Experiment No.

: 6
Aim: To study about different aspects of earthing system.
Earthing or Grounding

Earthing is important part in Electrical Power System. It is also important from the point of
view of protection and safety to the equipments and human beings. In substation, it is
important for, neutral point of transformers and generators to ground and for connecting non-
current carrying metal part such as structures, overhead shielding wire, tanks, frames etc., to
earth. In transmission line, it is important for connecting non-current carrying metal part such
as structures, overhead shielding wire to earth.

The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying part) of electrical
equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star-connected system,
one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil) is called Grounding
or Earthing.

Objectives of earthing are:

To save human life from danger of shock in case it comes in contact with charged frame
due to any fault, leakage current
To maintain the line voltage constant
To protect large buildings from atmospheric lightning
To protect all machines fed from O/H lines exposed to lightning

To protect all substation equipment against lightning

Safety compliance

Grounding or earthing may be classified as: (i) Equipment grounding (ii) System grounding.
Equipment grounding deals with earthing the non-current-carrying metal parts of the
electrical equipment. On the other hand, system grounding means earthing some part of the
electrical system e.g. earthing of neutral point of star-connected system in generating stations
and sub-stations.
Equipment Grounding

The process of connecting non-current-carrying metal parts (i.e. metallic enclosure) of the
electrical equipment to earth (i.e. soil) in such a way that in case of insulation failure, the
enclosure effectively remains at earth potential is called equipment grounding. In the interest
of easy understanding, we can divide the discussion into three heads viz. (i) Ungrounded
enclosure (ii) enclosure connected to neutral wire (iii) ground wire connected to enclosure.

System Grounding

The process of connecting some electrical part of the power system (e.g. neutral point of a
star connected system, one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil)
is called system grounding. The system grounding has assumed considerable importance in
the fast expanding power system. By adopting proper schemes of system grounding, we can
achieve many advantages including protection,
reliability and safety to the power system network. Neutral grounding is also known as system
grounding. The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth (i.e. soil) either
directly or through some circuit element (e.g. resistance, reactance etc.) is called neutral
grounding. The following are the advantages of neutral grounding:

Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to ground voltages

The high voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated

The overvoltages due to lightning are discharged to earth

Provides greater safety to personnel and equipment

Provides improved service reliability

Reduced operating and maintenance expenditures

Types of neutral earthing are:

Solid Earthing
 Resistance Earthing

Reactance Earthing

Resonant Earthing

Voltage Transformer Earthing

Permissible body current limits

The duration, magnitude, and frequency of the current affect the human body as the current
passes through it. The most dangerous impact on the body is a heart condition known as
ventricular fibrillation, a stoppage of the heart resulting in immediate loss of blood
circulation. Humans are very susceptible to the effects of electric currents at 50 and 60 Hz.
The let-go current, the ability to control the muscles and release the source of current, is
recognized as between 1 and 6 mA. The loss of muscular control may be caused by 9 25 mA,
making it impossible to release the source of current. At slightly higher currents, breathing
may become very difficult, caused by the muscular contractions of the chest muscles.
Although very painful, these levels of current do not cause permanent damage to the body. In
a range of 60 100 mA, ventricular fibrillation occurs.

The substation grounding system design should limit the electric current flow through the
body to a value below the fibrillation current. Equation which determines the allowable body
current:

Where,
IB rms magnitude of the current through the body, A

ts duration of the current exposure, sec

Value of k is k = 0.116 for persons weighing approximately 50 kg or k = 0.157 for a body
weight of 70 kg. Based on a 50-kg weight, the tolerable body current is
The equation is based on tests limited to values of time in the range of 0.03 3.0 sec. It is not
valid for other values of time.

Reasons for substation grounding system

The substation grounding system is an essential part of the overall electrical system. The
proper grounding of a substation is important for the following two reasons:

It provides a means of dissipating electric current into the earth without exceeding the
operating limits of the equipment.

It provides a safe environment to protect personnel in the vicinity of grounded facilities

from the dangers of electric shock under fault conditions.

The grounding system includes all of the interconnected grounding facilities in the substation
area, including the ground grid, overhead ground wires, neutral conductors, underground
cables, foundations, deep well, etc. The ground grid consists of horizontal interconnected bare
conductors (mat) and ground rods. The design of the ground grid to control voltage levels to
safe values should consider the total grounding system to provide a safe system at an
economical cost.

There are many parameters that have an effect on the voltages in and around the substation
area. Since voltages are site-dependent, it is impossible to design one grounding system that
is acceptable for all locations. The grid current, fault duration, soil resistivity, surface
material, and the size and shape of the grid all have a substantial effect on the voltages in and
around the substation area.

During typical ground fault conditions, unless proper precautions are taken in design, the
maximum potential gradients along the earth surface may be of sufficient magnitude to
endanger a person in the area. Moreover, hazardous voltages may develop between grounded
structures or equipment frames and the nearby earth. The circumstances that make human
electric shock accidents possible are:

Definitions related to Earthing

Relatively high fault current to ground in relation to the area of the grounding system
and its resistance to remote earth.

Soil resistivity and distribution of ground currents such that high potential gradients may
occur at points at the earth surface.

Presence of a person at such a point, time, and position that the body is bridging two
points of high potential difference.

Absence of sufficient contact resistance or other series resistance to limit current through
the bod to a safe value under the above circumstances.

Duration of the fault and body contact and, hence, of the flow of current through a
human bod for a sufficient time to cause harm at the given current intensity.

Touch voltage: The potential difference between the GPR and the surface potential at
the point where a person is standing while at the same time having a hand in contact with
a grounded structure.
Step voltage: The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a
distance of 1 m with the feet without contacting any other grounded object.

Mesh voltage: The maximum touch voltage within a mesh of a ground grid.

Metal-to-metal touch voltage: The difference in potential between metallic objects or

structures within the substation site that can be bridged by direct hand-to-hand or hand-
to-feet contact.

Transfer red voltage: A special case of the touch voltage where a voltage is transferred
into or out of the substation, from or to a remote point external to the substation site. The
maximum voltage of any accidental circuit must not exceed the limit that would produce
a current flow through the body that could cause fibrillation.
To provide a safe condition for personnel within and around the substation area, the grounding
system design limits the potential difference a person can come in contact with to safe levels.
IEEE Std. 80, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, provides general information
about substation grounding and the specific design equations necessary to design a safe
substation grounding system.

a person becomes part of

an accidental ground circuit. Permissible body current will not cause ventricular fibrillation,
i.e., stoppage of the heart. The design methodology limits the voltages that produce the
permissible body current to a safe level.

Steps for designing substation grounding grid

Input data required for earthing grid design:

- Symmetrical Fault Current (kA)

- Duration of shock for determining allowable body current (Sec)

- Duration of Fault Current for sizing ground conductor (Sec)

- Soil
- Depth of ground grid conductor (m)
- Grid reference depth (m)
-
- Surface layer thickness (m)
- Length of ground rod (m)
- Number of rod placed
- Decrement factor for determining Ig
- Spacing between parallel conductor (m)

- Total earth mat area (m2)

Standard values for earth mat conductor of Zinc Coated Steel (as per IEEE 80-2000):

- Reference Temperature for Material Constant (°C) = 20

- Ambient Temperature (°C): 50
- Fusing Temperature (°C): 419
- Thermal Coefficient for Resistivity at 0°C (1/°C): 0.00341
- Thermal Coefficient for Resistivity at 20°C ( 1/°C): 0.0032
-
- Ko at 0°C (1/°C): 293
- Thermal Capacity TCAP (J/cm2·°C): 3.93

Step-1: Determine size of earthing conductor

Equation for determining size (minimum required area) of earthing conductor:

 Where,

I = Symmetrical
grid current in kA
Amm2 =
Conductor cross
section

Tm = Maximum allowable
temperature in °C Ta =
Ambient temperature in °C

Tr = Reference temperature for material constants in °C

o = Thermal coefficient of resistivity at 0°C

r = Thermal coefficient of resistivity at

reference temperature Tr r = Resistivity of
ground conductor at reference temperature Ko =
(1/ o)

tc = Duration of current in S
TCAP = Thermal capacity per unit volume

From CBIP Publication No 223, the following values of Corrosion factor has been
considered for different types of soil resistivity:

- In case of conductors to be laid in soils having resistivity greater than 100 Ohm-
metre-- No allowance.

- In case of conductors to be laid in soils having resistivity from 25 to 100 Ohm-metre

- 15 percent allowance
 - In case of conductors to be laid in soils having resistivity lower than 25 Ohm-metre
or where treatment of soil around electrodes is carried out -- 30 percent allowance.

Calculate provided area as per standard size conductor.

Condition for safe earthing grid: Provided area > Minimum required area

Step-2: Tolerable Touch and Step

potential criteria Reflection

Factor,

Where,

Cs = Surface layer derating factor

= Resistivity of the earth beneath the surface material

S = Surface material resistivity

hs = Thickness of the surface material

ts = Duration of shock for determining allowable body current

Considering personnel weight of 50kg, tolerable touch voltage,

Tolerable step voltage,

Step-3: Determine grid resistance

Where,

Rg = Grid Resistance, resistance of ground grid to remote earth without other

A = Area occupied by ground grid, m2

h = Depth of ground grid

L = Total buried length of conductor, m

Step-4: Maximum grid current

Maximum current that will flow through grid,

Where,

Df = Decrement factor for the entire duration of fault

Fault Duration Decrement Factor

(S) (Df)
0.008 1.65
0.1 1.25
0.25 1.10
0.5 or more 1.0
Sf = Split factor
= Fault current division factor

Ig = Symmetrical grid current

Step-5: Ground Potential Rise

IG = Maximum grid current

Rg = Grid resistance

Step-6: Mesh Voltage

Effective number of parallel conductors,

Where

nb = 1 for square grid else,

Lc = Total length of the conductor

in horizontal grid

Lp = Peripheral length of grid

A = Area of grid

nc = 1 for square and rectangular grid

nd = 1 for rectangular, square and L-shaped grid

 = 1 (Grid reference depth)

Kii = 1 for grids with rods along perimeter or for grids with rods in grid corner or

for grid with no ground rods or grids with only few ground rods Kii is

Geometric factor,

Correction factor,

Mesh Voltage (calculated touch voltage),

 Where,

Lx = Maximum length in X direction

Ly = Maximum length in Y direction

D = Spacing between parallel conductors

h = Depth of ground grid

d = Diameter of grid conductor

LM = Effective buried length

=LC + LR for grids with no rods or rods
spreads all over
LR = Total length of all ground rods

Step-7: Step Voltage (calculated)

Geometrical factor (for usual buried depth of 0.25 < h < 2.5 m),

Step Voltage,

Where,

Ls = Effective burial conductor length

= 0.75LC + 0.85LR

Step-8: Comparison of Calculated and Tolerable Touch & Step Voltages

 Tolerable Calculated

Touch Voltage (V) > Touch Voltage (V)

Step Voltage (V) > Step Voltage (V)

Earthing design is SAFE.