was circulated to various private and
government agencies/organizations concerned for their comments and reactions. This
standard was presented to the Philippine Society of Agricultural Engineers (PSAE) and
subjected to a public hearing organized by the National Agriculture and Fisheries Council
(NAFC). The comments and reactions received during the presentation and public hearing
were taken into consideration in the finalization of this standard.

This standard has been technically revised in accordance with PNS 01:Part 4:1998 - Rules for
the Structure and Drafting of Philippine National Standards. The main changes are listed
below:

- title of the standard has been modified in conformity to the format of

International Standard; and
- definitions of agricultural machines and symbols;

In the formulation of this standard, reference was made to International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) 3767-1:1998 – Tractors, machinery for agriculture and forestry,
powered lawn and garden equipment – Symbols for operator controls and other displays-
Part1:General.
PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING STANDARD PAES 105: 2000
Agricultural Machinery – Symbols for Operator’s Controls and Other Displays
– Common Symbols

1 Scope

This standard specifies symbols which are commonly used for controls and other displays on
agricultural machinery and equipment.

2 Definitions

For the purpose of this standard, the following definitions shall apply:

2.1
agricultural machines
consists of agricultural tractors, self-propelled and pedestrian-operated machines,
implements, and combinations thereof primarily used for agricultural operations

2.2
symbol
visually perceptible figure used to transmit information independent of language

NOTE It may be produced by drawing, printing or other means.

3 General Requirements

3.1 The designation and illustration of symbols are shown in Table 1. Word captions in
the symbols are for reference only. However, suitable descriptive words may be used to
define the application of symbols.
 PAES 105: 2000

Table 1 – Designation and Illustration of Commonly Used Symbols

NOTE: 1) Reverse symbol for transmission shift pattern.

2) Replace block with appropriate machine symbol correctly oriented to arrow.
3) Control Lever Operating Direction symbol may be used in conjunction with other symbols to
designate lever motion.
4) Captions within the symbols are for information, and should not be reproduced with the
symbol.

3
PAES 105: 2000

Table 1 (Continued)

NOTE: 5) Framed area of this symbol may be solid.

6) It is permissible to separate the left and right arrows.
7) Symbol for use at controls and not at temperature measurements.

4
 PAES 105: 2000

Table 1 (Continued)

3.1.1 The values (1-3-2-4) indicated in the symbol are only for illustration. While using this
symbol, actual firing order shall be indicated.

3.1.2 For symbols representing speed, clearance and height, the recommended values shall
be properly indicated.

3.2 Symbols, which are shown in outline form, may be shaded in actual use for clarity of
reproduction and improved visual perception by the operator, except as otherwise noted for
individual symbols.

3.3 Limitations inherent in some reproduction and display technologies may require
increased line thickness or other major modifications of symbols. Such modifications are
acceptable provided the symbol remains unchanged in its basic graphical elements, and easily
discernible by the operator.

3.4 To improve the appearance and perceptibility of a graphical symbol or to coordinate

with the design of the new equipment to which it is applied, it may be necessary to change
the line thickness or round off the corners of the symbol. The graphical designer is normally
free to make such changes provided that the essential perceptual characteristics of the symbol
are maintained.

3.5 For actual use, all symbols shall be produced large enough to be easily discerned by
the operator. Symbols shall be used in the orientations shown in Table 1 unless otherwise
noted for individual symbols.

3.6 Symbols on controls and displays shall have good contrast to their background. A
light symbol on a dark background is preferred for most controls. Displays may use either a
light symbol on a dark background or a dark symbol on a light background, depending upon
which alternative provides the best visual perception.

5
PAES 105: 2000

3.7 Symbols shall be located on or adjacent to the control or display that is being
identified. Where more than one symbol is required for a control, the symbols shall be
located in relation to the control such that movement of the controls towards the symbol shall
effect the function depicted by that symbol.

3.8 Letters and numerals may be used as symbols. Letters and numerals have the meaning
indicated when used in association with transmission gear controls and displays on tractors
and machinery for agriculture.

3.9 When used on illuminated displays, the following colors have the meanings indicated:

a) red : failure or serious malfunction; requires immediate attention;

b) yellow or amber : outside normal operating limits; and
c) green : normal operating condition.

3.10 Certain colors are used for specific functions such as:

a) blue : headlight main- / high- beam display;

b) red : hazard warning display; and
c) green : turn signal display.

3.11 If color is used on symbols for the heating and/or cooling systems, the color red shall
be used to indicate hot, and the color blue shall be used to indicate cold.

3.12 Color combinations and sizes of all symbols shall be adjusted to its particular unit. It
is desirable to use colors, such as red, amber and green to indicate the urgency of action (see
Figure 1).

Figure 1 – Symbols with colored lights