LM 16 26 in TLED HE 109 Finals

LEARNING MATERIALS IN TLED-HE 109- AGRI-FISHERY PART II
LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XVI

NAME OF FACULTY: FERNANDO H. CORATCHEA, Ph D
SUBJECT: AGRI-FISHERY PART II
SCHEDULE FOR INSTRUCTION: 9:00-10:30 A. M. TTh
TOPIC: History of fishing
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. discuss thechronological account of fishing; and
2. name and describe the common methods of fishing used in every particular
period or era.
DISCUSSION: History of fishing

Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since the Mesolithic period. Fishing
had become a major means of survival as well as a business venture.Fishing and
the fishers have also influenced Ancient Egyptian religion; mullets were worshipped
as a sign of the arriving flood season. Bastet was often manifested in the form of
a catfish. In ancient Egyptian literature, the process that Amun used to create the
world is associated with the tilapia's method of mouth-brooding.
Fishing is a prehistoric practice dating back at least 40,000 years. Since the 16th
century, fishing vessels have been able to cross oceans in pursuit of fish, and since
the 19th century it has been possible to use larger vessels and in some
cases process the fish on board. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for
catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.
The term fishing may be applied to catching other aquatic animals such
as shellfish, cephalopods, crustaceans and echinoderms. The term is not usually
applied to catching aquatic mammals, such as whales, where the term whaling is
more appropriate, or to farmed fish. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is
also a recreational sport.
According to FAO statistics, the total number of fishermen and fish farmers is
estimated to be 38 million. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect
employment to over 500 million people.[1] In 2005, the worldwide per capita
consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an
additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms.
Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back at least to the Upper Paleolithic period
which began about 40,000 years ago.[3][4] Isotopic analysis of the skeletal remains
of Tianyuan man, a 40,000-year-old modern human from eastern Asia, has shown
that he regularly consumed freshwater fish.[5][6] Archaeological features such
as shell middens,[7] discarded fish bones and cave paintings show that sea foods
were important for survival and consumed in significant quantities. During this period,
most people lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and were, of necessity, constantly on
the move. However, where there are early examples of permanent settlements
(though not necessarily permanently occupied) such as those at Lepenski Vir, they
are almost always associated with fishing as a major source of food.
Spearfishing with barbed poles (harpoons) was widespread in palaeolithic times.
[8] Cosquer cave in Southern France contains cave art over 16,000 years old,
including drawings of seals which appear to have been harpooned.
The Neolithic culture and technology spread worldwide between 4,000 and 8,000
years ago. With the new technologies of farming and pottery came basic forms of the
main fishing methods that are still used today.
From 7500 to 3000 years ago, Native Americans of the California coast were known
to engage in fishing with gorge hook and line tackle.[9] In addition, some tribes are
known to have used plant toxins to induce torpor in stream fish to enable their
capture.[10]
Copper harpoons were known to the seafaring Harappans[11] well into antiquity.
[12] Early hunters in India include the Mincopie people, aboriginal inhabitants of
India's Andaman and Nicobar islands, who have used harpoons with long cords for
fishing since early times.[13]
The ancient river Nile was full of fish; fresh and dried fish were a staple food for
much of the population.[14] The Egyptians invented various implements and
methods for fishing and these are clearly illustrated in tomb scenes, drawings, and
papyrus documents. Simple reed boats served for fishing. Woven nets, weir baskets
made from willow branches, harpoons and hook and line (the hooks having a length
of between eight millimetres and eighteen centimetres) were all being used. By
the 12th dynasty, metal hooks with barbs were being used. As is fairly common
today, the fish were clubbed to death after capture. Nile perch, catfish and eels were
among the most important fish. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued
as a pastime.
There are numerous references to fishing in ancient literature; in most cases,
however, the descriptions of nets and fishing-gear do not go into detail, and the
equipment is described in general terms. An early example from
the Bible in Job 41:7: Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or his head with fish
spears?
Unlike in Minoan culture, fishing scenes are rarely represented in ancient
Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing.[citation needed] There is
a wine cup, dating from c. 500 BC, that shows a boy crouched on a rock with a
fishing-rod in his right hand and a basket in his left. In the water below there is a
rounded object of the same material with an opening on the top. This has been
identified as a fish-cage used for keeping live fish, or as a fish-trap. It is clearly not a
net. This object is currently in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.[16]
Oppian of Corycus, a Greek author wrote a major treatise on sea fishing,
the Halieulica or Halieutika, composed between 177 and 180. This is the earliest
such work to have survived intact to the modern day. Oppian describes various
means of fishing including the use of nets cast from boats, scoop nets held open by
a hoop, spears and tridents, and various traps "which work while their masters
sleep". Oppian's description of fishing with a "motionless" net is also very interesting:
The fishers set up very light nets of buoyant flax and wheel in a circle round about
while they violently strike the surface of the sea with their oars and make a din with
sweeping blow of poles. At the flashing of the swift oars and the noise the fish bound
in terror and rush into the bosom of the net which stands at rest, thinking it to be a
shelter: foolish fishes which, frightened by a noise, enter the gates of doom. Then
the fishers on either side hasten with the ropes to draw the net ashore.
The Greek historian Polybius (ca 203 BC–120 BC), in his Histories, describes

hunting for swordfish by using a harpoon with a barbed and detachable head.[17]
Pictorial evidence of Roman fishing comes from mosaics which show fishing from
boats with rod and line as well as nets. Various species such as conger, lobster, sea
urchin, octopus and cuttlefish are illustrated.[18] In a parody of fishing, a type
of gladiator called retiarius was armed with a trident and a casting-net. He would
fight against the murmillo, who carried a short sword and a helmet with the image of
a fish on the front.
The Greco-Roman sea god Neptune is depicted as wielding a fishing trident.
In India, the Pandyas, a classical Dravidian Tamil kingdom, were known for the pearl

fishery as early as the 1st century BC. Their seaport Tuticorin was known for deep
sea pearl fishing. The paravas, a Tamil caste centred in Tuticorin, developed a rich
community because of their pearl trade, navigation knowledge and fisheries.
In Norse mythology the sea giantess Rán uses a fishing net to trap lost sailors.
The Moche people of ancient Peru depicted fisherman in their ceramics.[19]
From ancient representations and literature it is clear that fishing boats were typically
small, lacking a mast or sail, and were only used close to the shore.
In traditional Chinese history, history begins with three semi-mystical and legendary
individuals who taught the Chinese the arts of civilization around 2800–2600 BC: of
these Fuxi was reputed to be the inventor of writing, hunting, trapping, and fishing.
Gillnet
Gillnets existed in ancient times as archaeological evidence from the Middle East
demonstrates.[20] In North America, aboriginal fishermen used cedar canoes and
natural fibre nets, e.g., made with nettels or the inner bark of cedar. [21] They would
attach stones to the bottom of the nets as weights, and pieces of wood to the top, to
use as floats. This allowed the net to suspend straight up and down in the water.
Each net would be suspended either from shore or between two boats. Native
fishers in the Pacific Northwest, Canada, and Alaska still commonly use gillnets in
their fisheries for salmon and steelhead.
Both drift gillnets and setnets also have been widely adapted in cultures around the
world. The antiquity of gillnet technology is documented by a number of sources from
many countries and cultures. Japanese records trace fisheries exploitation, including
gillnetting, for over 3,000 years. Many relevant details are available concerning the
Edo period (1603–1867).[22] Fisheries in the Shetland Islands, which were settled
by Norsemen during the Viking era, share cultural and technological similarities with
Norwegian fisheries, including gillnet fisheries for herring.[23] Many of the Norwegian
immigrant fishermen who came to fish in the great Columbia River salmon fishery
during the second half of the 19th century did so because they had experience in the
gillnet fishery for cod in the waters surrounding the Lofoten Islands of
northern Norway.[24] Gillnets were used as part of the seasonal round
by Swedish fishermen as well.[25] Welsh and English fishermen gillnetted for Atlantic
salmon in the rivers of Wales and England in coracles, using hand-made nets, for at
least several centuries.[26] These are but a few of the examples of historic gillnet
fisheries around the world. Nowadays Gillnets are not used in modern fisheries due
to the new regulations and laws put on the commercial fishing industry. The Gillnets
would not only kill targeted fish but also harm other unintended inhabitants of the
surrounding area, also known as bycatch.
Cod Trade
One of the world's longest lasting trade histories is the trade of dry cod from
the Lofoten area to the southern parts of Europe, Italy, Spain and Portugal. The
trade in cod started during the Viking period or before, has been going on for more
than 1000 years and is still important.
Cod has been an important economic commodity in an international market since
the Viking period (around 800 AD). Norwegians used dried cod during their travels
and soon a dried cod market developed in southern Europe. This market has
lasted for more than 1000 years, passing through periods of Black Death, wars
and other crises and still is an important Norwegian fish trade.
[27] The Portuguese have been fishing cod in the North Atlantic since the 15th
century, and clipfish is widely eaten and appreciated in Portugal.
The Basques also played an important role in the cod trade and are believed to
have found the Canadian fishing banks in the 16th century. The North American
east coast developed in part due to the vast amount of cod, and many cities in the
New England area spawned near cod fishing grounds., Maine, c. 1908.
Apart from the long history this particular trade also differs from most other trade of
fish by the location of the fishing grounds, far from large populations and without
any domestic market. The large cod fisheries along the coast of North Norway (and
in particular close to the Lofoten islands) have been developed almost uniquely
for export, depending on sea transport of stockfish over large distances.[28] Since
the introduction of salt, dried salt cod ('klippfisk' in Norwegian) has also been
exported. The trade operations and the sea transport were by the end of the 14th
century taken over by the Hanseatic League, Bergen being the most important port
of trade.[29]
William Pitt the Elder, criticizing the Treaty of Paris in Parliament, claimed that cod
was "British gold"; and that it was folly to restore Newfoundland fishing rights to the
French. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the New World, especially
in Massachusetts and Newfoundland, cod became a major commodity, forming trade
networks and cross-cultural exchanges.
In the 15th century, the Nut developed a type of seagoing herring drifter that became
a blueprint for European fishing boats. This was the Herring Buss, used by Dutch
herring fishermen until the early 19th centuries. The ship type buss has a long
history. It was known around 1000 AD in Scandinavia as a bǘza, a robust variant of
the Viking longship. The first herring buss was probably built in Hoorn around 1415.
The last one was built in Vlaardingen in 1841.
The ship was about 20 metres long and displaced between 60 and 100 tons. It was a
massive round-bilged keel ship with a bluff bow and stern, the latter relatively high,
and with a gallery. The busses used long drifting gill nets to catch the herring. The
nets would be retrieved at night and the crews of eighteen to thirty men[30] would set
to gibbing, salting and barrelling the catch on the broad deck. The ships sailed in
fleets of 400 to 500 ships[30] to the Dogger Bank fishing grounds and
the Shetland isles. They were usually escorted by naval vessels, because the
English considered they were "poaching". The fleet would stay at sea for weeks at a
time. The catch would sometimes be transferred to special ships (called ventjagers),
and taken home while the fleet would still be at sea (the picture shows a ventjager in
the distance).
During the 17th century, the British developed the dogger, an early type of
sailing trawler or longliner, which commonly operated in the North Sea. The dogger
takes its name from the Dutch word dogger, meaning a fishing vessel which tows
a trawl. Dutch trawling boats were common in the North Sea, and the
word dogger was given to the area where they often fished, which became known as
the Dogger Bank.[31]
Doggers were slow but sturdy, capable of fishing in the rough conditions of the North
Sea.[32] Like the herring buss, they were wide-beamed and bluff-bowed, but
considerably smaller, about 15 metres long, a maximum beam of 4.5 metres, a
draught of 1.5 metres, and displacing about 13 tonnes. They could carry a tonne of
bait, three tonnes of salt, half a tonne each of food and firewood for the crew, and
return with six tonnes of fish.[32] Decked areas forward and aft probably provided
accommodation, storage and a cooking area. An anchor would have allowed
extended periods fishing in the same spot, in waters up to 18 metres deep. The
dogger would also have carried a small open boat for maintaining lines and rowing
ashore.
A precursor to the dory type was the early French bateau type, a flat bottom boat

with straight sides used as early as 1671 on the Saint Lawrence River.[33] The
common coastal boat of the time was the wherry and the merging of the wherry
design with the simplified flat bottom of the bateau resulted in the birth of the dory.
Anecdotal evidence exists of much older precursors throughout Europe. England,
France, Italy, and Belgium have small boats from medieval periods that could
reasonably be construed as predecessors of the Dory.[34]
Dories appeared in New England fishing towns sometime after the early 18th
century.[35] They were small, shallow-draft boats, usually about five to seven metres
(15 to 22 feet) long. Lightweight and versatile, with high sides, a flat bottom and
sharp bows, they were easy and cheap to build. The Banks dories appeared in the
1830s. They were designed to be carried on mother ships and used for fishing cod at
the Grand Banks.[35] Adapted almost directly from the low freeboard, French river
bateaus, with their straight sides and removable thwarts, bank dories could be
nested inside each other and stored on the decks of fishing schooners, such as
the Gazela Primeiro, for their trip to the Grand Banks fishing grounds.
The British dogger was an early type of sailing trawler from the 17th century, but the
modern fishing trawler was developed in the 19th century, at the English fishing port
of Brixham.
By the early 19th century, the fishermen at Brixham needed to expand their fishing
area further than ever before due to the ongoing depletion of stocks that was
occurring in the overfished waters of South Devon. The Brixham trawler that evolved
there was of a sleek build and had a tall gaff rig, which gave the vessel sufficient
speed to make long distance trips out to the fishing grounds in the ocean. They were
also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water. The great
trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of 'Mother of Deep-
Sea Fisheries'.
This revolutionary design made large scale trawling in the ocean possible for the first
time, resulting in a massive migration of fishermen from the ports in the South of
England, to villages further north, such
as Scarborough, Hull, Grimsby, Harwich and Yarmouth, that were points of access to
the large fishing grounds in the Atlantic Ocean.
The small village of Grimsby grew to become the 'largest fishing port in the
world'[36] by the mid 19th century. An Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796,
which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make
it deeper.[37] It was only in the 1846, with the tremendous expansion in the fishing
industry, that the Grimsby Dock Company was formed. The foundation stone for the
Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849. The dock covered 25
acres (10 ha) and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first
modern fishing port. The facilities incorporated many innovations of the time - the
dock gates and cranes were operated by hydraulic power, and the 300-foot
(91 m) Grimsby Dock Tower was built to provide a head of water with sufficient
pressure by William Armstrong.[38] The docks expanded steadily over the course of
the following century: No. 2 Fish Dock opened in 1877, the Union Dock and
Alexandra Dock in 1879, and No. 3 Fish Dock was built in 1934.[37] The port was
served by a rail link to London's Billingsgate Fish Market, which created a truly
national market for Grimsby's fish, allowing it to become renowned nationwide.
The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets
everywhere. Their distinctive sails inspired the song Red Sails in the Sunset, written
aboard a Brixham sailing trawler called the Torbay Lass.[39][40] By the end of the
19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with
almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe,
including from Holland and Scandinavia. Twelve trawlers went on to form the
nucleus of the German fishing fleet.[41]
Although fishing vessel designed increasingly began to converge around the world,
local conditions still often led the development of different types of fishing boats.
The Lancashire nobby was used down the north west coast of England as a shrimp
trawler from 1840 until World War II. The Manx nobby was used around the Isle of
Man as a herring drifter. The fifie was also used as a herring drifter along the east
coast of Scotland from the 1850s until well into the 20th century.
The bawley and the smack were used in the Thames Estuary and off East Anglia,
while trawlers and drifters were used on the east coast. Herring fishing started in
the Moray Firth in 1819. The peak of the fishing at Aberdeen was in 1937 with 277
steam trawlers, though the first diesel drifter was introduced in 1926. In 1870 paddle
tugs were being used to tow luggers and smacks to sea.
Advent of steam power
The earliest steam powered fishing boats first appeared in the 1870s and used
the trawl system of fishing as well as lines and drift nets. These were large boats,
usually 80–90 feet (24–27 m) in length with a beam of around 20 feet (6.1 m). They
weighed 40-50 tons and travelled at 9–11 knots (17–20 km/h; 10–13 mph).
The earliest purpose built fishing vessels were designed and made by David Allan
in Leith in March 1875, when he converted a drifter to steam power. In 1877, he built
the first screw propelled steam trawler in the world. This vessel was Pioneer LH854.
She was of wooden construction with two masts and carried a gaff rigged main and
mizen using booms, and a single foresail. Pioneer is mentioned in The Shetland
Times of 4 May 1877. In 1878 he completed Forward and Onward, steam-powered
trawlers for sale. Allan argued that his motivation for steam power was to increase
the safety of fishermen. However local fishermen saw power trawling as a threat.
Allan built a total of ten boats at Leith between 1877 and 1881. Twenty-one boats
were completed at Granton, his last vessel being Degrave in 1886. Most of these
were sold to foreign owners in France, Belgium, Spain and the West Indies.
The first steam boats were made of wood, but steel hulls were soon introduced and
were divided into watertight compartments. They were well designed for the crew
with a large building that contained the wheelhouse and the deckhouse. The boats
built in the 20th century only had a mizzen sail, which was used to help steady the
boat when its nets were out. The main function of the mast was now as a crane for
lifting the catch ashore. It also had a steam capstan on the foredeck near the mast
for hauling nets. The boats had narrow, high funnels so that the steam and thick coal
smoke was released high above the deck and away from the fishermen. These
funnels were nicknamed woodbines because they looked like the popular brand of
cigarette. These boats had a crew of twelve made up of a skipper, driver, fireman (to
look after the boiler) and nine deck hands.[42]
Steam fishing boats had many advantages. They were usually about 20 ft longer
(6.1 m) than the sailing vessels so they could carry more nets and catch more fish.
This was important, as the market was growing quickly at the beginning of the 20th
century. They could travel faster and further and with greater freedom from weather,
wind and tide. Because less time was spent travelling to and from the fishing
grounds, more time could be spent fishing. The steam boats also gained the highest
prices for their fish, as they could return quickly to harbour with their fresh catch. The
main disadvantage of the steam boats, though, was their high operating costs. Their
engines were mechanically inefficient and took up much space, while fuel and fitting
out costs were very high. Before the First World War, building costs were between
£3,000 and £4,000, at least three times the cost of the sail boats. To cover these
high costs, they needed to fish for longer seasons. The higher expenses meant that
more steam drifters were company-owned or jointly owned. As the herring fishing
industry declined, steam boats became too expensive.[42]
Steam trawlers were introduced at Grimsby and Hull in the 1880s. In 1890 it was
estimated that there were 20,000 men on the North Sea. The steam drifter was not
used in the herring fishery until 1897. The last sailing fishing trawler was built in 1925
in Grimsby.
Trawler designs adapted as the way they were powered changed from sail to coal-
fired steam by World War I to diesel and turbines by the end of World War II.
During both World Wars, many fishing trawlers were commissioned as naval
trawlers. Fishing trawlers were particularly suited for many naval requirements
because they were robust boats designed to work heavy trawls in all types of
weather and had large clear working decks. One could create a mine
sweeper simply by replacing the trawl with a mine sweep. Adding depth charge racks
on the deck, ASDIC below, and a 3-inch (76 mm) or 4-inch (102 mm) gun in the
bows equipped the trawler for anti-submarine duties.
The Royal Navy ordered many naval trawlers to Admiralty specifications. Shipyards
such as Smiths Dock Company that were used to building fishing trawlers could
easily switch to constructing naval versions. As a bonus, the Admiralty could sell
these trawlers to commercial fishing interests when the wars ended. Still, many were
sunk during the war, such as HMT Amethyst and HMT Force.
Armed trawlers were also used to defend fishing groups from enemy aircraft or
submarines. The smallest civilian trawlers were converted to danlayers.
In 1931, the first powered drum was created by Laurie Jarelainen. The drum was a
circular device that was set to the side of the boat and would draw in the nets. The
powered drum allowed the nets to be drawn in much faster, so fishermen were able
to fish in areas they had previously been unable to go into, thereby revolutionizing
the fishing industry.
During World War II, navigation and communication devices, as well as many other
forms of maritime equipment (depth-sounding and radar) were improved and made
more compact. These devices became much more accessible to the average
fisherman, thus making their range and mobility larger. It also served to make the
industry much more competitive, as the fisherman were forced to invest more into
their boats, equipped with electronic aids, such as radio navigation aids and fish
finders. During the Cold War, some countries fitted fishing trawlers with additional
electronic gear so they could be used as spy ships to monitor the activities of other
countries.
The first trawlers fished over the side, rather than over the stern. In 1947, the
company Christian Salvesen, based in Leith, Scotland, refitted a surplus Algerine-
class minesweeper (HMS Felicity) with refrigeration equipment and a factory ship
stern ramp, to produce the first combined freezer/stern trawler in 1947.[43]
The first purpose built stern trawler was Fairtry built in 1953 at Aberdeen. The ship
was much larger than any other trawlers then in operation and inaugurated the era of
the 'super trawler'. As the ship pulled its nets over the stern, it could lift out a much
greater haul of up to 60 tons. Lord Nelson followed in 1961, installed with vertical
plate freezers that had been researched and built at the Torry Research Station.
These ships served as a basis for the expansion of 'super trawlers' around the world
in the following decades.[43]
The introduction of fine synthetic fibres such as nylon in the construction of fishing
gear during the 1960s marked an expansion in the commercial use of gillnets. The
new materials were cheaper and easier to handle, lasted longer and required less
maintenance than natural fibres. In addition, fibres such as nylon monofilaments
become almost invisible in water, so nets made with synthetic twines generally
caught greater numbers of fish than natural fibre nets used in comparable situations.
Due to environmental concerns, gillnets were banned by the United Nations in 1993
in international waters, although their use is still permitted within 200 nautical miles
(400 km) of a coast.
Recreational fishing
The early evolution of fishing as recreation is not clear. For example, there is
anecdotal evidence for fly fishing in Japan as early as the ninth century BC,[44] and
in Europe Claudius Aelianus (175–235 AD) describes fly fishing in his work On the
Nature of Animals.[45]
But for the early Japanese and Macedonians, fly fishing was likely to have been a
means of survival, rather than recreation. It is possible that antecedents of
recreational fly fishing arrived in England with the Norman conquest of 1066.
[45] Although the point in history where fishing could first be said to be recreational is
not clear,[46] it is clear that recreational fishing had fully arrived with the publication
of The Compleat Angler.
The earliest English essay on recreational fishing was published in 1496, shortly
after the invention of the printing press. The authorship of this was attributed
to Dame Juliana Berners, the prioress of the Benedictine Sopwell Nunnery. The
essay was titled Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle,[47] and was published in the
second Boke of Saint Albans, a treatise on hawking, hunting, and heraldry. These
were major interests of the nobility, and the publisher, Wynkyn de Worde, was
concerned that the book should be kept from those who were not gentlemen, since
their immoderation in angling might "utterly destroy it".[48]
During the 16th century the work was much read, and was reprinted many
times. Treatyse includes detailed information on fishing waters, the construction of
rods and lines, and the use of natural baits and artificial flies. It also includes modern
concerns about conservation and angler etiquette.[49]
The earliest English poetical treatise on Angling by John Dennys, said to have been
a fishing companion of Shakespeare, was published in 1613, The Secrets of Angling.
Footnotes of the work, written by Dennys' editor, William Lawson, make the first
mention of the phrase to 'cast a fly': "The trout gives the most gentlemanly and
readiest sport of all, if you fish with an artificial fly, a line twice your rod's length of
three hairs' thickness... and if you have learnt the cast of the fly."
The art of fly fishing took a great leap forward after the English Civil War, where a
newly found interest in the activity left its mark on the many books and treatises that
were written on the subject at the time. The renowned officer in the Parliamentary
army, Robert Venables, published in 1662 The Experienced Angler, or Angling
improved, being a general discourse of angling, imparting many of the aptest ways
and choicest experiments for the taking of most sorts of fish in pond or river. Another
Civil War veteran to enthusiastically take up fishing, was Richard Franck. He was the
first to describe salmon fishing in Scotland, and both in that and trout-fishing
with artificial fly he was a practical angler. He was the first angler to name the burbot,
and commended the salmon of the River Thames.
Compleat Angler was written by Izaak Walton in 1653 (although Walton continued to
add to it for a quarter of a century) and described the fishing in the Derbyshire Wye.
It was a celebration of the art and spirit of fishing in prose and verse; 6 verses were
quoted from John Dennys's earlier work. A second part to the book was added by
Walton's friend Charles Cotton.[51]
Walton did not profess to be an expert with a fishing fly; the fly fishing in his first
edition was contributed by Thomas Barker, a retired cook and humorist, who
produced a treatise of his own in 1659; but in the use of the live worm,
the grasshopper and the frog "Piscator" himself could speak as a master. The
famous passage about the frog, often misquoted as being about the worm—"use him
as though you loved him, that is, harm him as little as you may possibly, that he may
live the longer"—appears in the original edition. Cotton's additions completed the
instruction in fly fishing and advised on the making of artificial flies where he listed
sixty five varieties.
Charles Kirby designed an improved fishing hook in 1655 that remains relatively
unchanged to this day. He went on to invent the Kirby bend, a distinctive hook with
an offset point, still commonly used today.[52]
The 18th century was mainly an era of consolidation of the techniques developed in
the previous century. Running rings began to appear along the fishing rods, which
gave anglers greater control over the cast line. The rods themselves were also
becoming increasingly sophisticated and specialized for different roles. Jointed rods
became common from the middle of the century and bamboo came to be used for
the top section of the rod, giving it a much greater strength and flexibility.
The industry also became commercialized - rods and tackle were sold at
the haberdashers store. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, artisans moved
to Redditch which became a centre of production of fishing related products from the
1730s. Onesimus Ustonson established his trading shop in 1761, and his
establishment remained as a market leader for the next century. He received a Royal
Warrant from three successive monarchs starting with King George IV.[53]
Some have credited Onesimus with the invention of the multiplying winch, although
he was certainly the first to advertise its sale. Early multiplying reels were wide and
had a small diameter, and their gears, made of brass, often wore down after
extensive use. His earliest advertisement in the form of a trading card date from
1768 and was entitled To all lovers of angling. A full list of the tackles he sold
included artificial flies, and 'the best sort of multiplying brass winches both stop and
plain'. The commercialization of the industry came at a time of expanded interest in
fishing as a recreational hobby for members of the aristocracy.[54]
The impact of the Industrial Revolution was first felt in the manufacture of fly lines.
Instead of anglers twisting their own lines - a laborious and time-consuming process
- the new textile spinning machines allowed for a variety of tapered lines to be easily
manufactured and marketed.
British fly-fishing continued to develop in the 19th Century, with the emergence of fly
fishing clubs, along with the appearance of several books on the subject of fly tying
and fly fishing technique.
Alfred Ronalds took up the sport of fly fishing, learning the craft on the
rivers Trent, Blythe and Dove. On the River Blythe, near what is today Creswell
Green, Ronalds constructed a bankside fishing hut designed primarily as an
observatory of trout behaviour in the river. From this hut, and elsewhere on his home
rivers, Ronalds conducted experiments and formulated the ideas that eventually
were published in The Fly-fisher's Entomology in 1836.[55]
He combined his knowledge of fly fishing with his skill as an engraver and printer, to
lavish his work with 20 colour plates. It was the first comprehensive work related to
the entomology associated with fly fishing and most fly-fishing historians credit
Ronalds with setting a literature standard in 1836 that is still followed today.
[56] Describing methods, techniques and, most importantly, artificial flies, in a
meaningful way for the angler and illustrating them in colour is a method of
presentation that can be seen in most fly-fishing literature today.
The book was mostly about the aquatic insects—mayflies, caddisflies and stoneflies
—that trout and grayling feed on and their counterpart artificial imitations. About half
the book is devoted to observations of trout, their behaviour, and the methods and
techniques used to catch them. Most of this information, although enhanced by
Ronalds' experiences and observations, was merely an enhancement of Charles
Bowlker's Art of Angling (first published in 1774 but still in print in 1836).[57]
In Chapter IV - Of a Selection of Insects, and Their Imitations, Used in Fly Fishing -
for the first time is discussed specific artificial fly imitations by name, associated with
the corresponding natural insect. Organized by their month of appearance, Ronalds
was the first author to begin the standardization of angler names for artificial flies.
Prior to The Fly-fisher's Entomology, anglers had been given suggestions for artificial
flies to be used on a particular river or at a particular time of the year, but those
suggestions were never matched to specific natural insects the angler might
encounter on the water.[58] According to Ernest Schwiebert: "Ronalds is one of the
major milestones in the entire literature of fly-fishing, and with his Entomology the
scientific method has reached angling in full flower. Ronalds was completely original
in its content and research, setting the yardstick for all subsequent discussion and
illustration of aquatic fly hatches.[59]
Modern reel design had begun in England during the later part of the 18th century,
and the predominant model in use was known as the 'Nottingham reel'. The reel was
a wide drum which spooled out freely, and was ideal for allowing the bait to drift
along way out with the current. Geared multiplying reels never successfully caught
on in Britain, but had more success in the United States, where similar models were
modified by George Snyder of Kentucky into his bait-casting reel, the first American-
made design in 1810.[60]
The material used for the rod itself changed from the heavy woods native to
England, to lighter and more elastic varieties imported from abroad, especially
from South America and the West Indies. Bamboo rods became the generally
favoured option from the mid 19th century, and several strips of the material were cut
from the cane, milled into shape, and then glued together to form light, strong,
hexagonal rods with a solid core that were superior to anything that preceded
them. George Cotton and his predecessors fished their flies with long rods, and light
lines allowing the wind to do most of the work of getting the fly to the fish. [61]
Tackle design began to improve from the 1880s. The introduction of new woods to
the manufacture of fly rods made it possible to cast flies into the wind on silk lines,
instead of horse hair. These lines allowed for a much greater casting distance.
However, these early fly lines proved troublesome as they had to be coated with
various dressings to make them float and needed to be taken off the reel and dried
every four hours or so to prevent them from becoming waterlogged. Another
negative consequence was that it became easy for the much longer line to get into a
tangle - this was called a 'tangle' in Britain, and a 'backlash' in the US. This problem
spurred the invention of the regulator to evenly spool the line out and prevent
tangling.[61]
The American, Charles F. Orvis, designed and distributed a novel reel and fly design
in 1874, described by reel historian Jim Brown as the "benchmark of American reel
design," and the first fully modern fly reel.[62][63] The founding of The Orvis
Company helped institutionalize fly fishing by supplying angling equipment via the
circulation of his tackle catalogs, distributed to a small but devoted customer list.
[citation needed]
Albert Illingworth, 1st Baron Illingworth a textiles magnate, patented the modern form
of fixed-spool spinning reel in 1905. When casting Illingworth's reel design, the line
was drawn off the leading edge of the spool, but was restrained and rewound by a
line pickup, a device which orbits around the stationary spool. Because the line did
not have to pull against a rotating spool, much lighter lures could be cast than with
conventional reels.
By the mid to late 19th century, expanding leisure opportunities for the middle and
lower classes began to have its effect on fly fishing, which steadily grew in mass
appeal. The expansion of the railway network in Britain allowed the less affluent for
the first time to take weekend trips to the seaside or to rivers for fishing.
Richer hobbyists ventured further abroad.[64] The large rivers of Norway replete with
large stocks of salmon began to attract fishers from England in large numbers in the
middle of the century - Jones's guide to Norway, and salmon-fisher's pocket
companion, published in 1848, was written by Frederic Tolfrey and was a popular
guide to the country.[64]
In southern England, dry-fly fishing acquired an elitist reputation as the only
acceptable method of fishing the slower, clearer rivers of the south such as the River
Test and the other chalk streams concentrated
in Hampshire, Surrey, Dorset and Berkshire (see Southern England Chalk
Formation for the geological specifics). The weeds found in these rivers tend to grow
very close to the surface, and it was felt necessary to develop new techniques that
would keep the fly and the line on the surface of the stream. These became the
foundation of all later dry-fly developments.
However, there was nothing to prevent the successful employment of wet flies on
these chalk streams, as G. E. M. Skues proved with his nymph and wet fly
techniques. To the horror of dry-fly purists, Skues later wrote two books, Minor
Tactics of the Chalk Stream, and The Way of a Trout with a Fly, which greatly
influenced the development of wet fly fishing. In northern England and Scotland,
many anglers also favored wet-fly fishing, where the technique was more popular
and widely practiced than in southern England. One of Scotland's leading
proponents of the wet fly in the early-to-mid 19th century was W. C. Stewart, who
published "The Practical Angler" in 1857.
In the United States, attitudes toward methods of fly fishing were not nearly as rigidly
defined, and both dry- and wet-fly fishing were soon adapted to the conditions of the
country. Fly anglers there, are thought to be the first anglers to have used artificial
lures for bass fishing. After pressing into service the fly patterns and tackle designed
for trout and salmon to catch largemouth and smallmouth bass, they began to adapt
these patterns into specific bass flies. Fly anglers seeking bass developed the
spinner/fly lure and bass popper fly, which are still used today.[65]
In the late 19th century, American anglers, such as Theodore Gordon, in the Catskill
Mountains of New York began using fly tackle to fish the region's brook trout-rich
streams such as the Beaverkill and Willowemoc Creek. Many of these early
American fly anglers also developed new fly patterns and wrote extensively about
their sport, increasing the popularity of fly fishing in the region and in the United
States as a whole.[65] Albert Bigelow Paine, a New England author, wrote about fly
fishing in The Tent Dwellers, a book about a three-week trip he and a friend took to
central Nova Scotia in 1908.
Participation in fly fishing peaked in the early 1920s in the eastern states
of Maine and Vermont and in the Midwest in the spring creeks of Wisconsin. Along
with deep sea fishing, Ernest Hemingway did much to popularize fly fishing through
his works of fiction, including The Sun Also Rises.
Fly fishing in Australia took off when brown trout were first introduced by the efforts
of Edward Wilson's Acclimatisation Society of Victoria with the aim to "provide for
manly sport which will lead Australian youth to seek recreation on the river's bank
and mountainside rather than in the Cafe and Casino.[66]" The first successful
transfer of Brown Trout ova (from the Itchen and Wye) was accomplished by James
Arndell Youl, with a consignment aboard The Norfolk in 1864. Rainbow Trout were
not introduced until 1894.
It was the development of inexpensive fiberglass rods, synthetic fly lines, and
monofilament leaders, however, in the early 1950s, that revived the popularity of fly
fishing. In recent years, interest in fly fishing has surged as baby boomers have
discovered the sport. Movies such as Robert Redford's film A River Runs Through It,
starring Craig Sheffer and Brad Pitt, cable fishing shows, and the emergence of a
competitive fly casting circuit have added to the sport's visibility.
EVALUATION: Modified true or false: Write TRUE if the sentence is correct if false,
write the word(s) that make(s) the sentence wrong before each item. Submit your
answer via messenger or email.
__________1. Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since

the Mesolithic period.
__________2. The egyptians invented various implements and methods for fishing
and these are clearly illustrated in tomb scenes, drawings, and papyrus documents.
__________3. In America, the Pandyas, a classical Dravidian Tamil kingdom, were
known for the pearl fishery as early as the 1st century BC.
__________4. Gillnets existed in ancient times as archaeological evidence from the

Middle East demonstrates.
__________5. The trade in cod started during the viking period or before, has been
going on for more than 1000 years and is still important.
__________6. During the 17th century, the Indians developed the dogger, an early
type of sailing trawler or longliner, which commonly operated in the North Sea.
__________7.The small village of Grimsby grew to become the 'largest fishing port

in the world by the mid 20th century.
__________8.The earliest steam powered fishing boats first appeared in the 1970s
and used the trawl system of fishing as well as lines and drift nets.
__________9.The earliest purpose built fishing vessels were designed and made by
David Allan in Leith in March 1975, when he converted a drifter to steam power.
__________10. During both Second World Wars, many fishing trawlers were
commissioned as naval trawlers.
11-20. How is commercial fishing different from recreational fishing?
REFERENCES:
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brief of the FAO for the UNFCCC COP-15 in Copenhagen, December 2009.
^ FAO: Fisheries and Aquaculture
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News article.
^ Early humans followed the coast BBC News article.
^ Yaowu Hu Y, Hong Shang H, Haowen Tong H, Olaf Nehlich O, Wu Liu W, Zhao C,
Yu J, Wang C, Trinkaus E and Richards M (2009) "Stable isotope dietary analysis of
the Tianyuan 1 early modern human" Proceedings of the National Academy of
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^ First direct evidence of substantial fish consumption by early modern humans in
ChinaPhysOrg.com, 6 July 2009.
^ Coastal Shell Middens and Agricultural Origasims in Atlantic Europe.
^ Guthrie, Dale Guthrie (2005) The Nature of Paleolithic Art. Page 298. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31126-0
^ King 1991, pp. 80-81.
^ Rostlund 1952, pp. 188-190
^ Ray 2003, page 93
^ Allchin 1975, page 106
^ Edgerton 2003, page 74
^ "Fisheries history: Gift of the Nile" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
2006-11-10..
^ The Minoan Culture, historywiz.com Accessed 2015-12-28
^ Image of an ancient angler on a wine cup.
^ Polybius, "Fishing for Swordfish", Histories Book 34.3 (Evelyn S. Shuckburgh,
translator). London, New York: Macmillan, 1889. Reprint Bloomington, 1962.
^ Image of fishing illustrated in a Roman mosaic Archived 2011-07-17 at
the Wayback Machine.
^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from
the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson,
1997.
^ Nun, Mendel (1989). The Sea of Galilee and Its Fishermen in the New
Testament, pp. 28-44. Kibbutz Ein Gev, Kinnereth Sailing Co.
^ Stewart, Hilary (1994). Indian Fishing: Early Methods on the Northwest
Coast. Seattle, University of Washington Press.
^ Ruddle, Kenneth and Akimich, Tomoya. “Sea Tenure in Japan and the
Southwestern Ryukyus,” in Cordell, John, Ed. (1989), A Sea of Small Boats, pp. 337-
370. Cambridge, Mass., Cultural Survival, Inc.
^ Goodlad, C.A. (1970). Shetland Fishing Saga, pp. 59-60. The Shetland Times, Ltd.
^ Martin, Irene (1994). Legacy and Testament: The Story of the Columbia River
Gillnetter, p. 38. Pullman, Washington State University Press.
^ Lofgen, Ovar. “Marine Ecotypes in Preindustrial Sweden: A Comparative
Discussion of Swedish Peasant Fishermen,” in Andersen, Raoul, ed., North Atlantic
Maritime Cultures, pp. 83-109. The Hague, Mouton.
^ Jenkins, J. Geraint (1974). Nets and Coracles, p. 68. London, David and Charles.
^ James Barrett; Roelf Beukens; Ian Simpson; Patrick Ashmore; Sandra Poaps;
Jacqui Huntley (2000). "What Was the Viking Age and When did it Happen? A View
from Orkney". Norwegian Archaeological Review. 33 (1).
^ G. Rollefsen (1966). "Norwegian fisheries research". Fiskeridirektoratets Skrifter,
Serie Havundersøkelser. 14 (1): 1–36.
^ A. Holt-Jensen (1985). "Norway and sea the shifting importance of marine
resources through Norwegian history". GeoJournal. 10 (4).
^ Jump up to:a b c De Vries & Woude (1977), pages 244–245
^ Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea, p. 256
^ Jump up to:a b c Fagan 2008
^ Gardner 1987, page 18
^ Jump up to:a b Chapelle, page 85
^ Days out: “Gone fishing in Grimsby”[permanent dead link] The Independent, 8
September 2002
^ Jump up to:a b "A brief history of Grimsby". localhistories.org.
^ "Great Grimsby". UK Genealogy Archives.
^ "History of a Brixham trawler". JKappeal.org. 2 March 2009. Archived from the
original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
^ "Pilgrim's restoration under full sail". BBC. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
^ Sailing trawlers.
^ Jump up to:a b c "The Steam Trawler".
^ Jump up to:a b "HISTORY". Archived from the original on 2013-08-21.
Retrieved 2015-07-05.
^ Herd, Andrew (2003) The Fly. Medlar Press. ISBN 978-1-899600-29-8
^ Jump up to:a b "A Macedonian way of catching fish... They fasten red (crimson red)
wool round a hook, and fix on to the wool two feathers which grow under a cock’s
wattles, and which in colour are like wax. Their rod is six feet long, and their line is
the same length. Then they throw their snare, and the fish, attracted and maddened
by the colour, comes straight at it..." McCully, CB (2000) The Language of Fly-
Fishing Taylor & Francis, pp. 76_78. ISBN 978-1-57958-275-3.
^ Schullery, Paul Fly fishing History: Beginnings: Aelian Lives Archived 2013-01-28
at Archive.today
^ Berners, Dame Juliana (1496) A treatyse of fysshynge wyth an Angle (transcription
by Risa S. Bear).
^ Cowx, I G (2002) Handbook of Fish Biology and Fisheries, Chapter 17:
Recreational fishing. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-632-06482-X
^ Berners, Dame Juliana. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 20,
2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online
^ C. B. McCully (2000). The Language of Fly-Fishing. Taylor & Francis. p. 41.
^ Jump up to:a b Andrew N. Herd. "Fly fishing techniques in the fifteenth century".
Archived from the original on 2014-06-21. Retrieved 2014-07-16.
^ Stan L. Ulanski (2003). The Science of Fly-fishing. University of Virginia Press.
p. 4.
^ "Welcome To Great Fly Fishing Tips".
^ "Fishing Tackle Chapter 3" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-18.
^ Herd, Andrew Dr (2001). The Fly. Ellesmere, Shropshire: Medlar Press. ISBN 1-
899600-19-1.
^ Schullery, Paul (1996). American Fly Fishing-A History. Norwalk, CT: The Easton
Press. p. 85.
^ Westwood, T.; Satchell W. (1883). Bibliotheca Piscatoria. London: W. Satchell.
pp. 39–40.
^ Herd, Andrew (2010). "Alfred Ronalds—The First Angler Entomologist". Angling
Giants—Anglers Who Made History. Ellesmere, UK: The Medlar Press. pp. 250–
253. ISBN 978-1-899600-60-1.
^ Schwiebert, Ernest (1973). Nymphs. New York: Winchester Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-
87691-074-6.
^ Andrew N. Herd. "Fly Fishing in the Eighteenth Century". Archived from the
originalon 2014-07-19. Retrieved 2015-07-05.
^ Jump up to:a b c "fishing". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Brown, Jim. A Treasury of Reels: The Fishing Reel Collection of The American
Museum of Fly Fishing. Manchester, Vermont: The American Museum of Fly Fishing,
1990.
^ Schullery, Paul. The Orvis Story: 150 Years of an American Sporting
Tradition.Manchester, Vermont, The Orvis Company, Inc., 2006
^ Jump up to:a b Andrew N. Herd. "Fly Fishing in the Years 1800 - 1850". Archived
from the originalon 2014-07-03. Retrieved 2014-07-16.
^ Jump up to:a b Waterman, Charles F., Black Bass and the Fly Rod, Stackpole
Books (1993)
^ The Argus newspaper 14 April 1864
Bekker-Nielson (2002) "Fish in the ancient economy" In: Skydsgaard JE and Ascani

K (Eds.) Ancient history matters: Studies presented to Jens Erik Skydsgaard on his
seventieth birthday, L'erma di Bretschneider. Pages 29–38. ISBN 978-88-8265-190-
9
Bekker-Nielsen, Tønnes (2005) Ancient fishing and fish processing in the Black Sea
region Aarhus University Press. ISBN 9788779340961.
King, Chester D (1991). Evolution of Chumash Society: A Comparative Study of
Artifacts Used for Social System Maintenance in the Santa Barbara Channel Region
before A.D. 1804. New York and London, Garland Press.
Lytle, Ephraim (2006) Marine Fisheries and the Ancient Greek Economy,
ProQuest. ISBN 9780542816024.
Pieters M, Verhaeghe F, Gevaert G, Mees J and Seys J. (Ed.) (2003) Colloquium:
Fishery, trade and piracy: fishermen and fishermen's settlements in and around the
North Sea area in the Middle Ages and later Museum Walraversijde, VLIZ Special
Publication 15.
Rostlund, Erhard (1952). Freshwater Fish and Fishing in Native North America.
University of California Publications in Geography, Volume 9. Berkeley.
Sahrhage, Dietrich and Lundbeck, Johannes (1992) A History of
Fishing. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-55332-0
Smith, Tim D (2002). Handbook of Fish Biology and Fisheries, Chapter 4, A history
of fisheries and their science. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-632-06482-X
Sicking L and Abreu-Ferreira D (Eds.) (2009) Beyond the catch: fisheries of the
North Atlantic, the North Sea and the Baltic, 900-1850 Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16973-
9.
Starkey, David J.; Jon Th. Thor & Ingo Heidbrink (Eds.): A History of the North
Atlantic Fisheries: Vol. 1, From Early Times to the mid-Nineteenth Century. Bremen
(Hauschild Vlg. & Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum) 2009.
External links
Roman fishing [1]
Fish and Fishermen. Observations on fishing methods on Roman Mosaics in Greece
Medieval Origins of Commercial Sea Fishing Project
Fishing & Fishermen in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
The Shoals of Herring sung by Ewan MacColl with historic images of herring fishing
in Great Yarmouth – YouTube
Reviewed and Evaluated by:

ANGELITA M. ORENDAIN
BTLEd Program Chairperson
LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XVII

TOPIC: History of Fishing Practices
1. discuss the chronological account of fishing practices ; and
2. enumerate and discuss the fishing practices from prehistoric period to
modern times.
DISCUSSION: History of fishing practices

Fish fossils found during archaeological digs appear to show that Homo
habilis then Homo erectus were the first fishermen, some 500 000 years ago.
However, fishing probably only really developed after the appearance of Homo
sapiens during the Upper Paleolithic period between 40 000 and 10 000 years BCE.
Very little is known about the different fishing practices. Subsistence fishing at that
time consisted in catching fish by hand or by using rudimentary tools made from
natural materials of which no trace remains. It would have been mainly practised by
populations established near lakes and rivers. The spear, net, line and rod seem to
have appeared almost simultaneously in Egypt around 3500 BCE. Subsistence
fishing changed little over the centuries and some techniques are still used today in
recreational fishing in the West. During Graeco-Roman Antiquity, fishing was the
main subject of the Halieutika, the earliest surviving treatise on sea fishing written by
the poet Oppian of Corycus. The Romans were major consumers and traders of the
resources from the Mediterranean Basin. They fished mainly using different types of
nets. Since the principle of refrigeration had not yet been developed, fish which was
not immediately eaten was fermented and transformed into garum, a popular
condiment. During the Middle Ages in Europe, feudal lords owned the rivers and
lakes. River fishing was strictly regulated and permitted for people in religious
communities whose diets were punctuated by periods of fasting. However, from the
middle of the 11th century, the construction of ponds developed, heralding the
beginning of fish farming. From the 15th century, deep-sea sea fishing and the trade
of fish expanded. The Dutch formed fleets of herring drifters which pulled a long drift
net and could remain at sea for weeks at a time. They were supplied with provisions
by ventjagers (cargo boats) which also brought the catch back to shore. The first
trawlers appeared in Great Britain in the 17th century, but trawling expanded rapidly
in the 19th century when sails were replaced by steam power. Boats became bigger
and more powerful, enabling them to pull wide nets in deep water. The seafood trade
intensified. The small English town of Grimsby became one of the major centres of
commercial fishing in Europe and was connected by a direct railway line to London’s
Billingsgate Fish Market (the world’s biggest fish market at that time). During both
World Wars, some trawlers were adapted to be used to sweep underwater mines
and were armed to protect the fleet of fishermen from enemy vessels. As for
recreational fishing, in the 18th century fly fishing was initially reserved for the
wealthy classes. It gradually became more accessible as technological advances
meant better equipment could be produced relatively cheaply. To satisfy anglers,
non-native species were even introduced into certain regions, as was the case with
trout in Australia. Fishing in the amphitheatre The theme of fishing featured in
gladiator fights under the Roman Empire. The retiarius was armed with a trident and
a fishing net. His opponent was the secutor, whose helmet covered his whole face
and closely resembled a fish head. Sources Knowledge Fishing techniques Fishing
techniques vary according to the type of fish to be caught, but have not evolved
much over the centuries. Today, traditional methods are used alongside more
industrial techniques. Nets, traps and fishing rods are used universally and such
equipment has either evolved as technology has progressed or has remained
dependent on local resources and knowledge in regions untouched by
industrialisation. Object Fishing basket Object Harpoon used for fishing Subscribe
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Activities Academy Magazine Tickets Home : Knowledge The history of fishing
Trawling Trade Fishing Industry Leisure Fishing was an essential source of food in
Prehistory and became a commercial activity in Antiquity. Deep-sea fishing first
emerged in the 15th century, but really took off with the arrival of steam boats in the
19th century. The more powerful trawlers were able to pull larger nets. Recreational
fishing, reserved for the wealthy classes in the 18th century, became more
accessible as technological advances enabled better equipment to be produced at a
lower cost. © akg-images / Hervé Champollion - Fishing in Ancient Egypt, wall relief,
Saqqara necropolis, 24th century BCE A history of fishing practices Fish fossils
found during archaeological digs appear to show that Homo habilis then Homo
erectus were the first fishermen, some 500 000 years ago. However, fishing probably
only really developed after the appearance of Homo sapiens during the Upper
Paleolithic period between 40 000 and 10 000 years BCE. Very little is known about
the different fishing practices. Subsistence fishing at that time consisted in catching
fish by hand or by using rudimentary tools made from natural materials of which no
trace remains. It would have been mainly practised by populations established near
lakes and rivers. The spear, net, line and rod seem to have appeared almost
simultaneously in Egypt around 3500 BCE. Subsistence fishing changed little over
the centuries and some techniques are still used today in recreational fishing in the
West. During Graeco-Roman Antiquity, fishing was the main subject of the
Halieutika, the earliest surviving treatise on sea fishing written by the poet Oppian of
Corycus. The Romans were major consumers and traders of the resources from the
Mediterranean Basin. They fished mainly using different types of nets. Since the
principle of refrigeration had not yet been developed, fish which was not immediately
eaten was fermented and transformed into garum, a popular condiment. During the
Middle Ages in Europe, feudal lords owned the rivers and lakes. River fishing was
strictly regulated and permitted for people in religious communities whose diets were
punctuated by periods of fasting. However, from the middle of the 11th century, the
construction of ponds developed, heralding the beginning of fish farming. From the
15th century, deep-sea sea fishing and the trade of fish expanded. The Dutch
formed fleets of herring drifters which pulled a long drift net and could remain at sea
for weeks at a time. They were supplied with provisions by ventjagers (cargo boats)
which also brought the catch back to shore. The first trawlers appeared in Great
Britain in the 17th century, but trawling expanded rapidly in the 19th century when
sails were replaced by steam power. Boats became bigger and more powerful,
enabling them to pull wide nets in deep water. The seafood trade intensified. The
small English town of Grimsby became one of the major centres of commercial
fishing in Europe and was connected by a direct railway line to London’s Billingsgate
Fish Market (the world’s biggest fish market at that time). During both World Wars,
some trawlers were adapted to be used to sweep underwater mines and were armed
to protect the fleet of fishermen from enemy vessels. As for recreational fishing, in
the 18th century fly fishing was initially reserved for the wealthy classes. It gradually
became more accessible as technological advances meant better equipment could
be produced relatively cheaply. To satisfy anglers, non-native species were even
introduced into certain regions, as was the case with trout in Australia.
EVALUATION: Modified true or false: Write TRUE if the sentence is correct if false,
write the word(s) that make(s) the sentence wrong before each item. Submit your
answer via messenger or email.
__________1. Fish fossils found during archaeological digs appear to show that
Homo habilis then Homo sapien were the first fishermen, some 500 000 years ago.
__________2. Subsistence fishing changed little over the centuries and some
techniques are still used today in recreational fishing in the West.
__________3. From the middle of the 11th century, the construction of ponds
developed, heralding the beginning of fish farming.
__________4.From the 15th century, shallow-sea sea fishing and the trade of fish
expanded.
__________5.The first trawlers appeared in France in the 17th century, but trawling
expanded rapidly in the 19th century when sails were replaced by steam power.
__________6. During both World Wars, some trawlers were adapted to be used to
sweep underwater mines and were armed to protect the fleet of fishermen from
enemy vessels.
__________7. Commercial fishing, in the 18th century fly fishing was initially
reserved for the wealthy classes.
__________8. Today, traditional methods of fishing are used alongside more
industrial techniques.
__________9.Nets, traps and fishing rods are used universally and such equipment
has either evolved as technology has progressed or has remained dependent on
local resources and knowledge in regions untouched by industrialisation.
__________10. Recreational fishing, in the 18th century fly fishing was initially
reserved for the wealthy classes.
11-20. Discuss the choronological account of fishing practices from
prehistoric period to modern era.
REFERENCES:
^ Fisheries and Aquaculture in our Changing Climate[permanent dead link] Policy
brief of the FAO for the UNFCCC COP-15 in Copenhagen, December 2009.
^ FAO: Fisheries and Aquaculture
^ African Bone Tools Dispute Key Idea About Human Evolution National Geographic
News article.
^ Early humans followed the coast BBC News article.
^ Yaowu Hu Y, Hong Shang H, Haowen Tong H, Olaf Nehlich O, Wu Liu W, Zhao C,
Yu J, Wang C, Trinkaus E and Richards M (2009) "Stable isotope dietary analysis of
the Tianyuan 1 early modern human" Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 106 (27) 10971-10974.
^ First direct evidence of substantial fish consumption by early modern humans in
ChinaPhysOrg.com, 6 July 2009.
^ Coastal Shell Middens and Agricultural Origasims in Atlantic Europe.
^ King 1991, pp. 80-81.
^ Rostlund 1952, pp. 188-190
^ Ray 2003, page 93
^ Allchin 1975, page 106
^ Edgerton 2003, page 74
^ "Fisheries history: Gift of the Nile" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
2006-11-10..
^ The Minoan Culture, historywiz.com Accessed 2015-12-28
^ Image of an ancient angler on a wine cup.
^ Image of fishing illustrated in a Roman mosaic Archived 2011-07-17 at
the Wayback Machine.
^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from
the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson,
1997.
^ Stewart, Hilary (1994). Indian Fishing: Early Methods on the Northwest
Coast. Seattle, University of Washington Press.
^ Ruddle, Kenneth and Akimich, Tomoya. “Sea Tenure in Japan and the
Southwestern Ryukyus,” in Cordell, John, Ed. (1989), A Sea of Small Boats, pp. 337-
^ Lofgen, Ovar. “Marine Ecotypes in Preindustrial Sweden: A Comparative
Discussion of Swedish Peasant Fishermen,” in Andersen, Raoul, ed., North Atlantic
Maritime Cultures, pp. 83-109. The Hague, Mouton.
^ James Barrett; Roelf Beukens; Ian Simpson; Patrick Ashmore; Sandra Poaps;
Jacqui Huntley (2000). "What Was the Viking Age and When did it Happen? A View
from Orkney". Norwegian Archaeological Review. 33 (1).
^ G. Rollefsen (1966). "Norwegian fisheries research". Fiskeridirektoratets Skrifter,
Serie Havundersøkelser. 14 (1): 1–36.
^ A. Holt-Jensen (1985). "Norway and sea the shifting importance of marine
resources through Norwegian history". GeoJournal. 10 (4).
^ Jump up to:a b c De Vries & Woude (1977), pages 244–245
^ Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea, p. 256
^ Jump up to:a b c Fagan 2008
^ Jump up to:a b Chapelle, page 85
^ Days out: “Gone fishing in Grimsby”[permanent dead link] The Independent, 8
September 2002
^ Jump up to:a b "A brief history of Grimsby". localhistories.org.
^ "Great Grimsby". UK Genealogy Archives.
^ "History of a Brixham trawler". JKappeal.org. 2 March 2009. Archived from the
original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
^ "Pilgrim's restoration under full sail". BBC. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
^ Sailing trawlers.
^ Jump up to:a b c "The Steam Trawler".
^ Jump up to:a b "HISTORY". Archived from the original on 2013-08-21.
^ Herd, Andrew (2003) The Fly. Medlar Press. ISBN 978-1-899600-29-8
^ Jump up to:a b "A Macedonian way of catching fish... They fasten red (crimson red)
wool round a hook, and fix on to the wool two feathers which grow under a cock’s
wattles, and which in colour are like wax. Their rod is six feet long, and their line is
the same length. Then they throw their snare, and the fish, attracted and maddened
by the colour, comes straight at it..." McCully, CB (2000) The Language of Fly-
Fishing Taylor & Francis, pp. 76_78. ISBN 978-1-57958-275-3.
^ Schullery, Paul Fly fishing History: Beginnings: Aelian Lives Archived 2013-01-28
at Archive.today
^ Berners, Dame Juliana (1496) A treatyse of fysshynge wyth an Angle (transcription
by Risa S. Bear).
^ Cowx, I G (2002) Handbook of Fish Biology and Fisheries, Chapter 17:
Recreational fishing. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-632-06482-X
^ Berners, Dame Juliana. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 20,
2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online
^ C. B. McCully (2000). The Language of Fly-Fishing. Taylor & Francis. p. 41.
^ Jump up to:a b Andrew N. Herd. "Fly fishing techniques in the fifteenth century".
Archived from the original on 2014-06-21. Retrieved 2014-07-16.
^ Stan L. Ulanski (2003). The Science of Fly-fishing. University of Virginia Press.
p. 4.
^ "Welcome To Great Fly Fishing Tips".
^ "Fishing Tackle Chapter 3" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-18.
^ Herd, Andrew Dr (2001). The Fly. Ellesmere, Shropshire: Medlar Press. ISBN 1-
899600-19-1.
^ Schullery, Paul (1996). American Fly Fishing-A History. Norwalk, CT: The Easton
Press. p. 85.
^ Westwood, T.; Satchell W. (1883). Bibliotheca Piscatoria. London: W. Satchell.
pp. 39–40.
^ Herd, Andrew (2010). "Alfred Ronalds—The First Angler Entomologist". Angling
Giants—Anglers Who Made History. Ellesmere, UK: The Medlar Press. pp. 250–
253. ISBN 978-1-899600-60-1.
^ Schwiebert, Ernest (1973). Nymphs. New York: Winchester Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-
87691-074-6.
^ Andrew N. Herd. "Fly Fishing in the Eighteenth Century". Archived from the
^ Jump up to:a b c "fishing". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Brown, Jim. A Treasury of Reels: The Fishing Reel Collection of The American
Museum of Fly Fishing. Manchester, Vermont: The American Museum of Fly Fishing,
1990.
^ Schullery, Paul. The Orvis Story: 150 Years of an American Sporting
Tradition.Manchester, Vermont, The Orvis Company, Inc., 2006
^ Jump up to:a b Andrew N. Herd. "Fly Fishing in the Years 1800 - 1850". Archived
from the originalon 2014-07-03. Retrieved 2014-07-16.
^ Jump up to:a b Waterman, Charles F., Black Bass and the Fly Rod, Stackpole
Books (1993)
^ The Argus newspaper 14 April 1864
Bekker-Nielson (2002) "Fish in the ancient economy" In: Skydsgaard JE and Ascani

K (Eds.) Ancient history matters: Studies presented to Jens Erik Skydsgaard on his
seventieth birthday, L'erma di Bretschneider. Pages 29–38. ISBN 978-88-8265-190-
9
Bekker-Nielsen, Tønnes (2005) Ancient fishing and fish processing in the Black Sea
region Aarhus University Press. ISBN 9788779340961.
King, Chester D (1991). Evolution of Chumash Society: A Comparative Study of
Artifacts Used for Social System Maintenance in the Santa Barbara Channel Region
before A.D. 1804. New York and London, Garland Press.
Lytle, Ephraim (2006) Marine Fisheries and the Ancient Greek Economy,
ProQuest. ISBN 9780542816024.
Pieters M, Verhaeghe F, Gevaert G, Mees J and Seys J. (Ed.) (2003) Colloquium:
Fishery, trade and piracy: fishermen and fishermen's settlements in and around the
North Sea area in the Middle Ages and later Museum Walraversijde, VLIZ Special
Publication 15.
Rostlund, Erhard (1952). Freshwater Fish and Fishing in Native North America.
University of California Publications in Geography, Volume 9. Berkeley.
Sahrhage, Dietrich and Lundbeck, Johannes (1992) A History of
Fishing. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-55332-0
Smith, Tim D (2002). Handbook of Fish Biology and Fisheries, Chapter 4, A history
of fisheries and their science. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-632-06482-X
Sicking L and Abreu-Ferreira D (Eds.) (2009) Beyond the catch: fisheries of the
North Atlantic, the North Sea and the Baltic, 900-1850 Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16973-
9.
Starkey, David J.; Jon Th. Thor & Ingo Heidbrink (Eds.): A History of the North
Atlantic Fisheries: Vol. 1, From Early Times to the mid-Nineteenth Century. Bremen
(Hauschild Vlg. & Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum) 2009.
External links
Roman fishing [1]
Fish and Fishermen. Observations on fishing methods on Roman Mosaics in Greece
Medieval Origins of Commercial Sea Fishing Project
Fishing & Fishermen in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
The Shoals of Herring sung by Ewan MacColl with historic images of herring fishing
in Great Yarmouth – YouTube
LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XVIII

TOPIC: History of Fishing Practices
1. enumerate and discuss the distinctions among the branches of fishery; and
2. identfy and describe the common ways of fishing.
DISCUSSION: The Branches of Fishery

Fishery is the business of catching, handling, taking, marketing and preserving of
fish and other fishery products.
Fish Culture-the human effort of raising the maximum productivity of fish
and other fishery aquatic products and maintaining the supply of these
products to satisfy human needs.
Fish Capture - deals with the scientific method of catching fish as well and
the type of fishing gear used.
Fish Preservation - deals with the scientific method of preserving fish and
other fishery aquatic products to prevent spoilage.
33 Ways to Fish – from Angling to Trotlining
When you find the fishing technique you prefer over all other styles, it’s quite easy to
forget that other styles of fishing even exist! But at Van Isle Marina, we believe it’s
never too late to try something new. If you’re new to the world of fishing, or just
looking for another type of fishing style to master, check out our overview of the
different types of fishing out there.
As a community of enthusiastic boaters, our favourite way to fish involves anything

off a boat. Whether it be angling, jigging, trolling, or fly fishing, we believe fishing
from a boat is most effective because it gives you more access to different species of
fish and ups your chances of a bite. Fishing on a boat is also comfortable and fun!
Fortunately, many of these styles of fishing included in our list can be done from a
boat.
Angling – refers to using a hook attached to a line to catch fish. Angling is almost
always done with some type of bait and sinker on the hook. It can be done on the
shore, off a dock, or on a boat.
Bank Fishing – a style of angling off a river bank or a similar shoreline, usually with
a fishing rod, or less commonly, nets, traps, and spears.
Bottom Fishing – this angling technique refers to fishing on the bottom of the
seabed, usually for groundfish like suckerfish, bream, catfish, and crappie. A weight
is added to the end of your line or rod.
Casting – this refers to using a flexible fishing rod to throw (cast) your fishing line
out, over, and into the water. Casting is a sport all on its own, regardless of any fish
that are caught, with tournaments marking competitors on their accuracy and
distance.
Chartered Fishing – refers to fishing with or without a tour guide aboard a boat that
you have hired for the duration of the trip. Charted fishing excursions can involve any
number of techniques listed here.
Commercial Fishing – fishing for profit. The commercial fishing industry is heavily
regulated by Fisheries and Oceans Canada, a federal governing body.
Droplining – refers to dropping a long fishing line straight down, without casting far
off into the water. A dropline often has several hooks attached to it, although not as
many as a longline. It’s a form of angling, meaning there is hook and bait involved,
as well as a weight at the bottom and a float at the top.
Fly Fishing – refers to a style of fishing in which artificial flies are used to lure fish to
your line. It’s an older method of angling, particularly effective for trout, salmon, bass,
carp, and more. Fly fishing is commonly done off the shores of river banks or
standing right in the river.
Freshwater Fishing – fishing in lakes and rivers using any technique. Freshwater
fishing is heavily regulated in BC. Learn more about freshwater fishing licences and
regulations in British Columbia
Hand-Gathering – Hand-gathering is the act of fishing with the simplest set of tools
– your hands. There are many styles of hand-gathering fishing, such as simply
picking up shellfish or clam digging at the beach. Pearl divers are also hand-
gatherers, and divers can also fish for lobsters using just their hands.
Handlining – a type of fishing using a single fishing line that is held in your hands. It
can be done from boats or from the shore, mainly for catching groundfish.
Ice Fishing – refers to fishing with lines and hooks through a small opening in a
frozen body of water.
Jigging – a popular style of angling in which a jig is the chosen type of fishing lure. A
jig consists of a hook molded into a lead sinker that is covered by a soft coloured
rubber.
Kayak Fishing – this angling technique refers to fishing off the side of a kayak.
Special considerations must be made on what equipment to carry, and how it will be
fitted to the small-sized vessel.
Kite Fishing – a unique style of angling, kites can be used for trolling a lure through
water and provide people without boats or people with mobility issues greater access
to hard to reach bodies of water. This type of fishing is more common in places such
as the Pacific Islands and Australia.
Longlining – this commercial fishing technique involves the use of a long heavy
fishing line that has hundreds of baited hooks hanging from it via branches, a.k.a.,
“snoods”. Longlining is typically done on boats called longliners that use a special
winch to haul in the line and operate in deeper waters. Longlining is a common
method used to catch swordfish, tuna, halibut or sablefish.
Netting – a style of fishing using nets to capture many fish at once. It’s the main
method of commercial fishing. There are many types of net to use, including:
 Cast nets: round, weighted nets, also called throw nets.

 Drift nets: nets that are not anchored.
 Hand nets: small, hand-held nets that remain opened using a hoop.
 Gill nets: a special net a fish cannot pass through without hooking its gills on
the mesh.
 Trawl nets: large nets that are towed through the water by a boat called a
trawler.
Noodling – a style of hand-gathering fishing in which the “noodler” sticks their arm in
a catfish hole, hoping for a bite. It’s dangerous, and therefore illegal in some states.
Pitch Fishing – a method of angling which involves intentionally casting your line
and lure out at a lower angle so that is enters the water quietly, so as not to scare
the fish away.
Recreational Fishing – fishing solely for fun. Recreational fishing is an overarching
type of fishing that involves any number of techniques listed here, especially
saltwater fishing and freshwater fishing.
Remote Control Fishing – picture a floating drone rather than a flying drone, with a
fishing rod attached to it, and you get a good idea of what remote control fishing is all
about.
Rock Fishing – a style of angling in which you are fishing off the edges of rocky
jetties and cliffs. This is considered a highly dangerous type of fishing.
Saltwater Fishing – fishing in salt waters (oceans). Also called “tidal waters fishing”.
To fish in salt waters in BC, you must get a tidal waters fishing licence.
Slabbing – used to catch bass, this line fishing technique involves constantly lifting
and dropping a flat lead lure painted to look like a baitfish. To be most effective, the
fishermen must first locate a school of fish using a fishfinder.
Spearfishing – refers to any form of fishing that involves impaling the fish using a
spear on a long pole. Spearfishing is usually done in shallower waters when the fish
are visible. It requires you to be quick and precise with your movements. You can
spearfish off a boat or by wading into the water.
Spears can be simple or complex, ranging from bow and arrow style, harpoons,
Hawaiian slings, trident-type spears, and modern spearguns:
 Bowfishing: involves using a bow and arrow to kill fish in shallow water from
above.
 Harpooning: involves using a long spear-like tool often with barbs at the end.
 Pole spears: involves using a sling attached to the spear.
 Hawaiian slings: involves using a sling separate from the spear (slingshot or
an underwater bow and arrow).
 Tridents: tridents are spears with three prongs rather than a single prong.
 Gigging: involves using small, trident-type spears to kill bullfrogs.
 Pike Poles: an older form of spearfishing, particularly used during ice fishing.
Instead of a spearhead, two smaller, curved spikes were used.
 Spearguns: used for fishing and target practice, spearguns are deployed by
divers underwater. There are threaded, lined, and break-away varieties.
Sportfishing – refers to fishing competitively to see who can catch the heaviest fish,
or who can catch the most fish. Sport fishing often involves large cash prizes and
bragging rights for the winner.
Surfcasting – refers to fishing from the shores of a saltwater beach. Surfcasting is a
style of angling that requires a long surfcasting rod and the ability to cast a large
distance.
Tenkara Fishing – a Japanese style of fly fishing (angling) that was first done with a
bamboo pole and no reel. Modern tenkara fishing rods use a tapered or level line
and are mostly telescopic and made of graphite.
Trapping – refers to the sinking of baited traps to the bottom of the seabed in the
hopes fish swim into the trap. The traps resemble large cages and are commonly
used for crab and lobster fishing.
Trawling – the process of dropping a large net off the side of a slow-moving boat
called a trawler.
Trolling – a line fishing technique that involves slowly pulling one or more baited
lines through the water. It can be done effortlessly off the side of a moving boat, or
from land as you cast your line as far as you can and slowly reel the line back in.
Trotlining – trotlining is a line fishing technique that is a lot like droplining, but the
trotline’s hooks are suspended horizontally in the water, rather than vertically. This
fishing technique is good for fishing across rivers.
While we here are Van Isle Marina on Vancouver Island love a lazy afternoon of
fishing from shore every now and then, we believe there’s no better feeling than
reeling in a big one onto your motor yacht.
If you’re on the market for a new fishing boat, check out our selection of fishing boats
for sale. We invite you to learn more about our yacht sales process or come and see
our marina in Sidney, BC.
For tips on when to use lures or live bait, check out our Lures vs Live Bait debate.
No matter what style of fishing you love the most, when you eventually catch one or
two, you’re going to have to know how to clean it to preserve its flavour. Review
our Guide to Cleaning a Fish
EVALUATION: Identify the correct answer to each question: Submit your answers
via messenger or email.
__________1. It is the business of catching, handling, taking, marketing and
preserving of fish and other fishery products.
_________2. It refers to the he human effort of raising the maximum
productivity of fish and other fishery aquatic products and maintaining the
supply of these products to satisfy human needs.
__________3. It deals with the scientific method of catching fish as well
and the type of fishing gear used.
__________4. Itdeals with the scientific method of preserving fish and
other fishery aquatic products to prevent spoilage.
__________5. It refers to using a hook attached to a line to catch fish. Angling is

almost always done with some type of bait and sinker on the hook. It can be done on
the shore, off a dock, or on a boat.
__________6. A style of angling off a river bank or a similar shoreline, usually with a
fishing rod, or less commonly, nets, traps, and spears.
__________7. This angling technique refers to fishing on the bottom of the seabed,
usually for groundfish like suckerfish, bream, catfish, and crappie. A weight is added
to the end of your line or rod.
__________8.This refers to using a flexible fishing rod to throw (cast) your fishing
line out, over, and into the water. Casting is a sport all on its own, regardless of any
fish that are caught, with tournaments marking competitors on their accuracy and
distance.
__________9. It refers to fishing with or without a tour guide aboard a boat that you
have hired for the duration of the trip. Charted fishing excursions can involve any
number of techniques listed here.
__________10. The fishing for profit.
__________11. efers to dropping a long fishing line straight down, without casting far
off into the water. A dropline often has several hooks attached to it, although not as
many as a longline. It’s a form of angling, meaning there is hook and bait involved,
as well as a weight at the bottom and a float at the top.
__________12. It refers to a style of fishing in which artificial flies are used to lure
fish to your line. It’s an older method of angling, particularly effective for trout,
salmon, bass, carp, and more. Fly fishing is commonly done off the shores of river
banks or standing right in the river.
__________13.Fishing in lakes and rivers using any technique. Freshwater fishing is

heavily regulated in BC. Learn more about freshwater fishing licences and
regulations in British Columbia
__________14. Hand-gathering is the act of fishing with the simplest set of tools –
your hands. There are many styles of hand-gathering fishing, such as simply picking
up shellfish or clam digging at the beach. Pearl divers are also hand-gatherers, and
divers can also fish for lobsters using just their hands.
__________15. A type of fishing using a single fishing line that is held in your hands.
It can be done from boats or from the shore, mainly for catching groundfish.
__________16. It refers to fishing with lines and hooks through a small opening in a
frozen body of water.
__________17. A popular style of angling in which a jig is the chosen type of fishing
lure. A jig consists of a hook molded into a lead sinker that is covered by a soft
coloured rubber.
__________18. This angling technique refers to fishing off the side of a kayak.
Special considerations must be made on what equipment to carry, and how it will be
fitted to the small-sized vessel.
__________19. A unique style of angling, kites can be used for trolling a lure through
water and provide people without boats or people with mobility issues greater access
to hard to reach bodies of water. This type of fishing is more common in places such
as the Pacific Islands and Australia.
__________20. This commercial fishing technique involves the use of a long heavy
fishing line that has hundreds of baited hooks hanging from it via branches, a.k.a.,
“snoods”. Longlining is typically done on boats called longliners that use a special
winch to haul in the line and operate in deeper waters. Longlining is a common
method used to catch swordfish, tuna, halibut or sablefish.
__________21. The style of fishing using nets to capture many fish at once. It’s the
main method of commercial fishing. There are many types of net to use, including:
__________22.Round, weighted nets, also called throw nets.

__________23. Nets that are not anchored.
__________24. Small, hand-held nets that remain opened using a hoop.
special net a fish cannot pass through without hooking its gills on the
mesh.
__________25.Large nets that are towed through the water by a boat called a
trawler.
__________26.A style of hand-gathering fishing in which the “noodler” sticks their

arm in a catfish hole, hoping for a bite. It’s dangerous, and therefore illegal in some
states.
__________27. A method of angling which involves intentionally casting your line

and lure out at a lower angle so that is enters the water quietly, so as not to scare
the fish away.
__________28. Fishing solely for fun. Recreational fishing is an overarching type of

fishing that involves any number of techniques listed here, especially saltwater
fishing and freshwater fishing.
__________29.Picture a floating drone rather than a flying drone, with a fishing rod
attached to it, and you get a good idea of what remote control fishing is all about.
__________30. A style of angling in which you are fishing off the edges of rocky
jetties and cliffs. This is considered a highly dangerous type of fishing.
__________31.Fishing in salt waters (oceans). Also called “tidal waters fishing”. To

fish in salt waters in BC, you must get a tidal waters fishing licence.
__________32. Used to catch bass, this line fishing technique involves constantly
lifting and dropping a flat lead lure painted to look like a baitfish. To be most
effective, the fishermen must first locate a school of fish using a fishfinder.
__________33. It refers to any form of fishing that involves impaling the fish using a
spear on a long pole.
__________34. It involves using a bow and arrow to kill fish in shallow water from
above.
__________35. It involves using a long spear-like tool often with barbs at the end.
__________36. It involves using a sling attached to the spear.
__________37. It involves using a sling separate from the spear (slingshot or an
underwater bow and arrow).
__________38. It tridents are spears with three prongs rather than a single prong.
__________39. It involves using small, trident-type spears to kill bullfrogs.
__________40. In older form of spearfishing, particularly used during ice fishing.
Instead of a spearhead, two smaller, curved spikes were used.
__________41.Used for fishing and target practice, spearguns are deployed by
divers underwater. There are threaded, lined, and break-away varieties.
__________42.Refers to fishing competitively to see who can catch the heaviest

fish, or who can catch the most fish. Sport fishing often involves large cash prizes
and bragging rights for the winner.
__________43.Refers to fishing from the shores of a saltwater beach. Surfcasting is

a style of angling that requires a long surfcasting rod and the ability to cast a large
distance.
__________ 44.Japanese style of fly fishing (angling) that was first done with a
bamboo pole and no reel. Modern tenkara fishing rods use a tapered or level line
and are mostly telescopic and made of graphite.
__________45. efers to the sinking of baited traps to the bottom of the seabed in the
hopes fish swim into the trap. The traps resemble large cages and are commonly
used for crab and lobster fishing.
__________46.The process of dropping a large net off the side of a slow-moving

boat called a trawler.
__________47. A line fishing technique that involves slowly pulling one or more
baited lines through the water. It can be done effortlessly off the side of a moving
boat, or from land as you cast your line as far as you can and slowly reel the line
back in.
__________48. A line fishing technique that is a lot like droplining, but the trotline’s
hooks are suspended horizontally in the water, rather than vertically.
REFERENCES:
^ "Oppian, Halieutica"
^ "Retiarius"
^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South
Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01109-4. page 93
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Held in Paris (December 1979) edited by J.E.van Lohuizen-de Leeuw. Brill Academic
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^ Edgerton; et al. (2002). Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour. Courier Dover
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^ Alice Ross. "Getting a Feel for the Eel". Journal of Antiques and Collectibles.
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Apparatus". Royal Australian Navy, School of Underwater Medicine. RANSUM-1-70.
^ Jump up to:a b "San Diego Union-Tribune Obituaries: Complete listing of San Diego
Union-Tribune Obituaries powered by Legacy.com". San Diego Union-Tribune.
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^ "Wally Potts, 83; Pioneering Diver, Spear Fisherman". latimes. Retrieved 26
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^ "iusarecords.com". iusarecords.com. Retrieved 2014-03-24.
^ Smith, Adam; Nakaya, Seiji (21–24 May 2002). Spearfishing – is it ecologically
sustainable? (PDF). 3rd World Recreational Fishing Conference. 21–24 May 2002.
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^ Sawynok, Bill; Diggles, Ben; Harrison, John (2008). 2006/057: Development of a
national environmental management and accreditation system for business/public
recreational fishing competitions (PDF). Frenchville Qld: Recfish Australia. pp. 15,
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^ http://www.noobspearo.com/the-vault-blog/guide-for-shore-dive-spearfishing-part2/
^ http://ultimatespearfishing.com/page/spearfishing-shore-dive-tips-tricks
^ http://www.noobspearo.com/the-vault-blog/shore-dive-spearfishing-part-1
^ Otto Gabriel; Klaus Lange; Erdmann Dahm; Thomas Wendt (26 August
2005). Fish Catching Methods of the World. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-85238-280-6.
^ "Rubber vs Pneumatic Spearguns". Adreno Spearfishing Blog - Speargun &
Wetsuit Online Megastore - Spearfishing - Freediving - Snorkeling - Brisbane -
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^ Jump up to:a b Sellers, Bob (August 31, 2004). "Charlie
Sturgill" (PDF). fathomiers.net. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Steven M. Barsky (1997). Spearfishing for Skin and Scuba Divers. Best Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-0-941332-59-0.
^ Bennett, Travis. "Spearfishing tips - The correct way to setup your weight belt for
spearfishing". www.maxspearfishing.com. Max Spearfishing. Retrieved 4
September2017.
^ Bennett, Travis. "Spearfishing accessories - Why You Need a Spearfishing
Stringer". www.maxspearfishing.com. Max Spearfishing. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
^ "Australian Underwater Federation - Spearfishing". Australian Underwater
Federation. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
^ Spearfishing in Norway Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Sportfishing regulations, Conapesca Mexico San Diego Office". Conapesca San
Diego. Archived from the original on 2013-09-06. Retrieved 2014-03-24.
^ "Ocean Fishing: Laws and Regulations". Dfg.ca.gov. Retrieved 2014-03-24.
^ "Is Spearfishing Legal in the US, Australia, and the UK?)". Outuro. Retrieved 3
December 2020.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e "Onefish Legends". Spearo DvD. Archived from the original on
23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^ Mass, Terry (2005). "South African legend opens the tuna grounds". BlueWater
Freedivers. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^ "Jerseyman wins Open Spearfishing title". Jersey Spearfishing Club. 2003.
Retrieved 15 September 2014.
^ "In the depths of adventure". Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ https://www.smh.com.au/world/man-fights-off-shark-then-stitches-himself-up-
20140127-hva2g.html
^ "International Underwater Spearfishing Association World Record 31.0 kg, 68.4 lbs
Bass, Striped Morone saxatilis Record Category: Men Speargun". International
Underwater Spearfishing Association. July 4, 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
^ "National and personal tragedy". The Australian Women's Weekly. 35 (32).
Australia. 3 January 1968. p. 4. Retrieved 2 April 2018 – via National Library of
Australia.
^ "Spearfishing with Cameron Kirkconnell". Onefish. Archived from the original on 18
October 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^ Vianney Mascret (2010) L’aventure sous-marine : Histoire de la plongée sous-
marine de loisir en scaphandre autonome en France (1865-1985). Thesis, Claude
Bernard University, Lyon. p. 168. Full-text document at http://halshs.archives-
ouvertes.fr/docs/00/83/90/91/PDF/TH2010_Mascret_Vianney.pdf. Retrieved 7
February 2019.
^ Patrick Mouton (1987) | Roger Pulvénis « Père » de la chasse sous-marine, le
journal de la mer. Retrieved on 12 January 2020.
^ Smith, Adam (2000). "Underwater fishing in Australia and New Zealand".
^ "Spearfishing Champion Trophies". Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ "Wong Spearguns". Retrieved 29 April 2020.
Jones, Len (2002). Len Jones' guide to freedive spearfishing (Australian ed.).
Adrenaline Spearfishing Supplies. ISBN 978-0-9580308-0-9.
Smith, Adam K (2000). Underwater fishing in Australia and New Zealand. Mountain
Ocean & Travel Publications. ISBN 978-0-646-40642-8.
Spearfishing is it ecologically sustainable? A paper given at the World Recreational
Fishing Conference, Darwin, Australia by Adam Smith and Seji Nakaya
Terry Maas (1998). Bluewater Hunting & Freediving. Ventura, CA: BlueWater
Freedivers.
LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XIX

TOPIC: Methods of Angling
1. name the basic methods of angling; and
2. discuss each method of angling.
Discussions: Five Basic Methods of Angling

The five basic methods of angling are bait fishing, fly-fishing, bait casting, spinning,
and trolling. All are used in both freshwater and saltwater angling.
Bait fishing, also called still fishing or bottom fishing, is certainly the oldest and most
universally used method. In British freshwater fishing it is used to catch what are
called coarse (or rough) fish. These include bream, barb, tench, dace, and other
nongame species. A bait is impaled on the hook, which is “set” by the angler raising
the tip of the rod when the fish swallows it. Common baits in fishing include worms,
maggots, small fish, bread paste, cheese, and small pieces of vegetables and grain.
The bait may be weighted down with what is called a ledger in Britain and a sinker in
the United States, usually of lead. In this type of fishing, the angler simply holds the
rod or lays it down and waits for the telltale tug of the fish to be transmitted through
the line. Bait may also be fished by suspending it at a chosen depth under a buoyant
object attached to the line that is made of cork or plastic, called a float in Britain and
a bobber in the United States. The angler attempts to suspend the bait at a depth
where foraging fish will notice it and in locations near the natural hiding places of fish
—such as sunken weed beds, logs, and underwater rock formations.
The rods used in still fishing both in North America and Britain are usually 6 to 9 feet
(1.8 to 2.7 metres) long, with a fixed-spool reel and monofilament line of 2- to 25-
pound (900- to 11,300-gram) test strength. In North America, still fishing is usually
practiced with conventional bait-casting or spinning tackle. Freshwater fish taken by
this method include bluegills, crappies, perch, carp, and catfish, as well
as bass and walleyes. The most common natural North American baits are worms,
minnows, crayfish, cut-up fish, leeches, and grubs or maggots.
Another type of bait fishing, most commonly done in rivers and streams, involves
drifting a baited hook into deep pools and beneath in-stream cover (such as logs and
rocks) to entice game fish that station themselves in those locations for feeding.
Conventional spinning gear is the tackle of choice for this style of fishing.
Ice fishing, through holes cut in frozen lakes, is particularly popular in the
northeastern United States and the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence valley region of the
United States and Canada. Equipment is commonly a three-foot rod with a simple
reel or a cleatlike device to hold nonfreezing monofilament line and a tilt, or tip-up, to
signal when the fish has taken the bait. Fish taken through the ice vary from panfish
(crappies, bluegills, and perch) to larger game fish (pike, walleye, bass, and lake
trout). Ice fishing became increasingly popular in the 20th century in Scandinavian
and other European countries where heavy freezing permits it.
Fly-fishing is a method of angling employing a rod 7 to 11 feet (2.1 to 3.4 metres) in

length, a simple arbor reel, and a heavy plastic-coated line joined to a lighter nylon
leader. The rod is used to cast artificial flies—made of hair, feathers,
or synthetic materials and designed to imitate the natural food sources of the fish.
The fly-fisher snaps the long rod back and forth, allowing the heavier weight of the
line to propel the nearly weightless fly forward. The fly needs to land as gently as
possible upon the water to avoid startling the fish. A simple reel is used only to
contain the line and to help in tiring a hooked fish. Species fished
include trout and salmon, but by the end of the 20th century virtually all game fish,
from panfish to muskellunge, were fished with flies.
Examples of two types of fishing reels: bait casting (left) and fly.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Fly-fishing lures.
© Espen E./Shutterstock.com
Bait casting and spin casting differ essentially in the type of reel, the rod length, and
the strength of the line used. Bait casting usually employs a reel with heavier line,
often in the 10- to 20-pound (4,500- to 9,000-gram) test range. Most spinning reels
are usually spooled with lighter lines in the 6- to 10-pound (2,700- to 4,500-gram)
test class. Spinning rods are generally 6–10 feet (1.8–3.0 metres) long, while the
usual length of a bait-casting rod is 5–6 feet (1.5–1.8 metres). Bait casting originally
used live minnows but grew to use artificial lures—pieces of metal or painted plastic
designed to imitate a fish’s natural prey—as well as metal spoons and spinners. The
lures are cast in likely fish-rich areas and are retrieved in a manner that allows them
to effect a swimming action in the water. Lures vary in weight from 1/16 to 1 ounce
(1.8 to 28 grams) or more. Spinning tackle is usually used with lighter lures, and bait-
casting tackle is used with heavier lures.
Trolling involves the use of live bait or artificial lures that are drawn through the water
behind a slow-moving boat, originally rowed but now generally motor-powered.
Trolling is usually done inland on lakes and reservoirs, but it is also the primary
method for big-game fishing in the oceans. The method has the advantage of
covering a large amount of territory where fish might otherwise be difficult to locate.
The correct depth and speed of the lure are crucial in the method. The introduction of
sonar equipment in the second half of the 20th century greatly increased the
effectiveness of trolling. Rods are usually 5–7 feet (1.5–2.1 metres) long, and lines
are heavy, occasionally of metal, with added weights used to get the lure to greater
depths. In inland trolling, the rod is held at a right angle to the motion of the boat to
take advantage of the rod’s resilience when a fish strikes. Lures are much like those
used in bait casting. Salmon, large trout, walleye, and pike are the main species
fished.
Examples of two types of fishing reels: spinning (left) and trolling.

 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Saltwater Fishing
In saltwater fishing, all the methods mentioned previously are used. Fly-fishing in salt
water became very popular during the last quarter of the 20th century. Saltwater
fishing is done from a beach, off rocks, from a pier, or from a boat, which may vary in
size from a rowboat in inland waters to oceangoing craft of considerable size. Fish
usually caught from shore include striped bass, bluefish, tarpon, bonefish, and
permit. Saltwater anglers fishing from boats
take grouper, flounder, snapper, mackerel and many other species by trolling or
bottom fishing.
bluefish
Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix).
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Big-Game Fishing
Experience game fishing for Wahoo, tuna, mahi mahi in the waters off the
coast of Rarotonga, Cook Islands
Game fishing for tuna, wahoo, and mahimahi in the waters off the coast of
Rarotonga, Cook Islands.
© Fun Travel TV (A Britannica Publishing Partner)See all videos for this article
Made possible by the motorized boat, saltwater big-game fishing was pioneered in
1898 by Charles Frederick Holder, who took a 183-pound (83-kg) bluefin tuna
off Santa Catalina Island, California. Fish usually caught by big-game anglers
include tuna, marlin, swordfish, and shark. Big-game fishing spread to the Atlantic,
and catches of increasing size were made on relatively light tackle and line,
especially after the invention of a reel with an internal drag by Julius von Hofe of
Brooklyn, New York, in 1913. Big-game anglers fish from “fighting seats” into which
they can be strapped. Rods are massive, and the butts fit into a socket mounted on
the chair. Reels are large, and the line is usually of Dacron or nylon with a wire
leader near the hook to prevent the large teeth of the fish from shearing the line.
The establishment of the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) in 1939 did

much to promote big-game fishing and to regulate it—supervising marine fishing
competitions, establishing various weight categories for lines, and keeping
championship records. The IGFA also promoted scientific study by encouraging the
tagging of released fish to establish fish habitat patterns and by working for
conservation of endangered species. In 1978 the association also took over the
keeping of freshwater fishing records.
Competitive casting is an adjunct sport, much as shooting is for hunting, under the
supervision of the International Casting Sport Federation (founded 1955), with
member groups in about 30 countries in the late 20th century. It sponsors
tournaments and recognizes world records for accuracy and distance. Competitions
are held with both bait-casting and fly tackle.
Recent Trends In Fishing
At the turn of the 21st century, sport fishing was thriving. It was estimated that about
40 million Americans spent at least one day per year fishing, and their combined
expenditures on tackle, travel, and lodging pumped approximately $45 billion
annually into the U.S. economy. Because of less public angling access in Great
Britain and continental Europe, there are fewer anglers, but large numbers of people
there do fish. The greater availability of air travel has increased anglers’ access to
many areas of the world and introduced them to new sport fish, such as
the dorado of South America, the tigerfish of Africa, and the inconnu of
northern North America and Asia. Hardly a species of any importance does not have
its angling devotees somewhere. Even the carp, long considered a “trash fish” in
North America, has a considerable following. The traditionally popular species
remain so, particularly salmon and trout and, in North America, the largemouth bass
—the most popular game fish in the United States, so popular that boats for bass
fishing are specially designed, and there are numerous tours of professional
associations of bass anglers that often have their competitions broadcast on cable
television.
A strong emphasis on fisheries conservation and the wise management of fish

stocks by both anglers and professional fisheries managers aim to ensure that
recreational fishing will continue to thrive for many years to come. For
example, catch-and-release angling became increasingly popular since the late 20th
century. In many areas of the United States and Canada, individual lakes and
streams are increasingly managed for lower catch limits and for habitat quality.
Owing to angler demand, fisheries management emphasis continues to shift from
management by stocking or replenishing lakes and streams
to enhancing existing water quality and habitat so that species found in a body of
water can better thrive through natural recruitment and reproduction.
Spearfishing is a method of fishing that has been used throughout the world for
millennia. Early civilizations were familiar with the custom of spearing fish from rivers
and streams using sharpened sticks.
Currently spearfishing makes use of elastic powered spearguns and slings, or
compressed gas pneumatic powered spearguns, to strike the hunted fish.
Specialised techniques and equipment have been developed for various types of
aquatic environments and target fish.
Spearfishing may be done using free-diving, snorkelling, or scuba diving techniques,
but spearfishing while using scuba equipment is illegal in some countries. The use of
mechanically powered spearguns is also outlawed in some countries and
jurisdictions. Spearfishing is highly selective, normally uses no bait and has no by-
catch.
Spearfishing with barbed poles (harpoons) was widespread in palaeolithic times.

[1] Cosquer Cave in Southern France contains cave art over 16,000 years old,
including drawings of seals which appear to have been harpooned.[citation needed]
There are references to fishing with spears in ancient literature; though, in most
cases, the descriptions do not go into detail. An early example from the Bible is
in Job 41:7: Canst thou fill his [Leviathan] skin with barbed irons? or his head with
fish spears?.
The Greek historian Polybius (ca 203 BC–120 BC), in his Histories, describes
hunting for swordfish by using a harpoon with a barbed and detachable head.[2]
Greek author Oppian of Corycus wrote a major treatise on sea fishing,
the Halieulica or Halieutika, composed between 177 and 180. This is the earliest
such work to have survived intact. Oppian describes various means of fishing
including the use of spears and tridents.[3]
In a parody of fishing, a type of gladiator called retiarius carried a trident and
a casting-net. He fought the murmillo, who carried a short sword and a helmet with
the image of a fish on the front.[4]
Copper harpoons were known to the seafaring Harappans[5] well into antiquity.
[6] Early hunters in India include the Mincopie people, aboriginal inhabitants
of India's Andaman and Nicobar islands, who have used harpoons with long cords
for fishing since early times.[7]
Spear fishing is an ancient method of fishing and may be conducted with an
ordinary spear or a specialised variant such as an eel spear[8][9] or the trident. A
small trident-type spear with a long handle is used in the American South and
Midwest for gigging bullfrogs with a bright light at night, or for gigging carp and other
fish in the shallows.
Modern[edit]
Traditional spear fishing is restricted to shallow waters, but the development of
the speargun, diving mask and swimfins allows fishing in deeper waters. With
practice, some freedivers are able to hold their breath for up to four minutes;[citation
needed] a diver with underwater breathing equipment can dive for much longer
periods.
In the 1920s, sport spearfishing using only watertight swimming goggles became
popular on the Mediterranean coast of France and Italy. This led to development of
the modern diving mask, fins and snorkel. Modern scuba diving had its genesis in
the systematic use of rebreathers by Italian sport spearfishers during the 1930s. This
practice came to the attention of the Italian Navy, which developed its frogman unit,
which affected World War II.[10]
By 1940 small groups of people in California, USA had been spearfishing for less
than 10 years. Most used imported gear from Europe, while innovators Charlie
Sturgill, Jack Prodanovich,[11] and Wally Potts[12] invented and built innovative
equipment for California's divers.[11]
During the 1960s, attempts to have spearfishing recognised as an Olympic sport
were unsuccessful. Instead, two organisations, the International Underwater
Spearfishing Association[13] (IUSA) and the International Bluewater Spearfishing
Records Committee (IBSRC), list world record catches by species according to rules
to ensure fair competition. Spearfishing is illegal in many bodies of water, and some
locations only allow spearfishing during certain seasons.
Conservation[edit]
Spearfishing has been implicated in local disappearances of some species, including
the Atlantic goliath grouper on the Caribbean island of Bonaire, the Nassau
grouper in the barrier reef off the coast of Belize and the giant black sea
bass in California, which have all been listed as endangered[citation needed].
Modern spearfishing has shifted focus onto catching only what one needs and
targeting sustainable fisheries. As gear evolved in the 1960s and 1970s
spearfishermen typically viewed the ocean as an unlimited resource and often sold
their catch. This practice is now heavily frowned upon in prominent spearfishing
nations for promoting unsustainable methods and encouraging taking more fish than
is needed. In countries such as Australia and South Africa where the activity is
regulated by state fisheries, spearfishing has been found to be the most
environmentally friendly form of fishing due to being highly selective, having no by-
catch, causing no habitat damage, nor creating pollution or harm to protected
endangered species.[14] In 2007, the Australian Bluewater Freediving Classic
became the first spearfishing tournament to be accredited and was awarded 4 out of
5 stars based on environmental, social, safety and economic indicators.
Shore diving is perhaps the most common form of spearfishing [16][17] and simply

involves entering and exiting the sea from beaches or headlands and hunting around
ocean structures,[18] usually reef, but also rocks, kelp or sand. Usually shore divers
hunt at depths of 5–25 metres (16–82 ft), depending on location. In some locations,
divers can experience drop-offs from 5 to 40 metres (16 to 131 ft) close to the shore
line. Sharks and reef fish can be abundant in these locations. In subtropical areas,
sharks may be less common, but other challenges face the shore diver, such as
managing entry and exit in the presence of big waves. Headlands are favoured for
entry because of their proximity to deeper water, but timing is important so the diver
does not get pushed onto rocks by waves. Beach entry can be safer, but more
difficult due to the need to repeatedly dive through the waves until the surf line is
crossed. Divers may enter from a relatively exposed headland, for convenience, then
swim to a more protected part of the shore for their exit from the water.
Shore dives produce mainly reef fish, but oceangoing pelagic fish are also caught
from shore dives in some places, and can be specifically targeted.
Shore diving can be done with trigger-less spears such as pole spears or Hawaiian
slings, but more commonly triggered devices such as spearguns.[citation
needed] Speargun setups to catch and store fish include speed rigs[clarification
needed] and fish stringers.
Boat diving[edit]
Boats, ships, kayaks, or even jetski can be used to access offshore reefs or ocean
structure. Man-made structures such as oil rigs and Fish Aggregating
Devices (FADs) are also fished. Sometimes a boat is necessary to access a location
that is close to shore, but inaccessible by land.
Methods and gear used for boat diving are similar to shore diving or blue water
hunting, depending on the target prey.
Boat diving is practised worldwide. Hot spots include Mozambique, the Three Kings
islands of New Zealand (yellowtail), Gulf of Mexico oil rigs (cobia, grouper) and
the Great Barrier Reef (wahoo, dogtooth tuna). The deepwater fishing grounds off
Cape Point, (Cape Town, South Africa) have become popular with trophy hunting,
freediving spearfishers in search of Yellowfin Tuna.[citation needed]
Blue water hunting
Blue water hunting involves diving in open ocean waters for pelagic species. It
involves accessing usually very deep and clear water and chumming for large
pelagic fish species such as marlin, tuna, wahoo, or giant trevally. Blue water hunting
is often conducted in drifts; the boat driver drops divers and allow them to drift in the
current for up to several kilometres before collecting them. Blue water hunters can
go for hours without seeing any fish, and without any ocean structure or a visible
bottom the divers can experience sensory deprivation and have difficulty determining
the size of a solitary fish. One technique to overcome this is to note the size of the
fish's eye in relation to its body. Large specimens have a proportionally smaller eye.
The creation of the Australian Bluewater Freediving Classic in 1995 in northern New
South Wales was a way of creating interest and promotion of this format of
underwater hunting, and contributed to the formation of the International Bluewater
Spearfishing Records Committee.[citation needed] The IBSRC formed in 1996, was
the first dedicated organization worldwide, created by recognized world leaders in
blue-water hunting, to record the capture of pelagic species by blue-water hunters.[
Notably, some blue water hunters use large multi-band wooden guns and make use
of breakaway rigs to catch and subdue their prey. If the prey is large and still has
fight left after being subdued, a second gun can provide a kill shot at a safe distance.
This is acceptable to IBSRC and IUSA regulations as long as the spearo loads it
himself in the water.[citation needed]
Blue water hunting is conducted worldwide, but notable hot spots
include Mozambique (dogtooth tuna, wahoo and giant turrum), South
Africa (Yellowfin tuna, Spanish Mackerel, wahoo, marlin and giant
turrum), Australia (dogtooth tuna, wahoo and Spanish Mackerel) and the South
Pacific (dogtooth tuna). Tanzania has been removed as a notable hot spot as
spearfishing is illegal according to the laws and regulations of both Tanzania
and Zanzibar.[citation needed]
Many US states allow spearfishing in lakes and rivers, but nearly all of them restrict
divers to shooting only rough fish such as carp, gar, bullheads, suckers, etc. A few
US states do allow the taking of certain gamefish such as sunfish, crappies, striped
bass, catfish and walleyes. Freshwater hunters typically have to deal with widely
varying seasonal changes in water clarity due to flooding, algae blooms and lake
turnover. Some especially hardy midwestern and north central scuba divers go
spearfishing under the ice in the winter when water clarity is at its best.[citation
needed]
In the summer the majority of freshwater spearfishermen use snorkelling gear rather
than scuba since many of the fish they pursue are in relatively shallow water. Carp
shot by freshwater spear fishermen typically end up being used as fertilizer, bait for
trappers, or are occasionally donated to zoos.[citation needed]
Spearfishing with a hand-held spear from land, shallow water or boat has been
practised for thousands of years. The fisher must account for optical refraction at the
water's surface, which makes fish appear higher in their line of sight than they are.
By experience, the fisher learns to aim lower. Calm and shallow waters are favored
for spearing fish from above the surface, as water clarity is of utmost importance.
Many people who grew up on farms in the midwest U.S. in the 1940s-'60s recall
going spearing for carp with pitchforks when their fields flooded in the spring.
Spearfishing in this manner has some similarities to bowfishing.[19]
Equipment[edit]
This is a list of equipment commonly used in spearfishing. Not all of it is necessary
and spearfishing is often practised with minimal gear.
Speargun
A speargun is an underwater fishing implement designed to fire a spear at fish. The
most popular spearguns are powered by natural latex rubber bands, while pneumatic
powered guns are also used, but less powerful.[20]
Polespear
Pole spears, or hand spears, consist of a long shaft with point at one end and an
elastic loop at the other for propulsion. They also come in a wide variety,
from aluminum or titanium metal, to fiberglass or carbon fiber. Often they are
screwed together from smaller pieces or able to be folded down for ease of
transport. In 1951 Charlie Sturgill beat the competition (who were all using
spearguns) with his own pole spear design.[21]
Hawaiian slings
Hawaiian slings consist of an elastic band attached to a tube, through which a spear
is launched.[22]
Wet suit
Wetsuits designed specifically for spearfishing are often two-piece (jacket and high
waisted pants or 'long-john' style pants with shoulder straps) and are black or are
fully or partially camouflage.
Weight belt or weight vest
These are used to compensate for wetsuit buoyancy and help the diver descend to
depth. Rubber belts which can be quickly released in an emergency have proven to
be particularly popular for spearfishing worldwide. This is because the rubber
stretches when fitted and retracts as the body and wetsuit compress underwater,
keeping them in place more effectively than non-stretch webbing belts, which tend to
slide around more underwater as they loosen with depth.[23] Most spearfishing
equipment manufacturers now offer rubber weight belts.[citation needed]
Fins
Fins for freedive spearfishing are much longer than those used in scuba to aid in fast
ascent. Typically a closed foot design is used by freediving (snorkelling) spearos,
usually worn with neoprene socks, while open foot designs (which allow diving boots
to be worn) are more popular with scuba divers.
Knife or cutters
A knife is carried as a safety precaution in case the diver becomes tangled in a
spearline or floatline. It can also be used as an ikejime or kill spike.
Ikejime or kill spike
In lieu of a knife, a sharpened metal spike can be used to kill the fish quickly and
humanely upon capture. This action reduces interest from sharks by stopping the
fish from thrashing. Ikejime is a Japanese term and is a method traditionally used by
Japanese fishermen. Killing the fish quickly is believed to improve the flavor of the
flesh by limiting the buildup of adrenaline in the fish's muscles.[citation needed]
Buoy or float
A buoy is usually tethered to the spearfisher's speargun or directly to the spear. A
buoy helps to subdue large fish. It can also assist in storing fish. But is more
importantly used as a safety device to warn boat drivers there is diver in the area -
usually by being large, brightly colored and flying a dive flag (the red flag with white
diagonal stripe in the USA or the blue & white "alpha" flag elsewhere in the world). A
typical spearo dive float will be torpedo-shaped, orange or red in colour with a
volume of between 7 and 36 litres and display a dive flag on a short mast.[ citation
needed] However, other designs, such as inflatable mini-dinghy, planche (box),
Tommy Botha (big game)[clarification needed] and body-boards are also used.
[citation needed]
Floatline
A floatline connects the buoy to the speargun or to the weight-belt. Often made from
braided polyester, they are also frequently made from mono-filament encased in an
airtight plastic tube, or made from stretchable bungee cord.[citation needed]
Gloves
Gloves protect the hands when retrieving fish from coral or rock crevices, when
loading the bands on rubber powered spearguns and from the teeth and spines of
struggling fish. They are also used for thermal protection in colder water.
Fish stringer
Used to store speared fish while diving. Usually a length of cable, cord, string or
monofilament terminated by a loop (and sometimes a swivel) at one end and a large
stainless steel pin/spike at the other. The pin is typically 15–30 cm long, 4-8mm
diameter, with a sharp point at one end, and with the cable threaded through a hole,
usually in the middle, so the spike functions as a toggle once threaded. The pin can
optionally be used as an iki jime spike, to dispatch speared fish. It can alternatively
be a large, shaped loop of stainless steel.[clarification needed] The stringer may be
attached to the dive float, especially in areas of high shark activity, although some
divers will use a clip to attach their stringer to their weight belt, or the base of their
speargun.[24]
Snorkel and diving mask
Spearfishing snorkels and diving masks are similar to those used for scuba diving,
although the masks usually have two lenses and a lower internal volume.
Diver down flag
The "diver down" flag (also called a "dive flag") is a safety flag used on the water to
indicate to other boats that there is a diver below. When in use, it signals to other
vessels to keep clear, watch for divers in the water, and operate at a slow speed.
Management[edit]
Spearfishing is intensively managed throughout the world.
Australia allows only recreational spearfishing and generally only breath-hold free
diving. State & territory governments impose numerous restrictions, demarcating
Marine Protected Areas, Closed Areas, Protected Species, size/bag limits and
equipment. The body principally concerned with spearfishing is the Australian
Underwater Federation, Australia's peak recreational diving body. The AUF's vision
for spearfishing is "Safe, Sustainable, Selective, Spearfishing". The AUF provides
membership, advocacy and organises competitions.[25]
Norway has a relatively large ratio of coastline to population, and has one of the
most liberal spearfishing rules in the northern hemisphere. Spearfishing with scuba
gear is widespread among recreational divers. Restrictions in Norway are limited
to anadrome species, like Atlantic salmon, sea trout, and lobster.[26]
In Mexico a regular fishing permit allows spearfishing, but not electro-mechanical
spearguns. Spearfishing with scuba gear is illegal and the use of power heads as
well. Penalties are severe and include fines, confiscation of gear and even
imprisonment.[27]
United States has different spearfishing regulations for each state.
In Florida spearfishing is restricted to several hundred yards offshore in many areas
and the usage of a powerhead is prohibited within state waters. Many types of fish
are currently under heavy bag restrictions.[citation needed] In California only
recreational spearfishing is allowed. California also imposes numerous restrictions,
demarcating Marine protected areas, closed areas, protected species, size/bag limits
and equipment.[28]
Spearfishing in Puerto Rico has its own set of rules. Here you are allowed to freedive
with a speargun in marine waters. Spearfishing with scuba gear or in freshwater is
not allowed.[29]
In the UK, while spearfishing is not explicitly regulated, it is instead subject to both
local (typically local bye-laws) and national-level legislation relating to permitted fish
species and minimum size limits. For example, it is not permitted to spearfish in
freshwater and the non-tidal reaches of rivers.[citation needed]
Under recent EU guidelines, recreational spearfishing is now explicitly permitted in
the EU's Atlantic waters.[citation needed]
Notable spearfishers[
This is an alphabetic list of spearfishers who are confirmed by a reliable source or an
existing Wikipedia article.
Rob Allen - South Africa[30]
Tommy Botha - South Africa[31]
Peter Crawford - England, 13 times UK champion[32]
Ben Cropp – Australian documentary filmmaker, conservationist and spearfisherman
Ian Fleming – English author, journalist and naval intelligence officer - England;
author of the James Bond books and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang[citation needed]
Wally Gibbons[33]
Guy Gilpatric
James Grant - New Zealand[34]
David J. Hochman - World Record Holder, Men's Speargun, Striped Bass, 31.0
kg/68.4 lbs; Men's Polespear, Striped Bass, 23.8 kg/52.4 lbs[35]
Harold Holt – Australian politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia - Australian prime
minister[36]
Cameron Kirkconnell - 12x world record holder[37][30]
Mohammed Jassim Al-Kuwari - Qatar[30]
George "Doc" Lopez
Terry Maas - USA[30]
Barry Paxman - Australia[30]
Raymond Pulvénis - France; equipment inventor and manufacturer; author of first
French book entirely dedicated to spearfishing (La chasse aux poissons, 1940)[38]
[39]
Dr Adam Smith - Australia [40]
Charlie Sturgill - USA; US National spearfishing champion 1951; innovator of modern
spearfishing equipment[21]
Ron Taylor – Australian diver and shark cinematographer
Valerie Taylor – Australian underwater photographer
Rob Torelli - Australia, 9 times Australian champion[41]
Daryl Wong[citation needed] - USA equipment maker[42]
EVALUATION: Write true if the statement is correct if false, write the word(s) that
make(s) the statement wrong before each item. Submit your answers via messenger
or email.
__________1. Bait fishing, also called still fishing or bottom fishing, is certainly the
oldest and most universally used method. In British freshwater fishing it is used to
catch what are called coarse (or rough) fish.
__________2. The rods used in still fishing both in North America and Britain are
usually 6 to 9 feet (1.8 to 2.7 metres) long, with a fixed-spool reel and monofilament
line of 2- to 25-pound (900- to 11,300-gram) test strength.
__________3. In South America, still fishing is usually practiced with conventional

bait-casting or spinning tackle. Freshwater fish taken by this method
include bluegills, crappies, perch, carp, and catfish, as well as bass and walleyes.
The most common natural North American baits are worms, minnows, crayfish, cut-
up fish, leeches, and grubs or maggots.
__________4. Another type of bait fishing, most commonly done in rivers and
streams, involves drifting a baited hook into deep pools and beneath in-stream cover
(such as logs and rocks) to entice game fish that station themselves in those
locations for feeding. Conventional spinning gear is the tackle of choice for this style
of fishing.
__________5. Ice fishing, through holes cut in frozen lakes, is particularly popular in
the northeastern United States and the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence valley region of
the United States and Canada.
__________6. Fly-fishing is a method of angling employing a rod 7 to 11 feet (2.1 to

3.4 metres) in length, a simple arbor reel, and a heavy plastic-coated line joined to a
lighter nylon leader. The rod is used to cast artificial flies—made of hair, feathers,
or synthetic materials and designed to imitate the natural food sources of the fish.
__________7. Bait casting and spin casting differ essentially in the type of reel, the
rod length, and the strength of the line used.
__________8. Bait casting usually employs a reel with heavier line, often in the 100-
to 200-pound (4,500- to 9,000-gram) test range.
__________9. Trolling involves the use of live bait or artificial lures that are drawn
through the water behind a slow-moving boat, originally rowed but now generally
motor-powered.
__________10. Fly-fishing in salt water became very popular during the last quarter
of the 19th century.
__________11. Spearfishing is a method of fishing that has been used throughout
the world for millennia.
__________12. Blue water hunting involves diving in open ocean waters for pelagic
species. It involves accessing usually very deep and clear water and chumming for
large pelagic fish species such as marlin, tuna, wahoo, or giant trevally.
__________13. Blue water hunting is often conducted in drifts; the boat driver drops
divers and allow them to drift in the current for up to several kilometres before
collecting them.
__________14. Blue water hunting is conducted worldwide, but notable hot spots
include Mozambique (dogtooth tuna, wahoo and giant turrum), South
Africa (Yellowfin tuna, Spanish Mackerel, wahoo, marlin and giant
turrum), Australia (dogtooth tuna, wahoo and Spanish Mackerel) and the South
Pacific (dogtooth tuna).
__________15. A speargun is an underwater fishing implement designed to fire a

spear at fish. The most popular spearguns are powered by natural latex rubber
bands, while pneumatic powered guns are also used, but less powerful.[20]
__________16. Pole spears, or hand spears, consist of a long shaft with point at one
end and an elastic loop at the other for propulsion.
__________17.Hawaiian slings consist of an elastic band attached to a tube,
through which a spear is launched
__________18. Wetsuits is designed specifically for spearfishing are often two-piece
(jacket and high waisted pants or 'long-john' style pants with shoulder straps) and
are black or are fully or partially camouflage.
__________19. Weight belt or weight vest these are used to compensate for wetsuit
buoyancy and help the diver descend to depth.
__________20. A knife is carried as a safety precaution in case the diver becomes
tangled in a spearline or floatline.
REFERENCES:
^ "Oppian, Halieutica"
^ "Retiarius"
^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South
Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01109-4. page 93
^ F.R. Allchin in South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the Third International
Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe,
Held in Paris (December 1979) edited by J.E.van Lohuizen-de Leeuw. Brill Academic
Publishers, Incorporated. Page 106 ISBN 90-04-05996-2
^ Edgerton; et al. (2002). Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour. Courier Dover
Publications. ISBN 0-486-42229-1. page 74
^ "Water: The Riches of Clare". www.clarelibrary.ie. Clare County Library.
^ Alice Ross. "Getting a Feel for the Eel". Journal of Antiques and Collectibles.
^ Quick, D. (1970). "A History Of Closed Circuit Oxygen Underwater Breathing
Apparatus". Royal Australian Navy, School of Underwater Medicine. RANSUM-1-70.
^ Jump up to:a b "San Diego Union-Tribune Obituaries: Complete listing of San Diego
Union-Tribune Obituaries powered by Legacy.com". San Diego Union-Tribune.
Retrieved 26 January2016.
^ "Wally Potts, 83; Pioneering Diver, Spear Fisherman". latimes. Retrieved 26
January2016.
^ "iusarecords.com". iusarecords.com. Retrieved 2014-03-24.
^ Smith, Adam; Nakaya, Seiji (21–24 May 2002). Spearfishing – is it ecologically
sustainable? (PDF). 3rd World Recreational Fishing Conference. 21–24 May 2002.
pp. 19–22. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
^ Sawynok, Bill; Diggles, Ben; Harrison, John (2008). 2006/057: Development of a
national environmental management and accreditation system for business/public
recreational fishing competitions (PDF). Frenchville Qld: Recfish Australia. pp. 15,
32. ISBN 978-0-9775165-5-1. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
^ http://www.noobspearo.com/the-vault-blog/guide-for-shore-dive-spearfishing-part2/
^ http://ultimatespearfishing.com/page/spearfishing-shore-dive-tips-tricks
^ http://www.noobspearo.com/the-vault-blog/shore-dive-spearfishing-part-1
^ Otto Gabriel; Klaus Lange; Erdmann Dahm; Thomas Wendt (26 August
2005). Fish Catching Methods of the World. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-85238-280-6.
^ "Rubber vs Pneumatic Spearguns". Adreno Spearfishing Blog - Speargun &
Wetsuit Online Megastore - Spearfishing - Freediving - Snorkeling - Brisbane -
Australia. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
^ Jump up to:a b Sellers, Bob (August 31, 2004). "Charlie
Sturgill" (PDF). fathomiers.net. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Steven M. Barsky (1997). Spearfishing for Skin and Scuba Divers. Best Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-0-941332-59-0.
^ Bennett, Travis. "Spearfishing tips - The correct way to setup your weight belt for
spearfishing". www.maxspearfishing.com. Max Spearfishing. Retrieved 4
September2017.
^ Bennett, Travis. "Spearfishing accessories - Why You Need a Spearfishing
Stringer". www.maxspearfishing.com. Max Spearfishing. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
^ "Australian Underwater Federation - Spearfishing". Australian Underwater
Federation. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
^ Spearfishing in Norway Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Sportfishing regulations, Conapesca Mexico San Diego Office". Conapesca San
Diego. Archived from the original on 2013-09-06. Retrieved 2014-03-24.
^ "Ocean Fishing: Laws and Regulations". Dfg.ca.gov. Retrieved 2014-03-24.
^ "Is Spearfishing Legal in the US, Australia, and the UK?)". Outuro. Retrieved 3
December 2020.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e "Onefish Legends". Spearo DvD. Archived from the original on
23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^ Mass, Terry (2005). "South African legend opens the tuna grounds". BlueWater
Freedivers. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^ "Jerseyman wins Open Spearfishing title". Jersey Spearfishing Club. 2003.
Retrieved 15 September 2014.
^ "In the depths of adventure". Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ https://www.smh.com.au/world/man-fights-off-shark-then-stitches-himself-up-
20140127-hva2g.html
^ "International Underwater Spearfishing Association World Record 31.0 kg, 68.4 lbs
Bass, Striped Morone saxatilis Record Category: Men Speargun". International
Underwater Spearfishing Association. July 4, 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
^ "National and personal tragedy". The Australian Women's Weekly. 35 (32).
Australia. 3 January 1968. p. 4. Retrieved 2 April 2018 – via National Library of
Australia.
^ "Spearfishing with Cameron Kirkconnell". Onefish. Archived from the original on 18
October 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^ Vianney Mascret (2010) L’aventure sous-marine : Histoire de la plongée sous-
marine de loisir en scaphandre autonome en France (1865-1985). Thesis, Claude
Bernard University, Lyon. p. 168. Full-text document at http://halshs.archives-
ouvertes.fr/docs/00/83/90/91/PDF/TH2010_Mascret_Vianney.pdf. Retrieved 7
February 2019.
^ Patrick Mouton (1987) | Roger Pulvénis « Père » de la chasse sous-marine, le
journal de la mer. Retrieved on 12 January 2020.
^ Smith, Adam (2000). "Underwater fishing in Australia and New Zealand".
^ "Spearfishing Champion Trophies". Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ "Wong Spearguns". Retrieved 29 April 2020.
Jones, Len (2002). Len Jones' guide to freedive spearfishing (Australian ed.).
Adrenaline Spearfishing Supplies. ISBN 978-0-9580308-0-9.
Smith, Adam K (2000). Underwater fishing in Australia and New Zealand. Mountain
Ocean & Travel Publications. ISBN 978-0-646-40642-8.
Spearfishing is it ecologically sustainable? A paper given at the World Recreational
Fishing Conference, Darwin, Australia by Adam Smith and Seji Nakaya
Terry Maas (1998). Bluewater Hunting & Freediving. Ventura, CA: BlueWater
Freedivers.
LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XX

TOPIC: Gilnetting
1. define gillnetting ; and
2. discuss how fish is caught using gill nets.
DISCUSSIONS :Gillnetting is a fishing method that uses gill nets: vertical panels of
netting that hang from a line with regularly spaced floaters that hold the line on the
surface of the water. The floats are sometimes called "corks" and the line with corks
is generally referred to as a "cork line." The line along the bottom of the panels is
generally weighted. Traditionally this line has been weighted with lead and may be
referred to as "lead line." A gillnet is normally set in a straight line. Gillnets can be
characterized by mesh size, as well as colour and type of filament from which they
are made. Fish may be caught by gill nets in three ways:
1. Wedged – held by the mesh around the body.
2. Gilled – held by mesh slipping behind the opercula.
3. Tangled – held by teeth, spines, maxillaries, or other protrusions without
the body penetrating the mesh.
Most often fish are gilled. A fish swims into a net and passes only part way through
the mesh. When it struggles to free itself, the twine slips behind the gill cover and
prevents escape.[1]
Gillnets are so effective that their use is closely monitored and regulated by fisheries
management and enforcement agencies. Mesh size, twine strength, as well as net
length and depth are all closely regulated to reduce bycatch of non-target species.
Gillnets have a high degree of size selectivity. Most salmon fisheries in particular
have an extremely low incidence of catching non-target species.[2]
A fishing vessel rigged to fish by gillnetting is a gillnetter. A gillnetter which deploys
its gillnet from the bow is a bowpicker, while one which deploys its gillnet from
the stern is a sternpicker.
Gillnets existed in ancient times, as archaeological evidence from the Middle East
demonstrates.[3] In North America, Native American fishermen used cedar canoes
and natural fibre nets, e.g., made with nettles or the inner bark of cedar.[4] They
would attach stones to the bottom of the nets as weights, and pieces of wood to the
top, to use as floats. This allowed the net to suspend straight up and down in the
water. Each net would be suspended either from shore or between two boats. Native
fishers in the Pacific Northwest, Canada, and Alaska still commonly use gillnets in
their fisheries for salmon and steelhead.
Both drift gillnets and setnets have long been used by cultures around the world.
There is evidence of fisheries exploitation, including gillnetting, going far back in
Japanese history, with many specific details available from the Edo period (1603–
1868).[5] Fisheries in the Shetland Islands, which were settled by Norsemen during
the Viking Age, share cultural and technological similarities with Norwegian fisheries,
including gillnet fisheries for herring.[6] Many of the Norwegian immigrant fishermen
who came to fish in the great Columbia River salmon fishery during the second half
of the 19th century did so because they had experience in the gillnet fishery for cod
in the waters surrounding the Lofoten Islands of northern Norway.[7] Gillnets were
used as part of the seasonal round by Swedish fishermen as well.[8] Welsh and
English fishermen gillnetted for Atlantic salmon in the rivers
of Wales and England in coracles, using hand-made nets, for at least several
centuries.[9] These are but a few of the examples of historic gillnet fisheries around
the world.
Gillnetting was an early fishing technology in colonial America,[vague] used for
example, in fisheries for Atlantic salmon and shad.[10] Immigrant fishermen from
northern Europe and the Mediterranean brought a number of different adaptations of
the technology from their respective homelands with them to the rapidly expanding
salmon fisheries of the Columbia River from the 1860s onward.[11] The boats used
by these fisherman were typically around 25 feet (8 m) long and powered by oars.
Many of these boats also had small sails and were called "row-sail" boats. At the
beginning of the 1900s, steam powered ships would haul these smaller boats to their
fishing grounds and retrieve them at the end of each day. However, at that
time gas powered boats were beginning to make their appearance, and by the
1930s, the row-sail boat had virtually disappeared, except in Bristol Bay, Alaska,
where motors were prohibited in the gillnet fishery by territorial law until 1951.[12]
In 1931, the first powered drum was created by Laurie Jarelainen.[citation
needed] The drum is a circular device that is set to the side of the boat and draws in
the nets. The powered drum allowed the nets to be drawn in much faster and along
with the faster gas powered boats, fisherman were able to fish in areas they had
previously been unable to go into, thereby revolutionizing the fishing industry.
During World War II, navigation and communication devices, as well as many other
forms of maritime equipment (ex. depth-sounding and radar) were improved and
made more compact. These devices became much more accessible to the average
fisherman, thus making their range and mobility increasingly larger. It also served to
make the industry much more competitive, as the fisherman were forced to invest
more in boats and equipment to stay current with developing technology.
The introduction of fine synthetic fibres such as nylon in the construction of fishing
gear during the 1960s marked an expansion in the commercial use of gillnets. The
new materials were cheaper and easier to handle, lasted longer and required less
maintenance than natural fibres. In addition, multifilament
nylon, monofilament or multimonofilament fibres become almost invisible in water, so
nets made with synthetic twines generally caught greater numbers of fish than
natural fibre nets used in comparable situations.
Nylon is highly resistant to abrasion and degradation, hence the netting has the
potential to last for many years if it is not recovered. This ghost fishing is of
environmental concern. Attaching the gillnet floats with biodegradable material can
reduce the problem.[13] However it is difficult to generalize about the longevity of
ghost-fishing gillnets due to the varying environments in which they are used. Some
researchers have found gill-nets still catching fish and crustaceans over a year after
loss[1], while others have found lost nets destroyed by wave action within one
month[2] or overgrown with seaweeds, increasing their visibility and reducing their
catching potential to such an extent that they became a microhabitat used by small
fish.[3]
This type of net was heavily used by many Japanese, South Korean,
and Taiwanese fishing fleets on the high seas in the 1980s to target tunas. Although
highly selective with respect to size class of animals captured, gillnets are associated
with high numbers of incidental captures of cetaceans (whales and dolphins). In the
Sri Lankan gillnet fishery, one dolphin is caught for every 1.7–4.0 tonnes of tuna
landed[4]. This compares poorly with the rate of one dolphin per 70 tonnes of tuna
landed in the eastern Pacific purse seine tuna fishery.
Many types of gillnets are used by fisheries scientists to monitor fish populations.
[14] Vertical gillnets are designed to allow scientists to determine the depth
distribution of the captured fish.[15]
Legal status
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/215[16] called for the cessation of
all "large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing" in international waters by the end of 1992.
The laws of individual countries vary with regard to fishing in waters under their
jurisdiction.
Possession of gillnets is illegal in some U.S. states and heavily regulated in others.
Oregon voters had the chance to decide on whether gillnetting will continue in
the Columbia River in November 2012 by voting on Measure 81.[17] The measure
was defeated with 65% of Oregon voters voting against the measure and allowing
commercial gillnet fishing to continue on the Columbia River.[18]
The Columbia River Basin is currently under a management agreement that spans
from 2008 to December 31, 2017.[19] This management agreement looks to gather
information on fish harvesting through means including gillnets.[20] The parties
involved will convene again to decide on further action after the current agreement
ends.
The gill-netting season in Minnesota can vary from county to county and the net
types used are regulated on a lake by lake basis by the Minnesota Department of
Natural Resources.[21]
Virginia's gill-netting season is regulated by the Virginia Marine Resources
Commission. During different months of the year, certain rivers have restricted mesh
sizes, which vary by location.[22]
There have been proposed regulations to shut down drift gill net fisheries whose by-
catch numbers (which include dolphins, sea turtles and other marine life) were too
high. In 2014, California lawmakers pushed for the banning of gillnet fishing through
letters to federal fishing companies.[23] The progress for these regulations have
been paused in California mid 2017.[24]
According to the High Seas Fishing Compliance Act from 1996, a permit is require
for all commercial fishing vessels that are registered in the United States and under
this act, vessels must have a record of all their fishing efforts on the high seas.[25]
As of November 2017, there has been a bill introduced to improve the management
of driftnets, with gillnets being under the umbrella of this fishing tool.[26] The bill's
focus is to ban the use of large-scale nets while supporting the use of alternative
methods of fishing to decrease the maximum amount of bycatch. There is also a
compensation plan proposed in the bill for fishery participants who stop using large-
scale nets.[26]
Gillnets are a series of panels of meshes with a weighted "foot rope" along the
bottom, and a headline, to which floats are attached. By altering the ratio of floats to
weights, buoyancy changes,[27] and the net can therefore be set to fish at any depth
in the water column. In commercial fisheries, the meshes of a gillnet are uniform in
size and shape. Fish smaller than the mesh of the net pass through unhindered,
while those too large to push their heads through the meshes as far as their gills are
not retained. This gives gillnets the ability to target a specific size of fish, unlike other
net gears such as trawls, in which smaller fish pass through the meshes and all
larger fish are captured in the net[5].
Salmon[edit]
Commercial gillnet fisheries are still an important method of harvesting salmon in
Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon. In the lower Columbia River,
non-Indian commercial salmon fisheries for spring Chinook have developed methods
of selectively harvesting adipose fin clipped hatchery salmon using small mesh
gillnets known as tangle nets or tooth nets. Non-adipose fin clipped fish (primarily
natural origin salmon) must be released.[28] Fishery management agencies estimate
a relatively low release mortality rate on salmon and steelhead released from these
small mesh gillnets.
Problems that can arise from selective harvesting are smaller reproducing adult fish,
as well as the unexpected mortality of the fish which sustain injuries from the gillnet
but are not retained in the fishery. Most salmon populations include several age
classes, allowing for fish of different ages, and sizes, to reproduce with each other. A
recent 2009 study looked at 59 years of catch and escapement data of Bristol
Bay sockeye salmon to determine age and size at maturity trends attributable to the
selectivity of commercial gillnet harvests. The study found that the larger females
(>550 mm) of all age classes were most susceptible to harvest.[29] The study
suggests that smaller, younger fish were more likely to successfully traverse the
gillnet fishery and reproduce than the larger fish. The study also found that the
average length of sockeye harvested from 1946–2005 was 8 mm larger than the
sockeye who escaped the gillnet fishery to spawn, reducing the fecundity of the
average female by 5%, or 104 eggs.[29] If a salmon enters a gillnet, but manages to
escape, it can sustain injuries. These injuries can lead to a lower degree of
reproductive success. A study aimed at quantifying mortality of Bristol Bay sockeye
salmon due to gillnet-related injuries found that 11–29% of sockeye sustained
fishery-related injuries attributable to gillnets, and 51% of those fish were expected to
not reproduce.[30]
Gillnets are sometimes a controversial gear type especially among sport fishers who
argue they are inappropriate especially for salmon fisheries. These arguments are
often related to allocation issues between commercial and recreational (sport)
fisheries and not conservation issues.[31] Most salmon fisheries, especially those
targeting Pacific salmon in North America, are strictly managed to minimize total
impacts to specific populations and salmon fishery managers continue to allow the
use of gillnets in these fisheries.[32]
In 2012, University of Washington Fisheries Professor Emeritus Stephen Mathews
compared Puget Sound bycatch data for the non-treaty gillnet and purse seine keta
salmon fisheries. He found that although neither fishery had major bycatch problems
with nontarget salmonids, the gillnet fishery has substantially less impact on
nontarget Chinook salmon. His fulltext report is available from the Washington
State Puget Sound Salmon Commission.
Swordfish[edit]
Gillnets are also used out in the deep sea for fisheries whose primary catch is
swordfish. California driftnet fisheries have some of the highest rates of by-catch with
12 percent of the catch being the targeted swordfish while up to 68 percent of the
catch being by-catch that will be tossed back to sea.[24]
Alternatives[edit]
Given the selective properties of gillnet fishing, alternative methods of harvest are
currently being studied. Recent WDF&W reports suggest that purse seine is the
most productive method with having highest catch per unit effort (CPUE), but has
little information on the effectiveness of selectively harvesting hatchery-reared
salmon.[33] More conclusive research has been conducted jointly between the
Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation and Bonneville Power Administration
on a 10-year study on selective harvest methods of hatchery origin salmon in the
Upper Columbia River by purse seine and tangle net. Their 2009 and 2010 findings
show that purse seines have a higher percentage of survivability and higher CPUE
than does tangle nets.[34] A Colville Tribe biologist reports that during these two
years the tribe harvested 3,163 hatchery Chinook while releasing 2,346 wild Chinook
with only 1.4% direct or immediate mortality using purse seines,[35] whereas the
tangle net was far less productive but had an approximate 12.5% mortality.
Researchers commented that the use of recovery boxes and shortened periods
between checking the nets would have likely decreased mortality rates. While there
is data that shows success of selective methods of harvest at protecting wild and
ESA listed salmon, there still must be social acceptance of new methods of fishing.
There have also been studies done to see if differing strategies could potentially
decrease the estimated 400,000 annual avian by-catch in coastal fisheries. These
include three strategies that have a possible reduction in up to 75% of avian by-
catch: gear modifications, where visual devices will be placed near the top of the net
so birds will be able to see the nets; abundance-based fishery openings, where of
birds will determine whether the nets will be set out or not; and time-of-day
restrictions, which goes along with abundance- where bird by catch tended to occur
at dawn and dusk, where as fish catch occurred mostly at dawn.[36]
For marine mammal by-catch, field experiments have shown that the use of pingers
on nets resulted in significantly lower numbers of by-catch than nets without pingers.
After this study was completed by Jay Barlow, it was determined that there would be
a 12-fold decrease in short-beaked common dolphins caught, a 4-fold decrease in
other cetaceans and a 3-fold decrease in pinnipeds for nets containing pingers.[37]
Types of gillnets[edit]
The FAO classifies gillnet gear types as follows:
Set gillnets[edit]
Set gillnets consist of a single netting wall kept vertical by a floatline (upper
line/headrope) and a weighted groundline (lower line/footrope). Small floats, usually
shaped like eggs or cylinders and made of solid plastic, are evenly distributed along
the floatline, while lead weights are evenly distributed along groundline. The lower
line can also be made of lead cored rope, which does not need additional weight.
The net is set on the bottom, or at a distance above it and held in place with anchors
or weights on both ends. By adjusting the design these nets can fish in surface
layers, in mid water or at the bottom, targeting pelagic, demersal or benthic species.
On small boats gillnets are handled by hand. Larger boats use hydraulic net haulers
or net drums. Set gillnets are widely used all over the world, and are employed both
in inland and sea waters. They are popular with artisanal fisheries because no
specialized gear is needed, and it is low cost based on the relationship of fuel/fish.
[13]
Encircling gillnets[edit]
Encircling gillnets are gillnets set vertically in shallow water, with the floatline
remaining at the surface so they encircle fish. Small open boats or canoes can be
used to set the net around the fish. Once the fish are encircled, the fishers shout and
splash the water to panic the fish so they gill or entangle themselves. There is little
negative impact on the environment.[38] As soon as the gear is set the scaring takes
place and the net is hauled back in. The fish are alive and discards can be returned
to the sea. Encircling gillnets are commonly used by groups of small-scale fishers,
and does not require other equipment.[38]
Combined gillnets-trammel nets[edit]
This bottom-set gear has two parts:
 the upper part is a standard gillnet where semi-
demersal or pelagic fish can be gilled
 the lower part is a trammel net where bottom fish can
entangle.
The combined nets are maintained more or less vertically in the usual way by floats
on the floatline and weights on the groundline. They are set on the bottom. After a
time depending on the target species, they are hauled on board. Traditional
combined nets were hauled by hand, especially on smaller boats. Recent hydraulic
driven net haulers are now common. The gilled, entangled and enmeshed fish are
removed from the net by hand. Of some concern with this method is ghost fishing by
lost nets and bycatch of diving seabirds. Nets combined in this way were first used in
the Mediterranean.[39]
Drift nets
A drift net consists of one or more panels of webbing fastened together. They are
left free to drift with the current, usually near the surface or not far below it. Floats on
the floatline and weights on the groundline keep them vertical. Drift nets drift with the
current while they are connected with the operating vessel, the driftnetter or drifter.
Drift nets are usually used to catch schooling forage fish such
as herring and sardines, and also larger pelagic fish such as tuna, salmon and
pelagic squid. Net haulers are usually used to set and haul driftnets, with a drifter
capstan on the forepart of the vessel. In developing countries most nets are hauled
by hand. The mesh size of the gillnets is very effective at selecting or regulating the
size of fish caught. The drift net has a low fuel/fish energy consumption compared to
other fishing gear. However, the issue of concern with this type of net is
the bycatch of species that are not targeted, such as marine mammals, seabirds and
to a minor extent turtles. The use of drift nets longer than 2.5 kilometres on the high
seas was banned by the United Nations in 1991. Prior to this ban, drift nets were
reaching lengths of 60 kilometres. However, there are still serious concerns with
ongoing violations.[40]
Gillnets and entangling nets[edit]
The tangle net, or tooth net, originated in British Columbia, Canada, as a gear
specifically developed for selective fisheries.[41] Tangle nets have smaller mesh
sizes than standard gillnets. They are designed to catch fish by their nose or jaw,
enabling bycatch to be resuscitated and released unharmed. Tangle nets as adapted
to the mark-selective fishery for spring Chinook salmon on the lower Columbia River
have a standard mesh size of 4-1/4 inches (10.8 cm.). Short net lengths and soak
times are used in an effort to land fish in good condition. Tangle nets are typically
used in situations where the release of certain (usually wild) fish unharmed is
desirable. In a typical situation calling for the use of a tangle net, for instance, all fish
retaining their adipose fins (usually wild) must be returned to the water. Tangle nets
are used in conjunction with a live recovery box, which acts as a resuscitation
chamber for unmarked fish that appear lethargic or stressed before their release into
the water.
EVALUATION: Write true if the statement is correct if false write the word(s) that
make(s) the statment wrong before each item. Submit your answers via messenger
or email.
__________1. Gillnetting is a fishing method that uses gill nets: vertical panels of
netting that hang from a line with regularly spaced floaters that hold the line on the
surface of the water.
__________2. Gillnets are ineffective that their use is closely monitored and
regulated by fisheries management and enforcement agencies.
__________3. A fishing vessel rigged to fish by gillnetting is a gillnetter.
__________4. Gillnets existed in ancient times, as archaeological evidence from the

Middle East demonstrates.
__________5. Both drift gillnets and setnets have long been used by cultures around
the world.
__________6. There is evidence of fisheries exploitation, including gillnetting, going
far back in Japanese history, with many specific details available from the Edo
period (1603–1868).
__________7. Gillnetting was an early fishing technology in colonial America, used
for example, in fisheries for Atlantic salmon and shad.
__________8. In 1931, the first powered drum was created by Laurie Jarelainen.[
__________9. During World War II, navigation and communication devices, as well
as many other forms of maritime equipment (ex. depth-sounding and radar) were
improved and made more compact.
__________10.The introduction of fine synthetic fibres such as nylon in the
construction of fishing gear during the 1980s marked an expansion in the
commercial use of gillnets.
__________11. Nylon is highly resistant to abrasion and degradation, hence the
netting has the potential to last for many years if it is not recovered.
__________12. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/215[16] called for
the cessation of all "large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing" in international waters by the
end of 1992.
__________13. Gillnets are a series of panels of meshes with a weighted "foot rope"
along the bottom, and a headline, to which floats are attached.
__________14. Commercial gillnet fisheries are still an important method of
harvesting salmon in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon.
__________15. Gillnets are sometimes a controversial gear type especially among

sport fishers who argue they are inappropriate especially for salmon fisheries.
__________16. Gillnets are also used out in the deep sea for fisheries whose
primary catch is swordfish.
__________17. Encircling gillnets are gillnets set vertically in shallow water, with the
floatline remaining at the surface so they encircle fish.
__________18. This bottom-set gear of the upper part is a standard gillnet where
semi-demersal or pelagic fish can be gilled
__________19. A drift net consists of one or more panels of webbing fastened
together.
__________20. Drift nets are usually used to catch schooling forage fish such
as herring and sardines, and also larger pelagic fish such as tuna, salmon and
pelagic squid.
REFERENCES:
^ Murphy, B.; Willis, D. (1996). Fisheries Techniques (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD:
American Fisheries Society. Archived from the original on 2013-02-21.
^ Selective Fisheries (PDF) (Report). Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 26 September 2014.
^ Stewart, Hilary (1977). Indian Fishing: Early Methods on the Northwest Coast, p.79
in 1st paperback edition, 1982. Seattle, University of Washington Press.
^ Ruddle, Kenneth and Akimich, Tomoya. "Sea Tenure in Japan and the
Southwestern Ryukyus," in Cordell, John, Ed. (1989), A Sea of Small Boats, pp. 337-
^ Lofgen, Ovar. "Marine Ecotypes in Preindustrial Sweden: A Comparative
Discussion of Swedish Peasant Fishermen," in Andersen, Raoul, Ed. (1979), North
Atlantic Maritime Cultures, pp. 83-109. The Hague, Mouton.
^ Netboy, Anthony (1973) The Salmon: Their Fight for Survival, pp. 181-182. Boston,
Houghton Mifflin.
^ Martin, 1994, p. 44.
^ Andrews, Ralph W. and Larsen, A.K. (1959). Fish and Ships, p. 108. Seattle,
Superior Publishing Co.
^ Jump up to:a b FAO: Fishing Gear Types: Gillnets
^ Crawford, Bruce (2007). "Variable Mesh Gill Nets (in Lakes)". In Johnson, David;
et al. (eds.). Salmonid Field Protocols Handbook. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries
Society. pp. 425–433.
^ Lackey, Robert (1968). "Vertical gill nets for studying depth distribution of small
fish". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 97 (3): 296-
299. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1968)97[296:VGNFSD]2.0.CO;2.
^ "A/RES/46/215. Large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing and its impact on the living
marine resources of the world's oceans and seas". www.un.org. Retrieved 4
April 2018.
^ "Yes on Measure 81 Stop Gillnetting". Archived from the original on 14 August
2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
^ "Oregon Secretary of State: Official Results November 2012 General
Election" (PDF). sos.oregon.gov. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
^ "Environmental Impact Statement for Programmatic Review of Harvest Actions for
Salmon and Steelhead in the Columbia Basin related to U.S. v. Oregon :: NOAA
Fisheries West Coast Region". www.westcoast.fisheries.noaa.gov. NOAA Fisheries
West Coast Region. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
^ "2008-2017 United States v. Oregon Management Agreement May
2008" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
^ "Minnesota Gill Netting Regualtions" (PDF).
^ "CHAPTER: PERTAINING TO THE SETTING AND MESH SIZE OF GILL
NETS". www.mrc.state.va.us. Virginia Marine Resources Commission. Retrieved 30
November2017.
^ "California Lawmakers Call for End to the Use of Drift Gillnets off the West
Coast". Oceana. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
^ Jump up to:a b "Drift Gillnets in California". 2017.
^ "NOAA Fisheries- West Coast Region". 2017.
^ Jump up
a b
to: https://www.pcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/G1_Sup_Att14_Draft_S.
Bill_Driftnet_Fishing_NOV2017BB.pdf
^ Martin 1994, pp. 52-57.
^ http://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/01353/wdfw01353.pdf
^ Jump up to:a b Kendall, Neala W, Jeffery J. Hard and Thomas P. Quinn. 2009.
Quantifying Six Decades of Fishery Selection for Size and Age at Maturity in
Sockeye Salmon. Evolutionary Applications. 523-536.
^ Baker, Matthew R and Daniel E Schindler. 2009. Unaccounted Mortality in Salmon
Fisheries: Non-retention in Gillnets and Effects on Estimates of Spawners. Journal of
Applied Ecology (46). 752-761.
^ "Gillnet Ban Angers Fishers". Daily Astorian. 2012-12-13. Archived from the
^ "Background - Pacific Fishery Management Council". www.pcouncil.org.
Retrieved 4 April 2018.
^ WDF&W. 2010. 2010 Alternative Gear Catch...
^ Colville Tribe. 2011. Major Results...
^ Rayton, Michael. 2010. Declaration of Support...
^ Melvin, Edward F. (December 1999). "Novel Tools to Reduce Seabird Bycatch in
Coastal Gillnet Fisheries". Conservation Biology. 13 (6): 1386–
1397. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98426.x.
^ Barlow, Jay (April 2003). "Field Experiments Show That Acoustic Pingers Reduce
Marine Mammal Bycatch In The California Drift Gill Net Fishery". Marine Mammal
Science. 19 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2003.tb01108.x.
^ FAO: Fishing Gear Types: Combined gillnets-trammel nets
^ FAO: Fishing Gear Types: Driftnets
^ Petrunia, William Mark (1997). "Tooth Net Fishery. Report on Scientific License
96.149." Jan. 5, 1997.
^ "A Sustainable Fishery". Salmon For All. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
^ FAO: Fishing Gear Types: Gillnets and entangling nets
^ Erzini, K. Monteiro, C., Ribeiro, J., Santos, M., Gaspar, M., Montiero, P. & Borges,
T. (1997) An experimental study of "ghost-fishing" off the Algarve (southern
Portugal). Marine Ecology Progress Series 158:257-265.
^ Hall, M.A. (1998) An ecological view of the tuna-dolphin problem: impacts and
trade-offs. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 8:1-34.
^ Kaiser, M.J, Bullimore, B., Newman, P., Lock, K. & Gilbert, S. (1996) Catches in
"ghost-fishing" set nets. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 145:11-16.
^ Potter, E.C.E. & Pawson, M.G. (1991) Gill Netting. MAFF Fisheries Leaflet 69. [6]
^ Puente, E. (1997) Incidental impacts of gill nets. Report to the European
Commission, No. 94/095,152.

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XXI

TOPIC: Fishing Techniques
1. enumerate the common fishing techniques; and
2. discuss how fish is caugth using these techniques.
Handline fishing
Handline fishing, or handlining, is a fishing technique where a single fishing line is

held in the hands. It is not to be confused with handfishing. One or more fishing
lures or baited hooks are attached to the line. A hook, fishing lure, or a fishing jig and
many times a weight and/or a fishing float can be attached to the line. Handlining is
among the oldest forms of fishing and is commonly practiced throughout the world
today.
The fishing bait can be still fished, trolled or jigged up and down in a series of short
movements. Often handling is done close to the bottom of the body of water but can
also be done near or on the surface.
Salt water handlining
Ocean handlining is often used to catch groundfish and squid but other species are
sometimes caught, including pelagic fish. Sea handlining is a good way to catch
larger oceanic fish.
Freshwater handlining
Handlining is also used for catching fresh water fish. Panfish, walleyes, and other
freshwater game fish can be caught using handlining fishing techniques. Handlining
can be practiced from the shore or from a fishing boat. Walleye anglers practice
handlining over moderately deep water in a drifting boat. Handlining is also practiced
by ice fishing anglers.
Techniques
A jigging motion can be used to attract fish which are normally caught while trying to
strike the lure but they can also be snagged by the hooks as they investigate the
jigged lure. The lure can also be fished motionless and the angler feels for the bait to
be picked up by a fish and then sets the hook after waiting for the fish to fully take
the bait. After a strike occurs the hook is set and then the fish is hauled in and the
caught fish is removed.
DISCUSSIONS: Fish Corrals
Fish corral
Establishing fish corrals (baklad) is one popular method of catching fish along tidal
flats, in coral reefs and mangrove areas. They are located in bays or near estuaries
with moderate currents (not strong waves), affected by tidal fluctuations. This fishing
gear is stationary and is constructed in areas known to be rich fishing grounds.
Most fish species that travel with tide currents are trapped by the fish corrals. They
can trap different species, like crustaceans (crabs and shrimps), demersal fish
(groupers, snappers, etc.), mollusks (squid, cuttlefish, etc.), etc.
A fish corral needs high capital but requires only minimal and periodic light labor. It
can also be highly profitable.
Method of construction
The fish corral consists of a guiding barrier or leader made of bamboo slats with
nylon nets connected to a 3.0 cm wooden post. The size of the corral varies from
30.0-100.0 m wide. It is shaped like an arrow tip, pointed towards the sea from
shoreline. At the back of the leader is the playground, a semiround shape made of
the same materials as the leader. Connected to the playground is the terminal pound
or bunt where the fish are trapped. The bunt is usually heart-shaped with a small
opening. The nylon net of the leader and playground is finemeshed with sizes of
1.27-1.9 cm opening. The terminal pound is similarly built as the playground, but with
finer mesh nylon nets of 1.27-1.90 cm. This is to prevent small impounded fish to
escape.
Normally, the movements of fish are guided by tidal currents. At high tide, they travel
towards the shore to forage and look for food. During low tide, they follow the current
drifting towards the sea. If they happen to enter the fish corral contraption, they are
finally trapped.
Harvesting
Collecting the captured fish can be done daily or every two to three days. It is usually
done early in the morning or sometimes during low tides. Collect the trapped fish by
scooping them with hand nets. Small fish net seines are sometimes used to fully
empty the pound.
Economics of fish corral
Information on fish catch from fish corrals may be difficult to extract from fishermen.
However, records from the Negros Occidental School of Fisheries at Binalbagan in
1987 showed a return on investment (ROI) of about 200 percent. Very informal
discussions with fishermen reveal rough estimates of about 300-800 percent ROI per
year.
Other considerations
Owners of fish corrals should be organized and vigilant in protecting their municipal
waters from illegal commercial fishing, such as blast and poison fishing to ensure
sustainability. Efforts should also be made to undertake mangrove protection and
development, where appropriate, to ensure the health and productivity of the
surrounding area which, in turn, will redound to the productivity within the fish corral.
Fish trap: Amatong
Traps, like the amatong, were commonly used before and during World War II. The
adoption of this fishing method was facilitated because of the abundance of fish and
because it was safer for fishermen to fish near the coast to avoid being sighted by
Japanese ships. The depletion of fish and reduced catch in the last two decades,
due to massive destruction of fish habitats and use of destructive fishing gear saw
the disappearance of the amatong. However, coupled with care and consideration of
other factors, such as number of amatong users and the like, it can be utilized in
addition to other traditional fishing gears.
Fish trap: Amatong
Site selection
The amatong should be located in areas that are not exposed to strong winds and
water currents. Preferably, it should be in sandy to muddy-sandy bottoms with wide
tracts of low-tide areas within the vicinity of mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs.
Brackishwater areas are preferred because of the presence of several species of
seafoods, like demersal fishes (grouper, seabass, rabbitfish, snapper, etc.),
crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, etc.) and some seashells. Protected bays, coves,
mangroves, seagrass beds, tidal flats and atolls are ideal sites; while areas along
reservoirs, lakes, rivers, swamps, estuaries, idle fishponds and water impoundments
are alternative sites. If possible, the amatong should be located near residences for
better security.
Construction of amatong
The best time to establish fish shelter traps along the coast is during the lowest low
tide.
The recommended dimension is 6 m-3 m and 0.50-1 m deep. Excavate the seafloor
or bottom and place the excavated materials around the trench. Excavation is done
to reduce the sudden change of temperature during the tidal fluctuations. Excavation
may not be necessary in submerged areas two to three m deep.
Coral rocks are piled first at the bottom for at least three tiers. Filling of rocks can be
in heaps or continuous. Pile small bundled tree twigs and branches on top of the
coral rocks all around the trench. Bundling will facilitate easier removal during
harvest. Pile a few bigger branches on top of the twigs to keep them in place or as
weight. Use ropes to tie the top of the piles to prevent loosening of the tree branches
pile and washing away during strong currents.
A few days after the amatong is established, moss, algae, plankton, etc., grow at the
surface of the piled materials of rocks and tree branches. The accumulation of food
materials in this substrate attracts various species of fish which feed on them. During
high tides, some fish leave the contraption to forage for other foods. During low tide,
most of the fish return to them. Soon, the amatong becomes a permanent shelter.
Normally, several units of amatong are established near each other in groups of at
least five or more units. They should be closely guarded from poachers who sneak
inside using poisons, nets, or dynamites. Staying and sleeping in the amatong area
with dogs few days before harvest will deter poaching. Cooperative vigilance should
be practiced by amatong fishermen in each village.
Harvesting
Depending on the abundance of fish and the prevalence of amatong in the area,
harvesting is usually done one month after the initial establishment and every two to
three weeks thereafter. In Bohol, where many fishermen use amatong, they harvest
at 11.5 months interval.
Harvesting is done as soon as colonies of fish are observed inside the contraption.
Enclose the whole trench with bamboo strips or any fish net similar to fish corrals
during low tide. Remove the piled materials inside and carefully place them around
the amatong. Piled materials are continuously submerged in water or not
overexposed to sunlight so as not to kill the microorganisms and plants attached to
the substrates as future food materials in the next amatong.
The excavation is filled with coral rocks or dead corals, stumps and small branches
of trees.
Use hand nets or just simply comb it with nets (ring net) to catch the fish inside after
the enclosure is cleaned with amatong materials. See to it that small fishes (fry or
juveniles) and gravid (pregnant) fishes are set free as a conservation measure. They
will continue to grow or multiply in the amatong areas.
If sedimentation occurs in the trench, the depth is maintained by further digging. The
contraption may be lined with coral rocks at the top edge of the trench.
In areas with limited mangrove stands, cooperative effort should be exerted by

amatong users to establish additional mangrove areas.
Economics of production
Preliminary trials conducted in Batangas in 1987 showed that establishing amatong

will cost about P300.00 per unit. For economies of scale and as an income-
generating project, at least five units should be taken cared of by one fisherman or
family. Batangas data average 3-5 kg assorted fish caught every three weeks. In
Bohol, the reported average catch per unit is 5-7 kg every month.
At an assumed catch of five kg per unit per month, five units may have a total catch
of 25 kg per month. At an assumed average price of P30.00 per kilo, a fisherman's
expected income is about P750 per month or P9,000 per year. With an initial
investment of P1,500 for five units, an amatong fisherman may attain a 500-600
percent of ROI (return-on-investment) per year. This is a favourable investment for
employed people, granting that the sharing is 60 percent for fisherman and 40
percent for the financier.
This is an all-year-round fishing method and ecologyoriented livelihood project that is

highly profitable.
Fish traps: Modified multipurpose fish trap
Bubo, a fish trap used throughout the Philippines for catching coral reef species.
Fish trap (bubo) is the most common and widely used fishing paraphernalia in the
Philippines. However, for the past decades, not much has been done to improve or
modify this fishing gear to increase its efficiency to catch and lengthen its use at a
lower cost than the traditional types. It takes a longer time to finish one unit and one
must have the skill of weaving.
The most common material is bamboo or rattan, which usually lasts four to six
months of continuous use because it is easily broken and damaged during the
catching process. It is made in different sizes of 0.61-3.05 m long and at various
forms of opening or mouth, ranging from 0.61-1.5 m wide. Also, the cost is quite
expensive, ranging from P150-P600 per piece. To some extent, it has limited use
and efficiency. It is for this reason that modification was undertaken. Various
improved models were tried in the Batangas-Mindoro area in 1986 and 1987.
The traditional fish trap is weaved at hexagonal-shaped hole with or without corner
frames. Usually, it is oval-shaped from top view, semihalf round at front and back
view and semioval at side view.
Many fishermen who use plastic net, mononylon net, wire net and other stronger
materials for their fish trap say that it catches lesser fish compared to the common
fish trap. They believe that these materials contain certain chemicals that, when
emitted, make fish shy away from the traps. Also, there is a theory that bamboo,
rattan and wood can produce plankton and other microorganisms that attach
themselves to the common fish trap, which attracts fish better because they serve as
their food. It is from this theory that the modified fish trap has to retain the wood and
bamboo as its material components and the coralon net as its cover because they
can produce indigenous food materials of fish and do not emit chemical substances
that distract fish.
The proposed modified fish trap uses coralon net with sizes from 1.27-2.54 cm
opening as its top, side and bottom covers. This is the net usually used as fence in
fish corrals or fish pens. The use of coralon net is to keep the fish trap light for easy
handling and can last three to five years. The entry or front opening is made of thin
bamboo skin, nailed to a lumber strip of 2.543.81 by 5.08-6.35 cm The back or
opposite opening for fish caught is also made of the same materials. The frames are
usually made of hard lumbers, like guijo or other tree species, that are used for
wooden boat building. These lumber species are more durable in water-submerged
conditions. Copper nails are used to resist rusting. The bamboo strips should be
nailed at horizontal position. They are rectangular in shape and varying in sizes from
0.61-3.05 m long, 0.61-1.5 m wide and 0.35-0.76 m height. The size preference is
normally dictated by the frequency of harvesting the trapped fish. The longer the
interval of the harvest, the bigger is the size.
Cover with coralon or nylon net
The fish trap can be used with or without fish baits inside. Placing fish baits inside
the laid fish traps increases the chance of trapping carnivorous fish species, like
groupers.
Weights or stone boulders are attached at the corners to serve as anchors.
The principle behind fish traps is the tendency and instinct of many fish species to
look for shelters. The mouth or opening of the fish traps serves like the mouth of
coral, sand and mud holes as shelters, sanctuary or hiding place.
Fish pots can be used in different water conditions, such as freshwater,

brackishwater and salty water areas. The various places for fish traps are rivers,
lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, mangroves, bays, intertidal flats, coral reefs and
semideep sea.
The fish naps are laid at the bottom by dropping them in the waters. They are
provided with sinkers (stone, metal, concrete, etc.) to keep them in place. A buoy is
connected to the fish trap with ropes to serve as a marker and for pulling out during
harvest.
Economics of fish trap

Field data from coral reef areas in Albay gulf showed an average catch of 1-2 kg per
day; Negros Occidental with an average of 0.50-1 kg; Mindoro-Batangas area at
0.25-1 kg; and SUBASTA (Sulu/Basilan/Tawi Tawi), at an average of 2-4 kg per day.
The modified fish trap recommended will cost about P150-P200 per unit, which can
last for at least two years. With an estimated average of 0.50 kg catch per unit per
day, a one-year catch can reach about 150 kg of various species of fish. An
expected income of P4,000.00 per unit is possible.
Fish trap operators should be encouraged to engage in mangrove reforestation and

protection to attain sustainability of the project. At the same time, they should be
vigilant in protecting their municipal waters from illegal fishing, like trawls, blast,
cyanide and electric fishing. It was observed in Sulu that the introduction of fish traps
in coastal areas has practically eliminated illegal fishing.
Milkfish-fry gathering
Normally, milkfish fry (Chanos chanos) are collected along brackish coastal waters
near the mouth of rivers and streams where stands of mangroves are present. The
fry appears in different places and various seasonal peaks. Fry season usually starts
in March until July, with May and June as the peak months. The bangus fry is very
much in demand to stock freshwater and brackishwater milkfish fishponds. However,
the supply of bangus fry is highly erratic and unstable because it is highly dependent
on wild fry catch. Breeding and raising milkfish fry in captivity is already being tried at
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Iloilo.
Bangus growers usually stock their fishponds at 1020,000 fry or fingerlings per
10,000 sq m. The length of culture varies from 4-8 months or twice a year.
Rearing period coincides with the abundance of natural fish food. Usually, the culture
period starts from March to April until July and August and the other is July-August to
February-March of the next year. Seeding or growing is also timed with the fry
season.
Bangus fry grounds in the Philippines
Adapted from: Philippines Recommends for Milkfish, PCARRD 1983.
Fry grounds and season
Areas like Leyte del Sur, Western Samar, Bohol, Negros Oriental and Occidental,
Antique and Iloilo have two peak seasons that occur in March to July and October to
November. Regions like Cotabato and Zamboanga del Sur have a year-round fry
occurrence.
Peak gathering days occur during high tides after two or three days following a new
moon or a full moon.
The gonadosomatic index (GSI) or peak-spawning season of milkfish begins in

March to June and drops in August to September. During the breeding season, the
rising GSI value coincides with rising seawater temperature. Spawning regularly
occurs among five to seven-year old milkfish or sabalo in the wild with body weight of
three to five kg. Fertility is about 300,000 to 1 million eggs per kilogram weight of
sabalo. Sabalo is the female milkfish or breeder. (Greenfields, December 1989).
Collecting or gathering gear
Some commonly used bangus fry catching methods are: (Philippines Recommends
for Milkfish, PCARRD, 1983)
Tidal set net (Saplad or Tangab)
This is a stationary V-shaped barricade with bagnet placed hammock-like behind the
narrow end. The walls or wings are made of split bamboo slats 3-15 m long or fine-
meshed nylon netting with ends tied to poles (post) set firmly at the bottom ground.
Tangab is set in shallow portions along river banks, estuaries and tidal creeks near
the opening of the sea. The parts are detachable during impending floods. The fry
are guided by the wings into the bagnet where they are scooped out. The Tangab
can collect 3,000-20,000 fry in a day's operation.
Tidal set net or tangab
Skimming net (Hudbud)
It is made of double sheet nylon netting (mosquito net), mounted on a triangular

frame 1-2 m long and 1/2-1 m wide opening. It is pushed or towed in wading depths
to deeper waters mounted in a banca. This gear is useful in mangrove areas that
inhibit the use of the other types of active gears.
Skimming net or hudbud in operation. (Source: Villaluz et al, 1982)
Fry sweeper (Bakabaka)
This is a fan-like gear framed by whole hard bamboos and a detachable fine meshed
nylon netting. The frame measures 2-4 m at the sides and 2-3 m at the opening. A
bagnet is strung within the narrow end of the frame. Sinamay is usually sewn over
the nylon net at the end portion of bagnet to prevent sticking of bangus fry in the
nylon netting. The wings of the bottom net are provided with stone or lead metal
sinkers. The sweeper is pushed along waistdeep to chest-deep waters for 28 hours
depending on fry availability. Daily catch can reach from 200-2,000 fry.
Fry sweeper or bakabaka.
Double stick net (sarap or sagyap)
This is a rectangular seine held between two light bamboo poles. The net is made of
fine meshed nylon (mosquito net) or sinamay cloth 1-1.50 m wide and 6-8 m long. It
is operated in wading depths with two persons at each end dragging the net seine
along the seashore. The catch can range from 200-1 500 fry in two to six-hour
operation.
Double stick net or "sagyap"
Bulldozer
This is similar to the fry sweeper but is provided with bamboo platform (raft) along
the sides of the bagnet and at the back . It is generally operated at night with a
strong kerosene lamp (Coleman or Petromax) mounted in front of the bagnet. The
bulldozer gear is propelled by bamboo poles by pushing. Sometimes, outboard
motor is used. The catch ranges from 1,000-10,000 fry in three to sixhour operation.
Bangus fry are attracted to strong steady lights, hence the bulldozer method is
recommended. Other collecting gears can also use strong lamps during night
catching to increase efficiency of catching.
Bulldozer milkfish try catcher
Handling and marketing
The collected bangus fry are placed in well-ventilated containers, preferably wooden
vats or big earthen jars filled with clean brackishwater. Keep them in cool areas.
Overexposure to sunlight should be avoided. The fry are brought to the
concessionaires' buying stations (or fry buyers/assemblers in the village if there is no
concessionaire) without delay.
Economics of production-27,100 sq m milkfish pond
Total value (in

pesos)
Annual Revenue
Sale of 5851 kg × P21/kg × 7 runs/year 122,871
Annual production cost (lime, fertilizer chicken manure, 24,206

fingerlings, labor)
Fixed investment 27,100
Net return
Annual revenue 122,871
Less: Annual production cost 24,206 98,665
Return on investment
Net return 98,665
Fixed investment 27,100 3.64

Source: Alvarez, Ramiro C., The New Modular System of Raising
Milkfish, Greenfields, February 1991.
Prawn-fry gathering
Most black tiger prawn or sugpo (Penaeus monodon) growers in the Philippines are
concerned with the efficient production of marketable and good quality prawns from
post-larvae (juvenile to sub-adult) in brackishwater fishponds.
Penaeus monodon
Majority of the prawn growers believe that efficient production with high survival,
good growth and relatively disease-free prawn fry will come from the wild (not
hatchery-bred). It is also preferred by most prawn growers and commands a higher
price than the nursery-bred fry.
Natural seasonal occurrence of prawn fry is normally observed in areas with

mangrove stands along brackishwater (15-27 ppt salinity) areas. Fry catching has
generated seasonal income among the coastal people, especially children,
unemployed youth and mothers who cannot brave the high seas for fishing.
Spawning and fry stage (post-larvae)
The life cycle of the crustacean prawn starts when the female attains sexual maturity
at the age of 10-12 months when mating occurs during the molting of the female.
The gravid (pregnant) prawns go to offshore areas of 20-70 m deep to lay their eggs.
Two or three consecutive spawning can release half to one million eggs that can
take place in one season.
The eggs hatch 12-15 hours after spawning. After 10-12 days and two more larval
stages, they metamorphose into post-larvae which are similar to the adults. The
post-larval stage occurs in brackishwater areas.
The adults remain in the sea (offshore) up to the old age of three to five years.
However, some prawn species undergo spawning and stay in brackishwater without
going to the open sea. Normally, the fry catching peak season is from September to
February and May to June.
Methods of prawn-fry gathering
Most prawn-fry gathering municipalities still use the traditional method of fry catching
—the hand net, push net (sagyap), fry sweeper and the fish corral type (tangab).
Improved fry-catching technology not only increases catch that would otherwise be
eaten by other fish species or lost, but also bigger income for fry gatherers.
An improved method of prawn-fry gathering is by placing several (5-20) bamboo

torches (sulo) along seashores or near river mouths at night. Prawn fry is attracted
by low-intensity moving lights. Fry catching can now be done during the night by
using the fry sweeper.
Another improved method of catching prawn fry is with the installation of a series of
bundled (tied) coastal grasses (dried or fresh) tied on long lines or rows of strings
(plastic twine or No. 4 nylon rope). Place several sulo along the beaches or near
river mouth and install several lines with bundled grasses tied to the lines at 40-50
cm distance of at least 20-30 m long. The rows or lines should be facing the sea. At
night, the prawn fry are attracted by the sulo and, at the same time, cling to the
substrates. Clinging to the materials (or bundled grasses of 5.08-7.62 cm diameter
and 30.48 cm long) is an instinct of prawn fry for them to seek food source and as
their shelter and sanctuary. Gathering of the fry is best done by using rectangular
hand nets. Place the hand nets below the grass bundles, lift the grass line and shake
the substrates so that the clinging fry will drop at the hand net. Fry gathering under
this method can be done at dawn or daytime.
Prawn fry catching using the sulo and grass.
Prawn fry that are caught are placed in well-ventilated containers like pails, drums or
wooden vats and kept in cool areas. Earthern jars or pots are used in bringing them
to buying or concessionaire centers. Counting can be done by scooping the fry in the
water.
Studies conducted in Western Batangas and Lubang Island (Occidental Mindoro)

showed that higher catch by two to eight times is attained by using the improved
method, using sulo and substrates versus the traditional ones.
Economics of production (prawn)
Assumptions
Stocking density less than 50,000/10,000 sq m
Water management tidal or pump
Aeration no aeration
Fry source wild
Feed use natural supplementary
Dike construction earthen
Crops/year 1-2
Harvest method total harvest
Survival rate 60% or less
Production/cycle (kg.) 500 or less
Economics of production
Capital investment (per ha)
a. Pond development cost P 30,000-50,000
b. Working capital P 10,000-48,000
Total production cost per cycle P 64,254.64
a. Direct cost P 50,987.50
b. Indirect costs P 13,167.14
Cost/kg output 1a 47.60
Net return per year P 195,490.71
Return-on investment 1.09

An extensive system (stocks subsist on natural food grown with or without
fertilization and pond water is changed through tidal exchange) of prawn culture
requires a stocking density of less than 50,000/10,000 sq m and an investment
requirement of P40,000-P98,000/10,000 sq m. With a survival rate of 60 percent,
maximum annual production is approximately 1,000 kg. Annual production cost is
P126,509.28 while net return is P195,490.71. Return on investment is 1.09
(Greenfields, Vol. 7, No. 1, January 1987).
EVALUATION: Write true if the stament is correct if false, write the word(s) that
or email.
__________1. Establishing fish corrals (baklad) is an unpopular method of catching

fish along tidal flats, in coral reefs and mangrove areas.
__________2. Most fish species that travel with tide currents are trapped by the fish
corrals. They can trap different species, like crustaceans (crabs and shrimps),
demersal fish (groupers, snappers, etc.), mollusks (squid, cuttlefish, etc.), etc.
__________3. A fish corral needs low capital but requires only minimal and periodic
light labor. It can also be highly profitable.
__________4. The fish corral consists of a guiding barrier or leader made of bamboo
slats with nylon nets connected to a 3.0 cm wooden post.
__________5. The size of the corral varies from 30.0-100.0 m wide.
__________6. Handline fishing is a fishing technique where a single fishing line is

held in the hands.
__________7. Ocean handlining is often used to catch groundfish and squid but
other species are sometimes caught, including pelagic fish.
__________8. Traps, like the amatong, were commonly used before and during
World War II. Fish trap: Amatong.
__________9. The amatong should be located in areas that are very exposed to
strong winds and water currents.
__________10.Fish trap (bubo) is the most common and widely used fishing
paraphernalia in the Philippines.
REFERENCES:
Houghton Mifflin.
^ Martin, 1994, p. 44.
299. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1968)97[296:VGNFSD]2.0.CO;2.
April 2018.
November2017.
^ Jump up
to:a b https://www.pcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/G1_Sup_Att14_Draft_S.
^ Martin 1994, pp. 52-57.
1397. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98426.x.
Science. 19 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2003.tb01108.x.
96.149." Jan. 5, 1997.

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XXII

TOPIC: Design and Construction of a Fish Pond
1. discuss the features of a fish pond;
2. discuss the procedures in constructing a fishpond; and
3. make a design for constructing a fishpond;
DISCUSSION:
How to Design and Construct a Fish Pond
In other to grow fish, it is necessary to have a suitable fish pond for better fish
production. A fish pond is simply an artificial structure/habitat that meets the
necessary requirements for growing fish. As you read down, you will learn how
fish pond design and construction is carried out from start to finish. Before we
discuss the steps involved, let’s look at the general features of a fish pond.
Features of a Fish Pond
Although there are many kinds of fish ponds, the following are the main features
and structures associated with them in general:
 Inlet/outlet pipes or channels, which carry water into/away from the ponds.
 Pond walls or dykes, which hold in the water
 Water controls, which control the level of water in the pond, the flow of
water through the pond, or both
 Tracks and roadways along the pond wall, for easy access to the pond
 harvesting facilities and other equipment for the management of water and
fish.
Fish Pond Construction
A typical earthen fish pond should be about 300m 2. Although ponds can be much
larger than this, having several small ponds rather than one large one will allow
you harvest fish more often.
A shortcoming to this is that, many but small ponds are more expensive to
construct as compared to a few but larger ponds. Small ponds also waste a lot of
space in comparison. However, very large ponds take long to fill and drain and
are also difficult to manage.
The physical attributes of a pond usually have a direct influence on achievable

levels of production and returns. The main physical factors to consider are the
land area, water supply and the soil water retention capacity.
Suitable Land Area for Fish Pond Construction
Select land area with a gentle slope and layout ponds in a way that will take
advantage of existing land contours. A farmer should determine an area large
enough for the present plans and any future expansion. Also, ensure that such
an area is not prone to flooding.
Source of Water Supply for the Pond
A good water source will be relatively free of silt, aquatic insects, potential
predators, and toxic substances, and it will have high concentration of dissolved
oxygen. The quantity and quality of water should be adequate to support
production throughout the culture period.
The most common water sources can be spring water, seepage water, rainwater
or run-off, tide water (marine ponds), water from bore holes (wells), or water
pumped or diverted from a river, lake, or reservoir. Wells and springs are
generally preferred for their consistently high quality water.
Soil Type for Earthen Pond Construction
A simple test can be carried out to determine the suitability of the soil for pond
construction:
1. Dampen a handful of soil with water. Use only enough water to dampen the
sample (do not saturate it).
2. Squeeze the sample tightly in your hand.
3. Open your hand:
 If the sample keeps its shape, it is good enough for building a pond
(sufficient clay present).
 If the sample collapses and does not keep its shape, it is not good enough
for building a pond (too much sand present)
The quality of soil influences both productivity and water quality in a pond.
Farmers should consider importing clay soil for compacting the pond bottom,
sides and core trench to minimize seepage.
General Design Considerations
=> Consider the intended culture practices to be carried out: In designing the fish
farm, it should be decided as to where and how many nursery, rearing and
stocking ponds are to be constructed.
=> It is important to know the exact size, maximum depth, average depth, and
water volume of the pond. This information becomes useful in calculating the
amount of herbicide needed for weed control and the number of fish fingerlings
needed for stocking.
=> The water source must be able to keep the pond full throughout the culture
period.
=> Relatively shallow ponds are productive, but the shallow end should be at
least 0.5 m deep to avoid invasion by weeds.
=> It is always desirable to place screens on pond inlets and outlets to keep out
predators, insects, and unwanted fish, and to retain the cultured fish.
=> Every pond should be drainable.
=> Every pond should have an independent controlled inlet and outlet.
=> Excavation of a core trench should be done where soils are less suitable.
=> Perimeter and feeder roads are required to provide for movement of

machines during construction and at harvest.
=> If you plan to drive on the dykes, build them at least 3 meters wide on top,
and wider at the base.
=> Soil used to build dykes should always be compacted in layers.
PROCEDURE FOR BUILDING AN EARTHEN FISH POND
STEP 1: PREPARE THE SITE
 Vegetation should not be included in the soil used to construct the pond
dykes, so should be removed from the site prior to beginning to excavate
and move soil.
 Remove the topsoil from the site.
 In hilly areas, try to measure the slope of the land with a level or stick to
find the best suitable site and orientation for the pond.
 Measure and stake out the length and width of the pond.
STEP 2: PEG OUT THE POND AREA
 After measuring the pond length and width, use pegs to mark out the pond
area.
 Decide on the dyke slope and width and determine core trenches pegging.
 The pond dykes should be about 0.5m above the water level (also called
‘freeboard’), to prevent the fish from jumping out.
 It is recommended that pond dykes have a gentle slope of about 2:1. This
makes them strong and prevent them from undercutting and collapsing into
the pond. However, this ratio depends on the size of the pond. Larger
ponds need to have a gentler slope.
STEP 3: CONSTRUCT CLAY CORES
 A clay core is the foundation for the pond dyke which makes it strong and
prevents water leaks.
 If you suspect the dyke or pond bottom soil to be highly permeable, dig a
core trench, in the same way as you would dig the foundation for a house,
under the dykes around the pond.
 Pack the core trenches with impermeable clay and compact it well.
STEP 4: EXCAVATE THE POND AND CONSTRUCT DYKES
 Decide the depth of the pond and begin the digging process.
 Use the excavated soil to build the pond dykes. Do this gradually, and
compact each layer of soil added on the dyke before the next layer.
 Try not to use sandy/rocky soil or soil that contain roots, grasses, sticks or
leaves. These will decay later and leave a weak spot in the dyke through
which water can leak out
 If you have made the pond deep enough, continue digging, but, dispose the
soil far from the pond area.
 Once the dyke is constructed, it is better to plant grass on it. The grass
roots help to hold the wall together and prevent erosion of the soil.
 If the fish farmer is economically sound, he can go for stone pitched dykes.
By using concrete blocks, stones or bricks the earthen dykes will be
protected more permanently from crab or rat holes.
STEP 5: INSTALL DRAINAGE SYSTEM
 The essence of the drainage system is to empty the pond when there is a
need to change the pond water or harvest fish.
 It consists of the outlet system for letting water out of the pond and the
drainage ditches which carry the water away from the pond.
 The best and easiest way to have a good drainage system is to build the
pond in a place which provides a good slope.
 The drainage system must be built before the pond dyke because some
drainage devices go through the walls.
 One of the easiest ways to drain the pond is to place a bamboo or plastic
(PVC) pipe through the base of the wall into the deepest part of the pond.
 An overflow pipe can be installed at an angle into the pond. This should be
used only in emergencies. During heavy rains, the overflow pipe takes
excess rainwater and runoff water out of the pond.
 The end of the pipe, which is inside the pond, should have a screen over it
to keep fish from entering the pipe. The other end of the pipe is plugged
with wood or clay or it can be fitted with a tap head. To drain the pond
during harvest time, the plug is pulled out.
 Install the intake of the drain pipe underwater. This will prevent the screen
from clogging with debris that may be floating on the pond surface.
 The use of pumps and siphon are other methods of draining water from the
pond.
STEP 6: INSTALL WATER INLET PIPE
 All ponds, except for those filled directly by a spring or by rainwater, need
water inlets.
 During the construction of inlets, filters should be used in the channel so
that unwanted fish and other materials do not enter into the pond.
 A water inlet can be as simple as a bamboo/plastic pipe of good diameter
running from a water source through the wall into the pond.
 The inlet pipe should be placed about 0.15m above the water level so the
incoming water splashes down into the pond. This helps to mix air (thereby
introducing oxygen) into the water. It also prevents fish from escaping by
swimming into the inlet pipe.
Materials for Making Screens for the Pond Inlet and Outlet Pipes
 If the water is muddy, or has plenty of leaves or grass in it, the wire

mesh screen is better.
 Nylon mesh bag will work if the water source is free from organic material.
 If the water contains unwanted fish and more organic matter, sand and
gravel filters are best. it is more effective and economical.
 A clay pot with holes punched in it can also be used for screening.
 You can use a loosely woven grass mat as good screen material.
In conclusion, a pond must be able to hold water and sustain favorable

conditions for production. One should also be able to undertake the required
pond management activities (such as harvesting and feeding) effectively, with
relative ease and safety.
Consequently, poorly constructed ponds, give poorer production yields and

returns. This is because additional management efforts and associated costs are
required to achieve comparable yields. Paying attention to pond design and
construction detail is, therefore, the first step to successful pond production.
EVALUATION:Write true if the statement is correct if false, write the word(s) that
make(s) statement wrong before each item.
__________1. A fish pond is simply an artificial structure/habitat that meets the
necessary requirements for growing fish.
__________2. A typical earthen fish pond should be about 500m2.
__________3. The physical attributes of a pond usually have a direct influence

on achievable levels of production and returns.
__________4. The suitable land area for fish pond production is area with a
gentle slope and layout ponds in a way that will take advantage of existing land
contours.
__________5. A good water source for the pond will be relatively free of silt,
aquatic insects, potential predators, and toxic substances, and it will have high
concentration of dissolved oxygen.
__________6. The most common water sources for fish pond can be spring
water, seepage water, rainwater or run-off, tide water (marine ponds), water from
bore holes (wells), or water pumped or diverted from a river, lake, or reservoir.
__________7. The quality of soil influences both productivity and water quality in
a pond.
__________8. In designing the fish farm, it should be decided as to where and
how many nursery, rearing and stocking ponds are to be constructed.
__________9. A pond must be able to hold water and sustain favorable

conditions for production.
__________10. Poorly constructed ponds, give higher production yields and

returns.
REFERENCES:

Houghton Mifflin.
^ Martin, 1994, p. 44.
299. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1968)97[296:VGNFSD]2.0.CO;2.
April 2018.
November2017.
^ Jump up
a b
to: https://www.pcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/G1_Sup_Att14_Draft_S.
^ Martin 1994, pp. 52-57.
1397. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98426.x.
Science. 19 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2003.tb01108.x.
96.149." Jan. 5, 1997.

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XXIII

TOPIC: How to Farm Milkfish (Chanos chanos)
1. describe milkfish; and
2. discuss the production systems involved in milkfish farming
DISCUSSION: How to farm milkfish (Chanos chanos)

This guide from the FAO Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme provides
information on farming milkfish - from sourcing fry to marketing milkfish globally.
Identity
FAO
Names: En - Milkfish, Fr - Chano, Es - Chano
Biological features
Body fusiform, elongated, moderately compressed, smooth and streamlined. Body

colour silvery on belly and sides grading to olive-green or blue on back. Dorsal, anal
and caudal fins pale or yellowish with dark margins. Single dorsal fin with two spines
and 13-17 soft rays. Short anal fin with two spines and 8-10 soft rays, close to caudal
fin. Caudal fin large and deeply forked with large scale flaps at base in adults.
Pectoral fins low on body with axillary (inner basal) scales. Pelvic fins abdominal with
axillary scales and 11 or 12 rays. Scales cycloid, small and smooth, 75-91 on lateral
line. No scutes (modified pointed scales) along belly.
Transparent "adipose" tissue covers eye. Mouth small and terminal without teeth.
Lower jaw with small tubercle at tip, fitting into notch in upper jaw. No bony gular
plate between arms of lower jaw. Four branchiostegal rays supporting underside of
gill covers. Gill rakers fine and numerous. Attains typical length of one metre but
may reach maximum length of 1.8m (male).Milkfish are a popular aquaculture
offering in southeast Asia.
Historical background
Milkfish farming in Indonesia, Taiwan Province of China and the Philippines started
about four to six centuries ago. Culture methods in a variety of enclosures are
constantly being improved upon.Since the 1970s, large investments have been
made in the Philippines (as well as in Taiwan Province of China, Indonesia and
Hawaii) in terms of infrastructure, research, credit and training in support to the
milkfish industry.For example, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
(SEAFDEC) Aquaculture Department (AQD) was established in Iloilo, Philippines in
1973 with a special remit to find solutions for milkfish aquaculture
problems. Government agencies and fisheries institutions were also involved in a
national effort to intensify milkfish farming from the mid 1970s until now.
In this work, research and development on farming systems, breeding and fry
production technologies was carried out. There was no attempt at genetic
improvement but fry translocation and trade occurred between Indonesia, Taiwan
Province of China and the Philippines and geographic variations and heterogeneity
were documented.More recently, unconfirmed reports indicate that milkfish are now
being cultured to fingerling or juvenile size in the South Pacific Islands and in
Singapore as tuna bait.
Milkfish farming was previously a traditional industry, with little emphasis on

producing sexually mature, reproductively active fish in captivity. The traditional
milkfish industry depended totally on an annual restocking of farm ponds with
fingerlings reared from wild-caught fry. As a result, the industry suffered from
regional, seasonal and annual variations in fry availability. These variations are
generally unpredictable, and may be quite large over short periods of time.
Thus, the central problem faced by the international milkfish industry was to find a
way to produce a reliable, adequate, high quality supply of milkfish fry that was not
subject to large unpredictable variations in time and space. During the past decade,
much progress has been made, particularly in regard to milkfish propagation and the
mass production of fry by private hatcheries, research institutions and government
agencies. Instead of relying on wild-caught fry, milkfish farms in the Philippines,
Taiwan Province of China and Indonesia now obtain the majority of their fry from
hatcheries, mainly due to the significant shortage of wild-caught fry.
Adult
milkfish sold at market
Habitat and biology
Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is the only species in the Family Chanidae. Its distribution
is restricted to either low latitude tropics or the subtropical northern hemisphere
along continental shelves and around islands, where temperatures are greater than
20 °C (Red Sea and South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, north to Japan and
south to Victoria, Australia; and in the Eastern Pacific from San Pedro, California to
the Galapagos).
Adults occur in small to large schools near the coasts or around islands. They are
well developed, migratory, large (up to 1.5 m and 20 kg), and mature sexually in five
years. Milkfish only spawn in fully saline waters. The activity is most often correlated
with the new or full moon phases, takes place mostly in the night and, in most
regions, has one or two seasonal peaks. In the natural environment, spawning takes
place near coral reefs during the warm months of the year, and populations near the
equator spawn year-round. Juveniles and adults eat a wide variety of relatively soft
and small food items, from microbial mats to detritus, epiphytes and zooplankton.
Milkfish is a heterosexual fish; hermaphrodism has not been reported. In natural

spawning stocks the sex ratio is almost equal, with a slightly higher amount of
females. The determination of sex is very difficult, because there are no easily
identifiable morphological differences between males and females; however, the
pheromone PGF2a (prostaglandin) has been found to be an effective way to identify
mature male milkfish.
Milkfish eggs (1.1-1.2 mm in diameter) and larvae (3.5 mm at hatching) are pelagic
and stay in the plankton for up to 2-3 weeks. Egg division begins an hour after and
hatching occurs 35-36 hours after spawning. In the wild, eggs are probably released
in deeper oceanic waters and in the outer reef region. Older larvae migrate onshore
and settle in coastal wetlands (mangroves, estuaries) during the juvenile stage, or
occasionally enter freshwater lakes. The larvae eat zooplankton and can thrive and
grow in water as warm as 32 °C. They then migrate onshore and where they can be
caught by fine-mesh nets operated along sandy beaches and mangrove areas; these
'fry' are 10-17 mm long and are used as seedstock in grow-out ponds, pens and
cages. In the wild, juveniles are found in mangrove areas and coastal lagoons, and
even travel upriver into lakes; they go back to sea when they get too large for the
nursery habitat, or when they are about to mature sexually.
Milkfish can reach a maximum size of 180 cm SL (male/unsexed) and 124 cm SL

(female). The maximum recorded weight and age is 14.0 kg and 15 years
respectively. Resilience is low, with a minimum population doubling time of 4.5 - 14
years. Its fisheries importance is highly commercial, especially in aquaculture, and it
is also used in game fish as bait. It is especially valued as a food fish in Southeast
Asia.
Production cycle
Production cycle of Chanos chanos
Production systems
Seed supply
Milkfish fry can either be obtained through collection from coastal areas or littoral
waters or can be produced in captivity. The supply of wild fry is often unpredictable;
catches in recent years have diminished and cannot satisfy the demand from on-
growing farms.
Fry from captive broodstock and spawners
To develop broodstock under captive conditions, large juvenile milkfish may be

stocked, fed and maintained in floating sea cages in protected coves or in large,
deep, fully saline ponds (as practiced in the Philippines), or in large deep concrete
tanks on land (as practiced in Indonesia and Taiwan Province of China), until they
reach sexual maturity with an average body weight of at least 1.5 kg. Land-based
broodstock facilities are entirely dependent on fresh pumped seawater supplies and
are often integrated with a hatchery.
Broodstocks reach maturity in five years in large floating cages, but may take 8-10
years in ponds and concrete tanks. On average, first-spawning broodstocks tend to
be smaller than adults caught from the wild. As a result, first-time spawners produce
fewer eggs than wild adults, but larger and older broodstocks produce as many eggs
as wild adults of similar size. Broodstocks of about 8 years old and averaging 6 kg
produce 3-4 million eggs.
Broodstock
milkfish tank
© Photo courtesy of GRIM

Breeding milkfish in captive conditions and the mass production of fry, as practised
in Taiwan Province of China, Indonesia and the Philippines, is mostly dependent on
natural spawning, which assures high survival rates. Artificial induction is not
normally used. On days when natural spawning occurs, the fish may feed less than
usual but show increased swimming activity and exhibit chasing, occasional leaping,
and water-slapping activities from late noon to early evening. Spawning usually takes
place around midnight but daytime spawning sometimes occurs.
Wild-caught fry
Wild-caught fry are collected with fine-mesh seines and bag nets of various
indigenous designs in the Philippines, Taiwan Province of China and Indonesia. The
most commonly used gear are push net "sweepers" and dragged seines.
Hatchery production
Milkfish hatcheries consist of larval rearing tanks, culture tanks for rotifers
(Brachionus) and green algae (eg Chlorella) and hatching tanks for brine shrimp
(Artemia). Larval rearing may be either operated in outdoor or indoor systems,
depending on the specific conditions in the countries where fry are being produced.
Hatchery operations utilise either intensive (high stocking density, high volume tanks,
daily feeding and water exchange) or semi-intensive (low stocking density, high
volume tanks, minimal water exchange, feeding with mixed diet) systems, with an
average survival rate of 30 percent (from stocked newly-hatched larvae). After
hatching, the larvae are ideally kept at 50/litre in hatchery tanks (either concrete,
fibreglass, canvas or polypropylene-covered earthen tanks) maintained with
Chlorella and fed with rotifers during the early stages and later with copepods or
brine shrimp for a total of 3-4 weeks. Following this, their size ranges between 2-3
cm and they are ready for transport to nurseries.
The fry may change hands two or more times before being used for grow-out; each
time this happens, they are sorted and counted, transported, and stored for different
periods of time. Fry are a highly perishable commodity and some of them die during
gathering, storage, transport, nursery rearing and grow-out. The technologies for fry
storage and transport are generally effective, although perhaps not yet optimised.
Fry are stored in a cool place in plastic basins or clay pots at 100-500/litre, in water
of 10-25 percent, which is renewed daily. Dealers may store fry for 1-7 days,
depending on the demand.
Fry can be maintained on wheat flour or cooked chicken egg yolk for 1-2 weeks but
soon begin to die, despite continued feeding. Recently, micro-encapsulated feeds
have become commercially available for finfish but the cost compared to
conventional live feeds is higher.
Nursery
Nursery operations in milkfish producing countries vary according to established

cultural practices.
In Taiwan Province of China, where commercial hatchery and nursery productions

are integrated enterprises, milkfish fry are generally grown in either earthen ponds or
elevated canvas or concrete tanks at intensive stocking densities of >2,000/litre.
In Indonesia, a well established backyard-type nursery is used. This consists of a

series of elevated canvas or concrete 1-2 tonnes tanks and similar stocking densities
to those used in Taiwan Province of China are employed.
In the Philippines, milkfish nurseries are integrated with grow-out facilities, where
wild-caught or hatchery-reared fry are first acclimated into nursery compartments
which comprise one third to one quarter of the total area of the Brackish water pond.
Fry are stocked at a density of up to 1,000/litre and are fed with a naturally-grown
micro-benthic food known as "lab-lab" which grows on the fertilised pond bottom.
Hapa nets can be used in the nursery stage of milkfish

aquaculture
Nursery rearing has also been carried out in hapa type suspended nylon nets
installed in Brackish water ponds or lagoons and in freshwater lakes within the grow-
out compartments, a traditionally practice in the Philippines. When natural food is
becoming depleted, artificial feeds such as rice bran, corn bran, and stale bread or
formulated feeds are provided.
In about 4-6 weeks, the fry grow to 5-8 cm juveniles, which is the ideal size for
releasing into grow-out ponds or pens. Depending on the desired grow-out period,
juveniles or fingerling size milkfish are kept in nurseries or transition holding tanks up
to the required stocking size of 30-40 g.
Nursery rearing from fry to fingerling size normally achieves 70 percent survival.
On-growing techniques
Milkfish may be on-grown in ponds, pens or cages. Pond culture of milkfish can be
conducted in shallow or deep water systems.
Shallow water culture
Shallow water culture is practiced mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. Milkfish
are traditionally cultured in shallow Brackish water ponds in which the growth of
benthic algae is encouraged through inorganic or organic fertilisation. Milkfish will
survive on benthic algae alone only if the productivity of the algae exceeds the
grazing rate of the fish; otherwise, supplemental commercial feeds are applied. The
'lab-lab' culture system in the Philippines is equivalent to shallow water culture in
Taiwan Province of China. 'Lab-lab' is the term used in this country for the algal mat
(and all micro-organisms associated with it) in the ongrowing ponds.
Brackish
water grow-out pond
Brackish water ponds in the Philippines were mostly excavated from "nipa" and
mangrove areas. Shallow water pond design generally consists of several nursery
and production ponds with a typical area of 2,000 m² for nursery ponds and 4 ha for
production (on-growing) ponds. Typically, ponds have a depth of 30-40 cm and are
provided with independent water supplies.
The average yield of a typical integrated nursery, transition and shallow grow-out
system that produces 3 crops a year is 800 kg/ha. Modified modular pond designs
consisting of a series of grow-out compartments with a maximum of eight crops a
year have been shown to increase yield to a high as 2,000 kg/ha.
Deep water culture
Deep water culture was developed in the mid 1970s in response to the decline of
profitability of shallow water culture, and the limited and increasing value of land and
manpower resources. Deep-water ponds provide a more stable environment and
extend the grow-out period into the winter season. Most deep-water milkfish ponds
have been created by converting either shallow water ponds or freshwater ponds,
with a depth of 2-3 m. Production from these systems has sharply increased in
Taiwan Province of China, having expanded from 23 percent of the total production
in 1981 to 75 per cent in 1990.
Most milkfish ponds in the Philippines and Indonesia are of the extensive and semi-
intensive type, with large shallow pond units, tidal water exchange, natural food,
minimal use of fertiliser alternating with commercial feeds and other inputs, and low
to medium stocking rates (50 000-100 000/ha). The Taiwanese method of
production, on the other hand, employs intensive stocking densities (150 000-200
000/ha). Few diseases or infestations have been recorded so far in milkfish grow-out
farming in these Asian countries.
Pen culture
Pen culture was introduced in the Philippines in 1979 in the Laguna Lake. At that
time, the lake had a very high primary productivity, which met the nutritional needs of
milkfish.
Milkfish
pen in an estuary
Because of the low rate of input and the high rate of return, the pen culture area
increased sharply from 1973 to 1983, and exceeded more than 50 percent of the
total lake surface, which is 90,000 ha. As the primary production of the lake could not
meet this sudden expansion of aquaculture, and feeding became necessary to meet
the nutritional requirements of the cultured fish, the pen culture practices developed
in lakes were later introduced into inter-tidal areas in the Philippines along coves and
river estuaries as well.
Pen operators stock fingerlings at 30,000-35,000/ha and provide supplemental

commercial diets. However, disease spreads among culture pens and causes mass
mortality. Government regulations are now being considered to maintain sustainable
yields from this type of farming.
Cage culture
Fish cages are smaller and more restricted enclosures that can be staked in shallow
waters or set-up in deep water with appropriate floats and anchors. Cage farming of
milkfish is commonly carried out in marine waters along coastal bays. Stocking rates
(in the Philippines) are quite high, from 5 up to 30/m³.
Floating
net cages
Feed supply
In the past, traditional feeding practices for milkfish grow-out production have
consisted of natural food ("lab-lab") or a combination of phytoplankton and
macroalgae (Enteromorpha intestinales, Cladophora spp. or Chaetomorpha linnum)
encouraged by fertilisation.
In the 1980s however, special commercial feeds for milkfish were developed and
became almost exclusively used. As cage and pen culture technology proliferated in
the 1990s, both in marine and inland waters, extruded milkfish feeds were further
developed into floating and semi-floating forms, while sinking forms were used for
pond and tank-based grow-out.
Feed supplies are now manufactured commercially in the form of starters, growers
and finishers, which are administered according to the production stage of the
milkfish.
Harvesting techniques
Milkfish are normally harvested at sizes of 20-40 cm (about 250-500g). There are
three known methods used for harvesting milkfish:
Partial harvest. Selective harvest of uniformly grown milkfish from grow-out facilities
(ie cages, pens, ponds, tanks) using seine or gillnets, retaining the undersize fish
and harvesting only the commercial sized stocks, with an average body weight of
250g or larger.
Total harvest. Complete harvest in one crop period from grow-out facilities (ie total
draining of ponds by gravity or pump, hauling of the entire net cage structure, seining
or the use of gillnets in pens). The harvest size at this stage may vary from 250-
500g.
Forced harvest. Emergency harvesting, regardless of fish size or grow-out stage,

which is carried out during "fish kills" due to oxygen depletions that are attributed to
algal blooms, red tide occurrence, pollution or other environmental causes.
Handling and processing
200-400g milkfish are harvested and marketed mostly fresh or chilled, whole or
deboned, frozen, or processed (eg fresh frozen deboned, fresh frozen deboned
descaled, and smoked fish deboned). In general, all marketed milkfish are produced
in farms, only a few being caught from natural waters. In some countries (eg the
Philippines) fishing for adult milkfish is officially banned in order to protect the natural
broodstocks.
There are two known post-harvest processing techniques for milkfish, which are the
traditional (ie drying, fermentation and smoking) or non-traditional methods (ie
bottling, canning and freezing) and value-added products such as "surimi" and
deboned products as practiced in Taiwan Province of China and in the Philippines.
Regulations and standard protocols for manufacturing milkfish products exist for both
domestic consumption and export, as follows:
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs). Plant construction.
Personnel hygiene and sanitation.
Standard Sanitary Operating Procedures (SSOPs).
HACCP compliance.
Production costs
Milkfish farming is a centuries-old industry in Indonesia, Taiwan Province of China

and the Philippines. It has been slow to modernise and now faces challenges from
competing aquaculture species and current economic realities.
The domestic market is large and the export market has globally expanded. Milkfish
price and personal income affect the amount of milkfish consumed in the countries of
origin. Studies conducted in Taiwan Province of China and the Philippines concluded
that price and income had a negative and positive elasticity coefficient, respectively.
The following are the major determining factors affecting the cost of production in
milkfish:
Type of culture system: costs are lowest in systems dependent only on natural food;
costs increase as artificial feed is introduced; costs are highest in systems
dependent totally on commercial feeds.
Increasing production: with milkfish production steadily increasing and culture

practices becoming more intense, a big surplus of this commodity is foreseen in the
near future.
Cost of feed: feeds account for 60 to 80 percent of the total production cost.
Low farm-gate prices: on average, the farm-gate price for milkfish is only about USD
2.00/kg in the Philippines. As the supply of milkfish is expected to increase way
above demand, fish farmers cannot demand a higher farm-gate price even though
they may be spending heavily to cover production costs.
Lack of post-harvest facilities for value-adding and processing
Diseases and control measures
The major diseases affecting milkfish are included in the table below. In some cases
antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used in treatment but their inclusion
in this table does not imply an FAO recommendation.
DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES
Nematode Capillaria Parasitic Emaciated, Administer

infestation sp. nematod although trichlorfon
e shows good (with caution
appetite in for small
early stage, fish);
then niclosamide,
weakens,
becomes
listless, loses
appetite &
colour pattern
darkens; fin &
tail rot and
skin
patches/sore
s; faeces
white &
stringy/slimy; levamisole
scrapes belly or
against mebendazol
bottom or e mixed in
may start to feed
tremble;
larval stage
of parasite
located in
muscle tissue
& can be
seen through
skin,
appearing
either coiled
up or rod-like
Anchor Lernaea Parasitic Parasite KMnO4 bath

worm cyprinacea copepod visible on or 0.8-1.1
disease skin, head per cent
embedded NaCl
deep in the (KMnO4 ma
tissues of the y be lethal to
host; small fish at
haemorrhage dosages
s and open required to
wounds at kill Lernaea)
site of
infection;
weight loss;
respiratory
difficulties;
sluggishness;
red areas;
ulcers; scale
loss; fin
damage;
scraping and
sometimes
hanging
vertically or
belly up;
parasite
length 5 to 22
mm
Slime covers
250 ml/litre
Protozoa skin like fog,
Trichodinosi Trichodina formalin
n fins clamped
s sp. bath for 15
parasite and denuded
min
of tissue
Infestation
Scolex
Scolex Helminth occurs
pleuronecti None stated
infestation parasite commonly in
s
the intestine
Cryptobia Cryptobia Protozoa Dark Treat with

Infestation sp. n coloration; formaldehyd
parasite increased e (250
mucus build- ml/litre) or
up; 10mg/litre
occasional malachite
appearance green; place
of skin infected fish
lesions in freshwater
followed by bath or treat
scale loss; with
difficult or effective
rapid antibacterial
breathing; agents
reduced
appetite and
weight loss;
secondary
bacterial
infections in
advanced
stage leading
to pale and/or
red skin
patches and
skin & fin rot
Dip infected
Loss of fish in
appetite; freshwater
lethargic (makes
swimming; transparent
Caligus Caligus Parasitic
excess parasite
infestation longipedis copepod
mucus visible);
production; bathe in 150
lumpy body ppm H2 02
surface for 30
minutes
Suppliers of pathology expertise
The following are examples of locations where expertise can be accessed:
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources .
The Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.
Statistics
Production statistics
© FAO Fishery Statistics
Global annual aquaculture production of milkfish has increased every year since
1997; by 2005 it had risen to nearly 595,000 tonnes, with a value of almost USD 616
million. The most important producers at this time were the Philippines (289,000
tonnes), Indonesia (254,000 tonnes) and Taiwan Province of China (50,000 tonnes).
Market and trade
Producers of milkfish do not usually sell fish directly to consumers, but supply them
through cooperatives, brokers, dealers, collectors or wholesalers, and retailers. In
general, the majority of fish products are sold in auction markets through dealers,
brokers, wholesalers or cooperatives to smaller dealers, and then retailers.
Increasingly, more of the milkfish harvest is processed into value-added forms:

smoked, dried, marinated (brined, sweetened), fermented with rice, and canned or
bottled in various styles (salmon style, sardine style, Spanish style, smoked in oil,
etc.). Some companies in the Philippines now produce frozen prime cuts of milkfish
bellies and backs, and even of heads and tails. Milkfish is exported in different
product forms: quick-frozen, dried, canned, smoked or marinated.
The Philippines recorded an export of over 17 040 kg of milkfish products to the EU

in 2002, valued at USD 58,000. While Taiwan Province of China concentrates on
processed and value-added products for export to the USA, Indonesia has
strengthened its export of hatchery-reared seedstock to the rest of the Asia-Pacific
region for tuna bait and for grow-out.
Status and trends
Research and development
Successful induced spawning and larval rearing of milkfish were first accomplished
at SEAFDEC/AQD in 1976-1978. The first generation cycle of milkfish in captivity
was completed at AQD when the offspring of a wild female induced to spawn in 1978
in turn spawned in 1983.
Since then, milkfish have matured and spawned in floating cages, ponds, and
concrete tanks in the Philippines, Taiwan Province of China, Hawaii, and Indonesia.
Since the successful completion of larval rearing technology in 1984, fry production
has increased significantly, which has not only provided milkfish farmers in Taiwan
Province of China with ample supply but also opened an export market to
neighbouring countries.
To date no substantial technical and scientific research has been documented from
major milkfish producing countries other than the policy and management related
research being conducted by the WorldFish Center, the SEAFDEC Aquaculture
Department and the Bureau of Agricultural Research and BFAR of the Philippine
Department of Agriculture.
Taiwan Province of China, however, has recently developed an improved strain of

milkfish through selective breeding process resulting in a golden coloured F1
pioneered by a private farmer; this would accordingly command a better price than
the original silvery coloured strain, once introduced in the market.
Development perspectives
The development of more efficient culture systems has resulted in higher milkfish
production, which continues to increase.
Diversification of aquaculture in Taiwan Province of China, however, has paved the

way for prioritising other high valued commercial marine species of fish, which has
affected the growth of the milkfish industry.
Based on current trends, production in the Philippines (which has expanded its
traditional land-based milkfish farming from Brackish water fishponds to marine
cages in coastal communities through the establishments of mariculture parks) is
expected to rise from 289 000 tonnes in 2005 to 369,000 tonnes in 2010.
Assuming that the population of the Philippines reached 84 million by the year 2005,
at per capita milkfish consumption of 2.5 kg/yr the total milkfish requirement would
reach 210,000 tonnes. With the actual milkfish production recorded as of 289,000
tonnes in 2005, there would have been an estimated supply surplus of 79,000
tonnes.
In Indonesia backyard hatchery production of milkfish seeds has become a rural

industry at the village level. The majority of these hatcheries have further shifted to
fry production of high-value species of marine finfish.
Market perspectives
Marketing of milkfish products contribute a lot to the sustainability of the industry in

the major milkfish producing countries - Indonesia with its seed production exports,
Taiwan Province of China with value-added milkfish products and the Philippines
with whole fresh and processed products both for domestic and export markets.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT/WTO impositions of trade

restrictions and the EU/US bio-safety and quality control standards are considerably
affecting the producing countries and are foreseen to be an added burden among
production costs.
Although HACCP from farm to product processing are now strictly observed (for both
domestic and export markets) in the major producing countries, farmers and
processors view this as another trade barrier that has been set by the importing
industrialised countries.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are suggested:
Opening up markets, both locally and abroad, for value-added products including
boneless milkfish would be valuable. The Philippines is the only country in the world
to produce boneless milkfish to date. Improving the distribution flow for boneless fish
for local markets would also be useful.
Investment in feed formulation to cut down production costs. Rationing the exact
daily feed biomass requirements to reflect actual feed requirements is needed.
Trimming down marketing layers. Through cooperatives, producers should be
encouraged to market production directly to retailers, thereby bypassing the
traditional market layers.
Making public investments for post-harvest facilities.
Main issues
The main issues in milkfish farming can be summarised as follows:
Producers and consumers have benefited from new technology; however,

broodstock technology is still unreliable and fry supply is not fully controlled.
Milkfish will remain a traditional foodfish in the Philippines, Indonesia and Taiwan
Province of China; however, the younger generation tends to avoid eating milkfish
because of their bony flesh; thus new markets will be difficult to create.
High land values and the relatively low value of milkfish mean that farmers will have
to introduce new technology to increase unit productivity.
Milkfish aquaculture will no longer rely only on natural productivity; the use of
formulated feed will become the norm.
More hatcheries, especially in Indonesia and Taiwan Province of China, are

expected to come on-stream. This, and improved spawning technology, is expected
to decrease fry costs.
New product forms need to be developed, advertised and marketed.
As mass production of milkfish fry in hatcheries expands, more fingerlings will

become available for the baitfish industry.
Further research and development on the marketing and processing of milkfish is

desirable.
Responsible aquaculture practices

Due to global market demand, major milkfish producing countries have recently been
promoting management practices that address food quality and safety issues.
At the farm level for example, the Philippines complies with the minimum aquaculture
HACCP requirements, from hatchery production to harvest, before milkfish products
are processed for export. Taiwan Province of China has introduced product eco-
labelling in order to export quality branded processed milkfish products, while
Indonesia ensures the quality of milkfish fry when exporting to neighbouring Asian
countries and accompanies them with health certificates.
Traceability in the use of antibiotics and unregulated drugs is already strictly imposed
in these countries.
EVALUATION: Write true if the statement is correct if false write the word(s) that
or email.
__________1. Milkfish has a body fusiform, elongated, moderately compressed,

smooth and streamlined.
__________2. Milkfish has scales cycloid, small and smooth, 75-91 on lateral line.
__________3. Milkfish attains a typical length of one metre but may reach maximum
length of 1.8m
__________4. Milkfish farming in Indonesia, Taiwan Province of China and the

Philippines started about 6 to 8 centuries ago.
__________5. Milkfish farming was previously a traditional industry, with little

emphasis on producing sexually mature, reproductively active fish in captivity.
__________6. Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is the only species in the Family Chanidae.
equator spawn year-round. Juveniles and adults eat a wide variety of relatively soft
and small food items, from microbial mats to detritus, epiphytes and zooplankton.
__________7. Milkfish is a heterosexual fish.
__________8. Milkfish eggs (1.1-1.2 mm in diameter) and larvae (3.5 mm at
hatching) are pelagic and stay in the plankton for up to 2-3 weeks. Egg division
begins an hour after and hatching occurs 35-36 hours after spawning.
__________9. Milkfish can reach a maximum size of 180 cm SL (male/unsexed) and

124 cm SL (female).
__________10. Milkfish fry can either be obtained through collection from coastal
areas or littoral waters or can be produced in captivity.
11-25. How nuresery operations in the milkfish producing countries

listed below is undertaken?
1. Taiwn
2. Indonesia
3. Philippines
REFERENCES:

Houghton Mifflin.
^ Martin, 1994, p. 44.
299. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1968)97[296:VGNFSD]2.0.CO;2.
April 2018.
November2017.
^ Jump up
^ Martin 1994, pp. 52-57.
1397. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98426.x.
Science. 19 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2003.tb01108.x.
96.149." Jan. 5, 1997.

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XXIV
TOPIC: Mud Crab Farming: Profit Making Plan For Beginners
3. escribe mudcrab; and
4. discuss the production systems involved in mudcrab farming
DISCUSSION: Mud Crab Farming: Profit Making Plan For Beginners
Mud crab farming is very popular in some Asian countries like Bangladesh, India,
Thailand, Philippine etc. Mud crab has huge demand and price in international
market.Crab is very tasty and many countries of the world import huge amount of
crabs for consumption every year. As a result, there are huge possibilities of earning
foreign currencies by exporting crabs.Commercial mud crab farming business is
gaining popularity faster. It’s very easy to start and highly profitable.Mud crabs are
mainly used for food. It is very popular as food throughout it’s range and also popular
in the global market.That’s why starting commercial mud crab production is
profitable. It is sold at high price in the market. And the demand is also very good.
Advantages Of Mud Crab Farming
The main benefits of crab farming are, labor cost is very low, production cost is
comparatively lower and they grow very fast. Commercial crab farming business is
developing the lifestyle of the people of coastal areas. By proper care and
management we can earn more from crab farming business than shrimp farming.
And small scale crab farming is gaining popularity day by day. Here we are trying to
describe the top advantages of starting commercial mud crab farming business.
1. Commercial mud crab farming is not a new business idea. People are raising
mud crabs for making profits from a long time ago.
2. Mud crabs can be raised in smaller ponds. So, you can utilize your pond for
growing mud crabs.
3. Feeding costs is very less, and the crabs can survive by consuming relatively
low quality food.
4. Mud crabs are highly popular around the world. So, you don’t have to worry
about marketing your products.
5. You can start either in small scale or in large scale depending on your budget.
6. Commercial crab farming is a very profitable business. So, it can be a great
employment source. Especially for the educated unemployed people.
7. You will get your invested mony back soon.
8. You can utilize your family labor for growing and caring mud crabs.
Types Of Mud Crabs
Mud crab can be found on estuaries, backwaters and coastal ares. They are
member of Scylla genus. There are two species of crabs available that are suitable
for commercial production. Two species of crabs are red claw and green mud crab.
Green Mud Crab
Green mud crabs are larger in size. A green mud crab can grow to a maximum size of
22 centimeter carapace width. And it can weights about 2 kg. These are free living and
distinguished by the polygonal markings present on all appendages.
Red Claw
Generally red claws are smaller in size than green mud crab. A red claw can grow to a
maximum size of 12.7 centimeter carapace width. And it can weights about 1.2 kg. It
has a burrowing habit and there are no polygonal markings on it.Both species are
suitable for commercial crab farming business. And both have good value and huge
demand in the foreign market.
Mud Crab Farming Methods
Starting mud crab farming is very easy and simple, even the beginners can start this
business. Mud crabs are raised in many different methods depending upon the
available facilities in your area.
You can raise mud crabs in two systems. Grow out farming and fattening systems.
The systems of mud crab farming in this two methods are shortly described below.
Grow Out System
In grow out farming system, young crabs are raised and grown for a certain period of
5 to 6 months till they reach marketing size and weight. This type of crab farming
system is generally pond based.The pond size depends on the production type.
Generally ponds for crab farming sized between 0.5 to 2 hectors. Proper bunds and
tidal water exchange is a must. Small sized ponds are very suitable for crab farming.
Because they are easily maintained. Make a suitable fence if the size of pond
become small. In larger sized ponds where natural conditions are prevailing,
strengthening is necessary along the outlet area. You can stock wild collected
juvenile crabs that weights around 10 to 100 grams. Depending on the size of crabs
and available facilities the duration of production may varies between 3 to 6 months.
In commercial production with supplementary feeding you can stock 1-3 crabs per
square meter. You can feed your crabs low cost fish, shrimps, small sized crabs etc.
You can visit your nearest local market and collect rotted fish and innards of birds
and animals from slaughter house.
Provide the crabs 5% feed daily of their total body weight. For example, if there are
100 kg crabs in the pond then feed 5 kg food daily. Collect some crabs and try to
determine an average weight. Regular sampling is very necessary for monitoring the
growth and general health, and to adjust the feeding rate. Keep some pipes in the
pond for shelter and the purpose of reducing mutual attacks and cannibalism. Within
3 to 5 months they will reach marketing weight and become suitable for selling.
Fattening System
Raising soft shelled crabs for a certain period until their exoskeleton gets hardened
is known as crab fattening system. Hard shelled crabs has four to five times more
value in the market than soft shelled crabs.Farming crabs in this system take less
time and the process is very profitable. You can do crab fattening business in two
systems that are described below.
Fattening In Pond
Fattening can be done in any types of ponds between 0.025 to 0.2 hector size. Small
tidal ponds with a depth of 1 to 1.5 meter is very suitable for crab farming. Prepare
the pond perfectly before stocking crabs in the pond. Pond preparation can be done
by draining the pond water, sun-drying and adding sufficient quantity of lime.
Make a fence around the pond for fattening purpose. Because the crabs have a
tendency to escape by making hole and digging the soil. Reinforce the inlet areas
with bamboo matting inside the bund. For stocking, collect soft crabs from local
fisherman or crab merchants. Collect the crabs in morning. 1-2 per squire meter
stocking density is ideal for crab fattening purpose.
Divide the pond into different compartments according to the size of crabs if it is big
sized. Keeping male and female crabs separated from each other will make good
results and reduce mutual attacks and cannibalism. Depending on your location and
crabs availability 8 to 12 fattening cycles can be done in a year. Generally, crabs
weight between 300 grams to 500 grams have high demand and value in the market.
Collect and sell all the crabs when they reach the marketing weight. Always try to sell
the crabs when they are in hard shelled condition. This will ensure high profit form
crab farming business.
Fattening In Pens Or Cages
Crab fattening can also be done in pens, floating net cages, bamboo cages in
shallow estuarine waterways and inside large shrimp ponds with good tidal water
influx and in tanks. You can use bamboo splits, netlon or HDPE as netting material.
3 m * 2 m *1 m (3 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m height) is ideal cage size for crab
fattening.
Arrange the cages in a row so that you can easily feed and monitor the crabs.
Stocking density of 10 crabs per squire meter in cage and 5 crabs per squire meter
in pens is ideal. Maximum stocking density can result mutual attacks and
cannibalism. Fattening in cages or pens in only used in small sale production. For
commercial production fattening in ponds is perfect and more profitable.
Between these two crab farming methods, fattening system is more profitable than
grow out system and has many advantages. Grow out crab farming system takes
more time than fattening system. But fattening system is very popular to the farmer
as it take less time and highly profitable.
Water Quality
Water quality plays an important role in the production of crabs. Change water
occasionally if possible or apply proper medicines or chemicals. See the following
chart.
Feeding
For commercial purpose, crabs need 5-8% food of their body weight. You can feed
your crabs low cost trash fish, chicken waste, animal innards collected form
slaughter house, brackish water clams etc. Don’t served all the feed at once. Instead
give it twice a day. Give major part of the total feeds during evening hours.
Breeding
The Mud crabs migrate offshore for spawning. They generally become mature when
they reach around 9 cm carapace width. In most cases they become mature within
their first year of life. The male crabs generally approach females, before the females
have undergone a precopulatory molt. Males start grasping them with their chelipeds
and first pair of walking legs and carrying them around for up to several days until
the females molt.
Caring & Other Management
Mud crabs are very strong and hardy. They generally require less caring. Although,
taking additional care will help the crabs to stay healthy and grow better. So, always
try to take good care of your crabs. Monitor their health on a regular basis, and take
necessary steps if you notice anything uncommon.
Harvesting
You can start harvesting when the crabs reach minimum marketing size. Then they
are harvested by using traps, trawling, hooking, baited wire mesh pots and also by
hand.
Marketing
After a certain period check the crabs for their hardening. In grow out crab farming
system they become suitable for marketing purpose within their 3 to 6 months of
age. And in fattening system the time depends on crab’s size. However, collect the
crabs when they reach proper weight and when their price remain high. Collect the
crabs in the early morning hours or evening hours.
You can collect crabs from pond by using scoop net or by using alluring bait. Wash
the collected crabs with good brackish water and remove all types of dirt and
mud.And then carefully tie the crabs very carefully without breaking its legs. Then try
to keep those crabs in moist conditions.
Keep them away from sunlight. Because direct sunlight has a negative effect on their
survival. After that send them to the market. Commercial crab farming business is
gaining popularity day by day in many coastal areas around the world. Because it is
a very easy, profitable and takes less time.
Mud crabs have huge demand and high value in international market. So, you can
earn some extra money and make an employment opportunity by doing commercial
crab farming business. Have a good day!
Jonah Crab: Characteristics, Diet, Breeding & Uses
Blue Swimming Crab: Characteristics, Diet, Breeding & Uses
Lady Crab: Characteristics, Diet, Breeding & Uses Info
Velvet Crab: Characteristics, Uses & Full Information

Gazami Crab: Characteristics, Uses & Farming Information
EVALUATION: Write true if the statement is correct if false, write the word(s) that
make(s) the statement wrong before each item. Send your answers via messenger
or email.
__________1. Mud crab farming is very popular in some Asian countries like
Bangladesh, India, Thailand, Philippine etc.
__________2.Mud crab has a small demand and lower price in international market.
__________3. The main benefits of crab farming are, labor cost is very low,
production cost is comparatively lower and they grow very fast.
__________4. Small scale crab farming is gaining popularity day by day. Here we
are trying to describe the top advantages of starting commercial mud crab farming
business.
__________5. Mud crab can be found on estuaries, backwaters and coastal ares.
They are member of Scylla genus.
__________6. A red claw mud crab can grow to a maximum size of 22 centimeter
carapace width. And it can weights about 2 kg.
__________7. Green mud crab are smaller in size than green mud crab. A red claw
can grow to a maximum size of 12.7 centimeter carapace width.
__________8. In grow out farming system, young crabs are raised and grown for a
certain period of 6 to 12 months till they reach marketing size and weight.
__________9. Raising soft shelled crabs for a certain period until their exoskeleton
gets hardened is known as crab fattening system.
__________10. Fattening of crabs can be done in only one type of ponds between
0.025 to 0.2 hectare size.
REFERENCES:

Houghton Mifflin.
^ Martin, 1994, p. 44.
299. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1968)97[296:VGNFSD]2.0.CO;2.
April 2018.
November2017.
^ Jump up
^ Martin 1994, pp. 52-57.
1397. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98426.x.
Science. 19 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2003.tb01108.x.
96.149." Jan. 5, 1997.

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XXV
TOPIC: Cage Culture of Tilapia
5. describe tilapia; and
6. discuss the production systems involved in cage culture of tilapia.
DISCUSSION: Cage Culture of Tilapia
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
This learning material explained how the use of cages / net pens can be
applied in existing bodies of water that cannot be drained or seined and would
otherwise not be suitable for aquaculture. These

include lakes, large reservoirs, farm ponds, rivers, cooling water discharge canals,
estuaries and coastal embayments. In the southern US, tilapia are among the most
suitable fishes for cage culture.
Species selection
The most appropriate species or strains of tilapia for cage culture

are Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia), O. aurea (blue tilapia), Florida red tilapia,
Taiwan red tilapia, and hybrids between these species and strains. The choice of a
species for culture depends mainly on availability, legal status, growth rate and cold
tolerance. Many states prohibit the culture of certain species.
Unfortunately, Oreochromis niloticus, which has the fastest growth rate, is frequently
restricted. The ranking for growth rate of the remaining species or strains are Florida
red tilapia > Taiwan red tilapia > O. aurea. Hybrids of Oreochromis niloticus x Taiwan
red tilapia grow as fast as O. niloticus. Hybrids of T. aurea x Florida red tilapia grow
at an intermediate rate between Florida and Taiwan red tilapia. Cold tolerance,
important in Texas Agricultural Extension northerly latitudes, is greatest in O. aurea.
Nile tilapia broodstock
© Hideoyoshi Segovia
Tilapia can be cultured at high densities in mesh cages that maintain free
circulation of water. Cage culture offers several important advantages. The breeding
cycle of tilapia is disrupted in cages, and therefore mixed-sex populations can be
reared in cages without the problems of recruitment and stunting, which are major
constraints in pond culture. Eggs fall through the cage bottom or do not develop if
they are fertilized. (Reproduction will occur in cages with 1/10-inch mesh or less,
which is small enough to retain eggs.)
Other cage advantages include:
1. flexibility of management
2. ease and low cost of harvesting
3. close observation of fish feeding response and health
4. ease and economical treatment of parasites and diseases
5. and relatively low capital investment compared to ponds and raceways.
Some disadvantages are:
1. risk of 1oss from poaching or damage to cages from predators or storms

2. less tolerance of fish to poor water quality
3. dependence on nutritionally-complete diets
4. and greater risk of disease outbreaks.
In public waters, cage culture faces many competing interests and its legal status is
not well defined. Not all bodies of water offer proper conditions for cage culture.
Design and construction
Both floating surface cages and standing surface cages are used for tilapia culture.
Standing cages are tied to stakes driven into the bottom substrate, whereas floating
cages require a flotation device to stay at the surface. Flotation can be provided by
metal or plastic drums, sealed PVC pipe, or styrofoam. Cages should be constructed
from materials that are durable, lightweight and inexpensive, such as galvanized and
plastic coated welded wire mesh, plastic netting and nylon netting. Welded wire
mesh is durable, rigid, more resistant to biological fouling, and easier to clean than
flexible material, but is relatively heavy and cumbersome. Plastic netting is durable,
semi-rigid, lightweight and less expensive than wire mesh. Cages made of nylon
netting are not subject to the size constraints imposed by other construction
materials. Nylon mesh is inexpensive, moderately durable, lightweight and easy to
handle. Nylon is susceptible to damage from predators such as turtles, otters,
alligators and crabs. An additional cage of larger mesh and stronger twine may be
needed around nylon cages. Mesh size has a significant impact on production. Mesh
sizes for tilapia cages should be at least 1/2 inch, but 3/4 inch is preferred. These
mesh sizes provide adequate open space for good water circulation through the
cage to renew the oxygen supply and remove waste. The use of large mesh size
requires a larger fingerling size to prevent gill entanglement or escape. For example,
a 3/4-inch plastic mesh will retain 9-gram tilapia fingerlings while a l-inch mesh
requires a fingerling weighing at least 25 grams with plastic netting and 50 to 70
grams with nylon netting. Larger mesh size facilitates the entry of wild fish into the
cage. These fish will grow too large to swim out of the cage, but they do not grow
large enough to reach marketable size, thereby representing a waste of feed. Cage
size may vary from 1 to more than 1,000 cubic meters. As cage size increases, costs
per unit volume decrease, but production per unit volume also decreases, resulting
from a reduction in the rate of water exchange. Cages should be equipped with
covers to prevent fish losses from jumping or bird predation. Covers are often
eliminated on large nylon cages if the top edges of the cage walls are supported 1 to
2 feet above the water surface. Feeding rings are usually used in smaller cages to
retain floating feed and prevent wastage. The rings consist of small-mesh (1/8 inch
or less) screens suspended to a depth of 18 inches or more. Feeding rings should
enclose only a portion of the surface area because rings surrounding the entire cage
perimeter may reduce water movement through the cage. However, feeding rings
that are too small will allow the more aggressive fish to control access to the feed. If
sinking feed is used, small cages may require a feed tray to minimize loss. These
rectangular trays can be made of galvanized sheet metal or mesh (1/8 inch;
galvanized or plastic) and are suspended from the cover to a depth of 6 to 18 inches.
Site selection and placement of cages
Large bodies of water tend to be better suited for cage culture than small ponds
because the water quality is generally more stable and affected less by fish waste.
Exceptions are eutrophic waters rich in nutrients and organic matter. Small (1 to 5
acre) ponds can be used for cage culture, but provisions for water exchange or
emergency aeration may be required. Cages should be placed where water currents
are greatest, usually to the windward side. Calm, stagnant areas should be avoided.
However, areas with rough water and strong currents also present problems. Cages
may be moored individually or linked in groups to piers, rafts, or lines of heavy rope
suspended across the water surface. At least 15 feet should separate each cage to
optimize water quality. The cage floor should be a minimum of 3 feet above the
bottom substrate, where waste accumulates and oxygen levels may be depressed.
However, greater depths promote rapid growth and reduce the possibility of
parasitism and disease. See SRAC publications Nos. 160-166 for more information
on cage culture.
Production management
Geographic range for tilapia culture is temperature dependent. Preferred water

temperature range for optimum growth is 82 to 86 F. Growth diminishes significantly
at temperatures below 68F and death will occur below 50 F. Only the southernmost
states have suitable temperatures to produce tilapia in cages. In the southern region
tilapia can be held in cages from 5 to 12 months per year depending on location.
Fingerlings
Cages may be used for fingerling production. One-gram fry may be reared in l/4-inch
mesh cages at up to 3,000 fish per cubic meter for 7 to 8 weeks until they average
about 10 grams each. Ten-gram fish can be restocked into l/2-inch mesh cages.
Cages stocked with 10-gram fish at 2,500 per cubic meter will produce 25- to 30-
gram fingerlings in 5 to 6 weeks. After grading, 25- to 30-gram fish can be restocked
at 1,500 fish per cubic meter to produce 50- to 60- gram fingerlings in 5 weeks, or at
1,000 fish per cubic meter to produce 100-gram fingerlings in 9 to 10 weeks. Fish
should be graded by size every 4 to 6 weeks. Stunted fish and females should be
culled.
Final growout
The optimum fingerling size for stocking in final growout cages is determined by the
length of the growing season and the desired market size. The shorter the growing
season, the larger the fingerlings must be at stocking. The use of male populations
which grow at twice the rate of female populations will result in larger fish, greater
production and a reduction in the growout period. In temperate regions,
overwintered, l-year-old fingerlings of 60 to 100 grams (4 to 7 fish/pound) are
generally used to produce fish of 1 pound or greater in cages. If l/2-pound fish are
acceptable for market, then it maybe possible to rear smaller, 20- to 30-gram
fingerlings (15 to 23 fish/pound) which were produced during the spring of the same
year. Recommended stocking rate of tilapia fingerlings depends on cage volume,
desired harvest size and production level, and the length of the culture period.
Expected harvest weights of male tilapia are given in Table 1. High stocking rates
can be used in small cages of 1 to 4 cubic meters. Optimum stocking rates per cubic
meter range from 600 to 800 fish to produce fish averaging 1/2 pound; 300 to 400 to
produce fish averaging 1 pound; and 200 to 250 to produce fish averaging 1.5
pounds. Water exchange is less frequent in large cages, and therefore the stocking
rate must be reduced accordingly. In 100-cubic meter cages, the optimum stocking
rate is approximately 50 fish per cubic meter to produce l-pound fish. In temperate
regions, complete or batch harvests are required. Cages for final growout should be
stocked when water temperature rises above 70 F and harvested when the
temperature falls below 70 F. In tropical or sub-tropical regions with a year-round
growing season, a staggered production system could be used to facilitate marketing
by ensuring regular harvests, e.g., weekly, biweekly, or monthly. The exact strategy
will depend on the number of cages available and the total production potential of the
body of water. Example: if 10 cages are available for placement in a pond with
sufficient production potential and growout takes 20 weeks, then a cage could be
stocked every 2 weeks. Beginning on week 20, the first cage would be harvested
and restocked, followed by another cage every 2 weeks. A staggered system
requires a regular supply of fingerlings.
Total production
Total production in cages increases as the stocking rate is increased. However,

there is a density at which tilapia become too crowded and water quality within the
cage deteriorates to a point that causes a decline in growth rates. In small cages of 1
to 4 cubic meters, a reduction in growth usually begins at production levels around
250 pounds per cubic meter. In 100-cubic meter cages, production should be limited
to 50 pounds per cubic meter. Tilapia continue to grow above these levels at
gradually decreasing rates, but they convert feed poorly, and the risk of loss due to
oxygen depletion or disease is greater. For maximum turnover of marketable fish, it
is best to limit production to levels that do not depress growth. The total number of
cages that can be deployed in a pond, and therefore total fish production, is primarily
a function of maximum allowable feeding rate for all cages in that body of water. The
total feed input is related to number and size of fish in the cages and is limited by
surface area of the pond. If emergency aeration is not available and if all cages in a
pond are stocked at once (batch culture), then a maximum daily feeding rate of 30 to
45 pounds per pond acre should be safe for a limited period near the end of the
production cycle. At this rate it is possible to produce a total of about 2,000 to 3,000
pounds of caged fish per pond acre every 20 weeks. If a staggered stocking and
harvesting system is used for continuous year-round production, then the maximum
daily feeding rate should not exceed 20 to 30 pounds per acre because this feeding
rate will be applied continuously. As total feed input is increased water quality
eventually starts to deteriorate until it becomes unsuitable for fish in cages. Although
tilapia survival is usually better than 95 percent, caged tilapia are more susceptible
than non-caged tilapia to stress from poor water quality, particularly low dissolved
oxygen (DO) concentrations. DO should be monitored regularly at late afternoon and
early morning especially when attempting to maximize total production and
emergency aeration equipment should be available. Recent research has shown that
Florida red tilapia can be cage cultured in full strength sea water. Fingerlings must
be acclimated from freshwater to sea water over several days and then stocked in
cages. Tilapia in sea water are more susceptible to handling stress, and additional
care is needed to control parasites and diseases. Additionally, bio-fouling of cage
mesh and damage from corrosion and wave action are concerns in sea water.
Otherwise, culture techniques are similar to those described here for freshwater.
Feeding After proper stocking, the most important aspect of cage culture is providing
good quality feed in the correct amounts to the caged fish. The diet should be
nutritionally complete, containing vitamins and minerals. Commercial pellet diets for
tilapia, catfish, or trout are best. Protein content should be 32 to 36 percent for 1-to
25-gram tilapia and 28 to 32 percent for larger fish. Feeds and feeding are the major
costs of production.
Floating feeds allow observation of the feeding response and are effectively retained
by a feeding ring. Since it takes about 24 hours for high quality floating pellets to
disintegrate, fish may be fed once daily in the proper amount, but twice-daily
feedings are better. Good results can be obtained from sinking pellets, but extra care
must be taken to ensure they are not wasted. Sinking pellets disintegrate quickly in
water and have a greater tendency to be swept through the cage sides. More than
one feeding is needed each day; tilapia cannot consume their daily requirement of
feed for maximum growth in a single meal of short duration. Fish less than 25 grams
should be fed at least three times daily. Sinking pellets may be:
1. slowly fed by hand, allowing time for the fish to eat the feed before it sinks
through or is swept out of the cage,
2. placed in shallow, submerged trays, or
3. placed in demand feeders.
Feeding slowly by hand is inefficient. Use of a tray allows quick placement of feed
onto the tray, but multiple daily feedings are still required. The correct amount of feed
must be weighed daily. Feeding rate tables or programs are required to make
periodic increments in the daily ration. Feeding adjustments can be made daily,
weekly or every 2 weeks. The fish should be sampled every 4 to 6 weeks to
determine their average weight and the correct feeding rate for calculating
adjustments in the daily ration. Adjustments can be made between sampling periods
by estimating fish growth based on an assumed feed conversion ratio (feed weight
divided by&h weight gain). Example: with a feed conversion ratio of 1.5, the fish
would gain 10 grams for every 15 grams of feed. The correct feeding rate,
expressed as percent of body weight, is multiplied by the estimated weight to
determine the daily ration. Recommended feeding rates are listed in Table
2. Feeding rate tables serve as guides for estimating the optimum daily ration, but
are not always accurate under a wide range of conditions, such as fluctuating
temperatures or DO. Demand feeders can be used to eliminate the work (feed
weighing, fish sampling, calculations) and uncertainty of feeding rate schedules by
letting the fish feed themselves. The demand feeder in Figure 1 consists of an 11-
inch polyethylene funnel with a toggle inserted into a 5-gallon plastic bucket which is
mounted on the cage top. The bucket holds 12 pounds of feed, about 3 days supply
for a l-cubic meter cage. Fish quickly learn that feed is released when they hit a
brass rod that extends from the funnel into the water. Demand feeders and feeding
rate schedules produce comparable growth and feed conversion, but demand
feeders reduce labor by nearly 90 percent. Feeding rate schedules may still be used
with demand feeders by adding a computed amount of feed daily instead of refilling
the feeder whenever it is nearly empty. Because floating pellets are round and
uniform in size, they are best for demand feeders, but sinking pellets will also work.
Sinking pellets disintegrate rapidly and clog the feeder if they are splashed; and the
less uniform size of sinking pellets makes adjustment of the trigger mechanism
sensitivity more difficult. With high quality feeds, good growing conditions and
effective feeding practices, feed conversion ratios as low as 1.3 have been obtained.
Generally, feed conversion ratios will range from 1.5 to 1.8.
Sampling and harvesting

To remove fish during sampling or harvesting, the cage is partially lifted out of the
water and fish are captured with a dip net. A sample of fish may then be counted,
weighed and returned to the cage for further growth, or all of the fish maybe
harvested. If size uniformity is important, 4 weeks or more maybe required for
complete harvest, because not all fish reach the desired harvest size at the same
time.
EVALUATION: Select the letter of best answer to each question Send your answers
via messenger or email.
__________1.Which of the following species or strains of tilapia is not appropriate

for cage culture?
A. Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia), C. O. aurea (blue

tilapia) B.Florida red tilapia, D. Thailand red
tilapia
__________2. Which of the following is a disadvantage of raising tilapia?
A. Flexibility of management
B. Ease and low cost of harvesting
C. Close observation of fish feeding response and health
D. Risk of 1oss from poaching or damage to cages from
predators or storms
__________3. Which of the is the following is an advantage raising tilapia?
A. Risk of 1oss from poaching or damage to cages from

predators or storms
B. Less tolerance of fish to poor water quality
E. Dependence on nutritionally-complete diets

F. Flexibility of management
__________4. Which of the following statements about floating surface cages is

correct?
A. Floating cages require a flotation device to stay at the

surface.
B. Floating cages are tied to stakes driven into the bottom
substrate
C. Cages should be constructed from materials that are
durable, lightweight and inexpensive, such as galvanized and
plastic coated welded wire mesh, plastic netting and nylon
netting.
D. Cages made of nylon netting are not subject to the size
constraints imposed by other construction materials.
__________5. The following statements are correct except
A. Large bodies of water tend to be better suited for cage culture

than small ponds because the water quality is generally more stable
and affected less by fish waste.
B. Small (1 to 5 acre) ponds can be used for cage culture, but
provisions for water exchange or emergency aeration may be required.
C. Cages should be placed where water currents are greatest,
usually to the windward side.
D Calm, stagnant areas should be chosen for tilapia culture.
__________6. What is the preferred water tempearture range for optimum growth of
tilapia?
A. 82 to 86 F C.72 to 76 F
B. 62 to 66 F D. 52 to 56 F
A. Cages may be used for fingerling production.

B. One-gram fry may be reared in l/4-inch mesh cages at up to
3,000 fish per cubic meter for 7 to 8 weeks until they average about 10
grams each.
C. Ten-gram fish can be restocked into l/2-inch mesh cages.
Cages stocked with 10-gram fish at 2,500 per cubic meter will produce
25- to 30-gram fingerlings in 5 to 6 weeks.
D. Stunted fish and females should be kept and maintained
________8. The following statements are correct except
A. The optimum fingerling size for stocking in final growout

cages is determined by the length of the growing season and the
desired market size.
B. The longer the growing season, the larger the fingerlings
must be at stocking.
C. The use of male populations which grow at twice the rate of
female populations will result in larger fish, greater production and a
reduction in the growout period.
D. Recommended stocking rate of tilapia fingerlings depends
on cage volume, desired harvest size and production level, and the
length of the culture period.
__________9. What are the major costs of production in raising tilapia?
A. Feeds and feeding C. Labor

B. Stocking D. Traansportation cost
__________10 In 100-cubic meter cages, production should be limited to how many
pounds per cubic meter?
A. 50 pounds per cubic meter C. 70 pounds per cubic meter
B. 90 pounds per cubic meter D. 40 pounds per cubic meter
REFERENCES:

Houghton Mifflin.
^ Martin, 1994, p. 44.
299. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1968)97[296:VGNFSD]2.0.CO;2.
April 2018.
November2017.
^ Jump up
^ Martin 1994, pp. 52-57.
1397. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98426.x.
Science. 19 (2): 265–283. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2003.tb01108.x.
96.149." Jan. 5, 1997.

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XXVI

TOPIC: Fish Preservation: Fish Drying, Salting, or Freezing
1. define fish preservation; and
2. discuss how fish drying, salting and freezing are undertaken.
DISCUSSION: Fish Preservation: Fish Drying, Salting, or Freezing
Fish hung out to air-dry to preserve it in Hong Kong.
3 Main Ways to Preserve Fish

Like any natural resource, the supply of fish can vary from glut to scarcity. To avoid
starvation, humans have learned to preserve fresh fish so that it stays edible for long
periods of time. This is particularly important in communities that have no other
source of protein.
The key to success is to stop the process of decomposition and bacterial growth. To
survive and grow bacteria need (i) moisture, (ii) warmth, (iii) oxygen, and (iv) time.
Food preservation works by removing at least one of these four conditions. The most
common methods of preserving fish are as follows.
1. Salting and Sun-Drying: These methods involve dehydrating the fish.
2. Freezing: This locks up the water as ice and so prevents bacterial growth.
3. Vacuum Packing: This works by removing the oxygen.
Guide to the techniques of preserving fish at home.

1. Salting and Sun-Drying Preserve Fish
The oldest methods to preserve fish are by salting or dehydrating the food. Salting
fish dries the flesh because it draws out moisture, and so prevents bacterial growth.
Drying outdoors under the sun is possible in some places. In cooler climates, water
is removed using dehydrator machines. This can be done at a domestic level as well
as in large industrial sized dehydration plants.When done properly, both sun-dried
and salted fish can remain edible for many months. Before cooking, the fish is
rehydrated by soaking overnight in potable water.
2. How to Preserve Fish by Freezing

Freezing preserves fresh fish by locking any water present into a solid form (i.e. ice).
This makes the water unavailable to bacteria and thus prevent bacterial growth.
Unfortunately one of the side-effects of freezing fish can be that frozen water crystals
pierce the cell walls. This can make the defrosted fish mushy in texture. To limit this
type of cell damage fish should be frozen using a process known as quick freeze-
drying.
Freezer burn can also be a problem if the processed fish is not protected once
frozen. If left for too long in a freezer, the intense cold can cause further drying and
damage to the surface of the flesh resulting in a “burn”. This can be avoided by
vacuum packing the fish before freezing it. Alternatively the fish can be packed in a
sauce so that the drying effect of freezing acts on the sauce rather than on the fish
itself. The video below demonstrates how to freeze fish effectively and how to avoid
it being affected by freezer burn.
How to Freeze Fish and Avoid Freezer Burn (Benefits of Freezing Versus
Salting or Drying Methods)
Frozen fish tends to be more popular with consumers than salted and dried fish
because freezing does not affect its flavor. Frozen fish can be cooked straight from
the freezer with little loss of quality compared to the fresh product. Salted and dried
fish on the other hand, needs to be soaked overnight in water to allow the flesh to
rehydrate. Even if the soak water is changed several times, the fish still retains a
salty taste that isn't found in fresh fish.
Manufacturers recommend you eat their frozen fish within three months of purchase,
but you could leave it in the freezer for up to six months with no ill effects. Salting or
drying the fish can make it last up to twelve months providing it is kept in cool dry
conditions. If you combine the two methods i.e. freezing an already salted or dried
fish, there is little to be gained. The taste of the fish has already been changed by
the dehydration process. Placing it into the freezer will not regain that fresh fish
taste.
Don't Freeze Fish That's Already Dried or Salted

Researchers in Reykjavik, Iceland carried out controlled experiments to measure the
effect of freezing on already dehydrated cod fish. They looked at changes in physical
weight of fish stored for up to six weeks at a variety of cold storage temperatures.
The 2007 study looked at the effects of storing and drying on the quality of cured
salted cod. The research conclusions were clear. At the lowest temperatures i.e. at -
18 C and -24° C water content of the fish was greatly reduced and as a result, the
fish lost weight over the six weeks of the experiment. There is therefore not only no
need to freeze fish that has already been dried or salted, but freezing such fish is
likely to result in deterioration in eating quality.
How to Vacuum Pack Fresh Seafood

3. Reduced Oxygen Method or Vacuum Packing
Freezing, drying and salting are not the only ways that fish can be preserved for later
eating. Vacuum packing of fish is often carried out in conjunction with one of these
methods, but it can be done on its own. Vacuum packing is simple to do at home
with the correct equipment. A vacuum sealer machine sucks all the air (oxygen) out
of the vacuum bag and then heat seals it. It's easy to use and small enough for
domestic use. Once bagged, the fish will stay fresh for up to a year in your freezer.
Freezing a bumper catch after having vacuum packed it first will increase its freezer
storage life from six months (without vacuum packing) to one year (with vacuum
packing).
How Many Methods of Preserving Fish Are There?
The following list is not exhaustive. It contains the most common methods of
preserving fish.
1. Dry salting.
2. Brining (wet salting.)
3. Hot smoking.
4. Cold smoking.
5. Canning.
6. Drying.
7. Freezing.
8. Pickling.
A traditional and cheap way of preserving fish is to let it dry in the sun and wind.
Dried fish can be stored and remains edible for several years.
What Percent of a Whole Codfish Can Be Eaten?

The amount of edible flesh (or fillets) on a fish sold in retail stores is only about 50%
of its original weight. There is also a small amount of meat on the head, including the
cod cheeks. The tongue, the swim bladder (sounds) and the skin are eaten in Nordic
and Slavic cultures. Smoked cod's roe is a particular delicacy. Cod liver oil is used
around the world for medicinal purposes. The skin and bones of the fish can be used
to make soup, so nothing need be wasted.
The video below shows a whole cod being eviscerated and filleted to get the
maximum yield from a fish. It includes some tips on the best ways to salt and dry
your catch.
Chemical methods of fish preservation
Curing
The term curing is referred to the addition of salt, sugar, nitrites, nitrates, seasonings or
spices and phosphates to preserve food stuff. In addition to preservation, this particular
processing can result in a characteristic color and flavor of the cured products. Salt has
been the most widely used ingredient for curing of meat foods. Its main antimicrobial
mode of action is creating a low aw environment in the food which forces microorganisms
to experience prolonged lag phase and eventually enter the death phase.
Although this preservation method is one of the oldest and simplest fish preservation
methods, the growth of halophilic and halotolerant microorganisms cannot be arrested
and often their growth produce white patches on the fish fillets. Moreover, salting has
also been reported to be as a pro–oxidant agent in several meat and seafood
products.38–39 Yet, few reports support the neutral effect of salt on lipid oxidation40–
41 and as antioxidant.42
Smoking: Smoking is a means of chemical preservation applied to meat foods. Although

the process involves heat treatment to some extent, the preservative weight is attributed
to its chemical products. It has been reported that smoking has both antimicrobial and
antioxidant effects. Varlet et al.,43 has reported that the combined effect of phenolic
compounds produced during smoking process and the high temperature condition result
in reduced microbial growth and oxidation. Moreover, carbonyl compounds produced
during the process can contribute to the characteristic color, texture and fishy odor of the
product.44 Thus, the preservation objectives of smoking include, surface drying which
acts as a barrier for microbial invasions; reduces water activities resulting from the
pretreatment process with salt; deposition of phenolic compounds which aid in delaying
autoxidation of fish lipids and deposition of antimicrobial substances (such as, aldehydes,
ketones, alcohols, acids, hydrocarbons, esters, phenols, ethers, etc.).
Two methods of smoking are practiced for fishery products, cold smoking and hot
smoking, depending on the temperature used. Products treated with cold smoking is
carried out at around 30°C following salting and drying treatment of fish
muscle.45 Smoked salmon is a common product prepared by this treatment and eaten
raw. Hot smoking on the other hand, involves treatment at a temperature range of 70–
80°C and results in cooked product that do not require subsequent
processing.46 Although smoked lean fish are preserved longer compared to fatty fish,
fumigation, storage temperature and salt content, are determinant factors of the shelf life
of smoked products. Several reports have been produced on the effect of smoking on
various fish species (Table 3). Details of the smoking method and its mode of actions are
described by Varlet et al.,44 Varlet et al.43.47–50 Many authors51–54 have suggested
the use of smoking in combination of one or more preservation method for highly
effective results.
Species Smoking processProduct References

Trout (gutted, split) Cold/hot Smoked trout 56
Eel (gutted) Cold/hot Smoked eel 57
Salmon (gutted,
Cold Smoked salmon 58
split)
Mackerel (fillets) Hot Smoked mackerel59
Herring (fillets) Cold Kipper fillets 60
Haddock Cold Haddock 43
Table 3 Examples of smoked fish products investigated by different authors
The traditional smoking process is carried out by direct exposure of foods to smoke.
However, such treatments can lead to the accumulation of harmful substances (such as,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)) which result from incomplete combustion of
wood. These compounds have potential adverse effects on human health. Moreover,
Munasinghe et al.,55 have reported the high possibility of uneven distribution of volatile
compounds on the fish flesh treated by direct exposure to smoke, which can affect the
quality of the end product undesirably.
Natural antimicrobial preservatives
Naturally occurring antimicrobial substances such as essential oils (EOs) and extracts of
various plants, spices, and herbs are reported to have effective activity against a number
of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms associated with foods.61 A comprehensive
detail of major components of EOs including, carvacrol, thymol, g–terpinene and p–
Cymene (oregano and thyme), a–pinene, bornyl–acetate, camphor and 1,8–cineole
(rosemary), eugenol and eugenyl acetate (clove, etc.) has been reviewed by
Burt.62 These natural extracts have been incorporated in the packaging materials as well
as edible films and coatings to enhance the keeping quality of minimally processed and
delicate foods such as meat, fish and fruits.63–65
In a study carried out by Fernandez Saiz et al.,66 the antimicrobial activity of chitosonium

acetate films on Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria
monocytogenes showed a direct correlation with the film weight, i.e., cell viability was
reduced completely when high amounts of film (40–80mg) were used. However, the
antimicrobial effect of the film was found to be lower in the fish soup compared to the
results obtained in TSB culture media, although the use of the film did neither affect the
sensory properties nor the pH of the soup. Similarly, Tsai et al.67 investigated the effect
of chitosan films on fish spoilage microbes and reported an improvement of shelf life of
treated fishery product from 5 to 9days. Several other authors68–69 have studied the
biocide mode of action of this polysaccharide in great details and reported satisfactory
results.
According to the findings of Iturriaga et al.,70 the antimicrobial activity of citrus extract

(water soluble extract) and the EOs, oregano and thyme were evident (Table 4). Their
findings were illustrated as the antimicrobial activities of these substances tested
against Listeria innocua (surrogate of Listeria monocytogenes), Pseudomonas
fluorescens (dominant spoilage bacterium in fishery products) and Aeromonas
hydrophila. Though the three proved to be effective, the authors suggested that citrus
extract to be the best option to incorporate into three biopolymers gelatin, methyl
cellulose and their (50:50w/w) blend to produce edible film for its odorless and water
solubility properties as well as highest antimicrobial activity.
MIC(µl/ml)a
L. P. A.
Extract Temperature
innocu fluorescen hydrophil
a s a
Toptb 2.5±0.0 40.0±0.0 10.0±0.0
Citrus extract
4°C 1.3±0.0 26.7±11.5 6.7±2.9
Toptb 5.0±0.0 5.0±0.0 2.5±0.0
Oregano EO
4°C 5.0±0.0 9.7±2.9 2.5±0.0
Toptb 5.0±0.0 5.0±0.0 2.5±0.0
Thyme EO
4°C 4.2±1.4 5.0±0.0 2.5±0.0
Table 4 Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) obtained by disc diffusion method for the
three active extracts against the tested bacteria (Adapted from Iturriaga et al.70)
b Topt: optimal growth temperature. 37°C for L. innocua, 30°C for P. fluorescens and A.
hydrophila
a Values given as Mean±SD (n=3)
Some finding have revealed that the effectiveness of such antimicrobial substances also
depend greatly on temperature. Bagamboula et al.,71 suggested that microorganisms
tend to be more susceptible to antimicrobials at exposure temperatures close to their
optimal due to their increased metabolic activity. Their suggestion was based on their
observations on higher reductions in the population of Shigella spp. When treated at
22°C than at 7°C. On the other hand, the combined effect of more than one natural
extract was found to be more effective than their single use. Ilhak & Guran72 have
concluded that a combination of 0.1% thymol and 2% sodium lactate showed a
synergistic effect on Salmonella Typhimurium on days 3 and 5 of storage of fish patty,
although the sole use of 2% sodium lactate showed significant inhibition against Listeria
monocytogenes than the aforementioned treatment. A number of other natural
antimicrobial compounds have been investigated by Cheng et al.,73 Rubén et
al.,74 Speranza et al.,75 Ortiz–Viedma et al.,76 Raeisi et al.77
Organic acids: Organic acids and their salts have also been reported to have positive
impact on the safety and quality of food products. According to Sallam,78 the growth of
spoilage flora and lipid oxidation of salmon fillets packed in polyvinylidene film were
maintained at the lowest pace for 15 days at 1°C when treated with 2.5%(w/v) aqueous
solution of sodium acetate, sodium lactate, or sodium citrate dip for 10minutes at 4°C.
Similarly, cold smoked salmon brine injected with potassium lactate and sodium acetate
were observed to inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes at a storage temperature of 4°C
for 32days.79 The same results were also reported on the same product and treatment
stored at 10°C in vacuum package for 42days.80
Microbiological methods of fish preservation
This is a method of tackling the growth of undesirable microorganisms by favoring the

growth of competitive and antagonist (to the undesirable microbes) in a food product.
The phenomenon is often termed “biopreservation”. In this method, either the bacterium
or the metabolite it produces, play the role preservation. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are
the most widely studied and dealt with in the area.
LAB are not considered as indigenous microbes of the aquatic environment nor aquatic
animals. But, many species (such
as Lactobacillus spp., Carnobacterium spp., Aerococcus spp., Enterococcus spp., Lactoc
occus spp., etc.) are also reported to be associated with different fish products. The
preservative action of LAB is attributed to either their competition with the undesirable
microbes for nutrients or the antimicrobial metabolites they produce or both.81 A list of
biopreservation studies made on fish by different authors is given in a review article
authored by Ghanbari et al.82 Table 5 illustrates some of the bacteriocins produced by
LAB species and their target organisms.83
Bacterioci
Produced by Active against
n
Lc lactis subspp Bacillus cereus; Clostridium botulinum; Staphylococcus
Nicin(s)
lactis aureus
Pediocin(s
P acidilactis Listeria monocytogenes; Clostridium sporogenes
)
Listeria monocytogenes; Salmonella
Reuterins Lb reuteri
typhimurium; Shigella spp
Table 5 Bacteriocins produced by LAB (Adapted from Hall83)
The use of live microbial antagonists (biopreservatives) is suggested to follow certain
criteria and requirement for safety reasons.84 In addition to their desired antagonistic
effect against a wide spectrum of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms as well as
their capability to withstand varying processing technologies and storage conditions,
these protective cultures should not pose any adverse health effect (i.e., they should be
safe) and also neither them nor their metabolites should affect the sensory, chemical and
physical properties of the end product in a way that confer the product with unattractive
characteristics.85–86
Hurdle technology of fish preservation
Almost all preservation methods reveal poor effect when used individually. It might also
require their use at the highest concentration or intensity, which in turn can result in
sensorial and nutritional deterioration of the product. Leistner87 has suggested the use of
more than one preservative factor (hurdle) to keep undesirable microbes in a hostile
environment, which inhibits their growth and leads them to death. The principle of the
technology involves the use of more than one hurdle at mild levels and subjects the
microorganisms to multi–stress reactions by disturbing their homeostasis. This unstable
homeostasis condition eventually results in their metabolic exhaustion and death.
Conclusions
The causes of quality deterioration in fish and fishery products are numerous. The
preservation methods suggested to combat every cause are also different. The challenge
of the preservation of such delicate and nutritious product is also noted to be multi–
dimensional with no absolute or ideal preservation method capable of tackling the
varying deterioration causes and relieving the tension of the challenge. It is a dynamic
area in the science of food, which will keep introducing innovative technologies with the
progress of technological developments.
EVALUATION: Select the letter of best answer to each question Send your answers via
messenger or email.
__________1. Which of the following methods of preserving fish involves dehydrating the
fish?
A. Salting and Sun-Drying C. Freezing
B. Vacuum Packing D. None of the above
__________2. Which of the following methods of preserving fish involves the locking
up the water as ice to prevent bacterial growth?
__________3. Which of the following methods of preserving fish works by removing

the oxygen
A. The oldest methods to preserve fish are by salting or

dehydrating the food.
B. Salting fish dries the flesh because it draws out moisture, and
so prevents bacterial growth.
C. Drying outdoors under the sun is possible in some places.
D. When done improperly, both sun-dried and salted fish can
remain edible for many months.
__________5. Which of the sttements about freezing fish is wrong?
A. Freezing does not preserve fresh fish by locking any water

present into a solid form (i.e. ice).
B. Freezer burn can also be a problem if the processed fish is
not protected once frozen.
C. If left for too long in a freezer, the intense cold can cause
further drying and damage to the surface of the flesh resulting in a
“burn”.
D. Alternatively the fish can be packed in a sauce so that the
drying effect of freezing acts on the sauce rather than on the fish itself.
__________6. What percent of a whole codfish can be eaten?

A. 50% of its original weight. C. 25% of its original weight.
B.75% of its original weight. D.75% of its original weigh
__________7. Which of the following methods of preserving fish involves the addition of
salt, sugar nitrites, nitrates, seasonings or spices and phosphates to preserve food stuff?
A. Curing C. Smoking
B. Drying D. Feezing
__________8. Which of the following methods of preserving fish involves chemical

preservation applied to meat foods?
A. Curing C. Smoking
__________9. Which of the following methods of preserving fish involves tackling the
growth of undesirable microorganisms by favoring the growth of competitive and
antagonist (to the undesirable microbes) in a food product. The phenomenon is often
termed “biopreservation”.
A. Biopreservation C. Smoking
A. Almost all preservation methods reveal poor effect when used

collectively.
B. It might also require their use at the highest concentration or

intensity, which in turn can result in sensorial and nutritional deterioration
of the product. Leistner87 has suggested the use of more than one
preservative factor (hurdle) to keep undesirable microbes in a hostile
environment, which inhibits their growth and leads them to death.
C. The principle of the technology involves the use of more than

one hurdle at mild levels and subjects the microorganisms to multi–stress
reactions by disturbing their homeostasis.
D. This unstable homeostasis condition eventually results in their

metabolic exhaustion and death.
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LM 16 26 in TLED HE 109 Finals

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LEARNING MATERIALS IN TLED-HE 109- AGRI-FISHERY PART II

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XVI

DISCUSSION: History of fishing

The Greek historian Polybius (ca 203 BC–120 BC), in his Histories, describes

In India, the Pandyas, a classical Dravidian Tamil kingdom, were known for the pearl

A precursor to the dory type was the early French bateau type, a flat bottom boat

__________1. Fishing has existed as a means of obtaining food since

__________4. Gillnets existed in ancient times as archaeological evidence from the

__________7.The small village of Grimsby grew to become the 'largest fishing port

^ Fisheries and Aquaculture in our Changing Climate[permanent dead link] Policy

Bekker-Nielson (2002) "Fish in the ancient economy" In: Skydsgaard JE and Ascani

Reviewed and Evaluated by:

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XVII

DISCUSSION: History of fishing practices

Bekker-Nielson (2002) "Fish in the ancient economy" In: Skydsgaard JE and Ascani

Reviewed and Evaluated by:

LEARNING MATERIALS IN TLED-HE 109- AGRI-FISHERY PART II

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XVIII

DISCUSSION: The Branches of Fishery

As a community of enthusiastic boaters, our favourite way to fish involves anything

 Cast nets: round, weighted nets, also called throw nets.

__________5. It refers to using a hook attached to a line to catch fish. Angling is

__________10. The fishing for profit.

__________13.Fishing in lakes and rivers using any technique. Freshwater fishing is

__________22.Round, weighted nets, also called throw nets.

__________26.A style of hand-gathering fishing in which the “noodler” sticks their

__________27. A method of angling which involves intentionally casting your line

__________28. Fishing solely for fun. Recreational fishing is an overarching type of

__________31.Fishing in salt waters (oceans). Also called “tidal waters fishing”. To

__________42.Refers to fishing competitively to see who can catch the heaviest

__________43.Refers to fishing from the shores of a saltwater beach. Surfcasting is

__________46.The process of dropping a large net off the side of a slow-moving

Reviewed and Evaluated by:

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XIX

Discussions: Five Basic Methods of Angling

Fly-fishing is a method of angling employing a rod 7 to 11 feet (2.1 to 3.4 metres) in

Examples of two types of fishing reels: spinning (left) and trolling.

The establishment of the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) in 1939 did

Recent Trends In Fishing

A strong emphasis on fisheries conservation and the wise management of fish

Spearfishing with barbed poles (harpoons) was widespread in palaeolithic times.

Shore diving is perhaps the most common form of spearfishing [16][17] and simply

__________3. In South America, still fishing is usually practiced with conventional

__________6. Fly-fishing is a method of angling employing a rod 7 to 11 feet (2.1 to

__________15. A speargun is an underwater fishing implement designed to fire a

LEARNING MATERIALS IN TLED-HE 109- AGRI-FISHERY PART II

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XX

__________4. Gillnets existed in ancient times, as archaeological evidence from the

__________15. Gillnets are sometimes a controversial gear type especially among

LEARNING MATERIAL NO. XXI

Handline fishing, or handlining, is a fishing technique where a single fishing line is

Economics of fish corral

Fish trap: Amatong

In areas with limited mangrove stands, cooperative effort should be exerted by

Preliminary trials conducted in Batangas in 1987 showed that establishing amatong

This is an all-year-round fishing method and ecologyoriented livelihood project that is

Fish traps: Modified multipurpose fish trap

Weights or stone boulders are attached at the corners to serve as anchors.

Fish pots can be used in different water conditions, such as freshwater,

Economics of fish trap

Fish trap operators should be encouraged to engage in mangrove reforestation and

Fry grounds and season

The gonadosomatic index (GSI) or peak-spawning season of milkfish begins in