Wyman Diss

AN ACOUSTICAL STUDY OF ALTO SAXOPHONE
U A i f T U rs T r ruAMorn nrfTnji
rtv/ui n r i L U L u(in nu cr\ u to iu il
Presented by
F r e d e r i c k Stearns Wyman
To F u l f i l l the D i s s e r t a t i o n Requirement f o r the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Theory
Dissertation Director: Dr. Robert Gauldin
Eastman School of Music
of the
U n i v e r s i t y o f Rochester
June, 1972
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
in d is tin c t p r in t .
F ilm e d as r e c e iv e d .
U n iv e r s it y H i c r o f i l m s , A X e ro x E d u c a tio n Company
VITA
Fr eder i ck S. Wyman was born on November 26, 1935, in
Elgin, Illinois, He recei ved his e a r l y musical t r a i n i n g
from O r v i l l e K i l t z in E l g i n . I n 1957 he recei ved the
Bachelor of Arts degree from M a r y v i l l e Coll ege ( M a r y v i l l e ,
Tennessee) in Music Theory. A f t e r a ye ar of graduate study
at the Eastman School of Music (Rochest er, New York) he
accepted a t h r e e - y e a r appointment as an educati onal mi ssi on
ary under the Pr e sby t er i a n Church. During the peri od of
t h i s appointment he was head o f the music department at
Community School, Teheran, I r a n . Returning to the United
S t a t e s , he taught music theory at M a r y v i l l e Coll ege f o r
the year 1961-1962. He r ecei ved his Master of Arts degree
in music theory from the Eastman School of Music and wi t h
a. teaching f e l l o ws h i p in t heory began work on the Ph.D.
degree. In September, 1965, he accepted the po s i t i o n of
a s s i s t a n t prof essor of music at The St at e U n i v e r s i t y Col l ege
a t Fredonia ( Fr edoni a, New York) where he pr esent l y teaches
saxophone and d i r e c t s the Fredonia Saxophone Ensemble.
Mr. Wyman is well-known as a perf ormer on the saxophone and
as a c l i n i c i a n . In a d d i t i o n to performances in the Eastern
United S t a t e s , he has performed and given c l i n i c s in I r a n ,
Colombia, and Indonesi a.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank those i n d i v i d u a l s who
have encouraged and helped in the research f o r t h i s t h e s i s .
Mr. Sigurd M. Rascher and Dr. Wi l l i am C. W i l l e t t were very
he l pf ul in suggesti ng a study o f t hi s scope and in gi vi ng
ideas from t h e i r experi ence as perf ormers. The students
who p a r t i c i p a t e d as subj ects in t est s c a r r i e d out on t e s t
mouthpieces were: Anthony Al dui no, David B a t t i s t o n i ,
John Davi s, Joseph F o r i s , Michael Mosher, Ronald N o r r i s ,
James Wal l ace, and Bruce Weinberger.
Three f e l l o w f a c u l t y members a t The St at e Uni ver
s i t y Col l ege at Fredonia gave i n v a l u a b l e assi st ance:
Mr. Her ber t W. Harp ( p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e s t mout hpi eces),
Mr. Richard Goulding ( r ecor di ng tones from the t e s t mouth
pieces), and Dr. Charles Li ncol n (spectrum a n a l y s i s ) .
Special thanks are due Dr. Robert Gauldin and
Dr. Paul Lehman of the Eastman School of Music f o r t h e i r
suggestions in the pr e p a r a t i o n of the d i s s e r t a t i o n , and to
Mrs. Theresa Barber who prepared the t y p e s c r i p t .
1273044
ABSTRACT
This t hesi s is the r e s u l t of a study made o f the
i n f l u e n c e of the saxophone mouthpiece chamber design upon
tone q u a l i t y , i n t o n a t i o n , and ot her pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Its aim is to f ur ni sh i nf or ma t i on which w i l l be h e l p f u l to
teachers and performers in choosing an a p pr op r i a t e mouth
pi ece f o r a p a r t i c u l a r desi red tone q u a l i t y . The research
is l i m i t e d to i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a l t o saxophone mouthpieces.
Tests were conducted on twel ve d i f f e r e n t designs.
Measurements of each design were c o r r e l a t e d with o b j e c t i v e
and s u b j e c t i v e t e s t r e s u l t s i n or der to i s o l a t e the e f f e c t s
of individual design parameters. Tone q u a l i t y t e s t s made
use of spectrum anal ysi s of se l e c t e d tones from the range
of the i nst r ument . A Stroboconn t uner was used i n making
frequency measurements. The use of mechanical embouchures
was avoided in order to d u p l i c a t e actual playi ng condi ti ons
and to b e n e f i t from s u b j e c t i v e r eact i ons of the players
t a k i ng p a r t in the t e s t i n g .
The major conclusions are concerned with the r e l a
t i v e br i ght ness of tone q u a l i t y and the evenness o f tone
q u a l i t y throughout the pl ayi ng range of the i nstrument .
The design f act or s r esponsi bl e f o r these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
are i d e n t i f i e d . Other premises are formed on i n t o n a t i o n ,
mouthpiece r e s i s t a n c e , dynamic range, and c a r r yi n g power.
Findings from the spectrum anal y si s i n d i c a t e some new
consi der at i ons f o r tone q u a l i t y theory in the form of
undamped and "accessory" harmonics which are not accounted
f o r in pr e s e n t l y held t h e o r i e s .
TABLE GF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

OF THE SAXOPHONE MOUTHPIECE .................. 5
CHAPTER II. TEST MOUTHPIECES AND TESTING

PROCEDURES ..................................................... . 24
Sel ect i on of Mouthpieces . . . . 24

Prepar at i on of Mouthpieces . . . 41
Measurement of the Mouthpieces . 44
Procedures Used in Test i ng . . . 50
CHAPTER I I I . INFLUENCE OF MOUTHPIECE DESIGN

ON TONE QUALITY ............................................ . 61
Pr e l i mi nar y Considerations . . . 61
Brightness ........................................ . 72
Evenness Throughout Range . . . . 77
Undamped and Sympathetic
Partials .................................... . 83
S p e c i f i c Design Parameters . . . 85
CHAPTER IV. INFLUENCE OF MOUTHPIECE DESIGN

ON INTONATION ............................................
Pr e l i mi nar y Considerations . . . 98
I n t o n a t i o n Tendencies of the
Twelve Test Mouthpieces . . . 102
E f f e c t of Dynamic Change . . . . no
Octave Spreading ........................... . no
Page
CHAPTER V. MOUTHPIECE RESISTANCE, DYNAMIC

RANGE, AND CARRYING POWER ........................... 113
Resistance ............................................ 113

Dynamic Range .................................... 116
Carryi ng Power .................................... 117
CONCLUSI ON................................... 120
APPENDIX A. MOUTHPIECE MEASUREMENTS ................................. 127
APPENDIX B. TEST FORMS AND I NS T RUCT I ONS ........................... 134
APPENDIX C. HARMONIC SPECTRUM GRAPHS ............................. 138
APPENDIX D. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS AND

SPECIFICATIONS OF AUDIO TESTING
E QU I P ME NT .................................................................. 162
APPENDIX E. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS DURING

T E S T S ........................................................................... 179
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................... 180
vi i i
LIS T OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Mouthpiece Designations .............................................. 25
2. Facing Measurements ....................................................... 43
3. R e l a t i v e Brightness of Test
Mouthpieces .............................................................. 72
4. Evenness of Scale of Test

Mouthpieces .................................................................... 78
5. Bor e- t o- Tabl e Angle ....................................................... g]
6. Mouth Opening ..................................................................... 96
L IS T OF FIGURES
Fi gure Page
1. Sax's O r i g i n a l Mouthpiece 5
2. Parts of M o u t h p i e c e .......................„ ...................... 11
3. Variations in Roof Contour ................................... 14
4. French T y p e .................................................................... 15
5. Throat and Neck Juncture ..................................... 16
6. C l a r i n e t T y p e ................................................................ 16
7. Double Chamber T y p e .................................................... 17
8. Recent T y p e .................................................................... 18
9. Mouthpiece A............ ........................................ 26
10. Mouthpiece A-l ........................................................... 27
11. Mouthpiece A - 2 .......................................................... 28
12. Mouthpiece B. ........................................................... 29
13. Mouthpiece 8-1 .......................................................... 30
14. Mouthpiece B-2 .......................................................... 31
15. Mouthpiece C_........... ........................................................... 32
16. Mouthpiece C - 1 .......................................................... 33
17. Mouthpiece C-2 .......................................................... 34
18. Mouthpiece D,........... ........................................................... 35
19. Mouthpiece D- 1 .......................................................... 36
20. Mouthpiece E_ ........................................................... 37
Fi gure Page
21. Cross-secti on of End of N e c k .......................................38
22. Tool f o r Measuring Rocf Contour ............................. 46
23. Measurement Posi t i ons f o r Roof

f!rm + Q n r 47
* '‘ w * i » • * • • • • • • # • • • • • ' *
24. Spr i ng- l oaded P o i n t e r ................................................. 48
25. Tool f o r Measurement of Bore-To-Table

Angle ............................................................................... 49
26. Test Pitches
27. Test P i t c h e s .......................................................................... 54
28. Microphone Placement ..................................................... 55
29. E f f e c t of Pi tch Adjustment f o r d^ .........................64
30. E f f e c t of Pi t ch Adjustment f o r a.^ 65
31. E f f e c t of Dynamic Change f o r

Mouthpiece A .................................................................... 67

Mouthpiece B . . . . . .............................................. 68

Mouthpiece C .................................................................... 69

Mouthpiece £ .................................................................... 70

Mouthpiece £ ............................................... 71
36. General Spectrum f o r Mouthpiece A ............................75
37. General Spectrum f o r Mouthpiece A - 1 ............................75
38. Spectral Shapes .................................................................80
39. Bri ghtness: Mouthpiece C . . .............................. 81
40. Bri ghtness: Mouthpiece A ....................................... 82
xi
Figure’ Page
oc
41. Undamped and Sympathetic P a r t i al s . . . rin
ro
Chamber Length . . . . . . . . . 88
43. Couesnon Design ........................... . . 89
44. V a r i a b l e Bor'e Mouthpiece . . , . 89
45. Window Lengthening ............. . . 93
46. End-Wall Shape ................... 94
47. Outside Beak Shape ........... . . 96
48. Damping of Odd-Numbered Harmonics . . ., . . 99
49. Shor t est and Longest Chambers , . . .101
50. Intonation: A, £ and £ . . 104
51. Intonation: A, A-l and A-2 . , . . 105
52. Intonation: B, B-l and B-2 , . . 106
53. Intonation: C, C-l and C-2 . . . 107
54. Intonation: D, D-l and E . . , . . 108
55. E f f e c t of Dynamic Change . . . . . . 109
56. Octave Spreading: A, A-l and A-2 . . . . . Ill
57. Octave Spreading: B, B-l and B-2 . . ,. . . m
58. Octave Spreading: C, C-l and C-2 . . ,. . . 112
59. Octave Spreading: D, D-l and E . . . , . . 112
60. Resistance Areas ...................... . . . 113
61. B a f f l e Designs ........................... 114
62. Sound Levels at 25, 50, 75 and

100 Feet ........................................................................ 119
INTRODUCTION
The saxophone was invented by Adolphe Sax
(1814-1894) in or about the year 1840. Sax e x h i b i t e d
gr eat i n s i g h t in the area of acousti c design and with
t h i s knowledge he b u i l t , with conscious i n t e n t , a new
i nstrument . In hi s pat ent a p p l i c a t i o n of 1846, Sax des
cri bed the design of the saxophone mouthpiece. From Sax's
ca r e f ul a t t e n t i o n to i t s d e s c r i p t i o n , i t is c l e a r t h a t the
mouthpiece was considered an i n t e g r a l par t of the new
i nstrument . I t was designed to proper l y match the i n t e r i o r
shape of the instrument body.
Since i t s i n v e n t i on * c e r t a i n modi f i cat i ons in the
saxophone's design have r e s u l t e d in s l i g h t improvements
whi l e others have been det r i ment al to the o r i g i n a l intent
of Adolphe Sax. Changes in metal a l l oy s and i n the dimen
sions of the i nst r ument ' s bore have r esul t ed in modi f i ca t i on
of the tone q u a l i t y and playi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A few
improvements of the key mechanism have been made but i t
remains b a s i c a l l y the mechanism which Sax designed. Largely
due to demands f or more volume and a more b r i l l i a n t sound
which could be heard above the screaming brass of l ar ge j az z
2
bands, changes were made in the design of t h a t part of the
i nstrument which was most import ant in determi ni ng i t s
tone q u a ! i t y - - t h e mouthpiece. At pr e s e nt , the mouthpieces
which are f ur ni shed wi t h new i nst r ument s, as wel l as the
array of d i f f e r e n t models on the market , are a f a r cry
from the o r i g i n a l design of Adolphe Sax. Many of the
extreme changes in i n t e r i o r design r e s u l t in a compromise
in musical results. I t has been the au t ho r ' s experience
t h a t these changes produce more volume and a more b r i l
l i a n t sound, but along with them comes less u n i f o r mi t y of
tone q u a l i t y throughout the range and an i ncrease in
i n t o n a t i o n problems.
There is much confusion and ignorance among players
and teachers of the saxophone concerning t h i s v i t a l subject.
S e l e c t i o n of the proper mouthpiece seems to be based upon
the " l a t e s t model" or the model which a p a r t i c u l a r perf ormer
uses r a t h e r than upon a musical ev a l u a t i o n of the r esul t s
in tone q u a l i t y and pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a p a r t i
c u l a r design produces. Most books of saxophone i n s t r u c t i o n
give l i t t l e factual i n f or ma t i o n on s p e c i f i c dimensions
of the mouthpiece and of t en suggest t h a t a "medium chamber
and medium lay" w i l l be most s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r the student
saxophonist. They f a i l to gi ve any h i n t about what a
3
"medium chamber" i s , so t h a t v i r t u a l l y no help has been
given in s e l e c t i n g a mouthpiece design.
The s i t u a t i o n i n the concert h a l l is equal l y
di scour agi ng. In a typical concert band, the b r i l l i a n t ,
reedy sound o f the saxophone sect i on can usual l y be heard
through, i nst ead of bl endi ng w i t h , the ot her woodwinds.
Even though i t has us ual l y been reduced to a sect i on of
only f our p l a y e r s , its reedy q u a l i t y can s t i l l be heard
when the saxophones are doubling the horns (one t y p i c a l
way t h a t composers and arrangers t r y to hide them).
There is of t en no e f f o r t made towards u n i f o r mi t y of tone
q u a l i t y through the use of s i m i l a r mouthpiece chambers
by a l l members o f the saxophone s e c t i o n .
One would expect a l i t t l e b e t t e r r e s u l t in the
or c h e s t r a l use of the saxophone. When the saxophone is
used in the o r c h e s t r a , us u a l l y a f i n e performer is a v a i l
a bl e. However, o c c a s i o n a l l y the saxophone pl a y e r uses a
j a z z type mouthpiece when a c l a s s i c a l tone is r equi r ed
and an i n a p p r o p r i a t e tone r e s u l t s .
It is the purpose of t hi s d i s s e r t a t i o n to f ur ni sh
some knowledge on saxophone mouthpiece design which w i l l
ai d the performer i n s e l e c t i o n of a design f o r his use
which w i l l most e f f i c i e n t l y help to produce the tone q u a l i t y
and pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which he d e s i r e s . To t h i s end
a ser i e s o f t est s was conducted to determine the ex t ent
to which the mouthpiece i n t e r i o r design was r esponsi bl e
f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n tone q u a l i t y , i n t o n a t i o n problems, an
r e l a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as mouthpiece r e s i s t a n c e ,
dynamic range, and c a r r y i n g power. Chapter I I describes
in d e t a i l the experiments c a r r i e d ou t . The study was
l i m i t e d to t est s using a l t o saxophone mouthpieces.
CHAPTER I
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAXOPHONE MOUTHPIECE
In the patent l e t t e r , which Adolphe Sax f i l e d in
1846 f o r his new i nst r ument , is the sketch of the mouth
piece which is seen in Fi g. lJ
Fi g. 1. Sax's Or i gi n a l Mouthpiece.
This is the mouthpiece f o r an instrument of the bass
range. Sax goes on in the patent l e t t e r to s t a t e t h a t
the mouthpieces f o r the ot her sizes of saxophones are to
be of the same pr opor t i ons, although, i f one wishes, they
^The sketch from the o r i g i n a l patent is r epr o

duced in a l e t t e r from Sigurd Rascner to purchasers of
the Sigurd Rascher Mouthpiece manufactured by the Buescher
Di vi si on of H. and A. Selmer, Incorporated.
6
2
could be a l i j t l e smal l er or l a r g e r . In his t r e a t i s e
on I nst r ument at i on ( 1 8 4 4 ) , George Kastner w r i t e s of the
i n t e r i o r shape which Sax intended f o r the saxophone
mouthpiece. His d e s c r i p t i o n st resses t h a t i t s Interior

3
was very l ar ge and hollowed out.
From the foregoi ng de scr i pt i ons i t seems c l e a r
t h a t , although the saxophone mouthpiece was s i m i l a r to
t h at of the c l a r i n e t i n i t s use of a si n gl e r eed, i t
was d i f f e r e n t i n s i d e . The c l a r i n e t mouthpiece i s charac^
t e r i z e d by s t r a i g h t side wal l s and a narrowing to a
t h ro a tr lik e constriction.
Sax was not j u s t improving an e x i s t i n g i nst r ument ,
but wi t h the i n s i g h t of a g i f t e d instrument maker's
experience he b u i l t a new i nstrument . From his c r e a t i v e
observations in the f i e l d of i nstrument acoustics he had
been able to make many improvements in e x i s t i n g woodwind
Âdolphe Sax, L e t t e r of Patent f o r Saxophone,

as quoted in Leon Kochni tzky, Ado!phe Sax and His Saxophone
(2nd e d . ; New York: Belgian Government I nf or mat i on Center,
1964) , p. 44.
^George Kastner, Supplement au T r a i t e D1I n s t r u

ment at i o n. as quoted in Lee P a t r i c k , "The Saxophone,"
I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t , XXII (November, 1967) , p. 74.
7
and brass i nst r ument s. ^ He sensed a weak area in the tone
q u a l i t y spectrum of the or c h e s t r a l and band instruments
o f his time f o r which he intended to design a new i n s t r u
ment. I t was probably not j u s t t r i a l and e r r o r t h a t led
him to combine a pa r a b o l i c coni cal bore wi t h the f l e x i b l e ,
e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d s i n g l e - r e e d mouthpiece.® His s p e c i f i
cations on the i n t e r i o r shape of the mouthpiece must be
assumed to be equal l y wel l thought out and in support of
his i n t e n t f o r an i nstrument which combined the f l e x i b i l i t y
of the s t r i n g e d i nst r ument s, the power of the brass i n s t r u
ments, and the col or of the woodwind i nstruments of his day.®
Hector B e r l i o z , a contemporary of Sax, wr i t e s of
the impression which he gained from f i r s t heari ng the
saxophone in 1842.
Âdolphe Sax extended the range of the soprano

c l a r i n e t downward by a h a l f - s t e p to the pr esent e®. He
b u i l t a new bass c l a r i n e t r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the
one then in use. In the f i e l d of brass instruments he
designed a whole set of valved instruments whose ranges
f i l l e d the gap which exi st ed between the tubas and the
cornets and trumpets. Kochni tzky, pp. 11, 13, 24.
^The sides of the coni cal bore of the o r i g i n a l

saxophone were not p e r f e c t l y s t r a i g h t but had a s l i g h t
par abol i c cur vat ur e. Hector B e r l i o z , T r e a t i s e on
I nst r ument at i on ( r e v . and e n l . by R. St r aus s, 1904.
Trans, by T. Front; New York: Edwin Kalrnus, 19 4 8 ) , p. 399.
^Sigurd M. Rascher, "The Rati onal Saxophone,"

Woodwi nd Maqazi ne, I I (May, 1950) , 66.
8
. . . I t s sound is o f such r ar e q u a l i t y t h a t ,
to my knowledge, t her e is not a bass i nstrument
i n use nowadays t h a t could be compared to the
Sacophone, I t is f u l l , s o f t , v i b r a t i n g , extremely
power f ul , and easy to lower in i n t e n s i t y . As
f a r as I am concerned, I f i n d i t very s u pe r i o r
to the lower tones o f the o p h i c l e i d e , in accuracy
as wel l as i n the s o l i d i t y of the sound. But the
c h a r a c t e r o f the sound is a b s o l u t e l y new, and does
not resemble any o f the timbres heard up t i l l now
in our o r c h e s t r a s , wi t h the sol e exception of the
b a s s - c l a r i n e t ' s l ower E and F. Owing to i t s reed,
i t can increase or di mi ni sh the i n t e n s i t y o f i t s
sounds. The notes of the hi gher compass v i b r a t e
so i n t e n s i v e l y t h a t they may be appl i ed wi t h
success to melodic e x p r e s s i o n . 7
This f i r s t i nst r ument to be p u b l i c l y demonstrated was
a bass saxophone in the key of £ . 8 Later, in his T r e a t i s e
onI n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , B e r l i o z r e f e r s to the whole f a mi l y
of saxophones:
These newly gained o r c h e s t r a l voices have r ar e

and val uabl e q u a l i t i e s . I n the high range they
are s o f t y e t p e n e t r a t i n g ; in the low range they
are f u l l and r i c h , and in the middle range they
are very expr essi ve. On the whole i t is a timbre
q u i t e i t s own, vaguely s i m i l a r to t h a t of the
v i o l o n c e l l o , the c l a r i n e t and the English horn
wi t h a h a l f - m e t a l l i c admixture which gives i t an
a l t o g e t h e r p e c u l i a r expressi on.
The body of the i nstrument is a pa r a bol i c
cone of brass wi t h a system of keys. Agile,
s u i t e d j u s t as wel l f o r r api d passages as f o r s o f t
melodies and f o r r e l i g i o u s and dreamy e f f e c t s ,
^Hector B e r l i o z , "Adolphe Sax's Musical I n s t r u

ments," Journal des Debats (June 12, 1842) , as quoted in
Kochni t zky, p. 13.
8 1b i d .
saxophones can be used 1n any kind o f music;
but they are p a r t i c u l a r l y s ui t ed to slow and
tender compositions.
The high tones of low saxophones have a
p l a i n t i v e and sorrowful c h a r a c t e r ; t h e i r low
t ones, however, have a sublime and, as i t were,
p r i e s t l y calm. Al l saxophones, e s p e c i a l l y the
bar i t one and bass, can swell and di mi ni sh t h e i r
sound; t h i s permits e n t i r e l y new and qu i t e
p e c u l i a r sound e f f e c t s in the extremel y iow
range, which bear some resemblance to the tones
of the "expressi ve organ". The sound of the
high saxophones is much more p e n e t r a t i n g than
t h a t of the c l a r i n e t s in Bb and C wi t hout having
the sharp and of t en p i e r c i n g tone of the small
c l a r i n e t i n Eb. The same can be said of the
soprano saxophone.9
The f i r s t mouthpieces were most l i k e l y made of
wood. Sax had al r eady constructed a metal c l a r i n e t
mouthpiece as an improvement over the wooden ones then
i n use to add b r i l l i a n c e to the tone (remember t h a t the
c l a r i n e t in 1850 was not as b r i g h t as todays) and to
a l l e v i a t e the problems of warping caused by temperature
and h u m i d i t y . ^ He appar ent l y pr e f e r r e d not to use t h i s
mat e r i a l f o r his new instrument . Since e b o n i t e ^ was f i r s t

12
used f o r the c l a r i n e t mouthpiece as e a r l y as 1851, it is
9B e r l i o z , T r e a t i s e on I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , p. 399.
^ K o c h n i t z k y , p. 13.
^ E b o n i t e is a type of hard rubber.
^ W a l t e r L. Wehner, "The E f f e c t of I n t e r i o r Shape

and Size of C l a r i n e t Mouthpieces on I n t o n a t i o n and Tone
Q u a l i t y , r (unpublished Doctoral D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y
of Kansas, 1961) , p. 25.
10
probable t h a t saxophone mouthpieces were made c h i e f l y of
e i t h e r wood or ebonite up to the t we nt i e t h century.
A l i t t l e book w r i t t e n by A. A. Ross In 1928 ca l l e d
The Saxophone Guide gives some clues as to the mouthpieces
in use at the time of i t s p u b l i c a t i o n . In a photograph,
he shows f i v e hard rubber mouthpieces. Al l of these mouth
pieces are of the same general interior shape. The one
which he considers to have the "most pl easing" r esul t s
i n tone was a stock mouthpiece manufactured by the Marti n
Company. He also discusses a couple of "extreme types"
( h a r dl y extreme at a l l by today' s standards) as not
generally s a t is f a c t o r y . Ross mentions mat e r i a l s used at
t h a t ti me. They incl ude rubber, e b o n i t e , gl ass, p o r c e l a i n ,

13
metal, and a rubber mouthpiece with a metal f aci ng.
In a book w r i t t e n i n 1938, mention i s made o f the
s i m i l a r i t y of c l a r i n e t and saxophone mouthpieces, but
wi t h the added observation t h a t they are of d i f f e r e n t shape
and s i z e of i n t e r i o r c h a mbe r . ^
Unt i l the middle of the 1930s, saxophone mouth
pieces seem to have been mainly of one general design with
13
A. A. Ross, The Saxophone Guide (Boston: The
Boston Music Co., 1928) , pp. 17-20.
^ H a r r y W. Schwartz, The Story of Musical I n s t r u

ments (Garden C i t y , New York: Garden Ci t y Publishing Co.,
I n c . , 1938) , p. 147.
11
s l i g h t modi f i ca t i ons i n exact dimensions. A diagram of
a Mar t i n stock mouthpiece of t h a t peri od wi t h the various
parts l ab el e d may be seen i n Fi g. 2.
Fi g. 2. Parts o f Mouthpiece.
&J/ndccJ
YUZZZZZZZZZB. J
stWe. rtL /fs
The parts are defi ned as f o l l o ws :

RflDC f i an />f fli a mAiif aaa
vttu v pui v i vii ui wile iliuu uii^ i CuC
which f i t s over the corked end

of the saxophone neck.
CHAMBER the i r r e g u l a r l y shaped i n t e r i o r

of the mouthpiece from the opening
of the saxophone neck i n t o the
mouthpiece i n t e r i o r to the i ns i de
edge of the t i p r a i l .
ROOF the top of the mouthpiece chamber
extending trom the t i p r ai i to the
beginning of the bore.
BAFFLE -- t h a t po r t i on of the r oof extending

a shor t di st ance in from the i n s i d e
edge o f the t i p r a i l . (The shape
of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r area is known
to be c r i t i c a l in determi ni ng
mouthpiece perf ormance.)
TABLE ■- the f l a t por t i on o f the mouthpiece

upon which the reed is secured by
a ligature.
FACING CURVE -- also known as the "l ay" of a

mouthpiece. This is a curved
extensi on o f the t a b l e . I t is
in t h i s area t h a t the reed is f r e e
io v i b r a t e in a tr ansverse manner.
WINDOW ■- the opening i n t o the mouthpiece

chamber, which l i e s under the reed,
through which a i r enters the
i nstrument .
SIDE RAILS - t h a t po r t i on of the t a b l e and

f aci ng curve which forms the side
boundaries of the window.
TIP RAIL = the f l a t por t i on of the f aci ng

curve which is l ocat ed a t the t i p
of the reed and at the po i n t of
ent r y f o r the a i r stream.
END WALL ■- the i nner end of the window.
From the cr os s- s ect i on vitws of Fi g. 2 one can
see t h a t t h i s o r i g i n a l type of mouthpiece design has a
round shape s l i g h t l y l a r g e r than the bore at i t s poi nt of
maximum si z e and t h a t the side wal l s of the chamber remain
concave as the chamber narrows towards the t i p r a i l .
13
What were the changes which took place i n mouth
pi ece design? Because of i t s extreme v e r s a t i l i t y and
expr essi ve power, the saxophone has been c a l l e d upon to
pl ay many r o l e s . In the hands of an a r t i s t , i t i s capable
of gr eat expr essi ve beauty, but i t has also been c a l l e d
upon to p o r t r a y the worst q u a ! i t i e s - - t o make ugly sounds
f o r t h e i r expr essi ve power. Music used f o r ent er t ai nment
(dance music) and l a t e r j a z z , espec ial l y in i t s " heavi est "
forms, has demanded b r i g h t e r , e d g i e r , and louder sounds
until the o r i g i n a l sound i ntended by Adolphe Sax has been
changed r a d i c a l l y . This development began i n the e a r l y
1940' s when dance bands began to i ncr ease in s i z e and
the saxophone sect i on found t h a t i t was d i f f i c u l t to be
heard over the i ncr e as i ng numbers o f brass i nst r ument s.
I t was soon found t h a t the g r e a t e s t cont r ol over the
br i ght ness of the i ns t r ume nt ' s tone could be e f f e c t e d by
changes i n mouthpiece design. A c e r t a i n amount of change
can be brought about by changing reed contours but mouth
piece changes were more pronounced in t h e i r e f f e c t . At
first, changes i n faci ng l engt h and t i p openings were
tried. Changes in the b a f f l e shape, and, f i n a l l y , changes
in the complete chamber design were found to be more
effective in achi evi ng a more p e n e t r a t i n g tone q u a l i t y .
14
Until the turn of the cent ur y, mouthpiece chambers
were of one basic t y pe, varying i n the extremeness o f the
maximum c a v i t y s i z e and to some e x t e n t in the length and
r oof contour as shown i n Fi g. 3. The maximum c a v i t y s i z e
was however at l e a s t as l a r g e , i f not l a r g e r , than the bore
si ze.
Fi g. 3. V a r i a t i o n s i n Roof Contour.
The f i r s t stages of the development of b r i g h t e r
designs continued the lowering and f l a t t e n i n g o f the r oof
contour and the reducing o f the angle formed by the b a f f l e
and the reed. These changes to s mal l er elongated chambers

15
took place around 1940. Particularly in France, the
l 5Cecil Leeson, "The Modern Saxophone Mouthpiece,"

I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t , XV ( October , 19 60) , 86.
15
l owering o f the r oof conf i r mat i on led to a new s i t u a t i o n
in which the t r a n s i t i o n from bore to chamber took the
form of a c o n s t r i c t i o n or t h r o a t - l i k e opening i nstead of
being an enlargement. Fi g. 4 shows an example of t hi s type.
Fi g. 4. French Type.
This type of design was made wi t h d i f f e r e n t sizes of
t h r o a t opening. One expl anat i on given f o r the advantage
of t hi s type of design was t h a t the a i r going i nt o the neck
can do so wi t hout encountering any obstacl e at the side
thickness of the neck i ns i de of the b o r e J ® This is not
the s i t u a t i o n unless the neck touches the t h r o a t , which
does not happen on any mouthpieces of t h i s type t h a t the
author has examined. In posi t i on on the neck f o r proper
t uni ng, t h e r e is always an enlargement between the t h r o a t
^ M a r c e l P e r r i n , Ljs Saxophone, son H i s t o i r e , sa

Technique et son U t i 1i s a t i o n dans L 1orchest ra ( P a r i s ;
Edi t i ons Fi schbacker, 1955) , p. 41.
16
and the neck end as seen i n Fi g. 5.
Fi g. 5. Throat and Neck Junct ure.
The next development in the chamber shape takes
the form of a c l a r i n e t - l i k e design in which the narrowing
a t the t h r o a t is an opening with s t r a i g h t side w a l l s .
These s t r a i g h t sides widen s l i g h t l y toward the r oof and
continue s t r a i g h t in t h e i r path towards the t i p of the
mouthpiece as shown in Fi g. 6.
Fi g. 6. C l a r i n e t Type.
17
Experimental mouthpiece designs using a double
chamber were t r i e d as e a r l y as the l a t e 1930s. ! / These
consi sted of a 1a r g e r - t h a n - t h e - b o r e chamber and then a
t h r o a t - l i k e constriction. Two of these designs are shown in
Fi g. 7. The upper one is a Conn "Comet" model i n which the
t h r o a t area i s very small and the r o o f contour very l o w . 1®
The lower design is the "Meliphone Speci al " produced by the
Woodwind Company. I t has a t h r o a t o f much l a r g e r area wi t h
a high r oof contour which c a r r i e s through i n t o the l ar ge
chamber i n s i d e . Both of these mouthpieces have s t r a i g h t
si dewal l s from the t h r o a t to the mouthpiece t i p .
Fi g. 7. Double Chamber Type.
^ W i l l i a m C. W i l l e t t , "The Evol ut i on of the

Saxophone Mouthpiece," I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t , XVI (June, 1962) ,
32.
18I b i d .
18
The most r ece nt developments toward b r i g h t e r types
have omitted the double chamber and moved the t h r o a t cl ose r
to the t i p of the mo ut hpi e c e - - i n t o the window opening
area. The bore, extended down to t h i s new t h r o a t l o c a t i o n ,
becomes in e f f e c t the bulk of the t o t a l volume of the mouth
piece chamber. Fi g. 8 shows a t y p i c a l example of t hi s
general type. The b a f f 1e - t o - r e e d angle i s o f t e n very small
in t h i s type.
Fi g. 8. Recent Type.
rh
Th er ef o r e , through a ser i e s of m o d i f i c a t i o n s , the
"old rounded 't one chamber' has been choked by various
flat surfaces and shoulders in order to give a b r i g h t e r ,
more p e n e t r a t i n g tone . . .
Ânt hony Baines, Woodwind Instruments and Thei r

H i s t o r y , rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton and Co. , I n c . ,
19 63) , p. 147.
19
P r a c t i c a l musicians are o f t e n ahead of the manu
f a c t u r e r in t r y i n g to make changes. Saxophone pl ayers
often improvi se a l t e r a t i o n s in mouthpiece chambers by the

?o
use of f i l l e r s of p l a s t i c wood. Even chewing gum serves
in a pinch. . w e l l - p l a c e d wad of gum can bri ng the b a f f l e
and r oof contour down wi t h l i t t l e work.
Although ther e are many " o d d i t i e s " and patented
experimental models, the types of chambers described above
are those which have been manufactured i n l ar ge q u a n t i t i e s

21
and which have found widespread use.
Besides the design of the chamber i t s e l f , mention
should be made of the advantages of the various m a t e r i a l s
used f o r mouthpieces. Two f a c t o r s seem to determine the
mat e r i a l used; ( 1) the ease of manufacture of the chamber
and ( 2) the permanency of the f a ci ng curve. Wooden mouth
pieces are d i f f i c u l t to keep from warping and the use of
hard rubber is much more s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t h i s regard unless
extreme heat i s a f a c t o r . Hard rubber i s e a s i l y t ool ed and
is the most popular ma t e r i a l with perf ormers. Glass,
although very hard and not apt to warp a t a l l , is b r i t t l e
20Leeson, p. 86.
pi
'Some experimental models are presented in the
"Review of Acoust i cal Patents" sect i on of the Journal of
the Acoust i cal Soci ety of America, XVI I ( 1 9 4 5 ) , 99;
X V I I I ( 1 9 4 6 ) , 519; XIX T T 9 4 7 ) , 3 9 4 ; XXI ( 1 9 4 9 ) , 650;
X X I I I ( 1 9 5 1 ) , 402 and 619; XXV ( 1 9 5 3 ) , 598 and 599;
X L V I I I ( 1 9 7 0 ) , 1071.
and e a s i l y broken. It is d i f f i c u l t to produce glass
mouthpieces with a l ar ge excavated chamber because t hi s
type cannot be r e a d i l y molded and glass is d i f f i c u l t to
work. Metals are next in p o p u l a r i t y to hard rubber.
Gold, s i l v e r , aluminum, brass, and s t a i n l e s s st eel have
all been used. Often they are pl at ed and a rubber or
plastic i n s e r t i s almost always used on the outsi de
where the t eet h r e s t . The metal mouthpiece has the
advantage of permanence of the f a c i n g , but i t becomes
cold very e a s i l y and moisture tends to condense on the
i n s i d e more than wi t h ot her m a t e r i a l s . Ivory, porcelain,
and p l a s t i c s have also been used. P l a s t i c s in the e a s i l y
molded chamber types are of t en used, e s p e c i a l l y f o r less
expensive models.
Performers experi ence a d i f f e r e n c e in the " f e e l "
of the d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s . This seems to be an important
reason f o r the p o p u l a r i t y of rubber mouthpieces. With the
possi bl e exception of i v o r y , rubber is the only mat e r i a l
used which has the c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e of l i v i n g mat t er .
This very l i k e l y co nt r i b ut e s to the v i b r a t i o n a l charac
teristics of which the musician seems fond. Metals seem
to have a harsh q u a l i t y . Because of the extreme d i f f i c u l t y
of making mouthpieces of i d e n t i c a l design and pr eci si on
dimensions with d i f f e r e n c e s only of m a t e r i a l , no accurat e
21
comparative study o f m a t e r i a l s has y e t been made.
Studies by Sam Par ker , on the tone produced by
wooden and metal c l a r i n e t s , have shown t h a t the mat e r i a l

22
has no apparent e f f e c t upon tone q u a l i t y . Even i f the
l i s t e n e r can di scern no d i f f e r e n c e , the d i f f e r e n c e to the
performer may be consi der abl e. This d i f f e r e n c e in " f e e l "
c e r t a i n l y has an e f f e c t on the way the performer pl ays.
The present lack of acceptance of the saxophone
tone f o r use i n the symphony or chest ra and the tone q u a l i t y
and i n t o n a t i o n problems i t causes in the concert band are
the r e s u l t of a l ack of the a p p l i c a t i o n of a r t i s t i c values
to the judgment of saxophone tone. I t seems t h a t the
saxophone pl aye r is not taught to be as c r i t i c a l i n matters
of tone q u a l i t y or i n t o n a t i o n as ot her i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s ar e.
The mat t er of "blending" in bands and ot her ensembles has
been hampered by the search over the past t h i r t y years f o r
a more b r i l l i a n t sound. What has been gained i n one
d i r e c t i o n has caused s a c r i f i c e in another. The mouthpiece
chamber design is a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i n c o r r ec t i ng these
present -day shor t comi ngs' of the saxophone. Could c e r t a i n
designs be b e t t e r able to add a b i t of brightness to the
tone wi t hout s a c r i f i c i n g much in evenness of q u a l i t y
2?
Sam E. Par ker , "Analyses of the Tones of Wooden
and Metal C l a r i n e t s , " Journal of the Acoustical Soci ety of
Ameri ca, XIX (May, 19 47) , 417. “
22
throughout the range of the i nstrument and wi t hou t causing
i n t o n a t i o n problems? This question w i l l be answered in
the chapters to f o l l o w .
There is not much d e f i n i t e i nf or mat i on on saxophone
tone q u a l i t y to be gained from previous r esear ch. Of
eleven books and p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s which i ncl ude a
spectrum anal ysi s of saxophone t one, only one makes any

23
mention of the mouthpiece used f o r the t e s t . Most
articles fa il even to mention which member of the saxophone
f a mi l y was t e s t e d. One such source uses the tone g f
(209 Hz) f o r i t s example of saxophone tone wi t hou t t e l l i n g

24
whether i t is played on a soprano or a bass. Another
author sel ect ed f o r hi s example o f saxophone tone a
s i n g l e tone played on a tenor saxophone--concert bj5
( w r i t t e n c? f o r the saxophone).^5 j he use of a s i n g l e
pi t ch gives a f a r from complete p i c t u r e of the tone q u a l i t y
of an i nstrument .
There i s di sagreement between researchers over the
harmonic spectrum p a t t e r n of saxophone tone. One a r t i c l e
23
Cor nel l s J. Nederveen, Acoust i cal Aspects of
Woodwind Instruments (Amsterdam: F r i t s Knuf, 1969) ,
p. 106.
OA
*-^Sir James Jeans, Science and Music (Cambridge
England: U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1947) , p. 150-.
25Charles A. Cul ver , Musical Acoustics (4th Ed. ,

New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. , Inc. , 1956) , p. 143.
23
relates t h a t there is no apparent p a t t e r n o f overtone
structure,while another s t at e s t hat the saxophone has
a we l l - b a l a n c e d seri es of p a r t i a l s up to the s i x t e e n t h . 27
This poorl y documented, c o n f l i c t i n g i nf or mat i on is hardl y
of much use. The sources wi t h s i g n i f i c a n t i nf or mat i on
r e l a t i n g to mouthpiece design w i l l be r e f e r r e d to in
subsequent chapt ers.
2®Harry F. Olson, Musical Engineerinq (New York:

McGraw H i l l Book Co. , 19 52) , p. 224.
27Sigurd M. Rascher, "Thoughts About the Saxophone

Mouthpiece," I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t , IX (October, 1954) , 21.
CHAPTER I I
TEST MOUTHPIECES AND TESTING PROCEDURES
S e l e c t i o n of MouthDieces
This d i s s e r t a t i o n is l i m i t e d to the a l t o saxophone
since more mouthpiece types were a v a i l a b l e f o r t h a t i n s t r u
ment. The author c l a s s i f i e d the many v a r i e t i e s of saxophone
mouthpieces a v a i l a b l e according to basic types of chamber
design. They f a l l i n t o the f o l l o w i n g f i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s :
TYPE A O r i g i n a l type wi t h a chamber

l a r g e r than the bore at i t s
maximum si z e and with concave
side w a l l s .
TYPE B Entrance from bore to chamber

i nvol ves a c o n s t r i c t i o n to a
t h r o a t - l i k e opening between the
bore end and window opening.
The side wa l l s are s l i g h t l y con
cave or s t r a i g h t .
TYPE C Bore extended past window

opening wi t h c o n s t r i c t i o n to low
r oof q u i t e close to t i p of
mouthpiece; a common type of j a z z
mouthpiece.
TYPE D C l a r i n e t type of chamber wi t h

s t r a i g h t side wa l l s .
TYPE E Double chamber type.
24
25
For each of these c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , a s i n g l e mouthpiece
was sel ect ed as being the extreme f o r i t s type. Thus,
f o r Type A, a mouthpiece was sel ect ed having the l a r g e s t
chamber; f o r Type B, one wi t h the smal l est t h r o a t opening;
f o r Type C, one wi t h the s mal l est most c o ns t r i c t e d chamber;
f o r Type D, the most t y p i c a l of the s t r a i g h t - w a l l e d types;
and f o r Type E, one with a l a r ge inner chamber and s t r a i g h t
s i de wa l l s .
In a d d i t i o n to these f i v e basic mouthpieces,
v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n some of the types were extreme enough
to war r ant the i n c l us i on of one or two e x t r a mouthpieces
o f the same basic type. Table 1 gives the names or desi g
nat i ons given to the f i n a l s e l e c t i o n of the twelve t e s t
mouthpieces.
Tabl e 1. Mouthpiece Desi gnati ons.
BASIC VARIATIONS
A A-l A-2
B B-l B-2
C C-l C-2
D D-l
Diagrams of these twelve mouthpieces are found in
Fi gs. 9 through 20. These diagrams are twi ce the actual
size. A l i n e extending down the center of the bore and
27
Mouthpiece
10.
Fig.
B oat
28
Mouthpiece
11.
Fig.
29
Mouthpiece
tm
12.
Fig.
30
Mouthpi ece
13.
Fig.
3o& *
31
Mouthpi ece
14.
Fig.
32
Mouthpi ece
16.
Fig.
34
C \J
I
o

+->
3
O
s:
35
Mouthpi ece
18.
Fig.
Mouthpi ece
19.
Fig.
37
Mouthpiece
20.
Fig.
38
cont i nui ng u n t i l it i n t e r s e c t s the r oof l i n e has been
added f o r making comparisons between mouthpieces. A line
across the bore i s placed a t the exact poi nt to which the
end of the saxophone neck comes when the instrument and
mouthpiece have been warmed up and pr oper l y tuned. This
l i n e i s , of course, a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t he actual shape
of the. end of the neck. A diagram of the actual conf i gu
r a t i o n at the end of the neck of the aut hor ' s personal
i nstrument i s shown in Fi g. 21. This drawing is t wi ce the
actual s i z e J
Fi g. 21. Cross- sect i on of End of Neck.
^Cert ai n manufacturers have experimented in designs

which attempt to e l i m i n a t e the jog seen in Fi g. 21 between
the bore of the neck and the bore of the mouthpiece, but
the increase in mechanical s o p h i s t i c a t i o n which was
necessary is not matched by any apparent change in tone
or pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
39
The e f f e c t i v e chamber shape and volume from the
end of the neck to the t i p of the mouthpiece i s shaded
in Fi gs. 10 through 21. Cross-secti ons of the chamber at
the maximum chamber hei ght or at the t h r o a t s e c t i o n , as
a p p l i c a b l e , are shown wi t h a c i r c l e r epr esent i ng the bore
ci rcumf erence f o r comparison. Also a cr os s- s ect i on at a
di st ance of one inch from the i ns i de edge o f the t i p r a i l
i s shown f o r a l l mouthpieces. Appendix A (p. 127) gives
the exact measurements of these t e s t mouthpieces.
Mouthpiece A is the l a r g e s t in maximum chamber
hei ght of t h i s type. It i s a Mart i n stock mouthpiece
typical of those in use around 1935. Mouthpiece A-l
i s a "Sigurd Rascher" mouthpiece c u r r e n t l y manufactured
by the Buescher Company. I t has a maximum chamber height
less than t h a t of A and has a s l i g h t l y longer chamber.
This mouthpiece is the only one of the twelve t e s t mouth
pieces which is wi der than i t is high a t i t s maximum
point. Mouthpiece A-2 i s manufactured by the B r i l h a r t
Company. I t has the smal l est maximum hei ght of chamber
( onl y s l i g h t l y l a r g e r than the bore) and the l ongest
chamber of the Type A^ mouthpieces. The shape of i t s
end-wal l i s d i f f e r e n t from A and A - 1 .
Mouthpiece £ is a Vandoran " p er f ect a" model. It
has a small round t h r o a t c o n s t r i c t i o n . B-l i s a mouthpiece
(no brand name) manufactured in France having a s l i g h t l y
o f f - c e n t e r round t h r o a t whieh is much l a r g e r than t hat of
£ but s t i l l not q u i t e as l a r g e as the bore. Mouthpiece
B-2 i s a Selmer " S o l o i s t " model. I t s t h r o a t opening is
small and i r r e g u l a r in shape. The r oof is very f l a t from
side to side a t the t h r o a t opening.
Mouthpiece C i s a Gomarico mouthpiece manufactured
in Ar gent i na. It has an i r r e g u l a r shape in the bore to
r oof ar ea. C-l i s a Berg Larsen mouthpiece wi t h l a r g e r
bore area but a sma l l e r t i p area wi t h an extremely small
b a f f l e - t o - r e e d angl e. Mouthpiece C-2 i s a B r i l h a r t
" L e v e l - A i r " model sel ect ed f o r i t s unusually good pl ayi ng
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h i s type. It is most d i f f e r e n t in
its l a r g e bore to t a b l e angle and in the unique r e l a t i o n s h i p
between the bore c e n t e r l i n e and the low f r o n t r oof .
Mouthpiece D is a B r i l h a r t "Ebolin" model of the
c l a r i n e t type with s t r a i g h t s i d e - w a l l s from the t h r o a t
towards the t i p . D- 1 has no i d e n t i f y i n g marks. I t was
se l ect ed because of the extremel y high roof contour f o r
its type.
Mouthpiece £ is a "Meliphone Special" of the
Woodwind Company. It is a combination of Types A and D.
Most of the mouthpieces a v a i l a b l e on the market
today are very close in design and measurements to one
of the preceding twelve mouthpieces.
In a d di t i on to the twelve t e s t mouthpieces, t hr ee
e x t r a mouthpieces of Type A were used in speci al testing
of si n gl e areas of mouthpiece design. They are designated
as mouthpieces W, )(, and X- Mouthpiece £ was also l a t e r
used f o r a l a t e r t e s t of t h i s type and is a t t h a t time
designated as mouthpiece Z.
Prepar at i on o f Mouthpieces
The f aci ng curve of a mouthpiece a f f e c t s i t s
pl ayi ng q u a l i t i e s . Facing curves vary in t hr ee ways;
(1) the length of the curve from the f l a t t a b l e to the
tip r a i l , (2) the shape of the curve, and (3) the maximum
opening a t the t i p r a i l . The e f f e c t s of several types
are as f o l l o w s : 2
LONG CURVE & CLOSE TIP - f avor i ng of low r e g i s t e r ,

darker q u a l i t y
LONG CURVE & OPEN TIP - bigger tone
SHORT CURVE & CLOSE TIP - reedy, s t u f f y tone
SHORT CURVE & OPEN TIP - favors upper r e g i s t e r ,

more pe net r a t i ng q u a l i t y
^Harold C. Luhring, "Factors Concerning the

Constructi on, Sel ect i on and Care of Woodwind Reeds and
Mouthpieces," (unpublished Master' s Thesi s, I l l i n o i s
Wesleyan U n i v e r s i t y , 1943) , p. 12.
Each type of f aci ng r equi res the matching of a reed of
s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t contour. The combined e f f e c t s of these
two matched v a r i a bl e s can g r e a t l y a f f e c t the way a mouth
piece responds to the p l a y e r . In order to reduce these
f a c t o r s to a minimum in the comparative study of the
internal design of mouthpiece chambers, a l l of the mouth
pieces- used in the study were r ef aced by hand by the
author to i d e n t i c a l f aci ng curves. The t i p and side r a i l s
were also matched as cl o s e l y as possi bl e f o r a l l of the
mouthpieces. These are about 1/32nd of an inch in wi dt h.
Too much width in the r a i l s r e s u l t s in a heavy, dul l tone
and d i f f i c u l t y in r api d a r t i c u l a t i o n whi l e r a i l s t h a t are
too narrow tend to make the tone reedy and b r i g h t e r w i t h ,

3
however, a b e t t e r response in r api d a r t i c u l a t i o n .
The f aci ng which was put on these t e s t mouthpieces
i s t h a t used by the author. This f a c i n g , or one very
close to i t , is also used by a l l of the pl ayers p a r t i c i
pat i ng in the t e s t i n g .The most popular system of de f i ni ng

4
the f aci ng curve i s t h a t devised by Er i ck Brand. In t hi s
Êrick D. Brand, Band Instrument Repairing

Manual ( E l k h a r t , Indi ana: Er i ck D. Brand, 1946) ,
pp. 120-24.
43
system, thi ckness gauges of various sizes are i n s e r t e d
between the mouthpiece curve and a f l a t glass p l a t e upon
which the mouthpiece t a b l e r e s t s . They w i l l s l i p under
the curve u n t i l the di st ance from the curve to the t a b l e
plane is the same as the thi ckness of the gaugi*. The
l ength of the curve i s the di st ance to which a gauge of
.0015 inch thickness w i l l s l i p i n before stoppi ng. These
di stances are measured in 1/ 2 m i l l i m e t e r u n i t s . The
f aci ng used on a l l o f the t e s t mouthpieces would be
described as having a medium l ength and medium t i p
opening and are found in Tabl e 2.
Table 2. Facing Measurements.
Distance in 1/2 mm. uni t s from

Thickness of Gauge outsi de edge of t i p r a i l
.0015" 41. 5
. 01 00 " 30. 5
.0240" 20.5
.0340" 14.5
.0500" 8.0
There are s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s in the exact t i p opening from
mouthpiece to mouthpiece. The opening between the i nsi de
edge of the t i p r a i l and the plane of the t a b l e var i es
from .0600 to .0660 inch between mouthpieces.
The mouthpiece bores were a l l reamed to the same
si ze so t h a t they would a l l fit e a s i l y on the corked end
of the neck. The ol d Marti n mouthpiece (A) was o r i g i n a l l y
manufactured with a purel y c y l i n d r i c a l bore of 5/ 8 inch
44
di ameter ( . 6 2 5 0 " ) . Other mouthpieces, p a r t i c u l a r l y ol de r
models, had smal l er bores. Many of them had a s l i g h t
t a pe r in the bore (becoming smal l er towards the chamber
end). Because of the convenience of o b t a i ni ng a reamer
to make a 5/ 8 inch c y l i n d r i c a l bore, t h i s was sel ect ed as
the bore f o r a l l mouthpieces. If a mouthpiece had a taper
which became smal l er than t h a t s i z e , then the reaming was
done only as f a r as needed f o r the cor r ec t placement of
the mouthpiece on the neck cork. The Type A mouthpieces
were reamed a l l the way to the bore end. All of the
reaming was done using a 5/ 8 hi gh-speed st eel drill, the
mouthpiece being turned by hand over the s t a t i o n a r y b i t .
Measurement of the Mouthpieces
Measurements of the chamber design were taken
of the f o l l o w i n g parameters:
1. Density of the Ma t e r i a l
2. Volume of the Chamber
3. Window Length and Width
4. Bore length
5. Bore taper
6. Chamber l engt h- end of neck to

i ns i de edge of t i p r a i l
7. Baffl.e and Roof shape
8. Roof Thickness
45
9. Opening of mouth necessary

in pl ayi ng mouthpiece
10. Angle of the Bore to the

plane of the Table
11. Inner-chamber Maximum Hei ght and Width
See Appendix A (p. 127) f o r these measurements f o r the
t e s t mouthpieces.
Critical l i n e a r measurements were made with c a l i p e r s
and a S t a r r e t t micrometer to the near est 10 thousandth of
an inch. Density was determined by a water-immersion
method f i n d i n g the mass per cubic cent i met er of m a t e r i a l .
Chamber volume was measured by pl ugging the mouthpiece to
the neck l i n e and f i l l i n g the chamber wi t h wat er . The
measured volume o f t h i s water i n d i c a t e d the volume of
the chamber. Measurements of window width were made at
two p o i n t s ; at the t i p r a i l and a t a di st ance of one
inch from the i n s i d e edge of t he t i p r a i l .
To e s t a b l i s h the exact contour o f the r o o f and
baffle, a speci al tool was const ructed which allowed the
author to make measurements of the di st ance between the
t a b l e plane and the r oof at c e r t a i n f i x e d di stances from
the i n s i d e edge of the t i p r a i l . This t ool may be seen
in Fi g. 22. The mouthpiece is a f f i x e d to the device in
such a way t h a t , by removing small blocks one at a time,
the mouthpiece w i l l s l i d e forward and lock in pl ace f o r
the next measurement p o s i t i o n . The measurement posi t i ons
45
Contour
Roof
Measuring
for
Tool
22.
Fig.
47
are cl oser t o ge t he r f o r the f i r s t few measurements so
t h a t the c r i t i c a l area of the b a f f l e can be more p r e c i s e l y
de f i ned. These posi t i ons are shown in Fi g. 23.
Fi g. 23. Measurement Posi t i ons f o r Roof Contour.
"Pito+4 T tP m il .
The measurement is made wi t h a spri ng- l oaded p o i n t e r which
touches the r oof as shown in Fi g. 24. The di st ance "a"
minus the thickness o f the two tabs gives the hei ght of
the r oof a t t h a t po i nt .
Fi g. 24. Spri ng-l oaded P o i n t e r .
\yyx
V /A f
A v v f# A
The thickness of the r oof was measured at points marked
1, 2, and 3 in Fi g. 23 above.
The measurement of the b o r e - t o - t a b l e angle was
c a r r i e d out on another home-made device shown in Fi g. 25.
The device is adjusted in the bench vise so t h a t the
s haf t upon which the mouthpiece is mounted i s l evel and

XL A A A « MX A&
A 4A MM ^ UA MMMM ^ A MMAA MAW
t1/ TL.A *
1A I I A 1 4A
me pOiuuei id uii tnc Zeiu ucyi cc ularK. i tic i eve i id
then placed upon the mouthpiece t a b l e and the sh af t
r ai sed u n t i l the t a bl e is l e v e l . The poi nt er then
i n di c a t e s the b o r e - t o - t a b l e angle in degrees.
Angl e.
Bore-to-table
of
Measurement
for
Tool
25.
Fig.
50
Procedures Used i n Te st i n g
The t e s t i n g of e f f e c t s caused by d i f f e r e n t mouth-

%
pi ece designs was done under or di nar y pl ayi ng c o n d i t i o n s ,
as much as possi bl e. Some acoust i cal st udi es of mus1cal
i nst r ument tone r e l y upon mechanical embouchures i n an
e f f o r t to remove the human element. There i s a big
d i f f e r e n c e between the sound of a l i v e , humanly-blown
tone and the unmusical mechani cal l y produced tone. The
human element seems, in f a c t , to be the bi ggest f a c t o r
i n the production of a "musical" tone on any musical
i nst r ument . Many of the d i f f e r e n c e s between mouthpieces
are o f the nature of s u b j e c t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s in the " f e e l "
of the mouthpiece. There are c e r t a i n areas of i n v e s t i g a t i o n
which are best c a r r i e d out in a pur el y s u b j e c t i v e manner
by the perf ormer. Ob j e c t i v e t e s t i n g of the i n t o n a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each mouthpiece was c a r r i e d out with
the aid of a Stroboconn tuni ng devi ce. Ob j ect i ve anal ysi s
of the tonal spectra produced by the t e s t mouthpieces was
c a r r i e d out on a spectrum anal y z er .
Test 1
The f i r s t t e s t s to be c a r r i e d out were s u b j e c t i v e
analyses of tone q u a l i t y and pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The
pl ayers t aki ng p a r t in these t e st s were e i g h t of the
51
a ut hor ' s advanced saxophone students at the St at e
U n i v e r s i t y College a t Fredonia. The form used f o r the
pl ayer ev a l u a t i o n and the i n s t r u c t i o n s f or t aki ng the
t e s t are to be found in Appendix B (p= 134) . This t e s t
was a comparison of only the f i v e basic mouthpieces
(A, £ , £ , D, and E.). The t e s t aimed at making su bj e c t i v e
judgments and comparisons between these f i v e mouthpieces
on the f o l l o wi n g c r i t e r i a :
1. General tone q u a l i t y
2. Evenness of tone q u a l i t y throughout the range
3. Resistance
4. Dynamic range
5. Tonguing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
6. Agreement in pi t ch between overtones of the
lowest fundamental of the instrument and
t h e i r f i nger ed pitches
7. Ease of s l u r r i n g across "breaks" - from one
mode of v i b r a t i o n to another
Test 2
Immediately a f t e r completing the above t e s t , each
pl aye r also conducted an i n t o n a t i o n t e s t with the same f i v e
mouthpieces. The i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h i s t e s t are also
found in Appendix B. The eleven tones used f o r t h i s t e s t
were c a r e f u l l y chosen to incl ude notes which g e n e r a l l y
tend to be out of tune on the saxophone. They cover a
t hr e e- oct a ve range. They are shown in Fi g. 25 as they
are w r i t t e n f o r the E*3 a l t o saxophone.5
5The a l t o saxophone is a transposing i nstrument .

Wr i t t en pi tches are a major si xt h above the actual sounding
pi t c he s .
52
Fi g. 26. Test Pi t ches .
They were played in ascending, descending, and in a
mixed-up order to average out tendencies of the pl ayer
to play i n t e r v a l s in tune. An a s s i s t a n t was used during
the Stroboconn t est s f o r recording the sharp and f l a t
devi at i ons in cents^ from the c o r r e c t frequency f o r each
pitch. Each subj ect used his own saxophone f o r his p a r t
in the t e s t i n g . The instruments were a l l Selmer a l t o
saxophones; however, some of them var i ed consi der abl y in
bore shape and in the metal used ( e a r l i e r models). The
serial numbers were as f o l l o ws :
14,600
25,812
94,135
101 ,566
112,899
133,933
141,500
173,322
60ne cent is equal to one-hundredth of a tempered

half-step. There are 1200 cents in an octave.
53
The author also c a r r i e d out these same s u b j e c t i v e t e st s
aiid the Stroboconn i n t o n a t i o n t e s t s , but did them f o r a l l
twelve of the t e s t mouthpieces. The au t ho r ' s i nstrument
is a Selmer ( s e r i a l number 2 1 , 1 8 2 ) .
Test 3
One a d d i t i o n a l t e s t was c a r r i e d out by the author
in connection wi t h the i n t o n a t i o n t e s t i n g . This was a
t e s t to see i f d i f f e r e n t mouthpieces caused d i f f e r e n t
amounts of pi t ch d e v i a t i o n wi t h changes of dynamic. The
tone f } was played a t a pi anissimo and a t a f o r t i s s I m o
l e v el in a d d i t i o n to the mezzoforte l e v el pr escr i bed in
the ot her i n t o n a t i o n t e s t i n g f o r t h i s purpose. Al l of
the t e s t i n g mentioned thus f a r was c a r r i e d out in the
aut hor ' s teaching s t u d i o .
Test 4
The next s e r i e s of t e s t s were connected wi t h the
spectrum anal ysi s of the tones produced by the d i f f e r e n t
mouthpiece designs. For t h i s purpose the author recorded
tones on magnetic tape f o r each of the twelve t e s t mouth
pieces. The tones se l ec t ed ar? the same tones as were
used f o r the i n t o n a t i o n t e s t s . To make possi bl e a car ef ul
study of formant regions in the saxophone tone, the f i v e
54
basic mouthpieces (A, B., C_, J) and £ ) were recorded f o r a l l
eleven tones. The seven v a r i a n t types were recorded using
only the si x tones shown i n Fi g. 27 in an e f f o r t to cut
down on the l a r g e number of tones to be analyzed.
Fi g. 27. Test Pi t ches.
t ±
' ■ = ■
— =3= = =
Test 5
In or der to t e s t the e f f e c t of dynamic change on
tone q u a l i t y , t e s t tones at £ £ and f f l e v el s were also
recorded f o r the note f^ on the f i v e basic mouthpieces.
Test 6
To aid in a study of the e f f e c t of "1ipping-down"
on tone q u a l i t y , the two tones most of ten r e q u i r i n g
consi derabl e l owering in pi t ch (d^ and a^) were recurded
from mouthpiece A at " n a t u r a l " and " i n - t u n e " versi ons.
Al l of the recordi ng f o r Tests 4, 5 and 6 was
done in the Radio Studio on the campus of the St at e
55
U n i v e r s i t y College a t Fredonia. The st udi o i t s e l f is a
moderately "dead” room wi t h dr aper i es around t hr ee of the
f our w a l l s . In o r r e r to minimize the p o s s i b i l i t y of
i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s caused by possi bl e super posi t i on of
r e f l e c t e d sound waves in the room, two microphones were
used, each at a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t di st ance from the
i nst r ument . The exact placement was determined by l i s t e n i n g
to the instrument through the microphones and moving them
about the room u n t i l a " r e a l " sound was heard. The pl ace
ment of the microphones r e l a t i v e to the performer is shown
in Fi g. 28.
Fi g. 28. Microphone Placement.
56
The performer was s i t u a t e d about ei g ht f e e t from a glass
st udi o window through which he could see a Stroboconn
tuning instrument . Each of the t e s t tones produced f o r
recording could thus be played in tune. I t was f e l t t h a t
these " i n- t une" tones would be most l i k e tones in a
musical context in regard to t h e i r q u a l i t y . The tones
were a l l played using v i b r a t o so t h a t they would be as
r el axed and natural as possi bl e. Al l tones were played
a t a mf dynamic l evel as judged by the performer. Some
acoust i cal s t u d i e s , which make use of recorded tones, have
the pl ayer watch a sound l ev e l meter and make a l l of the
tones the same in sound pressure l e v e l . There are gr eat
di f f e r e n c e s between the psychological f e e l i n g s o f loudness
and sound pressure l e v e l s . Playing from one r e g i s t e r on
the instrument to another wi t h equal dynamic l evel shows
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in sound pressure l e v e l . The use
of a constant nvf l evel was f e l t by the author to be more
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the t r ue musical s i t u a t i o n . The micro
phones (two U-67 Neuman microphones) were s i t u a t e d at a
hei ght of f o r t y - e i g h t inches from the f l o o r . The performer-
stood f o r the pl aying of the tones. An Ampex model 351
tape recorder was used f o r making the recordings on
Scotch 120 tape (tape speed--15 i p s ) . The recordings
of the tones produced by the basic twelve mouthpieces were
57
all conducted on the same day. The same procedures in
regard to reed and i t s placement were used as those o u t l i n e d
in the i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r the s u b j e c t i v e t e s t i n g . A tone of
approxi mately e i g h t seconds dur at i on was recorded f o r each
pi t ch used in the t e s t i n g .
Test 7
The pr epar at i on of recorded t e s t tones f o r spectrum
anal ysi s had to be done also f o r f our ot her mouthpieces
and I ) • For these the procedure was a b i t more
compl i cated. Each of these mouthpieces was to undergo a
ser i es o f modi f i ca t i ons in a s i n g l e f a c t o r of design
in order to f u r t h e r i s o l a t e t h a t f a c t o r ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n
to tone q u a l i t y and pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Mouthpiece
W
_ was to be used f o r a study of end-wall shape, mouth
piece f o r a study of the b o r e - t o - t a b l e angl e, mouth
piece Y f o r a study of beak shape ( t he out si de shape
at the t i p end of the mouthpiece) and window l e n g t h , and
mouthpiece I f o r a study of a i r turbul ence wi t h i n the
chamber. Not only were recorded tones r e q u i r e d , but
Stroboconn i n t o n a t i o n t est s and s u b j e c t i v e t est s had to
be made a t the same t i me, since by the nature of the
changes occurri ng in a s i n g l e mouthpiece, one could not
r et ur n to the o r i g i n a l form of the mouthpiece to carry
58
out these ot her t e s t s a t a l a t e r ti me. AVI modi f i c a t i on s
in the chamber had to be c a r r i e d out at the recordi ng
st udi o. A f t e r each m o d i f i c a t i o n , the performer and a
saxophone pl aye r a s s i s t a n t made separate s u b j e c t i v e
judgments on the tone q u a l i t y and pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
from the vantage poi nts of pl aye r and l i s t e n e r . Then
recordings were made using the s i x tones of Fi g. 27.
At the time of the recordi ng process, the a s s i s t a n t ran
Stroboconn i n t o n a t i o n t e s t s on those si x tones. In these
t e s t s i t was not possi bl e f o r the pl ayer to observe the
Stroboconn t uner duri ng recordi ng as had been the case
wi t h the recordings of the basic twelve t e s t mouthpieces.
A Four i er spectrum anal y si s was made of each of
the tones recorded on t ape. A simple s t e a d y - s t a t e anal ysi s
was judged as adequate f o r the comparison to be made. The
recorded tones were played back on a Sony model 600 tape
r ecor der which was connected d i r e c t l y to a Systron Donner
model 710 spectrum anal yzer di spl a y u n i t . This anal yz er
di spl ayed the anal ysi s on an o s c i l l i s c o p e tube. A
Hewl ett- Packard model 7035B X-Y Recorder was connected
to the anal yzer f o r making permanent inked graphs of the
anal ysi s of each tone. These graphs were t r a n s l a t e d i nt o
bar graphs of the r e l a t i v e st rengt hs of the vari ous harmonic
components of each tone. The bar graphs r epr esent i ng the
59
spectrum anal ysi s of the twelve t e s t mouthpieces plus
the m o d i f i c a t i o n t e st s of mouthpieces W, £, ar,d L are
to be found in Appendix C (p. 13 8) . I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r the
proper i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the graphs may be found on the
f i r s t page of t h i s appendix.
Test 8
An a d d i t i o n a l t e s t was c a r r i e d out to determine the
" c ar r y i ng power" of mouthpieces A, B, D^, and E^. It took
place in an open f i e l d about 350 by 450 f e e t . The saxophone,
played by the a u t ho r , and the measuring instruments were at
all times a minimum o f 150 f e e t from the nearest trees or
buildings. Three t e s t tones were used: b^, b ^ , and b^2
r epr esent i ng tones from the low, mi ddl e, and high r e g i s t e r s
of the a l t o saxophone. A sound l e v e l meter a t the l o c a t i o n
of the saxophone enabled the p l a y e r to mai nt ai n a constant
sound pressure l e v e l of 80 dB on a l l t e s t tones. Readings
of the sound l e v e l (using A - sc al e wei ght i ng ) ^ a t s t r a i g h t
^Since loudness is dependent upon frequency as wel l

as sound-pressure, i t is customary f o r sound-l evel meters
to be equipped wi t h t hr e e wei ght i ng networks designated as
A, B, and C. These networks are based upon equal - 1 oudness
contours developed by F l e t c h e r and Munson, The A-scal e
wei ght i ng i n d i c a t e d here is t h a t normally used when measuring
l e v e l s below 55 dB. I t is based upon the 40-phon F l e t c h e r -
Munson contour. The wei ght i ng network used must be st at e d
in connection wi t h sound- l evel r eadi ngs.
60
l i n e distances of 25, 50, 75, and 100 f e e t d i r e c t l y in f r o n t
o f the pl ayer were made using a General Radio sound l e v e l
meter (Type 1551-C) to determine the r e l a t i v e d r o p - o f f of
sound l evel between the d i f f e r e n t mouthpiece designs a t
d i f f e r e n t distances from the i nst r ument . The ambient noise
l e v el (background noise caused by wind, e t c . ) var i ed between
40-43 dB during the t e s t s . Background noise cor r ec t i ons
were made f o r a l l sound- l evel measurements.
The f i n di n gs of a l l o f the experiments and t e s t s
discussed i n t h i s chapt er are report ed in d e t a i l in
Chapters I I I , I V , and V. Technical de s c r i p t i o n s and
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of the equipment used in r ecor di ng, spectrum
a n a l y s i s , and measurement of frequency and sound l e v el are
found i n Appendix D (p. 162). Temperature, a i r pressure,
and humi dity readings taken a t the time of t e s t i n g are
found in Appendix E (p. 179) .
CHAPTER I I !
INFLUENCE OF MOUTHPIECE DESIGN ON TONE QUALITY
Pr e l i mi nar y Considerations
In examining the harmonic spectrum graphs found
i n Appendix C (p. 1 3 8 ) . one must keep in mind t h a t there
are c e r t a i n i nf l uences on tone q u a l i t y which are not
r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y to mouthpiece design. F i r s t and foremost
of these i s the p l a y e r ' s own concept of saxophone tone.
The tone q u a l i t y of a pl ayer is not independent of the
i n f l u e n c e of past l i s t e n i n g to saxophone tone and the
d i r e c t i o n given by his mind to produce t h i s or t h a t type
of saxophone tone. Regardless of the mouthpiece used,
a p l a y e r ' s concept of what he t hi nks a saxophone should
sound l i k e w i l l be an i n f l u e n c e . The s e l e c t i o n of a
mouthpiece which has a chamber design which w i l l give a
tone q u a l i t y close to t h a t of the p l a y e r ' s "i d e a l " is
i mport ant . Otherwise, the pl aye r w i l l have to f i g h t the
mouthpiece tendencies by the use of extreme f a c i n g s , reed
contours and the l i k e . Other i nf l uences of the pl ayer
on the tone produced can be t raced to di f f e r e n c e s between
individuals in the shape and si z e of t h e i r oral and sinus
61
62
cavities. Although acoust i cal st udi es have shown t h at
oral ca v i t y shape and s i z e have no e f f e c t upon tone
q u a l i t y , 1 many musicians s t i l l f e el t h a t the oral cavity
has much to do wi t h the "cent er i ng" of a tone and with
making various adjustments in the pi t ch of a tone. The
oral c a v i t y also is an i mport ant aid in the damping neces
sary when pl ayi ng in the second mode of v i b r a t i o n .
Another i n f l u e n c e upon tone q u a l i t y which must be
kept in mind as one examines the spectrum graphs is t h a t
of " l i p p i n g down." This i s probably a mi sl eadi ng term to
use in descr i bi ng the l owering of a pi t ch through the use
of a combination or oral c a v i t y shape and s l i g h t changes
in embouchure, but i t is the term g e n e r a l l y used by
musicians. Because i t is i mpr act i ca l to b u i l d a saxophone
which plays p e r f e c t l y in t une, some adjustment on the p a r t
of the pl ayer must be made to assure c o r r e c t i n t o n a t i o n .
Cer t ai n tones need to be adj usted more than ot her s. For

2 2
i nst ance, the two pi tches cr and a S are g e n e r a l l y qu i t e
sharp and must be brought down in pi tch consi der abl y. In
an e f f o r t to observe the change in tone q u a l i t y brought
^Sam E. Par ker , "Analyses of the Tones of Wooden

and Metal C l a r i n e t s , " Journal of the Acousti cal Soci ety
of America, XIX (May, 19 47) , 417.
63
about through t h i s " l i p p i n g down" process, t e s t tones
were analyzed of these two pi t ches i n t h e i r "normal" and
" l i ppe d down" st at es ( Test 6, p. 54). Fi gs.

29 and 30 show
2
the r e s u l t s of t h i s t e s t i n spectrum graph form. The r esu l t s
are more obvious f o r pi t ch a* where t her e is a st r engt heni ng
of p a r t i a l s 1 and 2 and a weakening of a l l the hi gher ones.

p
For d , p a r t i a l s 1 and 3 are weakened and 2 and 4 are
strengt hened along wi t h a general st rengt heni ng and smoothing
out of the d r o p - o f f i n energy l e v e l for partials 5 and hi gher .
The "l i ppe d down" tones are judged to be " d a r k e r 1' in q u a l i t y .
A common f a u l t among students is the i n c o r r e c t
p o s i t i o n i n g o f the mouthpiece on the neck cork. When t h i s
is the case, the mouthpiece is us ual l y not posi t i oned f a r
enough on the neck wi t h the r e s u l t t h a t the embouchure
must be ov e r l y t i g h t and the general focus very high to
br i ng the tone up to the c o r r e c t p i t c h . This has the
e f f e c t of adding ex t r a br i ghtness and "edge" to the tone.
Another f a u l t which a f f e c t s tone q u a l i t y is t h a t of
pi nching when pl ayi ng very s o f t l y . I n a d d i t i o n to tending
to r a i s e the p i t c h , t h i s also has a br i q h t e n i n g e f f e c t
2
In Fi gs. 29 through 35 the base l i n e represents
a sound pressure l evel of zero dB. The ot her h o r i z o n t a l
l i n e s repr esent 20 dB, 40 dB, and 60 dB. The numbers
beneath the base l i n e i d e n t i f y the various harmonics.
for
Adjustment
Pitch
of
Effect
29.
Fig.
65
66
on the tone.
Dynamic l e v e l al so a f f e c t s tone q u a l i t y . A test
was made ( Test 5, p. 54) using the f i v e basic mouthpiece
types (A, £, C_, ID, and Ej to determine i f the mouthpiece
design made any d i f f e r e n c e in the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
dynamic l e v e l and tone q u a l i t y . The pi t ch f was used
as the t e s t tone. Spectrum graphs f o r t hi s t e s t are shown
in Fi gs. 31 through 35. For a l l mouthpieces, an increase
i n dynamic l e v e l r esul t ed in an increase in the number
and i n t e n s i t i e s of upper p a r t i a l s . Between mf and f f
t he t r end was f o r p a r t i a l s 2 and 4 to decrease whi l e
partials 1, 3, 5, 7, and a l l hi gher p a r t i a l s increased.
Mouthpiece jJ did not conform to the general pa t t e r n in
that partial 2 increased and 3 was weakened. The increase
in the number of p a r t i a l s present as the dynamic l evel
increased was q u i t e uniform f o r mouthpieces A and E_.
Mouthpieces B^, C, and D showed g r e a t e r increase between
pp and nrf than between nrf and f f . This caused an uneven
i ncrease in the brightness of the tone f o r equal increases
in dynamic l e v e l . There was much less d i f f e r e n c e in
spectrum shape f o r a l l mouthpieces at the £j) l e v e l ,
although £ extended the predominance of p a r t i a l 3 over
partial 2 even down to the ££ l e v e l .
67
<1
J
Q
«*-
O
+3
O
CD
CO
05
|
*
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*
59
Ul
<D
o
(1)
Cl
SZ
-P
3
O
i-
o
u-
>
Q
<+-
O
-P
u
c;

§I
I
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70
!s J
Mouthpiece
for
Change
Dynamic
of
Effect
34.
M
Fig.
o c *«
J
*
71
>!
<D
O
Cl
•r**
Q.
-C
-P
3
O
s-
o
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03
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03
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I
72
Bri ghtness
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the s u b j e c t i v e terms used
to describe tone and the spectrum anal ysi s of the t e s t
mouthpieces should perhaps be described (Test 1, p. 50) .
The ranking of the f i v e basic mouthpieces as to brightness
of tone q u a l i t y was c a l l e d f o r in the s u b j e c t i v e t e s t i n g
(Appendix B, p. 134). Table 3 shows the answers as given
by the e i g h t subj ect s.
Table 3. R e l a t i v e Brightness of Test Mouthpieces.
r A. r
1 E A D B C
z A E C B D
3 A E B D C
4 A t B D C
5 A E C D B
6 A E D C B
E A D C B
A E CD B
73
There was general aqreement wi t h one excepti on t h a t A was
the darkest mouthpiece and t h a t E was the next dar kest .
There was some d i f f e r e n c e of opi ni on as to how B_, £ , and
£ were ranked towards the b r i g h t end o f the continuum.
The author ranked a l l twel ve of the t e s t mouth
pieces i n the f o l l o wi n g o r d e r , beginning wi t h the darkest
and proceeding to the b r i g h t e s t :
A, E, D-l , B - i , A- l , C - 2 , C, A ^ i, B, B - 2 , D, CJL
Al exander Wood had e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t the saxophone tone
has a strong fundamental and r e l a t i v e l y even d i s t r i -

3
buti on of energy i n the p a r t i a l s up to around f i f t e e n .
The f o l l o wi n g general d e s c r i p t i o n of tone and i t s harmonic
content by Alexander Wood was he l pf ul as a basis f o r
comparison between mouthpieces.^
Âlexander Wood, The Physics of Musi c, ed.

J. M. Bowsher (5th e d . ; London: Methuen, 19 62) , p. 72.
41 b i d . , pp. 70- 71.
74
Energy in only lowest s o f t , p l e a s a n t , no

p a r t i a l s (Dure tonel roughness, wanting in
power, d u ll in lower
pitches
Moderate energy in more harmonious and

f i r s t six p a rtia ls m us ic al , r ic h and
s p l e n d i d , sweet and
s o f t i f hi ghe r p a r t i a l s
are absent
Prominent energy in c u t t i n g and even rough,

p a r t i a l s above s ix t h reedy
Burnau s t a te d t h a t the f o u r th p a r t i a l was next in st rength

5
a f t e r the fundamental. The author found t h i s to be the
case in only a few i s o l a t e d cases and then only at the
top-most notes o f the fundamental mode o f v i b r a t i o n (c ^ ).
P artial 2 or 3 was us ua ll y next in st re ng th to t h a t of the
fundamental.
Benade showed the saxophone to be much more
c o n s i s t e n t in spectrum shape between d i f f e r e n t r e g i s t e r s
than the c l a r i n e t . ^ P a t r i c k pointed out the balanced
overtone spectrum of the mouthpiece with an excavated
chamber and the "harsh and s t r i d e n t " q u a l i t y of the small
or narrow chamber.^
5John Burnau, "Adolphe Sax - I n v e n t o r , the Saxophone

Fami ly ," I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t , XXI (January, 1 9 6 7 ) , 42.
A rt h u r Benade, Horns, S t r i ngs and Harmony

(New York Doubleday and Co. , 1 9 60 ; , p. 231.
7
Lee P a t r i c k , op. c i t . , p. 74.
75
A l l performers ta ki n g p a r t in the t e s t i n g agreed
t h a t mouthpiece A was the darkest in tone q u a l i t y . For
t h i s mouthpiece, energy was d i s t r i b u t e d over only a small
number of harmonics. This mouthpiece was most co ns is te nt
in e x h i b i t i n g a spectrum shape in which the harmonics
p r o g re s s i v e ly decrease in strength from the strong funda
mental as shown in Fig. 36.
Fi g. 36. General Spectrum f o r Mouthpiece A.
As the saxophone tone became a b i t r i c h e r in q u a l i t y , as
can be seen in A-l , energy was found in s l i g h t l y higher
p artials. As t h i s happened, a corresponding decrease
occurred in p a r t i a l s 2 and 4 gi vin g r i s e to s t r u c t u r e s
with the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of Fig. 37.
Fig. 37. General Spectrum f o r Mouthpiece A - l .
76
The b r i g h t e r a mouthpiece becomes, the less i t tends
to show a smooth decrease in p a r t i a l stre ngt h f o r the higher
harmonics. Brightness does not seem to depend on the t o t a l
number o f harmonics in a tone, but upon the amounts of
energy above c e r t a i n f i x e d frequency po in ts . For the tones
analyzed in the spectrum graphs of Appendix C (p. 13 8 ), one
can observe t h i s e a s i l y . The r e l a t i v e brightness o f mouth
pieces c o r r e l a t e s well with the amount of energy found above
1600 H e r t z , regardless of the l o c a t i o n of the fundamental
frequency. As the energy above t h i s frequency increases,
the s u b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g is described as added b r i l l i a n c e .
When s i g n i f i c a n t amounts begin to show above 3200 H e r t z ,
the q u a l i t y begins to be described as "edgy." At higher
dynamic l e v e l s than the nrf used f o r these t e s t tones, the
ear seems to allow f o r an increase in harmonic energy a l l
o f the way up to 12,800 Her tz w it h o u t a f e e l i n g of exces
s iv e b r i l l i a n c e or "edge." At the nrf l e v e l little energy
is found above 6400 Hertz f o r any o f the mouthpieces,
no m at te r how b r i g h t they may be. Previous studies by
R is s et and Mathews have shown t h a t frequencies above 4000
H ertz may add to the b r i l l i a n c e of a tone, but t h a t they
do not c o n t r i b u t e much to the re c o g n i ti o n of what i n s t r u -

o
ment is p l a y in g .
^Jean-Claude Risset and Max V. Mathews, "Analysis

o f M u s ic a l- In s tr u m e n t Tones," Physics Today, XXII
( F e b r u a ry , 19 69) , 26.
77
In a spectrum a n al y si s o f woodwind in strum ents,
Benade came to the conclusion t h a t the st rengt h of only
the lower p a r t i a l s o f a woodwind instrument tone is d e t e r
mined by the shape o f the bore of the instrument and the
mouthpiece. According to Benade, the st rength o f the upper
partials is determined by the reed and p l a y e r . 9 The
present i n v e s t i g a t i o n has produced r e s u l t s sharply a t odds
with Benade's conclusion since mouthpiece design is shown
to be a la r g e f a c t o r in the number and strengths of the
upper harmonics.
Evenness Throughout Range
The s u b j e c t i v e t e s t i n g requ ire d a comparison of
the t e s t mouthpieces with regard to t h e i r e f f e c t on the
evenness o f tone q u a l i t y throughout the range o f the
instrument. This was to includ e a comparison of the change
of q u a l i t y which occurs when moving between d i f f e r e n t

#2
registers. The tone c and a l l pitches below i t are
normally played in the fundamental mode of v i b r a t i o n .
These pitches make up the low r e g i s t e r . Above c ^ ,
r e f e r r e d to as the second r e g i s t e r , pitches must be played
as "overblown" harmonics of the lower r e g i s t e r tones. The
9Art hur Benade, "On the Tone Color of Wind

In strum ents," Selmer Bandwagon, No. 59 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 21.
78
change o f q u a l i t y which occurs between the highest tone
of the low r e g i s t e r and the lowest tone of the second
r e g i s t e r is r e f e r r e d to as a "b re ak ." This is the

#2 2
"c -d break." A minor "break" also occurs a t the poin t
in the second r e g i s t e r where the change of vent holes
occurs (between £ * 2 and a2 ) . Players ranked the f i v e
t e s t mouthpieces on evenness of tone q u a l i t y as follows
in Table 4.
Table 4. Evenness of Scale of Test Mouthpieces.
m o lt lmm.lt «*fen
SuBJtcr \
1 E A D B C
z E A c D 8
3 A E D B C
4 A E D B C
S E C B D A
£ A E C D B
r E A D C B
3 A E C D B
The author judged the twelve t e s t mouthpieces to be in
the f o ll o w i n g order from the most even to the le a s t :
A, A - l , E C z l, D - 1 , A-2, 1z l . B - 2 , B, C - l , C, D
79
Evenness o f tone q u a l i t y throughout the range
was found to depend upon the combined e f f e c t of two
factors: (1) the u n i f o r m i t y o f the s p e c t r a l shape
and (2) the u n i f o r m i t y of brightness in the tone.
Spectral shapes were derived from the spectrum graphs
o f Appendix C by connecting with l i n e s the tops o f the
vertical bars re p r e s e n t in g the st re ng th o f i n d i v i d u a l
harmonics. By superimposing the sp e c t ra l shapes o f the
t e s t tones b_b, f ^ , c ^ , d.^, f ^ , and c ^ f o r each o f the
twelve t e s t mouthpieces, i t was p o ss ib le to study the
consistency o f shape among these t e s t tones . These sets
o f superimposed sp e c t ra l shapes f o r the t e s t mouthpieces
are shown in Fig. 38.
The u n i f o r m i t y of brightness o f tones throughout
the range o f the saxophone can be seen by noting the
amounts of energy above 3200 H er tz f o r each t e s t tone.
An examination of the spectrum graphs found in Appendix C
(p . 138) w i l l reve al this. Figure 39 shows the graph
f o r mouthpiece C_, an example o f a mouthpiece with an
uneven brightness f a c t o r . Not ice the weakness in energy
for f ^ , and a^. On the o th er hand, mouthpiece A,
seen in Fig. 40, c o n s i s t e n t l y has n e g l i g i b l e amounts of
energy above 3200 Hertz u n t i l the hi ghest t e s t tones.
80
F ig . 38. S pectral Shapes.
I !
n
I_______ L
81
Fig. 39. B rig h tn e ss: M o u t h p i e c e C..
8 N N
III
82
Fig. 40. B rig h tn e ss: M o u t h p i e c e A.
83
Undamped and Sympathetic P a r t i a l s
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the spectrum graphs f o r
possible evidence of formant regions disclosed no
evidence of strong zones of r e in f or ce m en t, Much more
i n t e r e s t i n g , however, was a s i g n i f i c a n t occurance of
inharmonic p a r t i a l s . Rather than being random and
unexplainable as to t h e i r cause, these p a r t i a l s were
observed to come from two sources. The f i r s t source
is observed in the s t r u c t u r e of pitches in the second
mode of v i b r a t i o n (overblown at the o c t a v e ) . The
fundamental f o r the length of tube being used is a c t u a l l y
an octave below the heard fundamental f o r the pitch
being played. The odd-numbered p a r t i a l s are f o r the most
p a r t damped out when one plays in the second mode of
vibration. However, these p a r t i a l s of the f i r s t or
fundamental mode of v i b r a t i o n are not always completely
damped (damping is u s u a l ly done by c o r r e c t focus of the
p l a y e r and by the aid of venting holes) and they appear
as e x t r a p a r t i a l s between the components of the
tone in the second r e g i s t e r .
The second source of inharmonic p a r t i a l s is , surpris
i n g l y , the fundamental tube length of the e n t i r e instrument.
I t seems t h a t the common view t h a t the length of tube
extending past the l a s t open hole of a given f i n g e r i n g has
84
little e f f e c t upon the tone needs some m o d i f i c a t i o n .
The energy in these inharmonic p a r t i a l s is over 10 dB in
some in s ta n ce s. In these amounts, they must have some
e f f e c t on tone q u a l i t y . In the fundamental mode of
v i b r a t i o n , they begin to be observable only in the highest
tone of t h a t mode (,c^2 ) . The i n f l u e n c e on these notes is
only from the lowest fundamental s e r i e s o f the in strument.
In the second r e g i s t e r (d^ up to f 3 ) the inharmonic
p artials become more s i g n i f i c a n t as one goes hi gher in
the r e g i s t e r . The low p o r t io n o f the second r e g i s t e r
seems to have i t s e x t r a p a r t i a l s derived from undamped
p a r t i a l s o f the fundamental mode o f v i b r a t i o n o f the used
tube l e n g t h . As one ascends above f 2 , the i n f l u e n c e of
the low bj5 se ri e s becomes g r e a t e r u n t i l in the tone of b_b3
it is e x c e p t i o n a l l y stro ng. These inharmonic p a r t i a l s , even
when over 10 dB in s t r e n g t h , have been omitted from the
spectrum graphs of Appendix C in orde r to avoid confusion
f o r the re ad er .
The inharmonic p a r t i a l s which come from the
fundamental se ri e s of the t o t a l instrument are most
pronounced and uniform when the note being sounded is
p a r t of t h a t harmonic s e r i e s . Only thre e of the pitches
in t h a t s e r ie s were among the t e s t tones recorded f o r
t h i s s tu dy , but f u r t h e r study should reveal that a ll tones
85
belonging to the fundamental seri es of an instrument
would have a sympathetic reinf orcement from t h i s source
o f inharmonic p a r t i a l s , w h il e the tones f a l l i n g between
them would not have t h i s r ei nf or ce m en t. A c e r t a i n subtle
tonal tension may e x i s t w i t h i n the scale of a l l woodwind
instruments as a r e s u l t of the i n f l u e n c e of the fundamental
s e r i e s . o f the in st ru m en t. The s e l e c t i o n by some o f f } as
a more s a t i s f a c t o r y tuning ho te , f o r the saxophone, than
the usual f f 2 may be ex plained by t h i s phenomenon.
Inharmonic p a r t i a l s are g e n e r a l l y s tr o ng e r when
mouthpiece r e s i s t a n c e is high. From cj/2 upward ther e
is more st re n g t h in these p a r t i a l s f o r b r i g h t e r mouth
p ie ce s, but the b r i g h t e r the mouthpiece, the more i r r e g u l a r
and displaced in p i t c h they seem to be. For the tone b^b2,
mouthpieces A and E are most uniform and have l i t t l e
displacement. Two i l l u s t r a t i o n s showing the undamped
and sympathetic p a r t i a l phenomenon are shown in spectrum
graph form in Fig. 41.
S p e c i f i c Design Parameters
A d e t a i l e d account of the e f f e c t s o f the various
design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s upon tone q u a l i t y w i l l now be
given. The exact measurements f o r each of the t e s t
mouthpieces are found in Appendix A (p. 127).
86
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E f f e c t of M a t e r i a l
Although the m a t e r ia l of which a mouthpiece is
made has an e f f e c t on tone q u a l i t y , i t is much less
pronounced than t h a t of the i n t e r i o r design, it is
d i f f i c u l t to set up a c o n t r o l l e d s i t u a t i o n in which the
m a te r ia l is the only v a r i a b l e . T h e r e f o r e , conclusions
in t h i s area were not attempted.
E f f e c t of Volume and Length
Mouthpiece volume remains q u it e constant from
one mouthpiece design to another. I t seems t h a t there
is a c e r t a i n necessary volume re qu ire d in order f o r
the instrument to play in tune. This w i l l be discussed in
more d e t a i l in Chapter IV in r e l a t i o n s h i p to i n t o n a t i o n .
The volume of each mouthpiece was measured from the end
of the saxophone neck to the t i p of the mouthpiece. The
sm aller chambered mouthpieces re quired a d d i t i o n a l length
to make up the required volume. There were c o r r e l a t i o n s
between the length of the mouthpiece chamber and the tone
q u a l i t y produced. Within each basic mouthpiece ty p e , the
brightness of the mouthpiece was d i r e c t l y p ro p or tio na l to
the length of the chamber. See the order of brightness f o r
the twelve t e s t mouthpieces on page 73. Fig. 42 shows
the lengths of the twelve t e s t mouthpieces (tw ic e actual

_
5I ).
\
88
F ig . 42. Chamber L e n g t h .
a rA f€ c k - - - - - (ip R a il
/ 93"
•A-1 — — ■ m\z.so*
A-2 ■" i— ■■■ ■■ ■■.■......... \ 2 A 7 *
B-1 ...
2.60"
B-2 ■■■■ - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
C-2 " ■ ■ »■■» ..... ■ ■ ■ - ■ — ■ - ^ .3)"
— — C — ■' ■" ■ ■' \2.5S"
C -1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - !*•*■
B-1 — — " ■ - ■■ — — ■■■■ ■
— 0 ■ '..................................................... ...... .........|Z49"
2.20
E f f e c t o f B o r e -t o -T a b le Angle
The angle o f the bore ce nt er l i n e to the plane
o f the t a b l e upon which the reed r e s t s has some e f f e c t
upon tone q u a l i t y . In 1928 a mouthpiece design was
patented in France by the Couesnon Company which made
use o f an extremely la r g e angle between bore and t a b l e d 0
This design was the r e s u l t of an e f f o r t to bring the t i p
o f the mouthpiece in d i r e c t l i n e with the cente r l i n e o f the
bore. Fig. 43 shows a diagram of t h i s mouthpiece design.
l^Jaap Kool, Das Saxophone ( L e i p z i g : u. 0. Weber,

1 9 3 1 ) , p. 275.
89
F ig . 43. Couesnon D e s i g n .
Jaap Kool described the r e s u l t i n g tone q u a l i t y as being
" rid of a l l sn ifflin g and r a t t l i n g in the to ne. Some
upper tones can now sound l i k e a f l u t e . The tone has
l o s t in volume, but has l o s t some o f i t s roughness and
gained in warmth, tenderness, and p l i a n c y . " ^
Mouthpiece X, was used f o r making a t e s t of t h i s
one v a r i a b l e . The bore o f a hard rubber mouthpiece of
Type A was cut out in such a manner as to lea ve the
chamber and t a b l e i n t a c t . This cut out bore was then
sealed to the chamber with s i l i c o n e rubber so t h a t i t
could p i v o t at the p o in t of e n tr y to the chamber proper
and could be v a r ie d in angle as shown in Fig. 44.
Fig. 44. V a r i a b l e Bore Mouthpiece.
90
Spectrum graph X:A (Appendix C, p. 138) represents t h i s
mouthpiece with a bore angle o f 6,5 degrees, w h il e X: B
has an angle of 11.75 degrees. The increase of the angle
made the tone q u a l i t y more uniform in spectrum shape
throughout the range and g e n e r a l l y made f o r more richness
of the tone by decreasing the energy of p a r t i a l s 2 and 4
and in cr e as in g the energy o f p a r t i a l 3.
In experiments on c l a r i n e t mouthpieces, O'Brien
found a general improvement in q u a l i t y and pl ayi ng
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s when the bore was made c lo s e r to the t a b l e

12
wit ho u t changing the angle. This type o f change would
also have the e f f e c t of b r in g in g the t i p opening of the
mouthpiece cl o s e r to being in l i n e with the ce nt er l i n e
of the bore. The bore angles o f the twelve t e s t mouth
pieces are found in Table 5 progressing from the s m al le st
to the g r e a t e s t angle.
^ H a r r y E. O ' B r i e n , "Mouthpiece Bores and Tone

Chambers," The C l a r i n e t , a Symphony Q u a r t e r l y , I
(S p r i n g , 1 9 52 ), 23.
91
Table 5. B o r e -t o -T a b le Angle,
D-l 3 . 2 degrees
C 4.6
8 4.7
A 4 .7 5
B-1 4.8
B-2 5.1
D 5.2
C-l 5.3
A-l 5. 4
A-2 5.5
E 5.8
C-2 7.8
A small angle seems to r e l a t e well to a c e r t a i n f e e l i n g
of s t u f f i n e s s experienced by the performer. Mouthpiece
C-2 has a much l a r g e r angle than the o th er s. This could
be the reason f o r the extremely even tone q u a l i t y which
t h i s mouthpiece e x h i b i t s compared to the ot her two te s t
mouthpieces of t h a t general ty pe .
E f f e c t of Roof Contour and Baffle Shape
There is g r e a t v a r i e t y in the shape of the roof
contours. Within each o f the f i v e basic types of mouth
piece design s t u d i e d , the maximum chamber height is
i n v e r s e l y pr o p o r ti o n a l to the brightness of the tone. The
baffle area is the most important s i n g l e portion o f th is
roof l i n e . The angle between the baffle surface and the
plane of the t a b l e is i n v e r s e ly pr op o r ti o n al to the
brightness of the tone.
92
E f f e c t of Throat C o n s t r i c t i o n and S t r a i g h t Side-Wa11s
Mouthpieces with a c o n s t r i c t i n g t h r o a t o f a small
s i z e (such as £ and B - 2 ) seem to emphasize the second
partial and to be g e n e r a l ly b r i g h t e r in tone q u a l i t y . In
the past , s t r a i g h t s i d e - w a l l s have been said to cause a
very b r i g h t and unbalanced tone q u a l i t y . ^ These studies
reveal t h i s to be an o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . S traigh t side
w al ls tend to reduce the volume of a chamber thus fo rc in g
an increase in length (the longer the l e n g t h , the b r i g h t e r
the sound). I f a s t r a i g h t wall design has some other
f e a t u r e which allows some increase in volume, instead
o f by a general le n gt he n in g , i t can have q u i t e a dark
sound. Mouthpieces D-l and £ are good examples of t h i s ;
D-l gains the needed volume through an increase in roof
h e i g h t , wh ile £ uses increased ro o f he ig h t and a la r g e
chamber on the inner side of the t h r o a t . Curved (concave)
s i d e - w a l l s which are g e n e r a l l y said to help in the production
of a darker sound are thus seen as only an e f f i c i e n t way
of incre as ing the volume and keeping the chamber s h o r t.
E f f e c t of Window Length
The e f f e c t of a change in window length was studied
by using mouthpiece £ . The window was v a ri e d from 35 mm.
^3Sigurd M. Rascher, "Saxophone Mouthpieces,"

I n s t r u m e n t a l 1 s t , IX (December, 19 54), 48.
93
( Y: C) to 37 mm. ( Y;D) as shown in Fig. 45.
Fi g. 45. Window Lengthening.
The modified mouthpiece had to be placed s l i g h t l y f a r t h e r
on the neck cork to compensate f o r the s l i g h t increase
in i n t e r i o r volume. The change r e s u l t e d in a b r i g h t e r ,
more open sound. I t was somewhat harder to cont rol in s o f t
playing. The len gthening o f the window seemed to produce a
more even spectrum through the f i r s t few p a r t i a l s , especially
in the upper r e g i s t e r . Mouthpiece C - 2 , having the longest
window o f a l l the t e s t mouthpieces (40 mm.), e x h i b i t s t h i s
type of spectrum shape. When the tendency of a mouthpiece
is toward a weak tone in p a r t i a l s 2 and 4, added window
length can help to c o r r e c t t h i s . In g e n e r a l , as mouthpieces
become b r i g h t e r , they tend to cause weakness in p a r t i a l s
2 and 4 while strengthening p a r t i a l 3 and a l l higher ones.
E f f e c t of End-Wall Shape
A special t e s t was conducted on the shape of the
end-wall. Mouthpiece W was te s t e d with three d i f f e r e n t
94
shapes f o r i t s e n d - w a l l , as shown in Fig. 46.
F ig . 46. End-Wall Shape.
The shape had a gr e a t e f f e c t on the re si s ta n c e of the
mouthpiece. W:A had the best evenness of s c al e and rich ne ss .
W:B had a b r i g h t e r q u a l i t y but the scale became worse
with a bad "break" between c ^ and d? . Mouthpiece W:C
was even b r i g h t e r and had the worst scale of the thre e
shapes. W:C was e a s i e r to cont rol a t lower dynamic le v e l s
than W:B.
E f f e c t of Roughened I n t e r i o r Surfaces
Studies have shown t h a t a i r passing over a surface
a t high speeds produces less "wake" i f the surface is
roughened. The boundary l a y e r ( a i r clo se st to the su rface)
becomes t u r b u l e n t but there is less "wake" in the a i r above

*1 *
i t . ‘H The su rfac e o f a g o l f b a l l is a good sxample of
the a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s prin ciple. In order to t e s t i t s
14
Ascher H. Shapiro, Shape and FIow: The F Iu id
Dynamics of Drag (Garden C i t y , New York: Doubleday and
Company, T 9 6 T ) , pp. 168-71.
95
e f f e c t in mouthpiece design a mouthpiece with a very
smooth polished i n t e r i o r ( Z : A ) was roughened by scoring
li n e s on the b a f f l e and ro o f crosswise to the flow of
a ir. The l i n e s were close to g e t h e r and extended about
one inch in from the t i p r a i l . In i t s roughened form ( Z:B)
the "edge" in the tone was reduced somewhat, but there
was extreme a l t e r i n g o f the spectrum shape f o r c / 2 , d2 ,

p
and f o f the s i x tones used. This does not appear to
be the most e f f i c i e n t way of reducing "edge."
E f f e c t of Roof and Sid e -W al 1 Thickness
There was conside rab le v a r i a t i o n in the thickness
o f the roof and side w a l ls o f the various mouthpieces
tested. This f a c t o r could not be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y an alyzed,
but i t could have some s u b tl e in f l u e n c e on tone or at
l e a s t on the " f e e l " of a mouthpiece since the m a te r ia l of
the mouthpiece does v i b r a t e . Mouthpiece A had the most
uniform thickness in the wa ll s and r o o f .
E f f e c t of Mouth Opening
The o u te r roof shape determines how wide the pl ay e r
must open his mouth to accommodate the mouthpiece. Table
6 shows the t e s t mouthpieces in order from the l a r g e s t
to the sm al le st mouth opening necessary.
96
Table 6. Mouth Opening
B-1
D-l
A and C
E and A-l
&
B-2 and C-l
D
B
C-2
A-2 SMALLEST
The v a r i a t i o n in mouth opening re q u ir e d from
B-1 to A-2 is only 7 /6 4 of an inch but the d i f f e r e n c e in
" f e e l " to the p l a y e r is g r e a t . A general darkening of
the tone occurs w it h increased opening of the mouth;
however, the in s i d e chamber shape is a much g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e .
E f f e c t of Outside Beak Shape
A t e s t was conducted to f i n d the e f f e c t o f varying
the outside beak shape at the t i p r a i l . Mouthpiece Y_ was
used f o r t h i s t e s t . The v a r i a t i o n s used can be seen in
Fig. 47.
Fig. 47. Outside Beak Shape.
The shape of Y: A has never been used on manufactured
mouthpieces. S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s shape had very good
pla ying c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The tone q u a l i t y was very smooth
and mellow, was e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d through a wide dynamic
range, and was resonant. Tonguing was amazingly e f f o r t
less and the a t t a c k t r a n s i e n t s were minimal. Spectrum
a n al y si s showed a very smooth energy d r o p - o f f in the
p artial s t r u c t u r e o f b^ and a good "b re ak. " The change
to Y: B r e s u l t e d in a weakening of the high r e g i s t e r , a
b r i g h t e r sound, and more a i r noise in the to ne, although
the tone was s t i l l mellow and resonant. Spectrum an aly sis
showed a less even scale and a bad "b reak." The f i n a l
change to V;C r e s u lt e d in less r es is ta n ce in the mouth
p i e c e , a b r i g h t e r tone with a th in high r e g i s t e r , a

JLO
weakness of p a r t i a l 2 and 4 on £ , and the i n t r o d u c t i o n
o f a "buzz" to the tone which was d i f f i c u l t to e l i m i n a t e .
P r e li m in a r y Considerations
B ui ld in g a woodwind instrument with p e r f e c t
i n t o n a t i o n is v i r t u a l l y impossible. I f the instrument is
l i m i t e d in range to those tones which can be played as
fundamental tones, an instrument can be b u i l t to play in
tune simply by the c o r r e c t placement o f the tone holes.
Extending t h i s range upward r equ ire s the p l a y e r to sound
harmonics other than the fundamental f o r the various
lengths of tube provided by the tono holes.
On the saxophone, fundamental pitches are normally

K M9 0
u t i l i z e d from J> up to c . Beginning with d and moving
upward, the tones are produced as second harmonics of
tube lengths with fundamentals an octave below. In order
to produce an "overblown" pi tc h of t h i s ki n d, the odd-
numbered harmonics must be damped or ca nce lle d out. in
order f o r odd-numbered p a r t i a l s to sound, th er e are
c e r t a i n places in the instrument bore a t which the a i r
must be in a s t a t e of non-motion. By opening a small
venting hole placed at one of these l o c a t i o n s , the
98
i
99
only the even-numbered harmonics which form a new harmonic
s e r i e s an octave above the old one. Fig. 48 i l l u s
the damping o f odd-numbered harmonics (shown as black
note-heads) in order to produce a tone an octave h ig he r.
Fig. 48. Damping of Odd-Numbered Harmonics.
Each length o f tube used has i t s own id e a l spot
f o r the placement of t h i s vent in g h o le . The i n t o n a t i o n
and q u a l i t y of the "overblown" tone depends upon the proper
placement of t h i s hole - Since i t is i m p r a c t ic a l to have
a separate hole f o r every n o te , a s i n g l e hole is made to
do s e r v ic e f o r several adjacent notes. The l o c a t i o n of
the hole has to be a compromise and is not eq u a ll y
s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r the p it ch and q u a l i t y of a l l tones. The
f a r t h e r the hole from the id e a l spot, the sharper the
"overblown" p i t c h tends to be.
100
The saxophone uses two venting ho le s . The f i r s t

A - -
serves f o r the chromatic tones between d* and while
the second serves f o r the notes from a.2 upward. The lowest
tones served by each venting hole are the sharpest in
pitch, i . e . d2 and a^. “Overblown" tones in the second
r e g i s t e r are g e n e r a l l y s l i g h t l y sharper than a tr u e octave
above the same tones o f the lower r e g i s t e r . ^ The pl ay e r
must bring these tones down to c o r r e c t p it ch as he plays .
The mouthpiece design has some e f f e c t on how
pronounced these i n t o n a t i o n tendencies o f the instrument
body are. Nederveen found t h a t the mouthpiece c a v i t y
acted as a means o f keeping the octaves in tune. Without
such a chamber the upper tones o f octaves would be much
sharper.
Nederveen also pointed out t h a t the e f f e c t i v e
length of a co nical instrument is not j u s t to the t i p of
the mouthpiece. It is found by extending the c o n ic a l,
instrument bore out past the end of the mouthpiece u n t i l
the sides converge to a p o i n t . On the a u t h o r ' s in st ru m en t,
t h i s foca l p o in t is 6. 1 8 inches beyond the end of the neck.
Ârthur H. Benade, "On Woodwind Instrument Bores,"

Journal of the Acoustical Societ.y of America, XXXI
( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 5 9 ) , 139.
O
Cornell's J. Nederveen, Acoustical Aspects of
Woodwind Instruments (Amsterdam: F r i t z Knuf, 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 83.
101
T h e o r e t i c s l l y , the mouthpiece chamber must be o f s u f f i c i e n t
volume to make up the t o t a l added volume of the c u t - o f f

3
p o rt io n of t h i s cone beyond the mouthpiece. The la r g e
rounded-out mouthpiece chamber f o r the saxophone is thus
seen as a means of making up t h i s added volume.
Fig. 49 shows a comparison o f the sh o r te s t and
lo ngest mouthpiece chambers used in t h i s study. The
extension o f the conical w a l l s o f the neck is shown as
well as the e x t r a volume in shading. Although the two
mouthpieces are in c o r r e c t tuning p o s it io n on the saxophone
neck, one mouthpiece is about 0 . 8 inches longer than the o th er .
Fig. 49. Sho rtest and Longest Chambers.
3 1b id. , p. 9.
Appendix A (p. 127) shows a comparison of the chamber
volumes of the twelye mouthpieces used in t h i s study. The
two mouthpieces pi c tu re d in Fig. 49 had the same volume
( 9 . 4 cubic c e n t i m e t e r s ) . All of the t e s t mouthpieces but
one had volumes between 9 . 0 and 9.5 cubic cent imet er s.
Mouthpiece D-l had a s l i g h t l y sm al le r vo lume--8.7 cubic
ce nt im et er s.
I n t o n a t i o n Tendencies of the Twelve Test Mouthpieces
The pi tc h f l e x i b i l i t y of the saxophone allows f o r
considerable m o d i f i c a t i o n of the p it ch by the p l a y e r . The
author found t h a t i t was possible to play a l l o f the mouth
pieces in tune f o r a l l notes. Some o f the mouthpieces
tended to be sharper than others f o r tones in the second
r e g i s t e r , but they could be played in tune with a l i t t l e
ex tr a e f f o r t . The i n t o n a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a mouth
piece are more e a s i l y corrected by the pl aye r than are tone
q u a l i t y problems caused by mouthpiece design.
The in t o n a t i o n t e s t s , described in d e t a i l in
Chapter I I (Test 2, p. 51) were designed in such a way
t h a t the p l a y e r was d i s o r i e n t e d t o n a l l y . This was done
in an e f f o r t to obta in pitches t h a t were in an unlipped
state. The reader should bear in mind t h a t tones in the
charts o f th is chapter appearing to be very sharp would
not be as o u t - o f - t u n e in a melodic c o n te xt .
103
Fig. 50 shows the mean frequencies of the t e s t tones
f o r the basic mouthpiece types represented by mouthpieces
A, ]J, £ , D, and £. These mean frequencies are the r e s u l t o f
averaging t h i r t y - t h r e e playings of each tone. The f i g u r e
shows a f a i r l y uniform p a t t e r n f o r a l l mouthpieces in the
lower r e g i s t e r . In the second r e g i s t e r the d i f f e r e n c e s
are more pronounced. Mouthpiece C is n o t ic e a b ly sharper in
this re g is te r. Mouthpieces A and £ are very sharp as they
near the top of the second r e g i s t e r ( c . ^ ) .
Figs. 51 through 54 show the mean frequencies f o r
t e s t s on a l l twelve t e s t mouthpieces. These t e s t s were
performed by the author and each pi tch shown is the mean
o f th re e playings of the tone. Mouthpieces B-J_ and C-l
show unusually lar ge i n t e r v a l s f o r the c ^ - d 2 break.
Mouthpiece E. has an unusually small break.
Several of the s i n g l e m o d i f i c a t i o n t e s t s also
produced n o ti c e a b le d i f f e r e n c e s in the s iz e of the c^ 2 -d .2
break and in the general sharpness of d2 . Because of the
nature o f these t e s t s , only a s in g le playin g was possible
f o r each t e s t tone. The mouthpiece m o d i f ic a t io n s which
seemed to reduce the sharpness of the p i tc h d 2 and decrease
the s i z e of the break were: roughening the b a f f l e ,
lengthening the window and in cre as ing the t a b l e - t o - b o r e
angle.
104
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^>1
Vll
V i
■V
UJOuiJ. SJJA?? « / t / O / ^ W a ^
108
*\
H4
®5
*
<a
UJ
D - 1 and
V i
j),
N
Intonation:
*
V l
54.
Fig.
ca a V i
a * ? 4*
+
* * * # < / JTMUAOU
6 / O y . SjJJ9D U f U O lJjJtttA Vfl
109
E f f e c t of Dynamic Change on In t o n a t io n
Test 3 (p. 53} revealed t h a t d i f f e r e n t designs
reacted d i f f e r e n t l y to changes in dynamic l e v e l . The

O
pi tc h f £ was played a t th re e d i f f e r e n t dynamic l e v e l s :
m f , pp and f f . Fig. 55 shows, f o r each mouthpiece, the
amount o f sharpening which occurred when playin g a t the ££
le v e l and the amount o f f l a t t e n i n g at the f f l e v e l . Mouth
pieces A-1 and A-2 show a marked tendency to sharpen as the
dynamic s h i f t s to the ££ l e v e l . B - 1 , B - 2 , C - 1 and C-2
change very l i t t l e or not at a l l in ££ p l a y in g . C-2 shows
the g r e a t e s t f l a t t e n i n g when playing at the f f l e v e l .
A., B - 1 , A - 1 , £ , and D-l have the l e a s t f l a t t e n i n g .
Octave Spreading
Octave spreading, or the tendency f o r tones of
the second r e g i s t e r to be sharper than the same tones in
the lower r e g i s t e r , was studied f o r each o f the t e s t
mouthpieces. Among the t e s t tones were th re e sets of

1 2 1 2
octaves: f -f , a -a. and £ -£ . Octave spreading
g e n e r a l l y increased as the length of the bore being used
decreased. Figs. 56 through 59 show the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
octave spreading f o r each mouthpiece. Mouthpiece £ was
su perior to a l l others in minimizing octave spreading.
110
• - < >•
CD
i •>11.
CD
QJ
O)
CD c«— i >« c
<0
-G
CJ
d.
CO
re
d
>5
a
I
CO 4-
o
+->
u
CO *
tT5
LO
O)
v« o v. *4 o V) A
t i l l
*
S ^ C /7 ? U! spvyuf w y
jj> b u /j*n o j
tP W Ui
m
Fig. 56. Oct ave S p r e a d i n g : A, A-1 and A - 2 .
in
5 ' IS
^ ^ Jd
VH- v
!0
S
l i 1
5 S
o
Fig. 57. Octave Spreading: B, B-1 and B-2.
5
-a
'u *
sj C
1
to
HJ
y. $
i
I
o
112
Fig. 58. Oct ave S p r e a d i n g : C^, C- l and C-2.
20 C-1 =
C-2 =
.y K^
m
^ i
/ X
Fig. 59. Octave Spreading: D, D-1 and E.
20
ky . o IS
'S w *
8 to
.5
*S
5 v 5
t i
O
/ x
a -a .
CHAPTER V
MOUTHPIECE RESISTANCE, DYNAMIC RANGE, AND CARRYING POWER
Resistance
Resistance r e f e r s to the e x t e n t to which a pl ay e r
f e e l s he is pushing a g ai n st something as he blows a i r i n t o
a mouthpiece. A fr e e - b l o w i n g mouthpiece has l i t t l e
resistance. Resistance gives some players a f e e l i n g of
control over the tone. A c e r t a i n amount of r e s is t a n c e
helps the evenness of tone q u a l i t y throughout the range
o f the instr um ent . This study located several areas o f the
mouthpiece chamber which a f f e c t mouthpiece r e s i s t a n c e .
These areas are shown in Fig. 60.
Fi g . 60. Resistance Areas.
Area 1 has th e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on the r e s i s t a n c e
o f the mouthpiece. This is th e area between the s a f f l e
and the reed. The a i r moving i n t o the mouthpiece through
t h i s area causes the reed to close a g a in s t the mouthpiece
facing. B e r n o u l l i ' s p r i n c i p l e c f aerodynamics ex pl a in s
what a c t u a l l y happens. This p r i n c i p l e s t a te s t h a t a i r in
a moving stream has less pressure at r i g h t angles to the
d i r e c t i o n o f f lo w . The a i r moves i n t o the mouthpiece above
the reed and the area between the reed and the b a f f l e
serves to channel the a i r . This moving a i r reduces the
pressure above the reed. The pressure below the reed is
b u i l t up somewhat since the a i r a t t h a t l o c a t i o n has no place
to f l o w . The g r e a t e r pressure beneath the reed causes i t to
r i s e toward the f a c i n g . In t h i s p o s i t i o n l i t t l e or no a i r
can e n t e r the mouthpiece and the reed w i l l spring back to an
open p o s i t i o n because o f i t s :Ia s iic ity . Then a i r w i l l
again e n t e r and the process w i l l repe at i t s e l f . F i g . 61
shows two mouthpiece b a f f l e designs.
F ig . 61. B a f f l e Designs.
115
I f the b a f f l e - t o - r e e d angle is s m a ll , as in the mouthpiece
on the l e f t in Fig, 61, the a i r is channeled f o r a g r e a t e r
distan ce more e f f e c t i v e l y and the pressure w i l l be reduced
over a g r e a t e r area along the top surface o f the reed.
This w i l l cause more redu ction of pressure on the top of
the reed with l i t t l e effort. In the mouthpiece on the
r i g h t in Fig. 61, the b a f f l e - t o - r e e d angle is l a r g e r and
the reduced pressure is confined to a s m a ll e r area close
to the t i p of the reed. This design w i l l be more r e s i s t a n t .
The r e s i s t a n c e of a mouthpiece is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r ti o n a l
to the b a f f l e - t o - r e e d angl e.
Area 2 in Fig . 60 is lo cat ed a t the e n d - w a l l . The
experiment in end-wall shape discussed in Chapter I I I (p. 93)
suggested t h a t t h i s area in fl u e n c e s mouthpiece r e s i s t a n c e .
The higher the e n d - w a l l , the g r e a t e r the r e s i s t a n c e .
Area 3 is not a r e a l p a r t o f the mouthpiece chamber
but the experiments on beak shape (Chapter I I I , p. 96)
i n d ic a t e d t h a t t h i s area can a f f e c t the r e s i s t a n c e . The
beak shape a f f e c t s the channeling o f the a i r i n t o the
mouthpiece. The r a d i c a l shape f i r s t t r i e d ( Y: A in

C ^ si A “7 r> O S 1 A ' f J A n l w + q T U «
i ty. *r/» p• uiictcu unijr niuuct a l e i o D ta iic c . lilc
m o d i f i c a t i o n to the shape with a very high v e r t i c a l wall
( Y:B in Fig. 47) produced a g r e a t in cre as e in r e s i s t a n c e .
When the r o o f was thinned co ns id erab ly ( Y: C in Fig. 47)
116
r e s is t a n c e was lessened and brightness added to the tone.
Thus, r e s i s t a n c e appears to be the r e s u l t o f a combination
of f a c t o r s .
The s u b j e c t i v e p o r t io n of t h i s study (T est 1,
p. 50) included a ranking of the t e s t mouthpieces in order
of t h e ir resistance. All players agreed t h a t of the basic
f i v e mouthpieces A was most r e s i s t a n t and E was next.
There was disagreement as to the order of the l a s t t h r e e .
The author ranked a l l twelve mouthpieces in the fo l l o w i n g
order beginning with the most r e s i s t a n t :
A, A - 1 , E., j M , CzZy A - 2 , E M , C, C-l , B, B -2 , D
Dynamic Range
The psychological loudness of a tone is not merely
dependent upon physical in ten sity. Changes in tone q u a l i t y
also a f f e c t the perception o f loudness. An increase in the
upper p a r t i a l content of a tone brings with i t an increase
in the apparent loudness of the tone. Consequently, those
mouthpieces which are b r i g h t e r in q u a l i t y w i l l seem lo ude r.
It happens t h a t b r i g h t e r mouthpieces also tend to have less
resistance. It is e a s i e r to play very s o f t l y on a mouthpiece
with more r e s is ta n c e and a darker tone q u a l i t y , but the lack
of energy in a l l but the lowest p a r t i a l s makes i t d i f f i c u l t
f o r t h i s type of mouthpiece to p r o j e c t a very loud tone.
117
The b r i g h t e r mouthpieces are more d i f f i c u l t to control
a t very low dynamic l e v e l s . The twelve t e s t mouthpieces
may be ca teg or ize d in th re e groups:
1. Easy to play ££, d i f f i c u l t to play f f
AIM b
-1
2. Good control over f u l l range
I ill ill ill
3. L i t t l e control at £ £ , easy to nlay f f
ill i i i A
-2
Carrying Power
In Test 8 (p. 59) the f i v e basic mouthpieces were
te s te d f o r " c a r ry in g power" in an outdoor experiment. The
r e s u l t s of t h i s t e s t are shown in Fig. 62. For t h i s t e s t ,
t h r e e pitches were used: b_^, b ^ , and b^ 2 . jîs test
was a simple t e s t o f sound l e v e l at distances of 25, 50,
75, and 100 f e e t from the instrument with the p l a y e r always
producing a t e s t tone o f eighty decibels a t the source.
S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in sound l e v e l began to appear at

I A
75 and 100 f e e t f o r the highest pitch (iv ). At t h i s distance
mouthpiece A f e l l o f f considerably more than the ot her s.
In f a c t , its reading at 100 f e e t is below the ambient noise
118
level so t h a t I t s l a s t reading cannot be considered
a c cu r at e. At a distan ce o f 100 f e e t , mouthpiece £ also
drops more than the ot her remaining mouthpieces. The
person oper ati ng the so und-level meter at 100 f e e t described
the tone q u a l i t i e s of mouthpieces A and £ as " t h i n . " The
p l a y e r found gr ea t d i f f e r e n c e s in e f f o r t re qu ire d in
producing e ig h t y decibel ‘ -'nes in the three d i f f e r e n t
registers. For a goc ^rong mf was r e q u i r e d , but f o r
the upper octaves, le s s . The b^ 2 had to be played £ to
ob ta in an e i g h t y decibel reading.
Three of the s u b j e c t i v e t e s ts y i e l d e d l i t t l e
usable i n f o r m a t io n . There was general disagreement in
the answers to the questions on tonguing, overtone s e r i e s ,
and ease o f s l u r r i n g across breaks (Appendix B, p. 13 4 ).
T h e r e f o r e , no v a l i d conclusions could be drawn from those
answers.
119
+->

0)
II CM
CO
-O i
O )
Ll.
O O O O O O
00 N u) ^ «
srJ99n>9Q f it '1 & 9 7 ^ a*n o g
CONCLUSION
Saxophone mouthpiece design plays a la r g e p a r t in
determining the tone q u a l i t y which is produced. The
p l a y e r ' s concept, or i d e a l , and his control of or al cavity
shape a ll ow f o r d i f f e r e n c e s in tone q u a l i t y between
performers using the same mouthpiece. The reed contour,
the p o s i t i o n i n g of the mouthpiece on the saxophone neck
co rk , and the d i f f e r e n t amounts of lipping-down needed
f o r various tones are also f a c t o r s in the tone q u a l i t y
picture. The mouthpiece chamber design i s , however, the
most e f f i c i e n t means o f b r in g in g about basic changes in
saxophone tone q u a l i t y .
In comparing the f i v e basic mouthpiece types used
in t h i s st udy , d i f f e r e n c e s were observed in the way tone
q u a l i t y v a ri e d with changes in dynamic l e v e l . At the £ £
level, d i f f e r e n c e s between mouthpieces are not pronounced.
In mouthpiece chambers producing a dark tone (A and E) the
upper harmonics appeared g r a d u a l l y as the dynamic l e v e l was
increased. In chambers producing a b r i g h t e r tone a more
abrupt increase in upper harmonic st re ngt h was ev id en t
between £ £ and nrf than between mf and f f .
120
The amount o f brightness in the tone is p r i m a r i l y
c o n t r o l l e d by the b a f f l e shape. A small b a f f l e - t o - r e e d
angle tends to promote a b r i g h t tone. Since proper
tuning req u ire s about the same chamber volume from a l l
ty p e s , the b r i g h t e r types (B., £ , and 0) with t h e i r low
r o o f contours tend to have longer chambers. T h e i r sm al le r
c r o s s - s e c t io n area n e ce s si ta te s g r e a t e r length in order
to provide the proper volume. Within each of the f i v e
basic chamber types the chamber length is d i r e c t l y propor
tional to the brightness of tone i t w i l l produce.
When the side w a l ls are f l a t r a t h e r than concave,
the r e s u l t i n g c o n s t r i c t i o n is s i m i l a r to t h a t caused by the
lowering of the roof h e ig h t . F l a t side wal ls u s u a l ly neces
s i t a t e lengthening of the chamber. Even with f l a t side wal ls
the tone q u a l i t y can remain q u i t e dark i f the volume of the
chamber can be increased by some means o t h e r than lengt hen ing.
Two o f the t e s t mouthpieces having f l a t si d e w a ll s ( D-1 and £)
achieve t h i s by using a large b a f f l e - t o - r e e d angle and a
high roof l i n e . One o f these two mouthpieces (Ej also
has a la r g e inner chamber f o r added volume, all owi ng i t
t o be s t i l l s h o r t e r in le n g t h .
Within each of the f i v e basic types of chamber, the
higher the maximum r o o f height i s , the darker the tone
w ill be. Two ot her design f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e s l i g h t l y to
122
the brightness of the tone: the length of the window
and the thickness of the roo f at the t i p o f the mouth
piece. Lengthening the window increases the brightness
o f the tons, and decreasing the thickness o f the roo f
has a s i m i l a r e f f e c t . Because of t h e i r outside shape,
d i f f e r e n t mouthpieces r e q u ir e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t openings
o f the p l a y e r ' s mouth. A l a r g e r opening produces a dark
ening e f f e c t upon the tone because of the s l i g h t e n la r g e
ment of the oral cavity.
Evenness of tone q u a l i t y throughout the range of the
saxophone depends upon several f a c t o r s . The most important .
o f these is mouthpiece r e s i s t a n c e . Resistance is p r i m a r i l y
r e l a t e d to the b a f f l e shape; a small b a f f l e - t o - r e e d angle
gives less r e s is ta n c e than a large angle. Mouthpieces
w it h g r e a te r re si s ta n c e w i t h i n the chamber have the best
u n i f o r m i t y of tone q u a l i t y . A high end wall adds to the
r e s is t a n c e of mouthpieces o f Type A. Resistance can be
increased by having a t h i c k v e r t i c a l wall on the outside
of the mouthpiece t i p . However, t h i s s o rt of r es is tan ce
is d e tr im e nt a l to the evenness of tone q u a l i t y .
Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of mouthpieces which is
r e l a t e d to re si s ta n c e is dynamic range. If a mouthpiece
has a grea t amount of r e s is ta n c e (A, D -1 , and B - l ) , i t is
g e n e r a l l y e a s i e r to play with control at low dynamic
123
l e v e l s , but i t is d i f f i c u l t to p r o j e c t a loud tone. Mouth
pieces which are more fr e e - b lo w in g ( C - l . B, £ , D, and A -P )
can play lo ud ly with ease, but are harder to control in s o f t
p l a y in g . Mouthpieces with a moderate amount of r e s is ta n c e
( £ , B - 2 , A - 1 , and C -2 ) give the widest range of c o n t r o l .
The performer can e x er ci s e more control over
i n t o n a t i o n than he can over tone q u a l i t y . While c e r t a i n
mouthpieces r e q u ir e more e f f o r t in p i t c h adjustment, i t is
possible to accomplish t h i s f o r a l l types. For th is
reason, i t is p r e f e r a b l e to consider tone q u a l i t y o f primary
importance in the s e l e c t i o n o f a mouthpiece type.
I n t o n a t i o n t e s t i n g in d ic a t e d t h a t mouthpieces with
s h o r t e r chamber lengths tend to be the sharpest, on the
upper tones o f the second r e g i s t e r ; however, Type C mouth
pieces are q u i t e sharp f o r the e n t i r e second r e g i s t e r .
While g e n e r a l l y g iv in g the b r i g h t e s t to ne, Type C mouth
pieces have the worst problems o f i n t o n a t i o n .

u2 2
The s iz e of the £ -d_ break d i f f e r s from design
to design. The order by mouthpiece basic type from sm a ll e s t
break to l a r g e s t i s : E, D, A, C, and B. The tendency of
th i s i n t e r v a l to be l a r g e r than an equal-temperment minor
124
second is not the g r e a t e s t determining f a c t o r in making
the break obvious to the ea r. The matter of evenness of
tone q u a l i t y across the break outweighs i t . For th is
reason, the f e e l i n g o f a good or bad break does not
correspond d i r e c t l y to the s i z e o f the break. Both
lengthening the window and incre as ing the b o r e - t o - t a b l e
angle had the e f f e c t o f reducing the s iz e of the break.
The p it ch o f a saxophone tone tends to go sharp
as the dynamic l e v e l of a tone is diminished and to go
f l a t as i t is in cre as ed . The mouthpiece design has an
e f f e c t upon these tendencies. The tendency o f mouthpieces
to go sharp was l i m i t e d to a maximum of only s i x cents
for a ll of the t e s t mouthpieces except two o f Type A
( A -l and A - 2 ) . This small interval is e a s i l y co rre ct ed
by the p l a y e r . The two exceptions are more d i f f i c u l t
to play in tune a t low dynamic l e v e l s . It is more
d i f f i c u l t f o r a pl ay e r to keep the pi tch from going
f l a t when playing l o u d l y . Mouthpieces of Types A, E, and
D had moderate f l a t t i n g , but Types B and C had extreme
fla ttin g (up to twenty cents f o r C- 2 ) .
The octave spreading between the two r e g i s t e r s is
minimized in the combination chamber of mouthpiece £ .
In the outdoor c a rr y in g power experiment the darker
mouthpieces c a r r i e d less well at greater distancest
e s p e c i a l l y f o r higher p i t c h e s . Fu rt he r studies in
au ditor ium s i t u a t i o n s would help to c l a r i f y t h i s su bje ct.
A l l of the t e s t i n g f o r t h i s th e s is was c a r r i e d out
on a l t o saxophone mouthpieces under the assumption t h a t
the f i n d i n g s would apply e q u a l ly to the ot her sizes of
saxophones. Fu rt he r study might show t h a t the e f f e c t s
of d i f f e r e n t mouthpiece designs are s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t
f o r instruments of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s .
The presence o f undamped harmonics and "accessory
harmonics" in the saxophone tone suggests a new theory
o f tone q u a l i t y f o r woodwind instr ument s. In t h i s theory
the r e l a t i o n s h i p of each tone to the t o t a l length of the
instrument becomes im portant. Fu rt he r research in this
area should prove of gr ea t value in c l a r i f y i n g observable
phenomena of woodwind instrument tone q u a l i t y .
It is hoped t h a t the re ad er can, with the facts
provided by t h i s study, choose a mouthpiece which w i l l
most e a s i l y f u rn is h the v a r i e t y of tone q u a l i t y which he
desires. Cer tai n d i f f i c u l t i e s w ill be encountered in
areas o th er than tone q u a l i t y when a b r i g h t e r type of
mouthpiece is s e le c te d . One p a r t i c u l a r t e s t mouthpiece
proved to be very successful in in cre as in g s l i g h t l y the
brightness of the tone, while at the same time maintaining
good evenness of q u a l i t y throughout the range and expanding
the dynamic range. This mouthpiece even improved upon
the i n t o n a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the o r i g i n a l la r g e
chamber wi th concave s i d e - w a l l s . This was mouthpiece £.
APPENDIX A
MOUTHPIECE MEASUREMENTS
In order to construct accurate drawings f o r the
t e s t mouthpieces (pp. 26 - 3 7 )» many measurements were
taken. Those which may be useful to the reader are
given in t h i s appendix.
I d e n t i f y i n g Marks p. 128
Material and D e n s i t y ..................... p. 128
B o r e -t o -T a b le Angle p. 129
Chamber V o l u m e .............................. p. 129
Bore Measurements
Before R e a m in g ..........................P- 130
Maximum Height and Width

o f Chambers and Throat
O p e n i n g s ....................................... P- 131
Roof C u r v a t u r e p. 132
Window Length and Width . . . p. 133
127
128
I d e n t i f y i n g Marks Material Densi t.y

(grams per
cubi c
ce n ti m et er )
A Ma rti n Rubber 1.25
A-l Rascher Rubber 1 .28
A-2 B r i 1h a r t Rubber 1.41
B Vandoren " P er fe ct a " Rubber 1.31
B-l France Rubber 1.27
B-2 Selmer " S o l o i s t " Rubber 1 .22
C Gomari co Rubber 1 .20
C-l Larsen Rubber 1.24
C-2 B ril hart "Level-Air" Steel 6.25
D B r i l h a r t "Ebolin" PIasti c 1 .33
D-l (None) Rubber 1.54
E "Me!iphone Special" Rubber 1.41
W Buescher "True-Tone" Rubber 1.2 2
X Marti n Rubber 1.33
Y Selmer ( P a r i s ) Rubber 1.24
Z B r i l h a r t "Ebolin" Plastic 77
11 • V/W
Bor e-t o- T ab le Angle Chamber Volume
( i n degrees) ( i n cubic centimeters)
A 4.75 9. 4
A-1 5.4 0 ■J
A-2 5.5 9. 5
B 4.7 9. 4
B-l 4 .8 9. 3
B-2 5.1 9. 4
C 4.6 9. 0
C-1 5.3 9. 4
C-2 7.8 9. 0
D 5.2 9. 3
D-1 3.2 8.7
E 5.8 9. 0
W 5.7 9. 3
X:A 6.5 9. 3
X; B 11.75 9. 3
Y 6.3 9. 3
Z 5.2 9. 3
130
Bore Measurements Before Reaming
O r i g i n a l Bore Open End In ne r End

( i n inches) ( i n inches)
A Cylindrieal .6250 .6250
A-1 Tapered .6240 .6210
A-2 Cylindrical .6250 .6250
B Tapered .6290 .5930
B-l Tapered .6170 .5925
B-2 Tapered .6340 .6260
C Tapered .6330 .6090
C-l Tapered .6310 .5770
C-2 Cylindrieal .6250 .6250
D Tapered .6260 .6000
D-1 CylIndrieal .6250 .6250
E Tapered .6110 .5830
W CylIndrieal .6100 .6100
X CylIndrieal .6250 .6250
Y C y l 1n d ri ca l .6200 .6200
Z Tapered .6260 .6000
131
Chamber Throat
( l a r g e r than bore) (smal 1 er than bore)
Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum

Height Width Height Width
(Inches) (Inches) (In ch es) (inches)
A .6960 .6960
A-1 .6780 .6960
A-2 .6415 .6415
B ----- m m <m
.4850 .4850
B-i ----- ----- .5480 .5300
B-2 — ----- .4610 .4290
C — ----- .5490 .5040
C-1 ----- ----- .5880 .4740
C-2 (chamber 1 s same as bore) .6250 ,6250
D — — .5810 .4880
D-1 .6530 — — .3940
E .7150 .7150 .5860 .4215
W .6920 .7020 — —
X .6830 .7080 — —
Y .6820 .7000 — —
Z — .... .5810 .4880
132
Roof Curvature
This t a b l e gives the r oof hei ght a t the f ol l owi ng

di stances from the I nner edge of the t i p r a i l :
( a l l measurements are given 1n Inches)
.0000 .0695 .1390 .2085 .4615 .7145 .9675 1 .220!
A .0600 .0920 .1310 .1730 .3230 .4565 .5755 .6745
A-1 .0610 .0930 .1215 .1580 .2840 .4115 .5245 .6295
A-2 .0640 .0730 .0845 .1030 .1980 .3190 .4306 .5390
B .0640 .0785 .0980 .1205 .2130 .3110 .4180 .5470
B-l .0640 .0815 .1050 .1325 .2470 .3660 .4845 .5970
B-2 .0640 .0765 .1000 .1230 .2145 .3075 .3945 .4680
C .0615 .0780 .0915 .1100 .1740 .2655 .4040 .5690
C-l .0650 .0760 .0865 .0985 .1530 .2195 .3090 .5675
C-2 .0660 .0920 .1090 .1245 .1725 .2160 .2625 .6405
D .0640 .0775 .0945 .1115 .2170 .3350 .4430 .5430
D-l .0650 .0810 .1120 .1395 .2675 .3895 .5030 .6075
E .0640 .0890 .1220 .1575 .2970 .4210 .5340 .6215
W .0600 .0900 .1260 .1610 .2855 .4085 .5255 .6270
X .0660 .0820 .1125 .1515 .3055 .4570 .5760 .6815
Y .0610 .0870 .1175 .1475 .2745 .3965 .5130 .6185
Z .0640 .0775 .0945 .1115 .2170 .3350 .4430 .5430
Window Length Window Width
One Inch In
At Tip Rail from Ti p Rail
Al l measurements are in m i l l i m e t e r s .
A 34.50 14.25 12.50
A-1 33.50 14.00 11.50
A-2 35.50 13.75 11.50
B 35.00 14.00 11.75

OO
Wv • VEft 14.00 12.25
ill W
B-2 37.25 15.00 12.50
C 36.25 14.00 11.50
37.75 15.00 1 o nn
C-l
C-2 40.00 14.75 12.50
D 39.00 14.50 12.00
0-1 37.25 13.50 12.00
E 37.50 15.25 12.50
W 35.50 14.00 11.50
X 34.50 14.00 12.00
Y:A, Y: B & Y:C 35.00 14.00 11.50

Y: D 37.00 14.00 11.50
Z 39.00 14.50 12.00
TEST FORMS AND INSTRUCTIONS
Two d i f f e r e n t t e s t s were c a r r i e d out on the f i v e
basic .mouthpiece types by the e i g h t subj e ct s . The mouth
pieces r epr es ent i ng the basi c types were A, B, C, D and E_.
One t e s t covered s u b j e c t i v e anal ysi s from the viewpoint
o f the perf ormer. The ot her t est ed the i n t o n a t i o n tendencies
of each mouthpiece. The i n s t r u c t i o n s and questions f or
these t e s t s f o l l o w .
Subj ect i ve Anal ysi s Test
You w i l l be given f i v e mouthpieces f o r t h i s t e s t .

They are l a b e l e d A, B^, C^, £ and £. Sel ect the mouthpiece
which is cl osest in design to the one which you normally
us.e. Match a reed to i t . Al l of the mouthpieces t h a t you
w i l l play have the same f a c i n g . Mark a l i n e on the bark
o f the reed to show the p o s i t i o n of the l i g a t u r e on the
reed so t h a t you can set i t s i m i l a r l y f o r each mouthpiece.
This w i l l assure the same v i b r a t i n g l ength f o r the reed
during each t e s t .
Once you have adjusted the reed f o r t h i s f i r s t

mouthpiece, make no f u r t h e r adjustments during t e s t s cn
n tk a r
V VII U I
m n n t k n iI V
llivw
a rW
acd a
A lert
MI ^ V )
kWaW c
W
i Iv•' o
iV th a t
WVII U V
tto
hiiv
o* raoH
I WWW
iiw
c n l s r pW
p I UW
Hw
on the t a b l e of each subsequent mouthpiece in such a way

t h a t the t i p of the reed w i l l have the same r e l a t i o n s h i p
to the mouthpiece t i p r a i l . Al l o f the mouthpieces which
you w i l l t e s t have the same t i p r a i l wi dt h. The t i p of
the reed should, when closed agai nst the f a c i n g , come to
the outsi de edge of the t i p r a i l .
134
135
Tune c a r e f u l l y to the pi t ch f } (concer t a.**). Also

Î 2 «
D1I U
I
aJ
uf Î a
V■
w a
U
f■a
wn
u ri4
III ■M
n u f oe
U V ttil
n
W
n11 aarh nVf I fWhIIW
fi m
t nwmwi *^tik -
pi eces- in t u r n p r i o r to at tempti ng to w r i t e any comments.

This w i l l give you an o v e r a l l preview of the mouthpieces
which you w i l l be comparing. You may play the mouthpieces
in any order and as many times as you f e el necessary to
help you in the completion of the forms.
Answer the f o l l o w i n g :
Name of Subject
Make __________ and S e r i a l Number______________ of

i nstrument used f o r the t e s t i n g .
Which of the t e s t mouthpieces is cl osest in design to

the one which you usual l y play?
I. GENERAL TONE QUALITY: Place the i d e n t i f y i n g mark

of each mouthpiece in an a p pr op r i a t e p o s i t i o n on
this lin e . Make a d d i t i o n a l comments on each mouth
piece on the ext r a blank sheets provided.
II. EVENNESS OF TONE THROUGHOUT RANGE: Check f o r abrupt

changes between adj acent tones in e i t h e r dynamic
l evel or tone q u a l i t y . Be sure to check the £ #z- d z
break. Rank the mouthpieces in order beginning with
the most even.
136
III. RESISTANCE: Does the mouthpiece seem to r e s t r i c t

the amount of a i r - f i o w which you normali y use, or
i s i t more f r ee- bl owi ng? Rank in order beqinninq
wi t h the most r e s i s t a n t .
IV'. DYNAMIC RANGE: Over what general range do you f eel

t h a t you can control the tone? Rank the mouthpieces
i n order from the g r e a t e s t range to the smal l est
range.
* —- - » > i ________
----------------------------------------------- — -----------------PPP
---------------------------------------------------------------------pp
--------------------------------------------------------------------p
--------------------------------------------------------------------mp
--------------------------------------------------------------------mf
________________________________________ f
________________________________________ f f
--------------------------------------------------------------------f f f
V. TONGUING: Rank the mouthpieces according to

tonguing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Note changes necessary
i n the several r e g i s t e r s . Rank from best to w o r s t .
i ________» > j
VI . OVERTONE SERIES: How wel l do the tones of the

overtone ser i es or. bb agree i n pi t ch with the same
tones produced wi t h r e g u l a r f i nge r i ngs? Rank in
order from best to worst.
VII. EASE OF SLURRING ACROSS BREAKS: Check e s p e c i a l l y

the s l u r r i n g down across the break. Rank in
order from e a s i e s t to hardest.
9 _ . 9 > »
137
I n t o n a t i o n Test
Follow a l l of the i n s t r u c t i o n s found above with

the Subj ect i ve Anal ysi s Te st . There are several addi t i ona l
instructions for this te s t .
Mark mouthpiece placement in order to f a c i l i t a t e

the computing of i n t e r i o r volume.
For these t e s t s pl ay a l l pitches with your mind

d i r e c t e d toward the production of a good resonant musical
tone. Do not be p r i m a r i l y concerned wi t h pl ayi ng "i n
t une. " Try not to t h i n k of the pi tches in r e l a t i o n to
each ot her as in a melody f o r you w i l l then tend to t r y
to pl ay each p i t c h " i n t une. "
Only eleven c a r e f u l l y sel ect ed pi tches are to be

used. They w i l l be played in t hr ee d i f f e r e n t orders:
a. In ascending order
b. In descending order
c. In mixed order ( f o r gr ea t es t d i s a s s o c i a t i o n )
Play a l l pi t ches at a mf dynamic l e v e l . Use r egul ar

f i n g e r i n g s f o r a l l notes. Use same f i nge r i ngs f o r a l l
t hr ee seri es of p i t c h e s . Use open c* 2 , r egul ar si de- key
f 3 and use the f i n g e r i n g which has had the best i n t o n a t i o n
on your instrument f o r the bb3.
An a s s i s t a n t w i l l record the pi t ch de vi a t i on while

the tones are being pl ayed.
APPENDIX C
HARMONIC SPECTRUM GRAPHS
On the f o l l owi ng pages are the r e s u l t s o f the spectrum
anal ysi s of t e s t tones from the twel ve t e s t mouthpieces and
the various stages of the s i n g l e mo d i f i c a t i o n t e s t s .
Mouthpiece Page Mouthpiece Page
A . . . .139 W:A . . . .151

A-l . . . .140 W:B . . . .152
A-2 . . . .141 W:C . . . .153
B . . . .142 X: A . . . .154
B-l . . . .143 X:B . . . .155
B-2 . . . .144 Y: A . . . .156
C . . . .145 Y: B . . . .157
C-l . . . .146 Y:C . . . .158
C-2 . . . .147 Y: D . . . .159
D . . . .148 Z:A . . . .150
D-l . . . .149 Z :B . . . .161
E . . . .150
The f o l l owi ng points w i l l help in i n t e r p r e t i n g the graphs:
1. The t e s t tones are each i d e n t i f i e d by name.

Mouthpieces A, II, £ , £ , and £ have eleven t e s t
tones, whi l e a l l of the others have si x tones
as expl ai ned i n the t e x t .
.2 , The numbers across the top of each char t i d e n t i f y

the frequency i n Hertz of the v e r t i c a l l i n e s .
3. The spectrum f o r each tone is shown on a heavy

base l i n e which extends through the si x t ee nt h
harmonic. A t h i n c ont i nua t i on on t h i s base
l i n e extends through the t h i r t y - s e c o n d harmonic.
The base l i n e represents a 10 dB sound pressure
l ev e l and the two a d d i t i o n a l h o r i z o n t a l l i nes
r epr esent 30 dB and 50 du l e v e l s .
4. A speci al r u l e r contained in a pocket i nsi de

the back cover of t hi s d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l be
useful to the r eader . With i t , s p e c i f i c
harmonics can e a s i l y be l ocat ed by number.
138
135
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APPENDIX D
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS

OF AUDIO TESTING EQUIPMENT
The f o l l o w i n g pages contai n i nf or ma t i on on these
s p e c i f i c devices:
Page
STROBOCONN.................................................................... 163
NEUMANN MODEL U-67 CONDENSER MICROPHONE . . . 165
AMPEX MODEL 351 TAPE RECORDER........................166
SONY MODEL 600 TAPE RECORDER............................ 170
SYSTRON DONNER MODEL 710B/801B SPECTRUM

ANALYZER ................................................................................171
HEWLETT-PACKARD MODEL 7035B X-Y RECORDER . . . 175
GENERAL RADIO MODEL 1551-C SOUND-LEVEL

M E T E R ..............................................................................177
162
163
Stroboconn.
other electronic
iiiSli aios
Most accurate pitch measuring instrument available.

Tuning in 84-note (7 octave) range is visible by
full octaves to 1/100 of a semi-tone. Easy to operate.
Unexcelled for teaching tuning of instruments, piano
and organ tuning, vocal instruction, physical study
o f sound. Plugs into standard outlet of 110 volts, 60
cycies. Complete with carrying case.
STROBOCONN- ofaii
measuring and checking devices in the field
of intonation, the electronic Stroboconn is
generally acknowledged to be the most
versatile, accurate and dependable. It pro
vides, stroboscopically, an instantaneous,
visual measurement of the frequency of
any musical tone within a seven-octave
range (C i-B :), a total of 84 semitones—
essentially the range of a standard piano
164
Stroboconn ( c o n t in u e d ) .
keyboard. It enables a player to identify

through his eye, what his ear has heard, a
precise guide to pitch. It will measure r.o:
only a single tone but, also, simultaneously,
all notes of a chord, double-stopped com
binations, or tones sounded by a musical
ensemble. And all measurements are accur
ate to within l/100th of a semitone. Far
greater precision than the most reliable
human ear! Stroboconn has become an in
dispensable aid to thousands of instrumen
tal and vocal music teachers; a profitable
“tool” for piano and organ technicians; a
technical necessity in many industrial pro
cesses and research laboratories. RANGE
—84 semitones; essentially the range of :he
standard piano keyboard. Tuning adju.rn.a-
ble over the entire range.
ACCURAC Y -W ithin 1/lGOth of a semi
tone. (0.05%) CALIBRATION—In hun
dredths of a semitone. DIM ENSIO NS—
Scanning Unit 12% inches wide, 7% inches
high, 15% inches deep. Tuning Unit 12;: x
7Vi x 16 inches. W EIGHT—6S poimds :o-
tal. CUR REN T—From standard 115-vol:
a.c. outlet; draws 190 watts (50-60 cycle b
The Strobocomi indicates instantly and
visually whether a tone sounded is sharp,
flat or in tune with respect to the equally
tempered scale based on the A-440 cps
standard. On the upper or scanning uni: of
the Stroboconn are twelve windows ar
ranged to correspond with the black, and
white keys on the piano keyboard in a chro
matic octave from C to B.
165
Neumann Model U-67 Condenser Microphone,
OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS
f o r th e NEUMANN MODEL U 67 CONDENSER MICROPHONE
U 6? - 920-02-03
A T e c h n i c a l D a t a
U 67 Microphone
Frequency range ........................ 40 . . . 16 000 cp s.

D ire c tio n a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s O m n i-d irec tio n a l,
C ard io id ,F ig u re 8
S e n s itiv ity .............................. O m n i-d irec tio n a l: 1.1 mV/pb
C ard io id : 2 .0 mV/pb
F ig u re -8 : 1 .4 rV/pb
Nominal te rm in a tin g
r e s is ta n c e 1000 n (250 n)
Source impedance 200 ( 50) n - 20 %
(sw itch a b le )
T o tal harmonic d i s t o r t io n . . 0 .5 % up to 116 dB SPL.
NU 67(u) Power Supply

Mains v o lta g e ............................ 117/127/220/240 V olts ± 10 %
50/60 cps
P u s e s ............................ .. 160 mA f o r 117/127 V o lts m .s l .b l.
80 mA f o r 220/240 V olts m .s l .b l.
DC o u tp u t v o lta g e s ................. 210 V olts 0 .8 to 1 .0 mA
6 .3 V olts 200 mA
B G e n e r a l
The microphone capsule o f the U 67 microphone i s a p re s s u re -g ra -
d ie n t d ev ice . I t i s composed o f two i d e n tic a l c a rd io id system s
arranged back to back. By sw itching o f the p o la riz in g v o ltag e
th e se two c a rd io id p a tte r n s can so be combined as to produce the
th re e d ir e c tio n a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s c a rd io id , o m n i-d ire c tio n a l,a n d
fig u r e - 8 .S e le c tio n o f th ese p a tte r n s i s accom plished by a sw itch
lo c a te d a t th e f r o n t o f the microphone d i r e c t ly beneath the wire
cage.The symbol o f th e c h a r a c te r i s t ic s e le c te d appears in a win
dow d i r e c tly above the switch.Two a d d itio n a l sw itches are lo c a t
ed a t the r e a r o f the microphone. One sw itch p ro v id es f o r a sen
s i t i v i t y re d u c tio n o f appr. 10 dB ahead of the a m p lifie r s e c tio n
1
356 J a n .67
Ampex
Model
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
351
T ape' W idth '/i-inch
Tape
Tape Sliced Pairs 3 «4-7'/2 ips
7»/2-15 ips
Recorder.
Frc(pic))ci! Response Speed (ips) Response (Cycles per second)
3% :t2 db 40 to 8,000
7>/2 ± 2 db 40 to 12,000
15 -Jz2 db 30 to 18,000
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Speed (ips) Peak Record Level to

Unw eighted Noise (db)
33/4 50
7«/2 55
15 Same as 7Vz ips
Peak record level is that level at which the overall (input to output)
total rms harmonic distortion docs not exceed 3 percent when
measured on a 400 cycle tone. Noise is measured after erasing
a signal of peak recording lCvel in the absence of new signal. Bias,
erase and reproduce am plifier noise are included in the measure
ment. All frequencies between 50 and 15,000 cycles are measured.
(31
o>
33
CD
-o
—5
o
Q.
C
o
CD
Q.
-o
CD
3
T3
<0
C
C/)/) X
o
Q .
n>
F l u t t e r a n d W ojv Speed (ips) Flutter and Wenv
o (percentage rm s) CO
o
■o 3% .18% tn
7>/2 .14%
15 .11% fii
Flutter ana wow measurements include all componentsbetween •o
n>
0.5 and 250 cycles. The figure quoted is for the reproduction of a
CD
7a
relatively flutter-free test tape and is measured in accordance with 0>
o
American Standards Association standard number Z57.1-1954. o
3. (T h e alternate non-standard method of measuring flutter as de -1
a.
CD
—5 scribed in Appendix I I of the ASA standard was previously used CD
—5
CD by Ampex in determining flutter specifications.)
-o
—5
o
Q. Recording or H a l f T ra ck T w o Track Cl
C o
q . Reproducing T im e Speed (ips) (lirs) (m ill) (hrs) (m in ) 3
o' <-«•
3 ("NAB 10*/> Inch Diam eter 2% 4 16 2 8
Heels. 2400 icct of tape) 71/a rs
-—
o5 2 8 1 4
o 15 1 4 32 <v
(Z
Cl.
CD
Starting T im e The tape is accelerated to full speed in less than 1 /1 0 of a second.
Q .
Slopping T im e W hen operating at 15 ips, the tape moves less than two inches
after the STOP button is pressed
Reproduce T im in g Accuracy Accuracy Length o f Recording
■o
CD Accuracy ( percentage) (second) (in in )
±-.2 % ± 3 .6 30
C/)
C/)
Ampex
R e u'iitd T im e Approximately 1 m inute for a full 2,400 foot NAB reel.
Model
C ontrols
Tape Motion All tape motion is controlled by four pushbuttons, PLAY, STOP,
FAST FO RW AR D and R E W IN D .
351
Record Control A separate RECORD button on the face of the electronic assembly,
Tape
when pressed, energizes the record .relay which drops cut when
the STOP button is pressed. Selection of record channcl(s) de
sired, is accomplished by the RECO RD SELECTOR switch on the
Recorder
electronic assembly.
Tape Speed Tape speed can be changed by the T A P E SPEED switch. LO W or

H IG H positions arc used to select drive motor windings.
( cont i nu ed) .
Equalization Ari E Q U A L IZ A T IO N switch on the face of the electronic assembly
provides a means for selecting LO W or H IG H speed equalization
appropriate to the tape speed used.
Reel Size A R E EL SIZE toggle switch on the tape transport makes possible
selection of the proper tape tensioning for the NAB lOVz inch
diameter reel or the E IA 5 inch and 7 inch reels.
Record In p u ts Tw o inputs are supplied; one for each channel. W ith optional
plug-in preamplifiers, optional plug-in transformers of supplied
dum m y plugs, the inputs can accommodate microphones, balanced
lines or unbalanced lines respectively. A RECORD L E V E L control
is included for each channel.
O-l
CO
Ampex
Model
Reproduce O utputs 4-4 vu ± 0 .5 db (Zero indication on the vu meter corresponds to
351 Tape
4-4 dbm into 600 ohms balanced or unbalanced.)
Head H ousing The erase, record, and reproduce heads are contained in a single
head housing (Sec S E C TIO N 7 on H E A D A S SE M B LIE S).
Recorder
M onitoring" The signal on the tape can be monitored while the equipment is
(aural and visual) recording. Tw o phone jacks are available to allow m onitoring the
record input signal, or the output signal from the reproduce head.
A switch provides a means for m aking direct comparison between
the original program and the recorded program. Tw o 2V&-inch vu
(continued).
" -. meters arc provided for level comparison and visual m onitoring
of each channel.
Power Requirem ents Tw o track equipment requires 2.5 amperes at 117 volts ac, 50 or
60 cycles.
W hen the Ampcx Model 375 Precision Frequency 60 cycle am pli
fier is used with the equipment, power requirements arc greater
by 2 .5 amperes.
170
Sony Model 600 Tape R e c o r d e r .
Pov/er Requirement: 80 watts, 117 volts, 60 cycles

Tape Speeds: Instantaneous selection7 / r i p s or 3)< ips
(19 or 9.5 centimeters per second)
Frequency Response: 30-18,000 cps at 7 Vi ips
± 2 db 50-15,000 cps ot 7 V i ips
30-13,000 cps at 3 ) * ips
Signol-to-Noise Ratio: Better than 50 db
IPer Channel)
Flutter ond W ow. Less than 0 .1 5 % ot 7 V i ips
Less than 0 .2 0 % at 3 V* jps
Hormonic Distortion: 1 .5% ot 0 db line output
Erase Heed: In-line (stacked) quarter track, EF18-2902
Record Head: In-line (stacked) quorter track, RP30-2902
Playback Head: In-line (stacked) quarter track, PP30-4202L
Bios Frequency: Approx. 100 Kc
Level Indication: Two VU meters (calibrated to 0 db ot
12 db below saturation)
Input: Low impedance microphone inputs Tran

sistorized (will accommodate ony Micro
phone From 250 to IK ohm impedance.)
Sensitivity —72 db
High impedance ouxiliary inputs

Sensitivity 0.15V
Output: High irr.pedcnce line outputs (mox. 1.5V)
Binourol monitor output
Tube Complement: 2-6AN8, 4-12AT7, 1-12BH7A, 1-6CA4
Transistors: 6-2SD64
Weight: Approx. 48 pounds
Dimensions: 16 V W x 18) i * ‘ D X 10 V H
171
S y s t r o n D o n n e r Model 7 1 0 B / 8 0 1 B S p e c t r u m A n a l y z e r .
DESCRIPTION
The Model 71.0B/801B Spectrum Analyzer is a solid
state, electronically swept system which provides a display
o f the 10 H z to 50 kH z frequency range on a 7 x 10 cm
calibrated C R T . Increased measurement accuracies arc ac
complished by the use o f a new Automatic Optimum Reso
lution Circuitry. Proper sweeptimes and I.F . bandwidths are
automatically selected for any scanwidth setting. Manual
selection o f I.F . bandwidth and sweeptime is also available
over the complete range.
The Model 710B /801B provides a tracking oscillator out
put signal and a choice o f either logarithmic or linear fre
quency scan, in addition to all other features o f the Model
710B /800B Spectrum Analyzer. The coherence o f the
tracking oscillator and the analyzer scanning signals allows
accurate frequency response measurement for systems and
components without the masking o f peaks and nulls by
harmonics, noise, and hum. This instrument is extremely
versatile and easy to use for many audio measurements in-
S y s t r o n D o n n e r Model 71 O B / 8 0 1B S p e c t r u m A n a l y z e r (c o n tin u e d ).
eluding frequency response, distortion, insertion loss, hum,

noise, etc.
in the linear scan mode five I.F . bandwidths are available
for optimum selectivity: 10 H z, 100 H z, 500 H z, 1 kH z and
5 kHz. In the log scan mode the I.F . Bandwidth is continu
ously adjusted automatically for proper resolution.
The Model 710B /801B is a portable unit, capable of
operating up to 8 hours from an internal, rechargeable bat
tery pack (optional) or can be operated from conventional
AC sources.
Permanent recordings o f C R T displays may be made us
ing an optional camera adapter, or an X -Y recorder since
both vertical and horizontal deflection voltages are available
on the rear panel along with a “ pen-lift” control output.
Single Sweep and Base Line Blanking are front panel con
trols which ensure clarity o f photographs.
The utilization and versatility o f the 710B /801B can be
expanded by adding other Systron-Donner 800 Series plug
ins to cover specific frequency ranges and applications.
A n e x p lo d e d v ie w o f h ig h fr e q u e n c y r e g io n o f sam e filte r , u s in g a
lin e a r fre q u e n c y d is p la y c a lib r a te d a t I k H z /c m a n d c e n te re d a t 8
k H z . V e r t ic a l s e n s itiv ity is in c r e a s e of b y 4 0 d B so th a t 6 0 d B tin e
n o w r e p re s e n ts 9 0 d B b e lo w o r ig in a l re fe re n c e . N o te th e s h a rp ,
n o is e - fr e e d is p la y o f s id e lo b e s a n d n u lls , m d a ls o th a t th e fu ll s c a n
lo g d is p la y in le ft p h o to c a n b e re s to re d a t tr ie flic k o f a s w itc h ;
a t te n u a to r s e t tin g n e e d o n ly b e c h a n g e d i f a n a ly z in g r a n g e is g r e a t e r
th a n 6 0 dB .
SUB
1-----------( —------- ] —.4 ------- 1
10Hz 100 I k ill 10 S0VH/
L o g scan d is p la y o f f i l t e r c h a r a c te r is tic s , s h o w in g in - b a n d r ip p le a n d
s h a rp c u to ff a t 6 k H z . V e r t ic a l'd is p la y is lo g a r ith m ic (1 0 d B /c m )
w ith re fe re n c e a t th e iO d B lin e , in d ic a tin g a f i l t e r in s e r t io n lo s s o f 4
d B a n d o u t - o f - b a n d r e je c t io n in excess o f 6 5 d B .
173
S y s t r o n D onner Model 7 1 0 B /8 0 1 B S p e c t r u m A n a l y z e r ( c o n t i n u e d ) .
CENTER FREQUENCY R A N G E -10 Hz to 50 kHz.

CENTER FREQUENCY DIGITAL READOUT—0 tc 50 kHz. 20
Hz readout resolution. 0 to 5 kHz, 2 Hz readout resolution.
CENTER FREQUENCY ACCURACY-1% ± 2 0 Hz.
LINEAR SCAN WIDTH- 6 calibrated positions ± 5% : 10 H z/
cm, 30 Hz/cm, 100 Hz/cm, 300 Hz/cm, 1 kHz/cm, 5 kHz/cm.
Vernier allows adjustment between steps.
LOG SCAN WIDTH—20Hz to 50 kHz.
AMPLITUDE RESPONSE- ± . f dB 20 Hz to 30 kHz, ± 1 dB
10 Hz to 50 kHz.
LINEAR DISPLAY SENSITIVITY - 5 calibrated input attenu
ator positions in 20-dB steps: 3/iv/cm to 3mV/cm at 10k or 1
megohm inout impedance: .09/iv/cm to .9mV/cm at 600 ohm
input imp? -ance; and ,03/jv/cm to .3mV/cm at 50 ohms input
impedance. Accuracy: ± 10% .
LOG DISPLAY SENSITIVITY - 5 calibrated input auenuator
positions in 20-dB steps: 3V to .3mV full scale for 10k or 1
megohm; .9V to .09mV full scale for 600 ohms; and .3V to
.03mV full scale for 50 ohms. Accuracy: ± 2 dB.
INPUT IM PEDANCE-50, 600 ohms. 10k and 1 megohm
selectable by front panel switch. (20/i/if input capacity for 1
megohm position.)
INTERNAL NOISE L E V E L-(10H z bandwidth)
Input Impedance Maximum Noise
50 ohms .02;tV
600 ohms .06/iV
10k ohms .2/iV
1 megohm 1/iV
RESOLUTION/IF BANDWIDTH-Five calibrated positions: 10
Hz, 100 Hz, 500 Hz. 1 kHz and 3 kHz ± 2 0 % with three
cascaded crystal filters. AUTO position for use in Automatic
Optimum Resolution, dependent upon sweeptime and scan-
width. The 10 Hz filter has a selectivity curve of less than
10:1 for a 60 db to 3 db bandwidth ratio.
I . F . bandwidth varies from 10 Hz through 50 0 Hz automat
ically as input frequency is tuned from 10 Hz to 50 kHz in
the LOG SCAN mode.
IF ATTENUATOR—60 dB in 1. 3. 6. 10, and 20 dB calibrated
steps with accuracy of 0.1 dB per dB. Vernier potentiometer
allows smooth 6 dB adjustment.
DISPLAY DYNAMIC RANGE-
Mode Range Accuracy
Log 60 dB ±2dB
Lin 30:1 ± 10%
RESIDUAL DISTORTION-Greater than 70 dB down.
SMOOTHING FILTER (VID EO )-Three position switch: 20 ms,
200 ms and normal (OFF).
BFO OUTPUT— 1.0V rms available on front panel, 600 ohm
impedance.
S y s t r o n D o n n e r Model 710 B /8 0 1 B S p e c t r u m A n a l y z e r ( c o n t i n u e d ) .
BFO AM PLITU DE- ± 0 .3 db, 10 Hz to 50 kHz.

SWEEP TIME—Six calibrated switch positions: 3ms/cm, 10ms/
cm, 30ms/cm, lOOms/cm, 300ms/cm, 1 sec/cm, 10 sec/cm.
Accuracy: i 2 0 % . Manual sweep provided with single turn
potentiometer. A'JTC position lor use in Auiqmaiic Optimum
Resolution, dependent upon I.F. bandwidth and scanwidth.
SWEEP SYNCHRONIZATION—Internal: Sweep free runs. Line:

Sweep synchronized with power line frequency at any sweep
time setting. External: Sweep synchronized with external sig
nal. Single sweep: Sweep actuated by panel pushbutton.
OUTPUT SIGNALS—Vertical and horizontal signals applied to
scope amplifiers available for external monitoring, 0 to +
INPUT SIGNALS—External sweep: 0 to .+ 1 0 V signal will de
flect horizontal trace full screen. Blanking: -{-25V signal to
cutoff CRT. External Sync: + 5 V signal synchronizes sweep.
CATHODE-RAY TUBE DISPLAY-7 x 10cm graticule, P7 Long
Persistence Phosphor with Polaroid non-glare amber filter.
INTENSITY CONTROL—Sets intensity from cutoff to maximum
brightness.
BASELINE BLANKING—Controls horizontal blanking over half
vertical scale.
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL P O S IT IO N -R ecessed front
panel potentiometer allows adjustment for the horizontal and
vertical position of the scope trace.
FOCUS—Recessed front panel potentiometer allows adjust
ment of the scope trace focus.
PEN LIFT—Connector at rear supplies relay contact closure
for pen lift operations with X-Y recorders.
P O W E R -1 1 5 /2 3 0 V ± 1 0 % , 50 to 4 4 0 Hz, approx. 15W.
Internal nickel cadmium battery pack (optional) provides 5
hour continuous operation without recharging. Can be ener
gized from external dc source 13V to 25V.
S IZ E -7 " H x 16% " W x 19>/2 " D.
WEIGHT—40 lbs. (45 lbs. with battery pack).
RACK MOUNTING—Supplied with rack mounting brackets for
installation in standard 19" W relay rack panel.
CONSTRUCTION—Completely RFI shielded and filtered.
ACCESSORIES AVAILABLE-Battery pack (SO Model 7101)

and camera bezel adapter (SO Model 7105). See page 185
for Accessories listing.
ACCESSORIES FURNISHED—One Operation and Maintenance
Handbook and three-prong power cord and rack mounting kit.
PRICE—$3,495.00.
Hewlett-Packard
Models 7005B and 7035B are low cost, solid-state X - Y accuracy, A utogrip electric paper holddown, electric pen lift,
Recorders fo r general purpose applications. Each axis has an adjustable zero set, lockable zero and variable range controls,
independent servo system w ith no interaction between channels. and rear input connector. A plug-in time base (M odel 17108A)
The recorders graph tw o related functions from two dc signals operates on either axis to provide five sweep speeds from 0.3
representing the functions. The ultra-compact design is con to 30 s/in.
vertible to rack mounting by addition .o f tw o w ing brackets Each dosed-loop servo system employs a high-gain solid-
Model
(supplied). M etric scaling and calibration are optional. state servo amplifier,. Hewlett-Packard servo motor, long-life
The input terminals accept either open wires c.~ plug-type balance potentiometer, photochopper, low pass filter, guarded
connectors. Five calibrated ranges from 1 m V /in . to 10 V /in . inputs, precision attenuator and balance circuit. Both models
are ptovided in each axis. A variable range control permits are designed fo r easy maintenance w ith most components
7035B
scaling o f signal fo r fu ll scale deflection. Standard features mounted t n a printed circuit board and accessible by removing
include high input impedance (one megohm on a ll but the the rear cover. Both balance potentiometers are accessible fo r
first tw o ranges), floated and guarded signal p a ir input, 0.2% inspection o r cleaning by removing a snap-on strip.
X-Y
■ “ “ ~ \
703SB Series V c 5 F “j i . 3 *
Recorder.
8 V2 in. x 11 In.
7005B Series
11 In. x 17 in.
T V
X -l
Ol
Hewlett-Packard
Specifications
Performance specifications Interferenco rejection: conditions for the following data is line
Input ranges: English: 1, 10, 100 m V /in.; 1 and 10 V /in .; frequency w ith up to 1 kfl between the negative input and
Metric: 0.4, 4, 40, 400 mV/cm and 4 V/cm . Continuous guard connection point.
Model
vernier between ranges.
Range DC (CMP) AC (CMR)
Type of inputs: floated and guarded signal pair; rear input con
nector. English Metric
1 mV/in 0.4 mV/cm 130 dB 100 dB
Input resistance: 10 mV/in 4 mV/cm 110 dB 80 dB
7035B
Rang* Inout rsslstsnea 100 mV/in 40 mV/cm 90 dB 60 dB
1 V/in 400 mV/cm 70 dB 40 dB
1 mV/in (0.4 mV/cm) Putentiometric 10 V/in 4 V/cm 20 dB
50 dB
(essentially infinite at null)
Variable 11 hn
10 mV/in (4 mV/cm)
General specifications
100 kn
X-Y
Variable 100 kR Paper holddown: Autogrip electric paper holddown grips any
100 mV/in (40 rnV/cm) 1 MR chart up to size o f platen.
Variable 1 MR Pen lift: electric pen lif t capable of being remotely controlled.
1 mV/in (400 mV/cm) 1 Mr
Recorder
Variable 1 MR Dimensions: 7005B: 17V i* high, 17Vi* wide, 4-5/16* deep
10 V/in (4 V/cm) IM r (445 x 445 x 110 mm ). 7035B: 10-15/32* high, 17Vi* wide,
Variable 1 MR 4% * deep (266 x 445 x 121 mm).
Weight: net, 18 lb (8 k g ); shipping, 24 lb (10,9 Vg).
Input filte r: > 3 0 dB at 60 Hz; IS dB/octave above 60 Hz. Power: 115 or 230 V ± 10%, 30 to 60 Hz, approximately 43 VA.
Maximum allowable source impedar.re: nsrestrictions except Time base accessory: Model 17108A self-contained external
on fixed 1 m V /in. (0.4 m V/cm ) range. Up to 20 k fl source time base has five sweep speeds. Price $ 173
(continued).
impedance w ill not alter recorder's performance.
Price:
Accuracy: ±0.2% o f fu ll scale. Model 7005B— 11 in. x 17 in. Chart Size $1233
Linearity: ±0.1% of fu ll scale. Model 7035B— 8Vi in. x 11 in. Chart Size $ 985
Resettability: ±0 .1 % o f fu ll scale. Options:
Zero set: zero may be set up to one fu ll scale in any direction 01. Metric calibration N /C
from zero index. Lockable zero controls. 03. Retransmitting potentiometer on X-axis
Slewing speed: 20 in./a, 30 cm/s nominal at 113 V. 5 kO ± 3 % $ 73
"J
cr>
General R a d io Model 1551-C S o u n d -L e v e l M e te r.
DESCRIPTION: The T y p e 1551-C Sound-Level Meter

consists of an omnidirectional microphone, a calibrated
attenuator, an amplifier, standard weighting networks,
and an indicating meter. The complete instrument, in
cluding batteries, is mounted in an aluminum case. The
. microphone can be used in several positions and, when
not in use, folds down into a storage position, auto
matically disconnecting batteries. An ac power-eupply
unit is available.
rSPECIFICATIONSl
S*e=J *.3vc! From 24 to 150 dB (re 0.0002 jibar). -

»?»«•* Ct'srecteritiitts Four response characteristics, A, B, C,
or 20-ke- as selected by a panel switch. The A-, B-, and C-weight
ing positions are in accordance with ASA SI.4-1961 and IF.C
Publication 123, 1901. Frequency response for the 20-kc position
is flat from 20 c/s to 20 kc/s, so that complete use can he made
of very wide-hand microphones such as the T y p e 1551-PI Con
denser Microphone Systems.
Micraphnn*: Highly stable ceramic type. Accessory condenser
microphone is available. (See page 19.)
17fi• f W
General R a d i o Model 1551-C S o u n d - L e v e l M e t e r ( c o n t i n u e d )
'fiaiiS niill Suiiiid ISVXl IS ind'iColw by tu3 oUmCi tnS
meter end Bttenustor readings, The clearly marked, open-scale

meter covers a span of 16 dB with calibration from —6 to + 10dB.
The attenuator is calibrated in 10-dB steps from 30 to 140 dB
above 0.0002 pbar.
O utput: 1.4 V behind 7000 0 (panel meter at full scale). The out
put can he used to drive analyzers, recorders, oscilloscopes, and
headphones. Harmonic distortion (panel meter at full scale) less
th a n l% .
lapel Impedance: 25 M il in parallel with 50 pF.
Matan Rms response, and fast and slow meter speeds in accord
ance with ASA Si.4-1961 and IEC R123,1961.
CoHbrut taw: Built-in calibration circuit standardizes the sensitiv
ity of the electrical circuits within ±1 dB at 400 c/s, as specified
in ASA standards. The T r r z 1552-B Sound-Level Calibrator
(page 21) is available for making periodic acoustical checks on
tne ov%.--all calibration, including microphone. Microphone can
be accurately calibrated with the T tpe 1559-B Microphone
Reciprocity Calibrator (page 22), which can also be used for
over-all acoustical checks.
[w v i ro oiu t ota l Effects:
Microphone is not damaged at tempera
Tampmwtvrc end H um id ity:
tures from —30 to +95°C and relative humidities from 0 to 100%
When standardized by its internal calibration system or a T ype
1552-B Sound Level Calibrator, the instrument w ill operate
within catalog specifications (for panel-meter indications above
0 dB) over the temperature range of 0 to 60°C and the relative
humidity range of 0 to 90%.
M agnetic Field*: When exposed to a 60-cycle, 1-oersted (80 A/m)

field, the sound-level meter will indicate 60 dB (C weighting)
when oriented for maximum sensitivity to the magnetic field.
Electrostatic Field*: Aluminum cose provides sufficient shielding,
so that normally encountered electrostatic fields have no effect.
V ib ra tio n : Case is fitted with soft rubber feet and amplifier is
resiliency mounted for vibration isolation. When the instrument
is set on its feet on a shake table and vibrated at 10mils p-to-p dis
placement over the frequency range of 10 c/s to 55 c/s, the un
wanted Rignals generated do not exceed an equivalent C-weighted
sound-pressure level of 45 dB when motion is vertical, 60 dB when
motion is lengthwise, or 40 dB when motion is sidewise.
P ow er Supply: Two 1J^-V size D flashlight cells and one 67J4-V
battery (Burgess XX45 or equivalent) are supplied. An ac power
supply, the T ype 1262-B, is available.
Telephone plug.
A c c t t iu r it t Supplied:
T ype 1551-P2 leather Case (permits oper
A c c o tto rie t A v a ila b le
ation of the instrument without removal from the case). T ype
1560-P95 Adaptor Cable, for connecting output to T ype 1521-B
Graphic Level Recorder. For other accessories, including analyz
ers, see pages 17 to 34.
Mochanical Data: Aluminum cabinet, finished in gray crackle.
Net Shipping
Width Height Depth Weight* Weight*
in mm in mm in mm lb kg lb kg
7% 185 9% 235 6V4 160 7% 3.6 ■:

IV 7.5
* W ith batteries (add 2 pound* for leather eaae).
For a more detailed description, see (ieneml Radio Experimenter,

August 1961.
APPENDIX E
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS DURING TESTS
Date Time Temp. h'umidit.y A i r Pressure
Pi t ch measurement and s u b j e c t i v e anal ysi s
1 - 5-24-71 8 P.M. 74° 55% 29,.65" falling

2 - 5-18-71 12 Noon 77° 45% 29..85" f a l 1ing
3 - 5-17-71 8 P.M. 72° 34% 29..90" steady
4 - 5-17-71 11 A.M. 78° 32% 29..90" steady
5 - 5-19-71 8 P.M. 78° 45% 29.,85" f a l 1i ng
6 - 5-24-71 10 A.M. 70° 35% 29..85" falling
7 - 5-23-71 2 P.M. 72° 33% 30.,10" rising
8 - 5-25-71 9 A.M. 70° 50% 29.,53" steady
Author - 5-26-71 8 P.M. 72° 35% 30.,40" steady
Recording of t e s t tones
5-28-71 9 A.M. 70* 41% 29.85" steady
Carryi ng power experiment
6-10-71 7 P.M. 70° 58% 30.25" steady
Fredonia is located 765 f e e t above sea l e v e l .
179
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Backus, John. The Acoust i cal Foundations of Music.
_________. " V i b r a t i on s of the Reed and the A i r Column

i n the C l a r i n e t , " Journal o f the Acoust i cal Soci ety
o f Ameri ca, XXX I I I (June, T96T77 806-809.
Baines, Anthony. Woodwi nd Instruments and Thei r H i s t o r y ,

r ev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., I n c . ,
1 963.
Bate, P h i l i p . "Saxophone,". Groves D i c t i o n a r y of Music

ana Musi c i a ns , 5th edT ( T 9 5 5 ) , V I I , 430-434.
Benade, Ar t hur H. Horns, St r i nqs and Harmony. New York:

Doubleday and Co. , 1960.
"The Physics of Woodwinds," S c i e n t i f i c American

(Oct ober , 19 60) , 145-154.
_________. "On the Tone Color of Wind I nst r ument s, " Selmer
Bandwagon, No. 59 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , 17-21.
________ . "On Woodwind I nstrument Bores," Journal of the

Acoust i cal Soci ety of America, XXXI (Febr uary, 1959)
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Berlioz, Hector. T r e a t i s e on I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . Rev. and enl

by R. St r auss* 1904. Trans, by T. Front. New York:
Edwin Kalmus, 1948.
X
Bouasse, H. Instruments a V a n t . Book 2. Paris: Librairie
Del agr ave, 1930.
Brand, Er i ck D. Band I nstrument Repai ri ng Manual.

E l k h a r t , I ndi ana: Er i ck D. Brand, 1946.
B r i l h a r t , Arnol d. "A Mouthpiece Maker Speaks to Teachers,"

Selmer Bandwagon, No. 59 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , 17-21.
Burnau, John. "Adolphe Sax - I n v e n t o r , the Saxophone

Fami l y, " I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t , XXI (January, 1967) , 42.
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181
Coltman, John W. "Acoustics o f the F l u t e , " Physics Today,

YYT
>>•« a
t Nnuamhar
^ I I V VVllll^ W( J 1I Q
VW
K 0 \^ | V Wta «
Cul v er , Charl es. Musical A c o u s t i c s . 4th ed. New York,

Toronto and London: McGraw-Hill Book Co. , I n c . ,
1956.
Freedman. Morris D. "Anal ysi s of Musical I nstrument Tones,"

Journal o f the Acoust i cal Soci et y of America,
XL I ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 7 ) , 793-806.
_________. "A Technique f o r the Anal ysi s of Musical

I nstrument Tones." (Doctoral D i s s e r t a t i o n )
Univ. of I l l i n o i s , 1965.
H o u l i k , James. "The Bray o f the Saxophone," I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t ,

XXII (June, 19 6 8 ) , 58- 60.
Hut chi ns, Carleen M. and F i e l d i n g , Francis L. "Acousti cal

Measurement of v ' o l i n s , " Physics Today, XXI
( J u l y , 19 6 8 ) , 35- 40.
Jeans, S i r James. Science and Musi c. Cambridge, England:

U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1937.
Jenny, Hans. Cymati cs: The S t r u c t u r e and Dynamics of

Waves and V i b r a t i o n s . Munich: Heinz Moos Ver l aq,
1967.
Kochni tzky, Leon. Adolphe Sax and His Saxophone.

New York: Bel gi an Government I nf or ma t i on
Center, 1964.
Kool , Jaap. Das Saxophon. Leipzig: J. J. Weber, 1931.
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AN ACOUSTICAL STUDY OF ALTO SAXOPHONE

To F u l f i l l the D i s s e r t a t i o n Requirement f o r the Degree of

Dissertation Director: Dr. Robert Gauldin

Eastman School of Music

Some pages may have

Fr eder i ck S. Wyman was born on November 26, 1935, in

Elgin, Illinois, He recei ved his e a r l y musical t r a i n i n g

from O r v i l l e K i l t z in E l g i n . I n 1957 he recei ved the

Bachelor of Arts degree from M a r y v i l l e Coll ege ( M a r y v i l l e ,

Tennessee) in Music Theory. A f t e r a ye ar of graduate study

at the Eastman School of Music (Rochest er, New York) he

accepted a t h r e e - y e a r appointment as an educati onal mi ssi on­

ary under the Pr e sby t er i a n Church. During the peri od of

t h i s appointment he was head o f the music department at

Community School, Teheran, I r a n . Returning to the United

S t a t e s , he taught music theory at M a r y v i l l e Coll ege f o r

the year 1961-1962. He r ecei ved his Master of Arts degree

in music theory from the Eastman School of Music and wi t h

a. teaching f e l l o ws h i p in t heory began work on the Ph.D.

degree. In September, 1965, he accepted the po s i t i o n of

a s s i s t a n t prof essor of music at The St at e U n i v e r s i t y Col l ege

a t Fredonia ( Fr edoni a, New York) where he pr esent l y teaches

saxophone and d i r e c t s the Fredonia Saxophone Ensemble.

Mr. Wyman is well-known as a perf ormer on the saxophone and

as a c l i n i c i a n . In a d d i t i o n to performances in the Eastern

United S t a t e s , he has performed and given c l i n i c s in I r a n ,

Colombia, and Indonesi a.

The author wishes to thank those i n d i v i d u a l s who

have encouraged and helped in the research f o r t h i s t h e s i s .

Mr. Sigurd M. Rascher and Dr. Wi l l i am C. W i l l e t t were very

he l pf ul in suggesti ng a study o f t hi s scope and in gi vi ng

ideas from t h e i r experi ence as perf ormers. The students

who p a r t i c i p a t e d as subj ects in t est s c a r r i e d out on t e s t

mouthpieces were: Anthony Al dui no, David B a t t i s t o n i ,

John Davi s, Joseph F o r i s , Michael Mosher, Ronald N o r r i s ,

James Wal l ace, and Bruce Weinberger.

Three f e l l o w f a c u l t y members a t The St at e Uni ver ­

s i t y Col l ege at Fredonia gave i n v a l u a b l e assi st ance:

Mr. Her ber t W. Harp ( p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e s t mout hpi eces),

Mr. Richard Goulding ( r ecor di ng tones from the t e s t mouth­

pieces), and Dr. Charles Li ncol n (spectrum a n a l y s i s ) .

Special thanks are due Dr. Robert Gauldin and

Dr. Paul Lehman of the Eastman School of Music f o r t h e i r

suggestions in the pr e p a r a t i o n of the d i s s e r t a t i o n , and to

Mrs. Theresa Barber who prepared the t y p e s c r i p t .

This t hesi s is the r e s u l t of a study made o f the

i n f l u e n c e of the saxophone mouthpiece chamber design upon

tone q u a l i t y , i n t o n a t i o n , and ot her pl ayi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Its aim is to f ur ni sh i nf or ma t i on which w i l l be h e l p f u l to

teachers and performers in choosing an a p pr op r i a t e mouth­

pi ece f o r a p a r t i c u l a r desi red tone q u a l i t y . The research

Tests were conducted on twel ve d i f f e r e n t designs.

Measurements of each design were c o r r e l a t e d with o b j e c t i v e

and s u b j e c t i v e t e s t r e s u l t s i n or der to i s o l a t e the e f f e c t s

of individual design parameters. Tone q u a l i t y t e s t s made

use of spectrum anal ysi s of se l e c t e d tones from the range

of the i nst r ument . A Stroboconn t uner was used i n making

frequency measurements. The use of mechanical embouchures

was avoided in order to d u p l i c a t e actual playi ng condi ti ons

and to b e n e f i t from s u b j e c t i v e r eact i ons of the players

The major conclusions are concerned with the r e l a ­

t i v e br i ght ness of tone q u a l i t y and the evenness o f tone

q u a l i t y throughout the pl ayi ng range of the i nstrument .

The design f act or s r esponsi bl e f o r these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

accepted a t h r e e - y e a r appointment as an educati onal mi ssi on

Three f e l l o w f a c u l t y members a t The St at e Uni ver

Mr. Richard Goulding ( r ecor di ng tones from the t e s t mouth

teachers and performers in choosing an a p pr op r i a t e mouth

The major conclusions are concerned with the r e l a