The Skeletal System

Part 1
The skeletal system consists of bones and their
associated connective tissues, including
cartilage, tendons and ligaments.

Skeleton – comes from a Greek word meaning

dried-up body

206 adult bones

 Functions of the Skeletal System
1. Support

2. Protection

3. Movement

4. Storage

5. Blood cell production

 Bones: An Overview
Functions of the Bones:
1. Support
Form the internal framework that supports
and anchors all soft organs
Example:
The bones of the legs act as pillars to
support the body trunk when we stand
The rib cage support the thoracic wall
2. Protection
Bones protect the soft body organs
Example:
The skull provide a snug enclosure of the
brain
The vertebrae surround the spinal cord
The rib cage helps protect the vital organs
of the thorax
3. Movement
Skeletal muscles, attached to bones by
tendons, use the bones as levers to move the
body and its parts.

As a result, we can walk, swim, throw a

ball and breathe…
Bone Marrow
4. Storage
Bone itself serves as a storehouse for
minerals.

Minerals are deposited and withdrawn to

and from the bones at all times.

Most important: Calcium and Phosphorous

4. Storage
Fat is stored in the internal cavities of the
bones.

In adults the cavity of the shaft is primarily

a storage area for adipose (fat) tissue, called
yellow marrow or medullary cavity.
Importance of calcium (human movement)

• A small amount of calcium in its ion form (Ca²⁺)

must be present in the blood at all times for the
nervous system to transmit messages, for
muscles to contract.
• Calcium helps regulate muscle contraction. When
a nerve stimulates a muscle, the body releases
calcium. The calcium helps the proteins in muscle
carry out the work of contraction. When the body
pumps the calcium out of the muscle, the muscle
will relax.
• 5. Blood cell formation
or hematopoiesis ( hem”ah-to-poi-é’sis) occurs
within the marrow cavities of certain bones (flat
bones and long bones)
 Hematopoiesis: Formation of Blood Cells

Watch a short video about hematopoiesis or

blood cell formation.

https://youtu.be/0deCbmh7PHs
 Types of Bones
2 basic types of bones based on structure:
1. Compact
2. Spongy
• Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and
homogenous.

• Spongy bone is composed of small needlelike

pieces of bone and lots of open space.
• Also called cancellous bone
Compact bones like the arms, legs or
bones that requires strength
Notice the open spaces and needlelike structures…
Example: Femur, skull, sternum
• The bones can also can be classified based on
sizes and shapes.

• Bones are classified according to four groups:

long bones, short bones, flat bones and
irregular bones
Classification of bones based on shape
1. Long bones
Longer than they are wide
Have shaft with heads at both ends
All bones of the limbs
2. Short bones
Cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy
bone
Broad as they are long
Examples:
Bones of the wrist and ankle, sesamoid
bones, patella or kneecap
3. Flat bones
Thin and flattened shape
Skull, ribs, scapulae (shoulder blades),
sternum (breastbone)
4. Irregular bones
Bones with shape that do not fit the other
three categories
Vertebrae or spinal column, Hip bones
 Structure of Long Bone
Each long bone consist of
a central shaft, called the
diaphysis, and two ends,
each called epiphysis.
• The diaphysis makes up most of the length of
the long bone and is composed of compact
bone.

• The periosteum, a fibrous connective tissue

covers and protects the diaphysis.

• Perforating or Sharpey’s fibers, secure the

periosteum to the bone.
Each epiphysis consists of a thin layer of compact
bone enclosing an area filled with spongy bone.

The articular cartilage, a glassy hyaline covers the

ends of the epiphyses where the bone articulates
with other bones.

It provides a smooth, slippery surface that

decreases friction at joint surfaces.
• Epiphyseal plate or growth plate which is
composed of cartilage can be seen in a growing
bone between each epiphysis and the diaphysis.

• It is the site of growth in bone length.

• When bone growth stops, the cartilage of each

epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone and is called
epiphyseal line.
Marrow is the soft tissue in the medullary cavities
of the bone.

Yellow marrow or medullary cavity

Found in the cavity of the shaft of an adult
bone
Primarily a storage area for adipose tissue
In infants, this area forms blood cells and red
marrow is found here.
In adults, red marrow is confined in the cavities
of spongy bone of flat bones and epiphyses of
some long bones (proximal epiphyses of the
limbs).

Red-marrow consists of blood forming cells and

is the only site of blood formation in adults.
General Feature of the Bone
 General feature of the bone
Periosteum – dense connective tissue covering the
bone
- contains blood vessels and nerves

Endosteum – thinner connective tissue membrane

- lines the surface of the medullary
cavity

Periosteum (around the bone)

Endosteum (inside)
Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells
- function in the formation of bone
(ossification), repair and remodeling of bone

Osteocytes – mature bone cells

- located between spaces or tiny cavities called
lacunae (hollow)

Lacunae – are arrange in concentric circles called lamellae

(plate) around the central (Haversian) canals
Lamellae (plate) – thin sheets of extracellular
matrix where bone is formed with osteocytes

Haversian system – consist of a central canal

and matrix rings called osteon

Canaliculi (little or tiny canal) – form a

transportation system that connect the bone
cells to the nutrient supply
2 divisions of the skeletal system:

• Axial

• Appendicular
 Axial Skeleton
SKULL • The skull is formed by
two sets of bones.
• The cranium encloses
and protects the fragile
brain tissue.
• The facial bones hold
the eyes in an anterior
position and allow the
facial muscles to show
our feelings through
smiles or frowns.
• All but one of the bones
of the skull are joined
together by sutures,
which are interlocking
immovable joints.
• Only the mandible
(jawbone) is attached to
the rest of the skull by a
freely movable joint.
Cranium • The cranium is
composed of 8 large,
flat bones.
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Sphenoid
• Ethmoid
• Frontal bone forms the
forehead, the bony
projections under the
eyebrows, and the
superior part of each
eye’s orbit.
• Parietal bones
The paired parietal bones
form most of the superior
and lateral walls of the
cranium .
They meet in the midline
of the skull at the sagittal
suture and form the
coronal suture where they
meet the frontal bone.
• Temporal bones lie
inferior to the parietal
with several important
bone markings such as:
External acoustic
(auditory) meatus
Zygomatic process
Mastoid process
Jugular foramen
• The external acoustic
(auditory) meatus is a
canal that leads to the
eardrum and the
middle ear.

• The zygomatic process

is the bridge of the
bone that joins with the
cheekbone anteriorly.
• The styloid process is a
sharp, needlelike
projection located
below the external
auditory meatus.
• The mastoid process is
the rough projection
posterior and inferior to
the external acoustic
meatus, which is full of
air cavities (mastoid
sinuses).
• It provides the
attachment site for
some muscles of the
neck.
 https://youtu.be/zBWG8d10GPg
• Click the link below and watch about
mastoiditis:

https://youtu.be/zBWG8d10GPg
Mastoiditis
• The jugular foramen, at
the junction of the
occipital and temporal
bones allows passage
of the jugular vein, the
largest vein of the head,
which drains the brain.
• Anterior to it is the
internal acoustic
meatus which transmits
cranial nerves VII and
VIII(the facial and
vestibucochlear
nerves).
• The vestibulocochlear nerve (eighth cranial
nerve) is responsible for relaying hearing and
balance signals from the inner ear to the brain.

• The facial nerve is the seventh cranial nerve, or

simply CN VII. It controls the muscles of facial
expression, and functions in the conveyance of
taste sensations from the anterior two-thirds of
the tongue.
• Anterior to the jugular
foramen on the skull’s
inferior aspect is the
carotid canal through
which the internal
carotid artery runs,
supplying blood to
most of the brain.
• Occipital bone joins the
parietal bones
anteriorly.
• At the base of the
occipital bone is a large
opening, the foramen
magnum (means large
hole).
• The foramen magnum
surrounds the lower
part of the brain and
allows the spinal cord
to connect with the
brain.
• The butterfly-shaped
sphenoid bone spans
the width of the skull
and forms part of the
floor of the cranial
cavity.
• Midline of the sphenoid
is a small depression
called sella turcica or
Turk’s saddle, lies the
pituitary gland.
• The foramen ovale, a
large oval opening, allows
fibers of cranial nerve V
(CN V/ trigeminal nerve)
to pass to the chewing
muscles of the lower jaw
(mandible).
• CN V is a nerve
responsible for sensation
in the face and motor
functions such as biting
and chewing
• Parts of the sphenoid,
seen exteriorly forming
part of the eye orbits,
have two important
openings, the optic canal
which allows the optic
nerve to pass to the eye,
and the slit-like superior
orbital fissure through
which the cranial nerves
controlling eye
movements (III, IV and
VI) pass.
• The ethmoid bone forms
the roof of the nasal
cavity and part of the
medial walls of the orbits.

• The cribiform plates,

allow nerve fibers
carrying impulses from
the olfactory (smell)
receptors of the nose to
reach the brain.
Ethmoid bone
• It forms the roof of the
nasal cavity and part of
the medial walls of the
orbits.
• The cribriform plates
allow nerve fibers
carrying impulses from
the olfactory (smell)
receptors of the nose to
reach the brain.
Facial bones
• Maxillae
• Palatine
• Zygomatic
• Lacrimal
• Nasal
• Vomer
• Inferior nasal conchae
• Mandible
• Hyoid bone
• The 2 maxillary bones,
fuse to form the upper
jaw.
• Paranasal sinuses
lighten the skull bones
and acts to amplify the
sounds when speaking.
• Sinusitis
• The 2 maxillary bones,
fuse to form the upper
jaw.
• Palatine bones form the
posterior part of the
hard palate,
• Failure of these or the
palatine processes to
fuse medially results in
cleft palate.
• Zygomatic bones are
commonly referred to
as cheek bones.

• Each lacrimal bones has

a groove that serves as
a passageway for tears.
• Nasal bones are
rectangular bones
forming the bridge of
the nose.
• The single bone in the
median line of the nasal
cavity is the vomer. It
forms most of the nasal
septum.
• Inferior nasal conchae
(kong’ke) are thin,
curved bones projecting
from the lateral walls of
the nasal cavity.
• The mandible, or lower
jaw, is the largest and
strongest bone of the
face. It joins the
temporal bones on each
side of the face, forming
the only freely movable
joints in the skull.
The Hyoid Bone
• The hyoid bone is
closely related to the
mandible and temporal
bones.
• It serves as a movable
base for the tongue and
an attachment point for
neck muscles that raise
and lower the larynx
when we swallow and
speak.
The Infant’s Skull
• Unfinished skeleton
• Fontanels
– Anterior fontanel
– Posterior fontanel
 Vertebral Column (Spine)
• Serving as the axial
support of the body, the
vertebral column or the
spine, extends from the
skull, which it supports,
to the pelvis, where it
transmits the weight of
the body to the lower
limbs.
• The spine is formed
from 26 irregular bones
connected and
reinforced by ligaments
in such a way that a
flexible, curved
structure results.
• Running through the
central cavity of the
vertebral column is the
delicate spinal cord,
which it surrounds and
protects.
• The single vertebrae are
separated by pads of
flexible fibrocartilage –
intervertebral discs-
which cushion the
vertebrae and absorb
shocks while allowing
the spine flexibility.
• In a young person, the discs have a high water
content (about 90%) and are spongy and
compressible. But as a person ages, the water
content of the discs decreases, and the discs
become harder and less compressible (Marieb,
E, 2019).
• The discs and the S-
shaped structure of the
vertebral column work
together to prevent
shock to the head
when we walk or run.
• They also make the
body trunk flexible.
 Imbalances/ Problems
• Herniation or slipped disc may result when the
vertebral column is unshielded to exceptional
twisting forces.

• If the protruding disc presses on the spinal

cord or the spinal nerves existing from the
cord, numbness and excruciating pain can
result.
• Check out the link and learn more about
herniated disc:

https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-hldisc.htm
Herniated lumbar disc

https://youtu.be/lZm4j6Ls128
Herniated Disc-Patient Education
• Abnormal spinal curvature

• In middle school spine check is done to

determine abnormal spine curvature such as
scoliosis, kyphosis and lordosis.
• These conditions may be present at birth or as
a result of disease.
• Click the link and read the article about
abnormal curvature of the spine:

• https://www.webmd.com/back-
pain/guide/types-of-spine-curvature-disorders
Types of Spine Curvatures
 The Vertebral Column
• Cervical Vertebrae
Identified as C1 to C7 forms
from the neck region of the
spine.

It allows as to nod and rotate

head from side to side.

It has an opening or foramina

through which the vertebral
arteries pass on their way to
the brain.
• The 12 thoracic
vertebrae (T1 to T12)
are all typical. They are
larger than the cervical
vertebrae.
• The 5 lumbar vertebrae
(L1 to L5) have massive,
block-like bodies. These
are the sturdiest among
the vertebrae.
• The sacrum is formed by
the fusion of the five
vertebrae.

• Superiorly it connects with

L5 and inferiorly the
coccyx.

• The coccyx is formed from

the fusion of 3 to 5 tiny,
irregularly shaped
vertebrae and is also called
“tailbone”.
 Bony Thorax
• The sternum, ribs, and
thoracic vertebrae make
up the bony thorax.
• Also called thoracic cage
• It forms a protective,
cone-shaped cage of
slender bones around
the organs of the thoracic
cavity (heart, lungs, and
major blood vessels.
• The sternum
(breastbone) is a typical
flat bone and the result
of the fusion of the
three bones,
manubrium, body and
xiphoid process.
• It has 3 important bony
landmarks: jugular
notch, sternal angle and
xiphisternal joint.
• The jugular notch can be palpated easily,
generally it is at the level of the third thoracic
vertebra.
• The sternal angle provides a handy reference
point for counting the ribs to locate the 2nd
intercostal space for listening the certain heart
valves.
• The xiphisternal joint lies at the level of the
9th thoracic vertebra.
• Ribs
• 12 pairs
• True ribs- 1st seven pairs
• False ribs- next 5 pairs
– The last 2 ribs are called
floating ribs because
they are not directly
attached to the sternum.
• The spaces between the
ribs are called
intercostal spaces and
are filled with
intercostal muscles that
aid in breathing.
Part 2 of the lesson will consist the
appendicular skeleton and the
joints.
Lesson 2 will be loaded next
meeting/ schedule.
• VanPutte, C. Regan, J. and Russo, A. (2018). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology,
10th edition

• Marieb, E. (2016). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 10th edition

• TeachMeAnatomy
• Alamy
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• Dreamstine.com
• ADAM
• Veritas Health
• Compactcath
• Mottchildren.org
• Therespiratorysystem.com
• Hormone.org
• Briz Brain & Spine
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