Dept.

for Speech, Music and Hearing

Quarterly Progress and
Status Report

An articulatory interpretation
of the ’singing formant’
Sundberg, J.

journal: STL-QPSR
volume: 13
number: 1
year: 1972
pages: 045-053

http://www.speech.kth.se/qpsr
STL-QPSR 1/1977. 45.

C. AN ARTICULATORY INTERPRETATION O F THE'SINGING FORlMANl3

J. Sundberg

A
-b s t r a c t
Eats collected frorr- toixograri:~ indicate that a lowered larynx - typical
of profe ssional m a l e singing - i n c r e a s e s Ere laryr-zeal v e n t r i c l e , the sixis
p i r i f o r x e s and the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a L: the lox-rer pharynx. The effects
of such changes on the forrzant frequencies a r e studied by m e a n s of n e a s u r e -
c:eilts on a n a c o u s t i c a l tube-model of the vocal t r a c t . The r e s u l t s indicate
that the l a r y n x tubc can a c t a s a s e p a r a t e I-Ielxholtz r e s o n a t o r the resonance
frequency of which can bc tuned to a freqvency between those of the third
and fourth length resonalrces of the vocal t r a c t . The condition f o r g e n e r a t -
ing such a n e x t r a forEant i s that the l a r y n ~ e a veiitricle l and the c r c s s -
sectional a r e a in the lower pharynx a r e sufficiently i a r g e . The sinus p i r i -
I
f o r c e s seefi: to i a c r e a s e the effective len,n"L~of the pharynx, thus loweriag
those f o r m a n t frequencies in p a r t i c u l a r "Lilat a r e due to standing vraves in
the pharynx. In t h i s \-Jay the f o r m a n t frcquency changes accorr-panying a
lox-~eringof the l a r y n x appear to explain the "singing forrcant'' a s well a s
other rriajor f o r n a n t frequency differences between spoken and professional -
17 sung v o v ~ e l s .
I
I. Introduction

The "2. G kHzJ1o r tke !'singing f o r m a n t f i belongs to the a c o u s t i c a l c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c s of professionally sung vowels in o u r culture. More o r l e s s in-
dependent of vowcl and pitch it a p p e a r s a s a region of high s p e c t r a l e n e r g y
n e a r 3 kHz in rr:ale singing. T h i s s p e c t r u m envelope peak s e e m s to be a c -
c o n ~ p a n i e dby a l i : i ~ i m u ~slightly higher ir, frequency and often c l e a r l y dis-
cernable in the spcctrogran?. In F i g . 111-c-4 a spectrurr:. level difference of
2 0 d B i s o b s e r v e d between a spoken and sung [ u ) .

How c a n such a "singing f o r m a n t J 1be g e n e r a t e d ? If two o r m o r e fozr.zants

approach e a c h other il: frequency the r e s o n a x e effect will i n c r e a s e and the
spcctrurr, envelope will r i s e . !
&
r previocs r e s e a r c l ~attelxpts to rilatc!~
s p e c t r a of sung vo:;rels on a forrxant synt>csizer (Sundberg, i970a) she\-led
that five forrr-ants belox*~3 kHz a r e r e q u i r c d in o r d e r to generate a "singing
f o r m a n t t 1with f0ri::ant.s oi2ly. But in n n r i z a l speech the frequency of the
fifth forrilant generally l i e s around 4. 5 kHz. T h e r e f o r e , when we i n t e r p r e t
the )'singing for1i:a::t" in t e r m s of f o r r a a n t s only we have to a s s u r - ~ ea d r a s t i c
c o m p r e ssion of higher fori::.ants.

* Expanded v e r s i o n of a p a p e r p r e s e c t e d a t the Symposiun; on F o r m a n t s

1
{

in Singing, National A s sociation of T c a c h e r s of Singing National Con- !

vention, St. Louis, I?/io., USA, C e c . 2 9 , 1971.
 VOWEL [u]

SPEECH

3 kHz
3 kHz 4

Fig. III-C- I. Spectra of the vowel [u] spoken (left) and

sung (right) by a p r o f e s s i o n a l b a s s s i n g e r .
 A n a l y s e s of the forr;;ant f r e q u e n c i e s in vowels spoken and sung by four
t r a i n e d b a s s s i n g e r s have shown that in fact such f o r m a n t conipre s s i o n does
take place in singing. An illustration of t h i s is given in Fig. III-C-2, where
dashed c u r v e s show the forrxant f r e q u e n c i e s in vowels spolren by untrained
subjects ( F a n t e t a l . , 1969) and solid l i n e s r e f e r to sung vowels a s produced
by t r a i n e d s i n g e r s (Sundberg, 1968). In singing five f o r m a n t s a p p e a r below
the frequency of tllc fourth f o r m a n t in nori:-,al speech. We a l s o note t h a t the
second and third forxants a r e lower in SLXIG f r o n t v o v ~ e l sand t h a t the t h i r d
forcant i s slightly r a i s e d in sung back vox-rels. Thus, we rcay be r e a s o n -
ably s u r e that the s i n g e r s actually c o r l p r e s s t h e i r f o r m a n t s in singing. But
what articulation is r e q u i r e d f o r a r r i v i n g at such a f o r m a n t c o m p r e s s i o n
effect ? The p r e s e n t p a p e r suggests a n ansvrer to t h i s question obtained by
studying the a r t i c u l a t o r y difference s bet;;rceiz spolren and sung vowels and in-
ve stigating t h e i r a c o u s t i c a l e f f e c t s by raeans of a n a c o u s t i c a l m o d e l of the
vocal t r a c t .

11. Articulation

The vowel articulation in speech and singing of t h r e e of the mentioned

b a s s s i n g e r s was analyzed frorr, l a t e r a l X - r a y p i c t u r e s of the vocal t r a c t
and photographs of the lip opening (Sundberz, f970b). F o u r important a r -
ticulatory d i f f e r e n c e s \-rere observed to be consistent f o r a l l sub-jects in
singing a s compared with speech. F i r s t , the l a r y n x was lowered, secondly
the jaw opening was l a r g e r , thirdly, the tongue tip was advanced in the back
vo\-rels [u!, [o], and [a], and fourthly, $he l i p s were e x c e s s i v e l y p r o t r u d e d
in front vowels.

It c a n be a s s u m e d t h a t a n a c o u s t i c f c a t v r e such a s the $'singing formant"

which i s common to a l l v o l - ~ e l ss t e m s f r o n a region of the vocal t r a c t , t h a t
i s l e a s t affected bjr the variations of a r t i c u l a t o r y configurations r e q u i r e d
in o r d e r to kee-, the vex-rels acoustically distinct. Such a region is the p h a r -
yllgeal cavity systeir, beloi-J the epiglottis.

The anatorcy of t h i s s y s t e m can be d e s c r i b e d a s follovrs. The vocal I

c h o r d s constitute the b o t t o x of a s c l a l l tube vrith a length of about 2 c x , the

l a r y n x tube. T h i s tube i s v e r t i c a l l y i n s e r t e d into a l a r g e r tube, the p h a r y n x
-
t u b e , that is closed off by the esophagus mouth a t about the l e v e l of the vocal
chords. Since the l a r y n x tube i s narrox-rer than the pharynx tube the b o t t o ~ .
p a r t of the pharynx tube constitutes a cavity surrounding the l a r y n x tube.
 4.0 -
I I I I I

.
I

a\
-
FORMANT FREQUENCIES IN SINGING AND NORMAL SPEECH
I

e- -
I I
Slnging 7

Normal speech
-

3.5 - -
CI
N

u
3.0 -
U)
-
W
0
2.5-
z
W
a
W
20-
a
&A

t
z
1.5 -
4
I
K
0
LL
1.0 -
0.5 -

0 - -
i I I I t I I I I I 6

[u:I b:I [a:] [=:I led [i:] [y:] [tt:]

VOWEL ( I P A SYMBOLS)

F i g . 111-C-2. F o r m a n t frequencies of long Swedish vowels in

n o r m a l m a l e speech according to F a n t e t al.
(1969) (dashed lines) and i n p r o f e s s i o n a l m a l e
singing (solid line s) according to Sundbe r g ( 19 68).
STL-CPSR 1/1972 47.

This cavity i s divided into two pockets, one left and one right. These pockets
a r e called the sinus piriformes. Another cavity of relevance i s the laryngeal
ventricle o r the sinus Morgagni which i s found a t the bottom of the narrow
larynx tube.

The influence of a 1 arynx lowering on these cavities was examined in one

of the trained singers. Lateral and frontal tornograms were taken when the
subject phonated the sustained vowels ti] and [ a ] with raised and lowered
larynx. Tracings of these torcograms a r e shown in Fig. 111-C-3. A- larynx
lowering i s seen to be associated with t\-ro x a i n effects. F i r s t the sinus
l?riorgagni i s expanded and secondly the sinus piriforme s a r e lengthened and
expanded. An additional effect of a larynx lowering not seen in the figure
i s of course a n increase in the total length. of the pharynx tube.

111. Acoustic interpretation I

The acoustic effect of some of the articulatory differences observed be-
tween speech and singing a r e known already. A lowered jaw r a i s e s the f i r s t
f o r x a n t frequency ( L i n d b 1 0 ~and Sundberg, 197 1). In front vowels a length-
ening of the pharynx lowers the second foril-,ant (Fant, 1970) and a lip pro-
trusion lowers the third (Sundberg, 1970b). If the tongue tip i s advanced in
back vowels the third formant frequency \ - f i l l r i s e (Sundberg, 1970a).

A s we turn to the influence from t h e sinus p i r iforme s and the larynx

tube we enter a field vrhich has not been equally well explored, In view of
the lack of agreement in the r e s u l t s frorr: e a r l i e r investigations (Beclunann,
19%; Flach, 1961; Flaclz and Schwickardic, 1955; Merrnelstein, 1967;
r a n t , 1970; Sundberg, 1970a) conclusive evidence s e e m s to be needed a s
r e g a r d s the acoustical effects of these cavities.
In the present investigation
such evidence was obtaincd by means of an acoustic tube model of the vocal
t r a c t containing simulations of the larynx tube with the sinus Ivlorgagni and
the sinus piriforme s.

Let u s first consider the larynx tube. Frorri the tonograms of the lowered
larynx e s t i x a t e s were made of i t s dimensions. On the assumption of ellip-
tical shapes in a l l dimensions the a i r vol~~i-ne contained in the sinus IAorgagni
.
\-/as e s t i ~ a t e dto about . 5 cm
3
The r e s t of the larynx tube n a y be regarded
a s a roughly cylindrical tube with a cross-sectional a r e a of about .5 cm2 and I

i
a length of slightly =ore than 2 cn;.
 LARYNX

LOW

Fig. 111-C-3. T r a c i n g s of f r o n t a l and l a t e r a l tornograms (left and right in e a c h

p a i r respectively) of the larynx in high (left p a i r s ) and low ( r i g h t
p a i r s ) position during phonation of the vowel [ a ] (upper s e r i e s )
and [ i ] (lower s e r i e s ) . (The tornograms w e r e taken by Dr.
M. Haverling, Karolinska Sjukhuset, Stockholm. )
 Acoustic theory t e l l s u s that a tube of these dimensions can be r e g a r d e d
a s a Helrr,holtz r e s o n a t o r consisting of a volume ( s i n u s ~idorgagni)and a ~ e c k
( r e s t of the l a r y n x tube) (Trolie, 1968). T1;i:leni n s e r t e d into a l a r g e r tube of
c r o s s - s e d o n a l a r e a A i t s lome st resonance frequency can be calculated with
the following equation:

The effective length ~f the neck 1 can be approxi=ated using a formula

n, e
given by Ingsrd ( N 5 3 ) :

c i s the specd of sound propagation

A i s the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of the neck
n
i s the len$h of the neck
'n
V i s the voluxxe

T h i s equation irLplies that the l a r y n x tube a c t s a s a s e p a r a t e resonator:

T h i s i s the c a s e \-ll~erithe cpening a r e a 3f tke l a r y n x tube i s s z a l l e r than
1/6 of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a in the pharyilx. T h i s condition appeared to
be fulfilled in the c a s e of the lowered laryn:: shown in the tornogram-s: when
the l a r y n x i s d e p r e s s e d the pharyngeal cavity a p p e a r s to be widened. The
resonance frequency of the rzentioned l a r y n x tube was calculated to about 2. $1
kHz. T h i s value gives important information since i t indicates that the
fourth f o r m a n t in sung v o v ~ e l sw-ay s t e m froii-i the l a r y n x tube. If so, the
fifth formant in s i q i n g v~ouldcorrespond to the fourth f o r m a n t in n o r x a l
speech which seesi--s rczr,o:~able. a

I s it reasonable to a s s u m e that the s i ~ g e r s 'l a r y n x tubes alx-lays a c t 2 s a

s e p a r a t e r e sonator resonating a t a frequency bet\-reen the third and norx-cal
fourth for;--*ants? The opening a r e a of the l a r y n x tube depends or, the funda-
mental frequency a t which the vocal chor6s vibrate. Thus, the laryrcx tube
opening i n c r e a s e s with r i s i n g pitch. F i r s t , in o r d e r to r e t a i n the l a r y n x tube
a s a s e p a r a t e r e s o n a t o r under t h e s e conditions i t would be n e c e s s a r y t~ I

acquire 2 \-ride pharynx x-~11ichpossibly car: bc achieved by lowering the l a r y n x

excessively. Sccondly, a widening of tilo r~cclcof a I-:eln=holtz r e s o n a t o r in-
c r e a s e s i t s resonance frequency. Such a :-~ideningof the tube opening 11:ay
be compensated f o r by a n i n c r e a s e in the v o l u ~ eo r neck length. An i n c r e a s e
Experimental data were provided by the n o d e l where the sinus piriformes mere
s i x u l a t e d by one o r two circular tubes of varied lengths and d i a n e t e r s inserted
paralelly to the larynx tube into the closed end of a wider tube sinulating the
pharynx and the mouth. Li Fig. 111-C-5 the calculated data and measured values
can be ccmpared. Note that the main determinant for the zero frequency i s the
depth of the poc1;cts whilst their cross-sectional a r e a i s l e s s important. More-
over, sirculating only one instead of both pocliets has a small effect. The zero
zrppears scr-:e~:~here bett-Jec:l 3 and 4 kI-Iz :or a poclret depth of 2 cm. Rccslling
that a spectrum crivelope minimum often can be observed in this frequency
region in spectra o i sung vowels we can conclude that this minimum i s liizely
to stem- f r o m the sinus piriformes.

The sinus p i r i f o r m e s have another effect a s tvell, namely on the f o r x a n t

frequencies. This effect \;rill however depend on the a r e a ratio between the
larynx tube opening and the pharynx. If it i s sriialler than 1:6 the sinus p i r i -
forrnes will a c t a s a lengthening of the pharynx tube and lower the frequencies
of those formants in p a r t i c ~ l a rthat corrcspond to resonances in the pharynx
tube, e . g. the second f o r n a n t in front vo\-~cls. Thus the sinus piriforr.3es will
affect the formants in a x a n n e r that depends on the articulationor the place of
a constriction in the vocal tract.

The effect for various locations of a constriction (length 6 cm, c r o s s - s e c -

2
tional a r e a f cm) \-?as studied experimentally in the tube model including sim-
ulation of the larynx tube, the pharynx, and the m-outh. Fig. 1.1-C - 6 shol-JSthe
observed formant frequencies a s a functioa of the place of constriction. The
fifth formant i s consaiderably lowered for certaiii place s of constriction where -
a s the fourth formant acting a s a separate resonator, i s essentially unaffected.
Thus, the sinus p i r i f o r m c s a r e in fact able to c o z p r e s s higher forn:ants. The
second f o r x a n t i s l o - x r c d in c a s e s of frontal constriction and the f i r s t formant
i s slightly lowered in all cases.

These observations iya-jr re=ind u s of the observations z a d e in comparing

the f o r x a n t frequencies in singing and nor:z-,al speech. The fourth formant r e -
ixains a t about 2 . 3 1:I-Iz for a l l articulations, and the fifth approaches the fourth
in singing. The second formant i s lowered \-?hen the place of constriction i s
fronted. 0a the other hand there a r e differences between the foriilant frequency
changes due to the siiius piriformes and those observed between singing and
specch. F i r s t , the formant shifts a r e ~--?rrcl~
g r e a t e r between speech and sing-
ing, probably owing to the fact t3at thc pharynx lengthening was not simulated
 I 1 I I I

6.0 - -
0
N
I
x
V

8 5.0 -
W
-
N
LL
0
>
U
z z " " ~ - w ~ . ,,,,I~
, ,, .,I ."I"',,-".,. ,-,,-""",,,WY1.L.II

W
=> 4.0
Q
-
W Area of 8.p. x 1.2 c d
z
LL Area of 8.p. a 2~1.2cm2C2tubes)
Area of 8.p. 3.5 crrf

- Calculated tc14 Le)

3.0 - ct.= 4e.7 Gk -
:
I I I I I

0 0.5 1.O 1.5 2.0

DEPTH OF SINUS PlRlFORMlS (cm)

Fig. 111-C-5. Frequency of the t r a n s f e r function z e r o stemming

f r o m various types of cavities simulating the
sinus p i r i f o r m i s (s. p. ) in the acoustical model.
 EFFECT ON FORMANT FREQUENCIES OF S l NUS PlR l FORMiS

4.0 -
1 I

,'
I

t
',
I I I I

-
I
*- - *
I I
Without
With s.p.
s p
I
-

DISTANCE CONSTRICTION CENTER -OPEN END (cm)

E 'zIzzz b*

Fig. 111-C-6. F o r m a n t f r e q u e n c i e s obtained f r o m an a c o u s t i c a l

m o d e l of the vocal t r a c t with (solid l i n e s ) and with-
out (dashed l i n e s ) simulation of the s i n u s p i r i f o r m i s .
The m o d e l con i s t e d of a tube with a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
'i
a r e a of 7.8 cm and a total length of 19 c m in which
the l a r y n x tube w a s s i m u l a t e d by a s m a l l Helmholtz
r e s o n a t o r tuned to r e s o n a n c e a t 2.8 kHz and the
sinus p i r i f o r m i f by two tubes of a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
a r e a of 1 . 2 c m and a length of 2 c m .
STL-QPSR 1/1972 5 1.

in the model experiments. Secondly, t l ~ cf i r s t forn-Aanti s r a i s e d in singing

and lowered by the sinus piriformes, but a s mentioned t h jaw is lowered in
singing which causes the f i r s t f c r m a n t to r i c e . A third difference i s that
the third formant i s not lowered in the sa122e v ~ a y . This i s certainly due to
the strong dependence of this formant on the tongue tip position and the lip
protrusion that were not s k u l a t e d in t l ~ c:=lode1 experiments. The observa-
tions sugge s t the conclusion that the formant frequency difference s observed
between speech and singing can to a l a r g c extent be explained with reference
to changes in the pharynx and larynx tube associated with a lowcring of the
larynx.

Shifts in formant irequencies a r e accocpanied by alterations of the spec-

t r u m envelope. Measured changes in thc spectrurfi envelope due to the p r e s -
ence of a wide sinus Morgagni, the sinus 2iriformes, and to a r a i s e of the
third fcrrzant frequency can be studied in r i g . 111-C -7. The values were ob-
tained f r o m the model ~ i ~ u l a t i n
ang articulation similar to that of an [u].
A daixping effect frorr, the t r a n s f e r function zero due to the sinus piriformes
i s clearly seen. The substantial envelope r i s e due to the sinus Morgagni i s
reinforced when the third formant i s shifted upwards in frequency. The total
gain in spectrum amplitude around 3 IcI-Is i s about 20 dB. This values a g r e e s
l-~iththe initially observed difference between a spoken and a sung [u]. The
conclusion therefore s e e m s justified that a singer i s capable of generating a
"singing formant" by a e a n s of his sinus Liorgagni, sinus p i r i f o r z c s , and in
the Eacl: v o v ~ e l s ,h i s tongue tip. Except for the tongue tip movement these
effects a r e presimabiy all secondary consequences of a lowering of the larynx.

IV. Discussion

It h a s been shown that the singer i s able to produce a vowel with a "singing
formant I' using his vocal chords and vocal t r a c t exclusively. Given the ex- I
planation sugge sted above the r e i s no motivation to postulate "clie s t r e sonance " ,
''head resonance", f'cingi:~gin the m a s k f J , ctc. , i. e. they appear to lacl:
acoustical relevance for the tone. On the other hand, these t e r m s play a p r e -
dominant role in current vocal pedagogy. The reason for this might be that
these t e r n s describe patterns of vibration sensations that appear only when
the tone i s properly produced. Perhaps, i-ecognizing the vibrations accom-
panying good tones may be a n efficient way to control vocal production.
 EFFECT ON SPECTRUM ENVELOPE OF SINUS PlRlFORMlS
ARTICULATION: [u] #=
I I 1 I
I

FREQUENCY ( k H z )

Fig. 111-C-7. Spectrum envelope changes due to the introduction

of sinus p i r i f o r m i s ( s . p. ), s i n u s Morgagni (s. M. ),
and a r a i s e d third f o r m a n t frequency ( A F ). The
3
changes w e r e observed in an acoustic model of the
vocal t r a c t consisting of a 19 c m tube (0 = 3 . 1 cm)
and including two constrictions s o a s to simulate
the articulation of a sung [u].
STL-CPSR 1/1972

Frorn the acoustical point of view it i s e s s e n t i a l f o r the generation of the

,inging
11, - formant" that the l a r y n x tube a c t s a s a s e p a r a t e r e s o n a t o r the r e s o -
nance of which i s not affected by a r t i c u l a t o r y r;r^ovements in the r e s t of the
vocal t r a c t . This i s a c ~ o ~ p l i s h eonly
d .;lileil the l a r y n x tube opening is c:uch
n a r r o w e r than the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ill the pharynx. Articulatorily t h i s
e f f e c t i s obtained by lowering the l a r y n x ~;/5ichwidens the pharynx cavity.
P a r t i c u l a r l y . a t higher pitches where the l a r y n x tube opening i s v i d e i t
be e s s e n t i a l to a c q u i r e a wide pharynx.

It was mentioned that .:hen we i n c r e a z e pitch we a l s o i n c r e a s e the l a r y n x

tube opening. Thk i n c r e a s e h a s to be co1~1;ensatedf o r by a widening of tile
sinus idorgagni if the l a r y n x tube resonance should r e m a i n a t 2 . 8 kHz. A
contribution to the widening required i s provided by the stretching of the vocal
folds constituting the bottolx of the sinus I..iorgagni. But probably additional
compensation i s r e q u i r e d a s well. If so, the singer will have to lower h i s
l a r y n x m o r e and x o r e the higher tile tcne s he sings. T h i s a g r e e s wit11 the
coz--rnonly stated ceed for "covering" high note s , since covering h a s been
sholvn to be a s s o c i a t e d p h e n o l ~ e n asi:xilar to the effects observed in
l a r y n x lowering.

T h e r e a r e ,nreat individual diiferenccc a s r e g a r d s the dimecsions of the

vocal c h o r d s , the sinus idorgagni, and tlze s i n u s piriforrrie s. We m a y con-
clude f r o m the p r e s e n t investigations that a good singer needs a l a r g e sims
Ivlorgagni and a wide pharynx. One day i:.- future \-re m a y a r r i v e a t the p o s -
sibi lity of x e a s u r i n g the se cavitie s f r o 2 t o m o g r a r - s talcen with lo\-rered I

l a r y n x and judge -.-.?lether it i s advisable f o r that individual to s t a r t a voice

training aiming a t a n o p e r a t i c c a r r e e r .

V. Conclusion

The acoustically i > ~ o set s s e n t i a l a r t i c u l a t o r y difference between speech

a;>d singing a p p e a r s to be the widening of the pharynx a t the level of tlle l a r y n x
tube apenicg. S u c l a widening ~f the pharynx is probably accompanyi?g a
lcwering of the larynx. Acoustically the pllarynx widening h a s the effect of
isolating the larynx tube f r o m the r e s t of " i ~ evocal t r a c t so that i t s r e s o n a c e
frequency i s not a l t e r e d by a r t i c u l a t o r y :_-ovements outside it. Its resonance
can be tuned to a frequency between the third and fourth f o r m a n t in n o r m a l
speech by choosing tile volum-e contained il2 the s i n u s Morgagni in relation to
tlze opening a r e a of the l a r y n x tube. Ar, additional effect of a l a r y n x lovrering
STL-QPSR 1/1972 53.

i s that it increases the dimensions of the sircus piriformes and the length of
the pharynx tube. This mainly lowers the second formant frequency in front
vov~elsand in certain articulations a1 so that of the fifth f o r n a n t . In this way
a great deal of the acoustical difference s betmeen spoken and sung vowels
can be explained wit11 reference to the larynx lowering, the major articulatory
gesture associated with the production of a "singing formant".

Aclaowledgments
I
The author i s indebted to B. L i n d b l o ~ ,J . Lindqvist, and M. M. Sondhi
for valuable discussions, The tomograms were obtained due to kind coopera-
tion of Dr. 3A. Haverling a t the Karolinska S j ukhuset, St ockholm. The work
was supported by the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Fund under Contract No.
67/46.

References
Beclrmann, G. (1952): "Das Verhalten d e r Obertone bei d e r alcustischen I
Ausscl~altungder Kehlhopfve~~trikel~',Fol. Phoniat. f 0, p. 149. -
Fant, G. (1970): Acoustic Theory of Speech Production, h!fouton & Co.,
The Hague (23.d edition).
Fant, G . , Hennings son, G. , and StSlhar~~:>ar,U. ( 1969): "Formant F r e -
quencies of St-redish Vov~elsl',STL-GPSR No. 4, p. 26.
..
J I

Flach, M. ( 1964): "Uber die unter schiedliclze Gr bsse d e r Morgagnischen

-
Ventrikel bei Sangern", Fol. Plzoniat. 16, p. 67.
Flach, M. and Sclz~*~iclcardie,
H. (1966): "Die Recessus Piriformis unter
phoniatrischer Sichtl', Fol. Plloniat. -
18, p. 153.
Ingdrd, U. (1953): "On the Theory and Design of Acoustic Resonatorsv,
J.Acoust.Soc.Am. 25, p. P037.
Lindblom, B. and Sundberg, J. (197 1): "Acoustical Consequences of Lip,
Tongue, Jaw and Larynx iviovcment'', J. Acoust. S o c An--. 50,
p. 117.
-
Merxelstein, P. (1967): "On the P i r i f o r ~
Rece s s u s and their Acoustic
Effects", Fol. Phoniat. 2, p. 388.
Sundberg, J. (1968): ' ' F o r ~ a n tFrequencies of Bass Singers", STL-QPSR
No. 1, p. f.
Sundberg, J. (1970a): I' The Level of tlze ' Singing Formant' and the Source
Spectra of Professional Bass Singers", STL-QPSR No. 4, p. 21.
Sundberg, J. ( 1970b): "Formant Structure and Articulation of Spolren and
Suag Vov~elsft,Fol. Phoniat. 22, p. 20.
Troke, R.W . (1962): ''Tube-Cavity Resonance", J.Acoust. Soc.Arn. 44,
p. 684. -