English Phonetics and Phonology

Professors Luiz Manoel and Marcos Feitosa are very thankful to Dr. Norma Joseph
for her kindness to help gather the material for this course.
:

Vocal Tract Articulators

-·-----·--- ·- - - -

ROOF OF MOUTH
ANDUPP~UP

upper lip
tipper front
teeth

THE TONGUE
back front
·,
./ bla.de.
epiglottis

1. nasal c.mit'{
2. oral cavitr
3.pharynx
4.cesophagus
s. tracnaa

The major vo.cal tract articulators

:
An Overview of the Vocal Tract

,/.,.
HyQic ocne
La1yn::.< C1hvt-oid c:;;irUage)

An overview of the voca1 tract showing structures that a re

important in speech sound production and speech articulation
 ..
flow _Chart of Lung Function
- - ----- --·--··----- - - --

r- lncre~ses lung I Decreases·.·Ju~

n ·
L~.----wvo~me . . fl
·-- -~v--r~~
·
V"''um
V.Y. e
.
,----Dec~es air j r-----·..L.
·'-~·-.
I ncrea$es air l
pressure in fungs !:
i."P.!~=~~r~~E~J ---·------ ·- r ---- - ·•"T"•

I
~.

I
Air is drawn into Air.is e-xpetled from
lungs to equatise· lungs to equali~
pressure with pressure With i
outside air outside air r

Breathing In and Breathing Out

5
 ..
A SimpHfied Diagram of the Vocal
Tract
~----· -
.........-·-~'"'----

L
if\tiasaJ cavity-

~ ~e ~ J :. ----M-ou.ln -~
-. '. .-Cfa\_t!ity_•
'--~~~~~~___,,~
!

Lung volume

T.
Respiratory force

A simplified diagram of the vocal tract showing the energy

generation function of the lungs. Above the vocal folds are the
various cavities that can be modified in size and shape to cause
changes in the sound quality of the speech sounds.
 ~ The Phonetics/Phonology L;ib at New York University

Home About People Resources Research . Events Li rd

The ph-lab is used by faculty and students in the linguistics department to investigate issues in
phonetics, laboratory phonology, and sociophonetics. Equipped with a sound-attenuated booth,
digital recording equipment and a modular ultrasound unit, the lab provides tools fc:ir investigating
both ·the ac6ustic and articulatory characteristics of speech.

Ultrasound images provide real time information about.the

shape of the tongue body at different stages in articulation.

Software in the ph-lab allows us to visualize the articulatory

data, showing both the shape of the tongue body at a . ·
single slice in time and how the tongue shape change~ as
a function of time. Combining insights gained from
acoustic, articulatory and perceptual data brings us closer
understanding the phonological component of human
language.

Acoustic analysis is important for both perception and

production studies. Members of the ph-lab have designed
lexical decision, AX discrimination, matched guise, and
picture learning tasks in order to study issues ranging from
second language acquisition to loanword phonology to
accomodation between speakers of different dialects_
, 1:
: 1,. SPELLING AND

1 PRONUNCIATION

Peter Avery and Susan Ehrlich

The English spelling system

Before discussing che sound system of English in any derail, it is necessary co
make a distinccion berween the sounds of English and che spelling of
English. The English spelling system ofren fails to represent che sounds of
English in a straightforward manner. In other words, there is ofcen no one-
ro-one correspondence between rhe sounds that we hear and che lecters we
see on a page. An examination of the English spelling system reveals many
examples of chis discrepancy berween spelling. and sounds, for example:
Different letters may represent the same sound Pronounce the words
below:
to rwo coo through chrew clue shoe Sioux
'
All of these words contain rhe s'ame vowel sound bur ir is represented by
eight different spellings.
The same letter represents different sounds Pronounce rhe words below
\: and notice char the leccer a is pronounced as five different vowel sounds.
cake ~at call any sofa
Now pronounce rhe next set of words and notice char the letter sis pro-
nounced as three different sounds.
, I
i
see pleasure resign
In the first word, 'see', the letter sis pronounced in its usual way. In rhe word
'pleasure', ir is pronounced like the final sound in rhe word 'beige', and in
rhe word 'resign', it is pronounced like rhe first sound in the word 'zoo'.
Combinations ofletters may represent one sound le is possible for a combi-
.. nation of letters to represent only one sound. If you pronounce che words
below, you will notice chat che gh, the ph, and the ea each represent only one
sound even though the spelling represents this single sound as two letters.
rough physics head
I

J
 Letters may represent no sounds It is als.o possible for no sound to be repre-
.. semed by a particular letter. Pronounce the words below and notice that the
letters in italics are not pronounced at all.
cbefore i, e, a'nd y= s
e.g. ciry, cigar, certain, census, cent, cysr
· c before a, o, and u and at the end of a word= k
bomb cake pneumonia knee though debt receipt
e.g. car, call, cone, come, custom, cup, plastic
Again, che' lack of correpondence between sounds and spelling can be
observed in these words containing 'silent' letters. This predictable difference in rhe pronun~iarion ~f the letter c can also be
observed in pairs of words chat are related in meaning:
After chis brief examination of the English spelling system, we can begin to electric decuiciry
understand what led George Bernard Shaw to suggest rhat the English spell-
ing system could be used to spell the word 'fish' as ghoti-the gh as it sounds Notice char the English spell-ing system preserves the same spelling in these
in a word like 'rough', the o as it sounds in a word like .'women', and the ti as related words even though the pronunciation of the letter c changes.
it sounds in a word like 'nation'. Shaw's suggested spelling, at first .glance, The range of pronunciation of conspnanr lerrers is somewhat more
might seem quite ridic;:ulous; howe:ver, it illµscrates clearly the way in which a predictable than the pronunciation of vowel letters. Th'.s is because there are
.:
particular sound in English can be spelled in quire different ways. many more vowel sounds in English than vowel letters m the Roman alpha-
bet and because historical changes in the pronunciation of English have
affected vowel sounds much more than consonant sounds. It is often rhe
case that English spelling represents pronunciations that are now obsolete.
Sound-spelling correspondences Traditionally, English vowel letters have been divided in.to two categories
based on their pronunciation as either long or short vowels. When the vowel
The lack of sound-spelling correspondence illustrated in the previous letters a, e, i, o, and u occur in words ending in a silent e letter, ·rhey are
examples should not be taken to mean char there are no sound-spelling pronounced with their 'long' sound which is the sound heard when these
regularities·in English. In face, many of the consonant letters display a con- letters are pronounced in isolation {e.g. when reciting the alphabet). When
sistent relationship to the sounds they represent. For example, letters such as the same vowel letters occur in words without a silent e, tfleyare pronou nced
b, m, and n only have one pronunciation, unless they are silent. wirh their 'short' sounds:
b m n Lo~g vowels Short vowels
boat moat no mate mat
rubber hammer winner pet
Pete
robe home wine hide hid
Ocher consonant letters are also consistent in their pronunciation but may note not
appear in combination with another letter giving them a different pro- cure cue
nunciation. For example, a letter such asp is normally pronounced in one
way when it is alone but when ir is combined with h, it is pronounced in a Il. This is, rhen, one generalization that can be made regarding the sou:-td-
spelling correspondence of English vowels. This regul.ariry can also be
different way, that is, like the letterf i observed in pairs of words char are related in meaning:
p alone p+h=f ·1 sane sanicy
pat pliilosophy i serene serenity
cop
copper
physics
photograph
The pronunciation of still other consonant letters can be predicted on the
I divine divinity
H ere wes~e chat the unsuffixed.form with rhe silent e has che 'long' sound,
while rhe suffixed form without the silent e has che 'short' sound. Many
basis oftheir combination with vowel letters. For example, the lerrer cis pro- people have observed that the Englis.h spelling system ~s ~dvantageous. in
nounced like the letters as in 'senr' when followed by the vowel letters i, e, or that spelling is consistem (even though the pronunc1ac10n may differ)
y, and like the letter k as in 'kite' when followed by the vowel letters a, o, or u, among words related in meaning.
or when it occurs at the end of a word. Thus: ·
 While there are many more vowel letter-sound correspondences that could discussing sounds in languages. In ch.e phonetic alphabet, eac·h symbol
be listed here, their large number (Prator and Robinett (1985) list 57 represents only one sound and each sound is represented by only one sym- ·
differenr vowd-letter combinations with predictable pronunciations) and bol. Therefore, the vowel sounds in the words 'co', 'rwo', 'too', 'through',
many exceptions make their usefulness to ESL srudents somewhat question- 'ch'rew', 'clue', .'shoe', and 'suit' would be represenced by one phonetic sym-
able. However, once students have mastered enough spelling, they usually bol because each of these words has the same vowel sound. On the ocher
become quite proficienr at guessing che pronunciation of an unknown word hand, che letter. sin the words 'see', 'pleasure', and 'resign' would be repre-
based solely on che spelling. sented by three distinct phonetic .symbols, as rhis letter represe'n cs three
differenr sounds. Throughout chis book, we will use symbols from the pho-
netic alphabet to represent English sounds. Wben you encouncer these
Spelling in other languages symbols, remember that they are intended co represent sounds. Thar is, they
Many languages, including English, use che Roman alphabet. Differences are not lercers, but symbols for sounds.
between the sound-spelling correspondences of such languages and of
Table 1. 1: Phonetic symbols used in this book
English can often be the source of mispronunciations. For example, the
spelling sysrems of languages such as Spanish, Polish, and Hungarian are vowels and dipchongs consonants
more scraighrforward than the English spelling system in representing
sounds. That is, there i.s usually a one-to-one correspondence between I as in 1
sit' [sit] p as in ' pen ' [pen)
sounds and spelling. Speakers of such languages may pronounce every letter E as in 'pen' [pen] b .as in 'bad' [bred)
of an English word, assuming incorrectly that the English spelling system is re as in 'har' [hret] l as in 'tea ' [tiy]
like che spelling sysrem of their native language. In addition, rhese speakers a as in 'por' [pat] d as in 'dog' [dag]
may assign the sound values of their spelling system to the letters of English. 0 as in 'boughr' [bot] (some dialects) k a~ in 1
cat 1
[kiet]
This often results in what we term a spelling pronunciation. Pronouncing 1
u as in put' [put] g as in 'got' [gat]
words on the basis of one's native language spelling system does nor necess-
h as in 'buc' [bnt] f as in 'fair' _ [fer]
arily consticure a pronunciation problem. Ir may merely reflect a lack of
as in 'about' [~bawt] v asin ' voice' [voys]
knowledge regarding the often complex sound-spelling correspondences of
English. If you have a large number of literate students from a language
~

iy as in .
see [siy] e as in 'rhin' [0rn]
background using che Roman alphabet, it may be wise co familiarize yourself ey as in 'say' [sey] 11 as in 'rhen' [oen)
wirh rhe sound-spelling correspondences in char language. Then you can uw as in ' coo [tuw) s as in . sew' [sow]
point out co scudenrs che places in which the sound-spelling correspon- OW as in ' go ' [gow] z as in 'z.00 [zuw)
1

dences of English and their native language differ.

ay as in 'buy' (bay] f as in 'she' [Jiy]
aw as in . now' [naw] 3 as in 'vision [v13on] 1

The phonetic alphabet oy as in 1

coin
1
[koyn] tf as in 'chin' [tJrn]
Given rhe complexiry of sound-spelling correspondences in English, ic ir as in 'fear' [fir] d3 as in 'jump [d3/\mp)
would be difficult to use che Roman alphabet co symbolize English sounds. er as in 'bear' [ber] m as in ' may' [mey)
Consider crying to represenc the first sound of'cac' using the English spelling ur as in 'boor' [bur] n as in
1
ilo ' [now]
sys rem. If we were c9 use the leccer c co represent chis sound, rhen how would or as in 'bore' [bor) I) as in 'sing (Sil))
we represent rhe first sound in a word such as 'cerrain'? Furthermore, would
~r asin 'her' [h~r) I as in 'lee' [let)
we also use che letter c ro represenc the first sound in a word like 'kite', given
r as in ' red' [red)
.. char rhe first sound of'kite' is the same sound chat begins 'cac'? You can see
the problems rhac would arise in using che English spelling sysrem for such a y as in ' yes . [yes]
..:..
a purpose. w as in will' [w1l]
In order co avoid rhe problems chat a spelling system like English poses for h as in 'he' [hiy]
rhe representation of sounds, it is helpful co use a phonetic alphabet wh.en
Exercises a. Can you determine any regularity in the way g is prono unced, based on.
Read the following poem and list the different pronunciations repre- the following vowel lecr~r?
sented by the following letter combinations: b. Now consider the following words. Do they affect the generalization
ough ea oth you have formulated above.? Explain.
Can you think of any more pronunciations for these letter combinations?· geyser geld gee gist giraffe gin
3 Look up the sound-spelling correspondences for a language (other than
H.in~s on pronunciation for foreigners English) that use.5 che Roman alphabet or a modified version ofir (for ex-
I take it you already know ample, Italian, Spanish, Polish, Vietnamese). Based on you r findings,
Of tough and bough and cough and dough? what difficulties might a learner with chat native language encounter in
Others may stumble but not you, learning the English sound-spelling correspondences? (Usually sound-
On hiccough, thorough·; laugh and through. spelling correspondences can be found at the beginning ofa primer on the
Well done! And now you wish, perhaps, language.)
To learn ofless familiar traps?
Beware of heard, a dreadful w~rd
That looks like beard and sounds.like. bird,
And dead: it's said like bed, not bead-·
For goodness' sake don't call it 'deed'!
Watch out for meat and great and threat
(They rhyme with suite and straight and debt).
A moth is nor a moth in mother
Nor both in bother, .broth in brother,
And here is nor a march for there
Nor dear and fear for bear and pear,
And then there's dose and rose and lose--
Just look them up-and goose and choose,
And cork and work and card and ward,
And font and front and word and sword,
And do and go and rhwan and cart- ·
Come, come, I've hardly made a start!
A dreadful language? Man alive!
I'd mastered it when I was .five!
From a letter published in the London Sunday Times
(3 January, 19?5)
2 Consider the way the letter g is pronounced at the beginning of the fol-
lowing words: •
gorge gig gem guest
gut got gag George
genius gypsy gust guilt
gel garage giggle gymnast
German genetic general guess
~r INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS

2
' I

:f:j"'I OF ENGLISH
. j!
i •!
I
I

~: Peter Avery and Susan Ehrlich

,\,\

'I
~l
I

To be effective as a teacher of pronunciation, it. is es~encial co have an

\ l understanding of how the speech sounds of English are produced. Such
knowledge will enable you to understand why your students have a 'foreign
\I .\
accent', since a foreign accent results parrially from an inability ro produce
rhe speech sounds of English. In addition, ic will enable you co rake che
necessary sci;ps for correction of your studen ts' pro·nunciacion problems.
I: When your scudencpronounces the world 'chink' as 'fink' or 'sink' or 'rink'.
rhar studcm is obviously having difficulty making che English sound ch ar
\; begins the word 'chink'. Understanding how rhis sound is made will allow
I you to help your student to produce ir correcdy. The study of how sounds
I'
i are produced and how the posi'tion of the mouth can be changed to produce
differenc sounds is called phonetics. In the sections that follow, some basic
! concepts from phonetics will be presented.

i' How speech sounds are made

Speech sounds are made by air moving ourward from the lungs through the
mouth or nose. Different speech sounds result when the airstream ·is altered
in some way by the positioning of various pares of the mouth. Some sounds
are made as a result of the lips altering the airmeam while other sounds are
made as a result of the tongue altering the airstream. ·
In Figure 2.1, we label the parts of rhe mourh that are involved in rhe
production of speech sounds. The movable parts of the mouch-rhe bot-
tom lip, the bottom teerh, rhe rongue, and the jaw-'-are referred ro as
articu/arors. In the production of speech sounds, the articulators approach
the upper unrn6vable pam of the mouth, causing the airsrream co be altered
in different ways. The unmovable parts of the mouth involved in the artic-
ularion of speech sounds are referred to as places ofartirnlation.
 Sounds made with the iips
Both lips (bilabial) Pronounce the words 'pat', 'bat', and' mac', paying ac-
Figure 2.1: Arti~ulators andplaw of tention to che way the first consonant of each word is made. T he first sound
articulation in each of these words is made with the two lips coming together and touch-
Articulators ing momentarily. The obstruction of the air5tream thus occurs at th.e lips.
l Tip of tongue The phonetic symbols for these three sounds are the same as the English ler-
2 Blade of tongue
3 Back of tongue
ters. We use the syrnbo·ls / p/, /b/, and /m/ ro represent the first sounds of
'pat', 'bat', and 'mat'.
Places of Articulation
4 Teeth
5 Tooth (alveolar) ridge
6 Hard palate
1 Soft palate (velum)
8 Olottis
9 Uvula

Conserzants and vowels

/
A basic distinction, in terms of how sounds are formed, is made between
consonants and vowels. Consonants involve a narrowing in the mouth which
in turn causes som.e obstruction of the airstream. With vowels, air passes
rather freely through the mouth because there is very little narrowing. In
order to become aware of this difference berween consonants and vowels,
pronounce the word 'palm'. You can feel your mouth widening when you
.pronounce the vowel sound and narrowing when you pronounce the initial
and final consonants. · two (bi-) lips (labial) are involved in their production.
. The description of English consonants
In our discussion of consonants, we will refer co three basic characteristics:
1 Place of articulation-where in the mouth che airstream is obstructed.
2 Manner of articulation-the way in which the aimream is obstructed.
3 Voicing-whether ch ere is. vibration of the vocal cords.
Pla.ce ofarticulation
In English, there are six: places in the mourh where the airstream is
obstructed in the formation of consonants. The various places of arric-
ularion are labelled in the.diagram of the mouth in Figure 2.1.
We will discuss each consonant in terms of the articulators involved and the
place in the mouth where the articulators cause an obstruction of.the air-
strearn.
Figure 2.2: The position ofthe lips in the Figure 2.3: The position ofthe mth and
production of / pl, /bl, and/ml lips in the production of I fl and I\· i
The sounds Ip/, /b/, and /m/ are referred to as bilabial sounds because the
Lowe1· lip and uppe1· teeth (labiodental) Now produce rhe words 'far' and
'vat', again paying attention co the way che first sounds of these words are
formed. The initial sounds of 'fat' and 'vat' arc: made with the top teeth
touching the bottom lip. Therefore, in rhe case of rhese rwo sounds, the
obstruction of the airsrream occurs not because the two lips come tog~ther
but because the bocco.m lip and the top teeth come together. Again, the'
phonetic symboh for these rwo sounds are the same as the English letters.
We use the symbols If / and /v/ co represent the initial sounds of 'fac' and
'var'.
The sounds /fl and /v/ are referred to as labiodental sounds beca use the lips
(labio) and the teeth (dencal) are involved in thei r production.
Sounds made with the tip of the tongue
Tip ofthe tongue and the teeth (interdental} Pronounce the words 'thigh'
and 'thy', paying attention to the way che first consonant sou nds of these
words are formed. With these rwo sounds rhe obstruction of che aimream
occurs because the rip of the tongue is between che teeth or just behind che
'I
i ceech. The phonetic symbols for these sounds are nor che same as the English
lercers. The th sound in rhe word 'thigh' is represenred by the symbol / 8/
and the rh sound in che word 'thy' is represenred by ch; symbol Joi.
The sounds /6/ and /o/ are referred co as inrerdenral sounds because che
tongue is placed berwern (inrer) the tee ch (dental).
The rwo th sounds are notoriously difficult for second language learners
because th ey are nor common sounds in many of the world's language5.
While not many words in English con rain che I o/ sound as in 'rhy', rhe
words char do contain chis sound are among the most frequenrly used words
in the English language. For example, che words 'the', 'chis', 'chac', 'these',
'chose', 'then', 'rhan', 'rhere', 'chough', 'chey', 'chem', and 'their' all begin
wirh rhe I al sound. 1he I of sou·nd is also found in such common words as
'mother', 'facher', and 'brother'. Thus, you can see how important chis
sound is in English.
Wich the knowledge chat you have regarding place of arciculacion, it
becomes easier co correcc·a scudent who says 'I fink so' when attempting to
say 'I chink so'. To produce 'chink' rather rhan 'fink', it is necessary co place
the rip of the tongue berween che reech instead of placing rhe cop teeth on
che bottom lip. Thus, we can see char rhe subsricucion of If! for /8/ is a pro-
nunciation error char results from incorrect place of arciculation.
... Figure 2. 4: The position ofthe tongue in Figure 2.5: The position ofthe tongue in
rhe production of 101 and/ qi the production of It /, Id!, In/, and/I!
Tip of the tongue and the tooth ridge (alveolar) Other English sounds
made with the tip of the tongue include rhe initial sounds of 'tip', 'dip',
'nip', and 'lip'. When you pronounce the initial consonants of these words,
you should feel che tip of your tongue touching the roofOf your mouth just
behind your upper ceech. We refer to this place of arciculacion as the tooth
ridge or the alveolar ridge. (See Figure 2.1 above.) Again, the phonetic
.symbols for these sounds are the same as the English letters. We use /t/, /di,
/n/, and /I/ to represenrrhe initial sounds of 'rip' , 'dip', 'nip', and 'lip'.
Other tooth ridge·sounds in English include the initial sounds of the words
'sip' and 'zip'. Again, the phonetic symbols for these sounds are the same as
the English letters. We use Isl and /z/, respeccively.
The sounds I sf and /z/ are not made in precisely the same way as I t!, /d /,
In/, and /1/ as the rip of the congue does not actually couch the coo ch ridge.
They are, nevertheless, tooth ridge sounds as che rip of the tongue does
approach the tooth ridge.To.confirm char this is the case, pronounce the I 61
as in 'chink' followed immediately by the Isl as in 'sink'. You should feel
your tongue moving from a position becween che upper teeth co a position
behind the upper teeth approaching the tooth ridge.
T he initial sound of 'rip' is also a.tooth ridge sound and is represented by rhe
phonetic symbol Ir/, leis a litde more problematic in terms of its description
and will be discussed in more detail lacer in this chapter (see page 37).
The sounds I t/, I d/, /n/, /I/, Isl, l z/, and /r/ are referred to as alveolar
sounds because rhe tongue either couches or approaches che alveolar ridge
(cooch ridge) in cheir production. ·
In languages such as French, Italian, and Spanish, these sounds are not made
in the same way as in English. In these languages, che cip of the tongue does
nor couch the tooth ridge buc rather couches behind che ceerh. While chis
may sound like a very trivial difference, it is such differences becween sounds
in languages char partially cause what we know as a 'foreign accent'.
Sounds made with the blade of the .tongue_
Blade of the tongue and the hard palate (alveo-palatal) Pronounce che
words 'wish' and 'beige', concentrating on the position ofche tongue in che
production of the final sounds. These ~ounds are made with che blade ofrhe
tongue approaching rhe hardpalate just behind the tooth ridge. (See FigLtre
2.1 above.) The.phonetic symbols for these sounds are nor the same as the .
English letters. We use the symbol/SI io represent the final sound of 'wish'
and the symbol / 3/ ro represent rhe foal sound of'beige'. Note that the I SI
sound very rarely begins a word in English. Only words of foreign origin
such as 'genre' or 'Jacques' begin with chis sound.
You may be able co feel the position of the congue for IS I and/ 3/ more easily
if you make a /s/ as in 'sip' followed immediately by a IS I as in ship. When
you move to the ISI sound, you will fed the blade of the tongue rising co
approach the hard palate. Now, make the IS I sound and hold your tongue in
that position while breathing in through the mouth. The incoming air ·
should cool che blade ofyour tongue and the roof of your mouth just behind
the moth ridge.
 One ocher important aspect of the pronunciation of IS I and/3/ involves the
lips. Notice chat the lips are rounded when you pronounce.these so un~s.
The IS I sounds often presents difficulty for learners of English. When pro-
nouncing words such as 'sheep' and 'sheer', Greek speakers, for example,
may subscirute a /s/ $Ound for the correct ISI sound at che beginning of these
words. Thus, instead of pronouncing che intended words 'sheep' and 'sheet','
chey will say what sounds like 'seep' and 'sear'. These, of course, are critical>
errors as cher, could interfere with comprehensibility. In order to produce"
the correct sounds, che student must use the blade of the tongue rather than
che tip and be sure char it is approaching the hard palate just behind. the
tooth ridge.
There are rwo ocher sounds char ar~ made wich the blade of th.e tongue at the
hard palate. These are the initial consonants in the words 'chug' and 'jug'.
We use the complex symbol I tS I for the initial sound in the word 'chug' and
/d3/ for th~ initial sound in the word.'j ug'.
The sounds I S/, /3/, /tJ /, and /d3/ are referred to as alveopafatal sounds
because rhe tongue is just behind the alveolar ridge at the hard palate in the
production of these sounds.
Figure 2. 6: The position ofthe tongue in Figure 2.7: The position ofthe tongue in
the production of IS I, I 3 I, /tJ I, and the production of ik/, Ig/, and /'Q I
/d3/
Sounds made with the back of the tongue
Back ofthe tongue and soft palate (velar) Pronounce che words 'coat' and
'goat', exaggerating the formation of che initial sounds. In producing the
initial sounds, the back part of your congue couches the back pare of your
mouth momentarily, causing an obstruction of the airs.cream. Contrast the
position of your tongue in the formation of the first and lase sounds in a
word such as 'tack'. You should feel the cip ofyour tongue rising to the tooth
ridge as you pronounce the /t/, and the back part of your tongue rising as
you pronounce the final sot.ind of the word. The back pare of the tongue rises
to couch the soft palauor velum. You will probably find it difficult ro feel the
back part of the tongue touching the soft palace. In general, it is harder fo r
speakers co become aware ofobstruction in che back of the mouth. Thus, as a
teacher you may have difficulty making your students aware of the precise
positioning of che tongue with sounds made at the back of the mouth.
Again, the phonetic symbols for these sounds are che same as the English let-
ters. We use /k/ and I g! to represent the ini tial sounds of. 'coat' and 'goat'.
The final sound in a word such as 'sing' has the same place of articulation as
/kl and /g/. We use the phonetic symbol IIJI to represent chis sound. Pro-
nounce the word 'sing' and prolong the final consonant. The back part of
your tongue touches the soft palate as it does with the initial sounds of 'coat'
and 'goat' . Many English speakers feel char a word such as 'sing' ends in a /g I
sound, but for most English speakers ic actually does not. This perception is
influenced by the spelling of a word like 'sing'. Compare the words 'singer'
and 'finger'. For most speakers, there is only one consonant sound, /fJ /, in
the middle of'singer' but two, /IJg/, in the middle of'finger'.
In inform;u styles of English, some speakers pronounce words such as 'hunt-
ing' and 'fishing' as 'huntin" and 'fishin". We generally say that these
speakers are dropping their gs. In fact, there are no /g/'s in the pronuncia-
tion of chese words. Rather, these speakers have substituted / n/ for I !J I at the
end of these words. This is a change in the place of articulation nor che dele-
tion of a sound.
The sounds /k/, Ig I and IrJ I are referred co as velar sounds beca11se they are
made with chc back of the tongue rising to couch the soft palace or velum.
A pronunciation error often made by Spanish-speaking students involves
substiruting /n/ for rhe / 'Q / sound ar the end of an English word. Norice the
potential for confusion if a student produced 'I want to si n' instead of 'I
wane to sing'. In correcting rhis error, it is necessary to have the student raise ·
the back part of the congue so thar it touches rhe soft palate rather than
allowing·the rip of rhe tongue to rouch the tooth ridge. Often by producing
the sounds /k/ or lg/ (which have the same place of articulation as lu ll. the
scudenc can become aware of this congue posicion.
Places ofarticulation A chart chat classifies the consonants of English ac-
cording to their place of articulation is provided in Table 2. 1 below:
Table 2.1: Classification ofconsonants according to place ofarticulation Partial obstruction of the airstream-fricatives
bilabial labiodental foterdental alveolar alvcopalatal velar Some consonants in English do not involve a complete stoppage of the air·
stre;im but rather a partial obstruction. This partial obstruction resulcs from
p t k the lips or the tongue coming close to some pare of rhe µpper mouth. These
b d g consonants are called.fricative! because the close approximation of the artic-
e s ulators causes turbulence or friction in the airflow. The initial sounds of' far'
f J
and 'vat', 'thigh' and 'thy', 'sip' and 'zip' and the final sounds of 'wish' and
v Cl z 3 'beige' are all fricatives.
tf
Compare the initial consonants of the words 'rip' and.'sip'. Boch of these
d3 sounds arc made at the. same place of articulation-the tooth ridge. They
n I) differ, however, in their manner of articulation. The /t/ is made with
I'
complete blockage of che airstrcam while the /s/ is made with only partial
m
blockage of the airscream. Air continues to pass through che mouth in the
r pronunciation of Isl (a fricative) which means that the so und can be
prolonged in a way that the /t/ cannot be. Try prolonging rhe It! and norice
the impossibility of prolonging a stop consonant.
Manner ofarticulation
Manner of arricularion refers co rhe way in which the obsrrucrion of rhe air·
srream, which characterizes all consonancs, is achieved. At the differenr
places of arricularion in rhe mourh, there are several basic ways char the air-
srream can be obsrrucced.

Complete obstruction of the airstream-srops

The air chat passes from the lungs in co the mouch can be completely stopped
because che lips or the tongue actually touch some part of the upper mouth.
Consonants that involve this complere blockage of rhe airstream are called
stops. The initial sounds of'pill' and 'bill', 'till' and 'dill', and 'kill' and 'gill',
are all srop consonanrs. Notice that rhe place in che mouth where the air-
srream is blocked differs wich these rhree pairs of sounds. With /p/ and /b/,
the air is blocked because the cwo lips come together. With /ti and /d/, the Figure 2.8: Complete blockage ofthe . Figure 2.9: Partial blockage ofthe
air is blocked because the rip of the tongue touches the roorh ridge. With /k/ airstream as in the stops It/ and/di airstream as in thefricatives Isl and /.z/
and /g /, rhe air is blocked because rhe back of che congue rouches the soft
palace . . ESL srudents will sometimes substitute stops for fricarives. The srudent who
pronounces 'I chink so' as 'I rink so' is making an error in terms of manner of
Table 2.2: The stop consonants ofEnglish
arriculation. The inirial sound of'chink', /9/, is a fricative sound but the /t/
lips (bilabial) /p/ and /b/
toorh ridge (alveolar) . /ti and /d/ sound is a stop. Therefore, in order to correct this pronunciation problem,
the student must place the tip of the tongue between the teerh and allow air
soft palace (velar) /k/ and I g I
to move out of the mouth during the pronunciation of the sound.
bilabial labiodental in terdental ;ilveolar alveopalatal velar ESL students may also subsritute fricatives for stops. Spanish-speaking
p t k students will often produce fricatives at the end of a word rather than the
d g
appropriate stops, saying, for example, 'lathe' instead of' laid'. A lo/ (the ini-
b
tial sound of'the') is substitured for a /d/ in this word. In order to produce
 -
.,I'
the correct sound, the Spanish speaker must make sure chat there is cont~ct Table 2. 4: The complex consonants ofEnglish-affricates
between the tip of the tongue and the tooth ridge so chat a I di rather than a hard palate (alveopalatal) /tf I and /d3 /
Joi is pronounced.
bilabial labiodental interdental alveolar alveopalatal velar
tf
Table 2.3: The fricative consonants ofEnglish
.I lower lip/upper teeth (labiodemal) If / and /v/
e
d3
I teeth (interdental) I I and Io I
I cooth ridge (~veolar)
hard palate (alveopalaral)
/s/ and /z/
ISI and / 3/
T he two complex consonants of English are not rhe only possible complex
consonant sounds fo und in the languages of the world. Many langu ages
bilabial labiodental in terdcnta! alveolar alveopalatal velar . have complex consonants such as /ts / (It/+ /sl) or /dz/ (Id/ + /z/). Korean
le~rners of English will substitute a I dz/ sound for the initial I zl sound in
f ·e s I 'zoo', producing a word like 'dzoo'. Whilst this does not result in a differenc
Ii v II z ~ English word, it can lead to incomprehensibility.
·i Sounds made with the air escaping through the nose-nasals
I
I The eight fricatives ofEni;lish arc not the only fricatives that we find among
the languages of the world. For example, many languages have velar frica- All of the consonant sounds that we have discussed l,lp to this point are made
tives or bilabial fricatives. We sometimes use a velar fricative in English in with air passing through the mouth. Nasal sounds, on the ocher hand, are
the pronunciation of the name 'Bach'. Rather than pronouncing the final made with air passing through the nose. Air is blocked in rhe mouth in rhe
sound of this word as a /k/, we do not block the air completely bur bring the same way ;is it is for stop consonants. However, the soft palate is lowered,
back of the tongue close to the soft palate, causing partial obstruction of the allowing air to escape through the nose.
airstream. In Spanish, the /b/ of a word like 'Cuba' is pronounced as a bila·
bial fricative. That is, rather than stopping the airstream as English speakers
do, Spanish speakers bring the lips close together, causing only partial
obstruction of the airsrream.

Complex consonant sounds-affricates

There are two complex consonant sounds in English, ltS I as in 'chug' and
/d3/ as in 'jug'. We introduced both of these sounds previously as hard
palate sounds. Each is a combination of a stop followed immediately by a fri-
cative and they arc referred co as affricates. The initial consonant of 'chug'
begins as the stop consonant /ti, and is released as the fricative /3/. Simi-
larly, the initial consonant of'jug' begins as rhe stop consonant (di, and is
released as rhe fricative /3/. Pronounce tl:iese two sounc:ls ans sec'if you can
fed the tip of the tongue making contact with the top of the mouth and then
Figure 2.10: The position of the velum in Figure 2.11 : The position of the velum i~1
separating slightly S? that a fricative is made immediately after the Stop.
the production of /kl orig! the production ofthe nasal consonancITJI
A common pronunciation problem of Vietnamese speakers is the sub-
stitution of the fricative I SI _for the complex affricate sound /tJ/. For There are three nasal consonants in English: / m/, /n/, and/ IJ / as in 'ram',
example, Vietnamese speakers will typically produce 'too mush' when 'ran', and 'rang'. These three sounds differ in terms of place of arricularion.
attempting to say 'too much', failing to block the airscream before the The Im/ is produced when the two lips touch, the /n/ is produced when the
fricative is produced. To correct this, students should place the rip of their tip of the tongue couches the too th ridge and the I IJ I is produced when the
tongue at the tooth ridge as if they were about to pronounce a I ti and then back of the tongue touches the soft palate. In each case, this contact prevents
release the sound as a I J/. · air from escaping out of the mouth.
 You may have noticed rhat when you have a cold, your nasal consonants the tongue. For some speakers ofEnglish, t he /I/ may be made with air pass-
become disrorted. This is because your nose is plugged. As nasal consonants ing our of the mouth over one side ofthe tongue only. Because the air passes
are, by definition, sounds produced by air escaping our of rhe nose, any our the side of rhe mouth, the /l/ sounq is referred to as a lateral consonant.
HI· blockage of rhe nose passage will have an effect on die pronunciation ofthese Th~ retroflex/ rl Th'e /rl sound is made with the rip of the tongue slightly
sounds. What ofren happens is that your nasals end up sounding like non·
ii nasal sounds. For example, 'my mommy' may sound like 'by. bobby'. fu !bl
curled back in rhe mouth. Pronounce the word 'red' and prolong the initial
consonant. You should feel the rip of the tongue in a curled-back position.
I1. and /m/ sounds are made with the rwo lips coming together, the /b/ resulcs
when che nasality is removed from the /m/. (Try holding your nose and say·
You may also feel some backward movement ofthe tongue and some round-
ing of the lips. Upon pronunciation of rhe vowel sound in 'red', the tongue
ing 'my m.ommy'. How does ir sound?) uncurls. Because the tongue is curled back during the pronunciation of the
Ir I sound, it is referred to as a retroflex consran t.
Table 2.5: The nasal consonanrs ofEnglish
lips (bilabial) / m/ There is some disagreement regarding the precise characterization of Ir/.
roorh ridge (alveolar) I nl Some authors describe the tongue as 'bunched' rather than curled back or
soft palare (velar) I!JI retroflexed in its articulation. Furthermore, rather than calling it af"\ alveolar
sound, rhese authors prefer co consider ir a palatalor central sound. Much of
bilabial labiodental interdenta1 alveolar alveopalatal velu the disagreement may be based on dialect differences. For pedagogical pur·
poses, we have found the characrerization of Ir/ a.S·a retroflex sound to be
m n l)
most useful.
While many of che world's languages contain I rl sounds, the particular way
in which rhc /r/ is produced can differ greatly from language to language.
Liquids For example, in Polish and Spanish the Ir/ is pro·duccd as a trill; thac is, the
The initial sounds of 'rip' and 'lip' are called liquids because, in the pro- tip of the tongue touches the tooth ridge repeatedly. In some dialects of Ger-
nunciation of these sounds, the air passes through the mouth in a somewhat man and French, /r/ is nor a too ch ridge sound but rather a uvular sound, a
fluid manner. Compare rhe qualicy of the airsrream in the pronunciation of sound produced at rhe back of rhe mouth (i.e., ar che uvula).
the /z/ sound (a fricative) and the/!/ sound (a liquid). Make both of these
sounds alrernarely, prolonging the pronunciation of each. You should The substitution of these different /r/-like sounds for the English Ir/ contri·
notice a clearer, less turbulent airflow in the production of the/!/. bures to a foreign accent. However, this type of substitution does not
necessarily interfere with comprehensibility; thus, it may nor be worthwhile
to overemphasize it in class.
The lateral Ill The consonant Ill is made wirh rhe rip of rhe tongue
touching the tooth ridge and air passing rhrough the mouth over the sides of Speakers of Mandarin, Japanese, and Korean often have difficulty making
the distinction berween the Irl and the Ill sounds of English. Instead of pro-
nouncing the word 'arrive', for example, we may think chat a Japanese
speaker is pronouncing 'alive', substituting the /I/ for the /r/. One way of
hclpingstudenrs ro make the distinction berween these cwo sounds is ro tell·
chem that the Ill sound is made with rhe tip of the tongue touching the
tooth ridge while: the / r/ sound is made with the tip of the tongue couching
no pare of the mouth.
Semi-vowels (glides)
Other consonant sounds of English produced with lirt!e turbulence in the
aimream are the initial sounds of the words 'wer' and 'yet'. The phonetic
symbols fo r these sounds are identical ro the English letters I wI and I y I.
These rwo sounds are ofren called semi-vowels because they are made with a
Figure 2.12: The position ofthe tongue in Figure 2.13: The position ofthe tongue in relatively wide opening in the mouth. The difference berween semi-vowels
the production ofthe lateral I II the production ofthe retroflex Ir I and vowels will be discussed later in this chapter (see page 3 5).
 In the pronunciation of I w/, the lips are rounded and, ar rhe same time, the
back of the tongue approaches rhe soft palate. Pronounce the word 'wet',
prolonging che first sound of this word. You should feel the lips coming
together and rounding slightly. Ir is difficult to feel the back of the tongue
approaching.che soft palate but, in face, chis narrowing occurs as well.
In the pronunciation of ly /, the blade of the tongue approaches t.he hard
palace. Pronounce the word 'yet', prolonging rhe first sound of this word.
You should be.able to feel the tongue coming close to the hard palate.
I The consonant /h/
Although /h/ is traditionally described. as a corisonanr, it is difficult to
classify in terms of manner of articulation. Because the / h/ sound is m~sc
no vibration of the vocal cords and is therefore voiceless; /v/ is accompanied .
by vibration of the vocal cords and is voiced. Notice that this is a critical
emir as. it could interfere with the Polish speaker's comprehensibiliry.
All of the stops, fricatives, and affricates we have discussed so far come in
voiced/voiceless pairs. The nasals, liquids, semi-vowels, and vowels or
English are all voiced.
With pairs of fricatives, it is easy to determine which is voiced and which is
voiceless because they can be prolonged. There are eight fricative sounds in
English; four of these are voiced and four are voiceless. The phonetic classifi ..
cation of the eight fricatives of English is provided in Table 2.6.

easily understood in relation to its following vowel, we shall postpone dis· Table 2. 6: C/11.ssification offricatives in tmns ofvoicing
I cussion of this sound to the section on 'Vowels' (see page 35). labiodental intcrdcntal alveolar alveopalatal

I: voiced f (fish) e (chink) s (sale) J (pressure)

Voicing voiceless v (veal) Cl (these) z (z.one)
I 3 (pleasure)
I The third way in which consonants can differ from each other is in terms of
I voicing. In order to understand voicing, consider the pronunciation of the
The stop consonants also come in voiced/voiceless pairs. With stop conso-
initial consonants in the words 'sue' and 'zoo'. 'Sue' is pronounced with a nants, however, it is a liccle more difficult to feel che vibration of che voca:
i
I
/s/, while 'zoo' is pronounced with a /z/. These two sounds are identical in
terms of place of articulation (tooth ridge sounds) and manner of artic-
cords chat accompanies voicing. This is because scops can not be prolonged.
(See 'Positional variation': 'Aspirarion', page 40, and 'Vowel lengthening',
ulation (fricatives). However, they differ in terms of voicing. Th.e /s/ is a
page 44, for a more derailed discussion of differences between voiced an..1
voiceless sound and the I z/ is a voiced sound. In order to hear chis difference, voiceless stops.) The phonetic classification of the six scop consonants or·
say a long /s/ sound followedimmediacely by a long /z/ sound. Say each of English is provided in the chart below in Table 2.7.
them alternately-(sssszzzzsssszzzz]. Now put your fingers on your Adam's
apple as you pronounce chis sequence of sounds and notice that "'."ith the /s/
Table 2. 7: Classi.ficatio11 ofstops in terms ofvoicing
sound, there is no vibration at the Adam's apple, whereas w1th the /z/
sound, there is vibration. The vibration of the /z/ can be heard even more bilabial alveolar velar
distinctly if you plug your ears while pronouncing the /s/ and /z/ alter·
voiced p (pay) t (cell)_ k (coal)
nately.
voiceless b (buy) d (denc) g (gold)
The vibration that is heard with the voiced I zl sound is caused by che vool
cords. Sounds char are made with the vocal cords vibrating are voiced and
sounds made with no vibration of the vocal cords are voiceless. The vocal The two affricates of English. are made at the same place of arcicularion but
cords are bands of muscle attached to the walls of the larynx (voicebox). (See are distinguished in terms of voicing. The affricate./tf/, as in 'chug', is
Figure 2.1 above for the location of the larynx.) When they are held close voiceless and /d3/, as in 'jug', is vo iced.
together, che air passing from the lungs into the mouth causes them to vi-
brate. When they arnparr, the air passing through causes no vibration. Table 2.8: Classification ofaffiicates in terms ofvoicing
A common problem among many ESL students of various language back- alveopalatal ·
grounds involves not voicing certain consonants in English when they occur
at the end of a word. A Polish speaker, for example,' may pronounce a word
voiced tf (chug)
li.ke 'leave' as 'leaf', substituting a /fl sound for a /v/ sound. The only differ- voiceless d3 (jug)
ence between these two sounds involves the state of the vocal cords; If/ has
 1
Languages can differ grearly in terms of voiced consonants. Some languages For ease of reference, a classificarion of rhe consonants of English in terms of
il . do nor have any voiced fricarives and others do nor have any voiced srops. place of articulation, manner of articularion, and voicing is provided below
Vietnamese is inreresting in that there is a voiced stop /b/, but the voiceless
al1., counterpart /p/ does nor occur. Vietnamese speakers may substitute either a
in Table 2.10.
ll
Ii',,,~
lb/ or an /f/ when attempting to produce the English sound /p/. Thus, the Table 2.10: Classification ofthe ccmsonants vfEnglish in terms ofplace of
word 'put' may be pronounced as 'foot' and che name 'Peter' may br pro-
f articulation, manner ofarticulation, and voidng
I •1
nounced as 'beater' .
!I place of articulation i
1. 1 j
Summary both lips (bilabial): p, b, m, w
111
I···I! We have described the formation of English consonants by referring ro three
l lower lip and upper reeth (labiodenral): f, v
11 fearures of their pronunciation. We have discussed where:-rhey are produced
J tip of tongue and teeth (interdencal): e, 1l
1·
in the mouth (place of articulation), how they are produced (manner of
1 tip of tongue and tooth ridge (alveolar): t, d, ..n, s, .z, I, r
!' blade of tongue and hard palate (alveopalacal): f, 3, tf, d3, y
arciculacion), and whether they are voiced or voiceless (voicing). From rhe back of rongue and so fr palate (velar): k, g, I), w
examples given above, you have seen char ESL srudenrs can make errors that
involve each of rhese fearures of pronunciation. You have tJsoseen char some manner of aniculation
knowledge of these features can aid you in identifying and correcting che
problems students are having with particular sounds. 'While being able to stops: p, b, t, d, k, g
produce sounds in isolarion is nor all rhar is involved in improving pro- fricatives: f, V, 0, 0, S, Z, J, 3
nunciation, the correction of mispronounced sounds that interfere with affricates: tf, <l3
n'1.lals: m, n, I)
srudenrs' comprehensibility can go a long way in improving students' per·
liquids: l, r
formance and confidence in speaking English.
semi-vowels: W, y
Below. we provide a consonant chart that incorporates all three aspects of
voicing
arricularion in one chart. This is rhe rype of chart you will find in most books
on the phonetic classification of sounds. voicelm I example voiced I
I I
example

p I put b I boot
Table 2.9: Consonant chart t I l
tin d dive
vc/s =voiceless vd ==voiced k I cape g I gone
f I foot v I vote
I bilabial labiodental interdental alveolar alveopalatal velar
e I I
l stops vc!s
--
p
--- ---- ~---- -
t
-- I-- - - - -
k
---
s I
I
rhink
sink
ship
3
z I
I
chem
zoo
vd I 3 measure
l. b d g
tJ I choose d3 I gem
fricatives vc!s f e s f I I
- -
vd
--- ----
v
-----
0
---
z
L.-----
3
--- I
m
n I
move
nose
I I sing
affricates vets tf IJ
I I
- - --- ---- ----- --- " " ' - - - - - --- I
l
I
lose
vd d3 r race
I w I win
nasals m n I) I y I yes
retroflex r I I
I I

lateral I
semi-vowels w y w

,,
I

'
Phoneme and Allophone
Robert Mannell

Phoneme and Allophone: Introduction

Trubetzkoy (1939) wrote

"It is the task of phonology to study whic h differences in sound are

related to differences in meaning in a given language, in which way
the discriminative elements ... ar e related to each other, and the
rules according to which they may be combined into words and
sentences."

Linguistic units which cannot be substituted for each other without

a change in meaning can be referred to as linguistically.
contrastive or significant units. Such units may be phonological,
morphological, syntactic, semantic etc.

Logically, this takes the form:-

IF unit X in context A GIVES meaning 1

AND IF unit Y in context A GIVES meaning 2
belong to separate
THEN unit X AND unit Y
Jinguistic units

eg. IF sound [k] in context [_ret] GIVES meaning "cat"

sound
·AND IF in context [_ret] GIVES meaning "mat"
[m]
belong to separate
THEN sound [k] and sound [m]
linguistic units

Phonemes
Phonemes are the linguistically contrastive or significant sounds (or
sets of sounds) of a lang uage. Such a contrast is usually
demonstrated by the existence of minimal pai.-s or contrast in
identical envi.-onment (C.I.E.). Minimal pairs are pa irs of words
which vary only by the identity of the segment (another word for a
single speech sound) at a single location in the word (eg. [mret]

2
 :
and [kret]). If two segments contrast in identical environment then
t hey must belong to different phonemes. A paradigm of minimal.
phono log ical contrasts is a set of words differing only by one speech
sound. In most languages it is rare to find a paradigm that
contrasts a complete class of phonemes (eg . all vowels, all
consonants, all stops etc.).

eg. t he English stop consonants could be defined by the following

set of minimally contrasting words: -

i) /pm/ vs /bm/ vs /tm/ vs /dm/ vs /km/

Only /g/ does not occur in this .p aradigm and at least one minimal
pair must be found with each of the other 5 stops to prove
conclusively that it is not a variant form of one of them.

ii) /gen/ vs /pen/ vs /ben/ vs /ten/ vs /den/

Again, only five stops belong to this paradigm. A single minimal pair
contrasting 1g/ and / k/ is required now to fully demonstrate the set
of English stop consonants.

iii) /grem/ vs / krem/

Sometimes it is not possible to find a minimal pair which would
support the contrastiveness of two phonemes and it is necessary to
resort to examples of contrast in analogous environment
(C.A.E.) . C.A.E. is almost a minimal pair, however the pair of words
differs by more than just the pair of sounds in question. Preferably,
the other points of variation in the pair of words are as remote as
possible (and certainly never adjacent and preferably not in the
same syllable) from the environment of the pairs of sounds being
tested. eg. III vs /3/ in English are usually supported by examples
of pairs such as "pressure" [preJaJ vs "treasure" [tre33], where
only the initial consonants differ and are sufficiently remote from
the opposition being examined to be considered unlikely to have
any conditioning effect on the selection of phones. The only true
minimal pairs for these two sounds in English involve at least one
word (often a proper noun) that has been borrowed from another
language (eg . "Confucian" [kanfjH:Jan] vs "confusion"
{kanfjH:3~m), and "Aleutian" [alH:Jan] vs "allusion" [alt:t:3.:m]).

A s y ntagmatic analysis of a speech sound, on the other hc;ind,

identifies a unit's identity within a language. In other words, it

3
indicates all of the locations or contexts within the words of a
particular language where the sound can be found.

For example, a syntagm of the phone [n] in English could be in the

form:-
( #CnV ... , #nV ..., •.. Vn#, ... VnC#, ... VnV ... , etc.)

whilst [IJ] in English would be:-

( .. . VI)#, ... Vl)C#, ... VfJV . . . , etc)

but would not include the word initial forms of the k ind described
for [n].

Note that in the above ~amples, "#"is used to represent a word or

syllable boundary, "V" represents any vowel, and "C" represents
another consonant.

For example, examples of the type "#CnV. .. " would include "snow"
[snat:1], "snort" [sno:t] and "snooker" [snuka]. In this case, the
only consonant (for English) that can occupy the initial "C" slot is
the phoneme /s/, and so the generalised pattern could be rewritten
as "#snv... ".

Allophones
Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each
phoneme. In· other words a phoneme may be realised by more than
one speech sound and the selection of each variant is usually
conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme.
Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary
form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free
variation).

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive

speech segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set
of such sounds.

Allophones are usually relatively similar sounds which are in

mutually exclusive .or complementary distribution ( C.D.). The
C.D. of two phonemes means that the two phonemes can never be
found in the same environment {ie. the same environment in the
senses of position in the word and the identity of adjacent
phonemes). If two sounds are phonetically similar and they are in
C.D. then they can be assumed to be allophones of the same
phoneme.

4
eg. in many la nguages voiced and voiceless stops with the same
place of articulation do not contrast linguistically but are rather two
phonetic rea lisations of a single phoneme (ie. /p/=[p, b],/ t/=[ t,d],
and /k/= [k,g]). In other words, voicing is not contrastive (at least
for stops) and the selection of the appropriate allophone is in some
contexts fully conditioned by phonetic context (eg . word medially
and depending upon the voicing of adjacent consonants), and is in
some contexts either partially conditioned or even completely
unconditioned (eg. word initially, where in some dialects of a
language the voiceless allophone is preferred, in others the voiced
allophone is preferred, and in others the choice of allophone is a
matter of individual choice).

eg. Some French speakers choose to use the alveolar trill [r] when
in the village and the more prestigious uvular ti-ill [R] when in .Paris.
Such a choice is made for sociological reasons.

Phonetic similarity
Allophones must be phonetically similar to each other. In analysis,
this means you can assume that highly dissimilar sounds are
separate phonemes (even if they are in complementary
d istribution). For this reason no attempt is made to find minimal
pairs which contrast vowels with. consonants. Exactly what can be
considered phonetically similar may vary somewhat from language
family to language family and so the notion of phonetic similarity
can seem to be quite unclear at times. Sounds can be phonetically
similar from both articulatory and auditory points of view and for
this reason one often finds a pair of sounds that vary greatly in
their place of articulation but are sufficiently similar auditorily to be
considered phonetically similar (eg. [h] and [q) are voiceless
fricatives which are distant in terms of glottal·and palatal places of
articulation, but which nevertheless are sufficiently similar auditorily
to be allophones of a single phoneme in some languages such as
Japanese).

eg. In English, / hi and /fj/ are in complementary distribution. /hi

only ever occurs at the beginning of a syllable (head, heart,
enhance, perha ps) whilst /fJ/ only ever occurs at the end of a
syllable (sing, singer, finger). They are, however, so dissimilar that
no one regards them as allophones of the one phoneme . They vary
in place and manner of articulation, as well as voicing. Further the
places of articulation (velar vs glottal) are quite remote from each
other and /hi is oral whilst /fJ/ is nasal.

5
 :
According to Hockett (1942), " .. .if a and bare members of one
phoneme, they share one or more features". Phonetic similarity is
therefore based on the notion of shared features. Such judgments
of similarity will vary from language to language and there are no
universal criteria of similarity.

The following pairs of sounds might be considered to be similar.

i) two sounds differing only in voicing:

[pb] [td] [kg] l+PJ [06] [sz] [J3] [xy] etc...
ii) two sounds differing in manner of articulation only as plosive vs
fricative. The sibilant or grooved fricatives [s,z,f,3) are excluded
from this category as they are quite differEnt auditorily from the
other ("central") fricatives.
[ pfj>] [ kx] [ bPJ [gy] etc. . .

iii) Any pairs of consonants close in place of articulation and

differing in no other contrastive feature:
[sJ] [z3] [nprJ) [IL] (IA] (mn:J], etc. . .

iv) Any other pairs of consonants which are dose in articulation and
differ by one other feature but are nevertheless frequently
members of the same phoneme
[L•] [cg) [t0] [do]

In languages where voicing is non-contrastive, two phones differing

in voicing and only slightly in place of articulation might be
considered similar eg. [cg) etc.)

Further, for the purposes of this type of analysis, the place of

articulation of the apicodental fricatives [0,a] is considered to be
close enough to that of the alveolar stops [t,d] to be considered
phonetically similar.

v) Any two vowels differing in only one feature or articulated with

adjacent tongue positions
(re e] (i 1J [e: e] [i yJ [a a)

Although it is implied above that the notion of "phonetic similarity"

is in some way less linguistically abstract (more phonetic?) than the
notion of complementary distribution, it is, nevertheless, a quite
abstract concept. The are no obvious and consistent acoustic,
auditory or articulatory criteria for phonetic similarity. Further, since
a notion of similarity implies a continuum the following question

6
must be asked of two phones in complementary distribution. How
similar must they be before they are to be considered members of
the same phoneme?

There are many examples of very similar phones which are

perceived by native speakers to belong to separate phonemes. In
Eng lish, for example, a word terminal voiceless stop may be either
released and aspirated or unreleased. The homorganic Ul voiced
stop may also be released or unreleased. Often the unreleased
voiced and voiceless stops may actually be identical in every way
except that the preceding vowel is lengthened before the
phonologically voiced stop. In terms of phonetic similarity, the two
unreleased stops may actually be identical and yet be perceived by
native speakers to belong to different phonemes.

For example:-
/kep/-[keph] ... [kep,]
/keb/ ~[ke·b] ... [ke·b,] ... [ke·p,]
(nb. " , " means unreleased stop and " • " means partially
lengthened vowel)

Conversely, phones which are very dissimilar (at least from certain
perspectives) may be felt by native speakers to belong to a single
phoneme.

eg. Japanese /hi - [ ~ J before /u/ eg.(~uku] "luck"

- [~] before Iii eg.[~ito] "man"
~ (h] before /e,a,o/ eg.[hana]

From an articulatory perspective, these phones seem very dissimilar

(bilabial, palatal, and glottal) being produced at the extreme ends
of the vocal tract. They are, however, relatively similar acoustically
and auditorily (they are all relatively weak fricatives). This kind of
phonetic similarity is listener orientated rather than speaker
orientated .

eg. English ft/ ~ [?] medially and finally in some dialects

eg. Cockney - "butter", "wait"
~ [t] initially
nb. /k/ - [k,?] does not occur although they are
articulatorily closer

7
 .
Phonemic Pattern
A pair of phones in complementary distribution may sometimes be
classified into separate phonemes on the basis of phonemic pattern.
In other words, is there a group of phonemes which exhibit a
similar pattern of distribution (eg. clustering behaviour,
morphology, etc.) to one of the phones being exami.ned? I n the
case of the pair [h), [I)] there are some similarities in patterning
between [h] and certain fricatives, and between [I')] and the nasals.

For example, there is a suffix which when placed before a word

commencing with a stop has the effect of negating t he original
meaning. The suffix has the fonn /I/ plus the nasal homorganic with
the stop.

ie. "impossible" [rmp ... ]

"intolerable" [mt... ]
"incalculable" [If)k... ] or [mk ... ]
(free variation in citation form, but
homorganic predominating in rapid speech)

Clearly, this pattern suggests that [I)] behaves in some instances

with the same phonological pattern as the other nasals. It does in
fact raise the question of[rj] being an allophone of /n/. This was
indeed the case until the 1600's, but now there are quite a few
minimal pairs which have since crept into the language.
("sin"/"sing", "run"/"rung").

Phonological Space
The greater the distance between a phoneme and its nearest
neighbours, the greater the scope for allophonic variation. In other
words, the larger the number of redundant features (ie. features
which when changed will not create another phoneme) the greater
the number of allophones which can actually occur.

eg. English /p/ = [ -voice]

[+bilabial]
[+stop]
[ + /-aspirated]

(nb. + indicates that a feature is present, - indicates that a feature

is absent, + /- indicates t hat a feature is optional)

8
Changing the feature [ -voice] to [+voice] will create /b/, changing
the feature [bilabial] will creat e / t,k/ (or potential allophones of
them) and changing the feature [stop] will create /w,f,m/. The only
feature with complete freedom of movement is aspiration, and
variation of this feature does indeed create the main pa ir of
a llophones of this phoneme in English.

eg. English fr/ ~ [J] alveolar approximant

voiceless alveolar approximant
[Jl (after voiceless sounds)
retroflex approximant (West
(-t] England)
a lveolar flap (Scottish) eg.
[c] [gem]
[I:!] uvular fricative (Tyneside)

The possible varieties of /r/ seem to include variatio.n s of manner,

place and voicing. The only restrictions are that its allophones may
not overlap with those of /1/ and /w/.

Footnotes
1. Homorganic sounds are two or more sounds that have the same
place of articulation but which differ in manner of articulation.

9
 The description of English vowels·
In tit is sccLion we describe the articulatory characteristics of English vowels.
Vowels, unlike consonants, exhibit a great deal of dialect variation. This
variation can depend on factors such as geographical region, social _class,
educarionaJ background, age, and gender. (Of course, these factors exhibit
an effect on all aspects of pronunciation, not just on the pronunciation of
vowels. It is just rhac with the vowels the variation in English is the mostno-
ticeable.) The vowels we describe below are those of General American
English, that is, the English used in the national media in the USA and by a
large number of North American speakers. Occasionally, we will point out
specific examples ofdialect v~riation in the pronunciation ofvowels; it is im-
portant to remember, however, chat your vowel system may not be identicaJ
co the one we are describing, particularly in the low, back region of the
mouth. If you are not a speaker of North American English, the differences
may be even greater.
Vowels are differentiated from consonants by the relatively wide opening in
the mouth as air passes from the lungs out of the body. This means that there
is relatively licde obstruction of the airstream in comparison ro consonants.
Different vowel sounds result from different positions of the tongue and.
lips. In describing vowels, ic is necessary ro discuss four characteristics:
1 Tongue Height-whether the tongue is high or low in the mouth.
2 Fronmess/Backness of Tongue-whether the front or the back of the
congue is involved.
3 Tenseness/Laxness-whether the muscles are tense or lax.
4 Lip Rounding-whether che lips are rounded.
( way. For ochers, the word 'caught' is pronounced with the mid vowel as in
II
I !Jl.Cnt', 'awful', 'oughi:', 'ralk', 'flaw', 'dawn', and 'saw' with the mid vowel of
Figure 2.14: The posirion ofthe tongue in Figure 2.15: The position ofthe tongue in
the pronunciation oftht high front vowel the pronunciation ofthe low front vowel
in the word 'beat' in the word 'bat'
Tongue height
Pronounce the vowel sound in the word 'bear' followed immediately by che
vowel sound in the word 'bar'. You will -fed your jaw dropping and your
tongue lowering as you move to the vowel in 'bat'. Now pronounce the two
vowels in the reverse order. This t_ime you.will feel your tongue and jaw
rising as you move to the vowel in 'beat'.
Pronounce the vowels in 'beat'; 'bit', 'bait', 'bet', and 'bac' in sequence.
Notice that your tongue lowers and your jaw drops as you move from one
vowel co the next. The vowels in 'beat' and 'bit' are bo.th considered co be
high vowels because they are made with the tongue raised above its rest pos-
ition. The vowels of 'bait' and 'bet' are considered ro be mid vowels because
the tongue is neither high nor low in the mouth. The vowel of 'bar' is con·
sidered to be a low vowel beca.use ir is made with the tongue below its resr.
position.
If you pronounce the vowel of che word 'boot' immedia rely followed by che
vowel of 'pot', you will again feel your tongue and your jaw dropping as you
did wich the vowels of'beat' and 'bac'.
Now pronounce the vowels of che following words in sequence, feeling the
tongue gradually lowering with each vowel: 'booc';'book', 'boar', 'bought',
'por'. The same relationship chat exisrs among the previous sequence of
vowels also exisrs with these five vowels: your tongue lowers and your jaw
drops as you move from one vowel to the next. The vowels in 'boot' and
'book' are boch considered to be high vowels. The vowels in 'boat' and
'boughc' are mid vowels and the vowel in' 'pot' is a low vowel.
It should be noted chat for many American and most Canadian speakers of
English, the words 'pot' and 'bought' are pronounced with the same vowel,
the low vowel of'pot'. Thus, the overwhelming majority ofNorth American
English speakers will pronounce pairs such as 'caught' and 'cot' in the same
'boughr' and the word "cot' is pronounced wirh the low vowel as in 'pot'. .
Speakers with this distinction will pronounce words such as 'taught', 'aug-
'bought', and words·such as 'not', 'Don', 'rock', 'got', 'top', and 'stop' with
the low vowel of'pot'. In contrast, speakers without this distinction will pro-
nounce all of these words with the same vowel, the low vowel of 'pot'..
high beat boot Table 2.11: Clarsification ofEnglish
----- --- -- vowels by tongue height
bit book
mid bait boat
----- -----
bet bought
low bat pot
 Frontnesslbackness oftongue 'boat', 'bought', and 'pot'. With the first sequence, the front part of che
tongue gradually lowers in the mouth, while with the second sequence, the
In pronouncing the sequences of vowels in the chart above, you may have
back part of the tongue lowers.
noticed that a different part of the tongue was raised or !Owered with the
vowels in the first column, as opposed co the vowels iri the second column. There are also vowels in English made with neither the front nor the back
Say the vowel in 'beat' followed immediately by che vowel in 'booc'. Both of part of the tongue. These are referred to as· antral vowels. Pro nounce the
these are high vowels because the tongue is raised above irs rest position. vowel of'but'. The tongue is neither high nor low in the mouth when chis
However, the vowel of'beat' is made with the front pare of the.tongue high vowel is pronounced. In addition, neither the front nor the back pan of the
in the mouth._ while the vowel of 'boot' is made wich the back part of the tongue is involved. This is called a mid central vowel. The position of the
tongue high in the mouth. Thus, the vowel of 'beat' is referred to as a high congue fo r chis vowel is very close to the position that the tongue occupies
front vowel and the vowel of 'b.oot' is referred to as a high back vowel (See when iris at rest.
Figures 2.14 and 2.16.)
Another vowel sound made with rhc tongue in the mid central position is
the initial vowel sound I ':J/ in a word such as 'machine'. This vowel is called
schwa. The schwa is the most frequently occurring vowel in English and
plays a major role in the English stress system. I cwill be discussed in more
detail in Chapter 5, 'Word stress and vowel reduction' (see page 63).
Table 2.12: Classification ofEnglish
front central back
vowels by height andyon mess
high beat boot
I• bit book
mid bait machine boat
bet bur bought
low bat poi
Figure 2. 16: The position ofthe tongue in Figure 2. 17: The position ofthe tongue in
the pronunciation ofthe high back vowel the pronunciation ofthe low back vowel
in the word 'boot' in the word 'pot' Tenseness/laxness
This same difference exists between the vowels of 'bat' and 'pot'. Say the Another way in which vowels can differ is in terms of muscle tension in the
vowel of 'bat' immediately followed by the vowel of 'pot'. Both of these mouth. We say chat vowels produced with extra muscle tension are tense and
vowels are low vowels. The vowel of 'bat' is made with the front of the chat vowels produced without this tension are lax. Compare che vowels of
tongue low in the mouth, while the vowel of 'pot' is made with the back 'beat' and 'bic'. Both of these vowels are made with the front pare of che .
part of the tongue low in the mouth. Thus, we say chat che vowel of 'bat' tongue high in the mouch. They differ in the degree of muscle tension with
is a low front vowel and the vowel of'pot' is a low back vowel. (See Figures which they are produced. Yo4 should feel that your facial muscles are more
2.15 ;ind :2.17.) There is considerable variation in the pronunciation of tense in the pronunciation of 'bear' chan in 'bit'. This causes a great~ r
the vowel of 'pot', For many speakers of North American English, it is a spreading of the lips in 'bear', An effective way of detecting che difference in
low back vowel while for many other speakers, it is a low vowel but more
.. centralized. For this reason, in our charts we have not placed it as far back
tenseness is to sing both vowels at a high pitch. The tense vowel (the vowel of
1
beat') will feel as if ic is being produced wich much more effort than the lax

--
U...· as the other back vowels.
The vowel sounds in the words 'beat', 'bit', 'bait', 'bet', and 'bar' arc front
vowel sounds. The vowel sounds of 'boor', 'book', 'boat', 'bought', and 'pot'
one (the vowel of 'bit').
There are three tense/lax vowel pairs in English: che vowels of 'beat' and
'bit', 'bait' and 'bet', and 'boot' and 'book'. In all ofrhese pairs, ic is the first
are back vowel sounds. Pronounce the vowels of 'beat', 'bit', 'bait', 'bet', and membt;:r that is tense. The tense vowels are pronounced with the tongue
'bat' in sequence again, comparing them to the vowels of 'boot', 'book', slighdy higher in the mouth than their lax counccrpans. In addition, the
.. part of the tongue high in the mouth. The lips are unrounded and the facial
front tense vowels are pronounced with the tongue further forward than
rheir lax counterparts; the back tense vowel is pronounced 'with'the tongue muscles arc relatively tense. Thus, it is referred to as a high, front, tense,
further back rhan its lax counterpart. The tense vowels are longer and also unrounded vowel.
involve some tongue movement during their pronunciation (see description In Table 2.14 and Figure 2.18 below we present the phonetic symbols for
of Off-glides on page 33).
each ofthe vowel sounds discussed above. The symbols for vowels rarely cor-
The vowd sound in 'boat' is also a tense vowel but rhere is no directly cor- respond co English spelling because there are many inore vowel sounds in
responding lax vowel. For those speakers who have the 'caught/cot' English than there are vowel letters.
distincrion disc::ussed above, che vowel sound of 'bought', which mighc be
considered..che corresponding lax vowel, is, in fact, somewhat tense. A survey front cenual back Table2.14:
(1mro1mded) (unroundrd) (rounded) The vowels of
of N onh American introductory linguistics textbooks shows considerable
EngliJh
variation in the treatment of the mid vowel of 'bough.t'..Some authors con- high tmse iy (beat) uw (boot)
sider the vowel co be che lax counrerpart of rhe mid vowel in 'boar' whereas . 1f r-- -
lax
~-
I
- .
(bit)
- - ---- i.------
u (book)
ochers consider it to be tense and low. This is probably because there is a
good deal of dialectal variation in rhe pronunciation of this vowel.
Table 2. 13 shows how English vowels can be classified by tenseness. It is use-
l~·
mid unse
.,__
lax
- _t:Y_(~ir]_ -
e (bet)
g(michine) ow (boat)
----
/\ (bur)
-----
0 (bought)

ful co remember, however, char in many dialects the vowel in 'bought' is 'i low re (bat) a (poc)
lower and more centralized.
Figure 2.18: The vowel chart in
front central back
Table 2. 13: Classification of relation to the inside ofthe
English vowels by tmseness mouth
ltigb unu beat boot
.._ - - --- - -- -
lax bit book
mid unu bait
.._
lax
-- ---
bee
--- - -boat- -
but bought

Lip rounding
In addition to tongue height, fronmess/backness, and muscle tension, lip
rounding is also important in rhe articulation of vowels. If you pronounce
the vowel in the word 'boot' and compare it to the vowel in the word 'beac' ,
you will fed that your lips are rounded in the first case, but spread apart in
the second. English has fo1.u vowels made with lip rounding: the back vowels
in 'boot', 'book', 'boar', and 'boughr'. (Note that ·the vowel in 'bought' is
rounded only for those speakers who have rhe 'caughc'/'cor' distinction.)
Compare rhe vowels of these three words co the vowels of'beac', 'bit', 'bait',
and 'bee', paying attention to the formation of your lips. Your lips arc spread
in the pronunciation of rhe lasr four vowels.
Phoneticsymbok}Orvowek
We have seen rhar vowels can be described in terms of four basic character-
istics. For example, the vowel in a word such as 'beat' is made wirh the front
Off-glides
Notice chat the symbols used here to represent the tense vowels of English,
/iy/, /ey/, / uw /, and /ow/, have two parts. The fronr vowels /iy/ and /ey/
are cornpos~d of rhe pure vowels /i/ and /e/ followed by chesemi-vowel /y /,
The back vowels /uw I and /ow I are composed of the pure vowels /u/ and
I of followed by the semi-vowel /w/. These semi-vowels are usually referred
to as off-glides and reflect the fact that there is movement of the tongue dur-
ing the pronunciation of each of the tense vowels. In many languages of the
world, these cense vowels are not followed by off-glides, but are pure vowels.
Thus, when ESL students pronounce the tense vowels of English, they often
omit the semi-vowel, producing vowels that sound ro rhe English ear more
like the lax counrerparrs of.the rense vowels, that is, / r/, I El, and I u/. ·
 Complex vowels (diphthongs)
There are three complex vowel sounds (or diphthongs) in English: the vowel
sounds of 'bough', 'buy' and 'boy'. These are considered to be complex
vowel sounds because they consist of a vowel followed by a semi-vowel,
either /y I or /w/. The phonetic symbols used in this book for these complex
vowels are: I aw I as in 'bough', I ay I as in 'buy', and I oy I as in 'boy'. As we
saw, the tense vowels, /iy/, /ey/, /ow/, and /uw /,are also represented with
semi-vowels because they involve movement of the tongue. We are not
classifying the ~ense vowels as diphthongs because there is less tongue move-
ment with these vowels than with the diphthongs /ay/, I aw/, and /oy/.
The vowel I ~r I
Pronounce the following words:
m fur
fern journey
heard mirror
All of these vowel-plus-/ r/ combinations are pronounced in the same way.
We will represent this sound phonetically with the symbol combination
I ~rl, Although we are using two symbols to represenc this sound, it is really a
single sound and should be taught as such. This vowel sound can be de-
scribed as an r-coloured mid central vowel. In other words, it has
characteristics of both the schwa (I ';Jf, as in machine) and the /r/ sound. Ic is
like the schwa in that it is a mid central vowel and like the /r/ in that the ton·
gue curls back slighrly.
Figure 2.13: The diphthongs and Igr/ on the vowel chart
front central back
high
The consonant /hi
Now that we have introduced all the vowel sounds of English, it is possi ble
to describe the consonant /h/. When you produce an /h/, you breathe out
and the tongue and lips assume the position of whatever vowel follows it.
Thus, /h / is made differently depending on the nature of the followi ng
vowel. Consider how you pronounce /h/ in the words below:
heat hat hoot hot
In these words, the /hi takes on the position of the vowels I iy /, I rel , I uw/,
and /a/, respectively. We can thus see why / h/ is often described as a voice-
less vowel. The mouth is in the position of the following vowel, but there is
no vibration of the vocal co rds as there is with vowels.
Semi-vowels (glides)
In our description of the semi-vowel I w I, we stated that the lips are rounded
and the back of the tongue approaches the soft palate. In fact, the tongu-e
and lips are in approximately the same position in the pronunciation of the
high, back vowel /uw/, The primary difference between /w/ and /uw / is
that /uw I occupies the centre of a syllable whereas /w I occupies a peripher~l
posirio n in a syllable.
Similarly, the semi-vowel /y/ and the high, front vowel /iy / are produced
with the tongue in approximately the same position. Again, the primary dif-
ference between the rwo sounds is that /iy / occupies a central position in a
syllabie. This is, more generally, the difference between vowels and semi-
vowels.
If students have difficulties in pronouncing words such as' would' and 'year',
ESL teachers can exploit the similarity between the semi-vowels and their
corresponding vowels. Most frequently the diffi.culry with such words arises
because students omit the word-initial semi-vowels. Teachers can tell sa1-
dents to make two identical vowels in succession and to emphasize rl:ie
second of the identical vowels.

Exercises
mid Transcription
Throughout the rest of this book, you will find examples of words and sen-
tences transcribed using phonetic symbols. As we have now introduced most
low ay aw of rhe phonetic symbols you will encounter, we provide some examples of
(buy) (bough) transcribed words in the exercises that follow in order to familiarize you with
this type of representation .
..
 I
.~ ..
1·

l ll. Give the phonetic symbol for the first sounds in the following words. ' 6 For each error provided below describe what the studenr has done wrong
~-
Example: bomb /b / in articulatory terms.
a city e physics pneumonia m quick Consonant errors
b cake f shoot J zone n what
c thiCk g Thames k usually o English Example: A Cantonese speaker pronounces 'thought' as 'fought'.
d choice h knee 1 jug Answer: The Cantonese speaker has substituted a voiceless labiodental
fricative for a voiceless interdencal fricative. This is an error in place of
b. Give the articularory description for each of these first sounds.
articulacio·n.
Example: bomb /b/ voiced bilabial stop
a. A Polish speaker pronounces 'log' as 'lock'.
2 · _a. · Give rhe phonetic symbol for the final sound in the following words. b. A Canadian French speaker pronounces 'those' as' doze'.
Example: rock /k/ c. A l<orean speaker pronounces 'rip' as 'lip'.
a ridge e is bomb m garage d. A Greek speaker pronounces 'she.er' as 'seat',
b sonic f morh j gauge n bathe e. A Vietnamese speaker pronounces ~march' as·'marsh'.
c wife g relax k traipse 0 though f. A Spanish speaker pronounces 'vowel' as 'bowel'.
d made h log 1 dogs g. A Cantonese speaker pronounces 'right' as · white'.
h. A Portuguese speaker pronounces 'mass' as 'mash'.
b. Give the articulatory description for each of these sounds. i. A Spanish speaker pronounces 'chip' as 'ship'.
Example: rock /k/ voiceless velar stop j. A German speaker pronounces 'grieve' as 'grief'.
3 a. Give the phonetic symbol for the vowel sound in the following words.
I
I
Example: mear / iy/
a head f I k !are p mear
Vowel errors
Example: A Japanese speaker pronounces 'live' so char it sounds like
'leave'.
I b fun
c ham
d srrange
g May
h dawn
i hill
1 Don
m coy
n food
q boar
r ice Answer: The Japanese speaker has substituted a high front rense
unrounded vowel for a high fro nt lax unroundcd vowel. This is an

lI
e ching j cook 0 srop

b. Give the articulatory description for each of these sounds. k.

error in the tense/lax distinction.
A Cantonese speaker pronounces 'man' so that it sounds like 'men'.
I· Example: meat / iy / high front tense unrounded vowel I. An Italian speaker pronounces 'cut' so chat it sounds like 'cot'.
1 m. A French speaker pronounces 'full' so that it sounds like 'fool ',
I 4 Write the English words represented
below.
in the phonetic transcriptions '!
l
n.
o.
A Spanish speaker pronounces 'met' so that it sounds like 'mate'.
An Arabic speaker pronounces 'bought' so chat it sounds like 'boat' .
.l Example: /krawd/ crowd
1 a /kret/ d /fIIJg'dr/ g /mayn/ j /p'drp~l/ J
I b /w-:;iroiy/ e / baks/ h / plaw / k I Jud/ I
' c /kruwz/ f /begz / /pley/ I /d3Ad3/
( .}...>
f ...L"'- 5 Wrire rhe following words in phonetic transcription.
) Example: lunge llAnd3/
iI a church d thrive g huge J pew
b compass e yelled h stop k feud
c campus f caught awful I possess
J
I
 American English- Monophthongs
Robert Mannell

-~---------

•'!.<fooo-

-
American Eno lish fv1onoph1hongs
relative to ihe Cardinci! Vovvels
-

(typical of Midwestern USA)

35
 :

y w

bayed
e lei)
·~~~~~~~~ o ¥
i
bod~
\
\
\
ofow]
\
\
\
\_
\ \ .''
\
\.
re ? D /\
bud
\
\
bad a
ce pod
,' r;
u 0

A · . · E
·. mencan "sh
.··ngu_ · . 1vlonopnu1.
!\ f'I • .u...
o ngs
ref affve to ihe Cardind Vowels
(typical of Califorrna)
after Ladefoged, ·1999

American English shows a much greater degree of regional variation

than does Australian English. For example, Olive et al (1993, p362)
divide the United States into ten dialect regions (which in turn may
each have some additional internal variation). As a consequence, it
is not desirable to attempt to define a "General" American English
(as has been done for Australian English) . Instead, on this page and
the associated page on American En glish Diphthongs a couple of
r egional dialects have been chosen. The Midwestern variety is
described by Ladefoged (1999) as being more "conservative" than
the Californian variety in that it has maintained a greater number of
vowels.

In particu lar, Ladefoged's descriptions of these two dialects (1993,

1999) imply (but do not explicitely state) that in Californian English

3r.:
' iO
 American English Diphihongs
relative to ihe Cardinal Vowels
(typical of California)
- ···'*

For an explanation of the matertal on American English vowels, as

well as references to the sources of the above material, please see
the page on American English Monophthongs.
 .
American English Diphthongs
Robert Mannell

American English Dipht1ongs

relative to ihe Cardlnd Vowels
(tYPical of Midwestern USA)
after Ladetoged . 19g3
there has been a monophthongisation of two of the diphthongs still
found in Midwestern American Eng lish , that is /eI/ and /ou/.
Furthermore, ouring t his process, the dipht hong /ou/ has m erged
with t he monophthong /~/.Th is has resulted, relative t o Mid western
American English , in two fewer dip ht ho ngs in Californian English but
only one additio nal monophthong.

Ladefoged (1999) further indicat es that t he process of

monphthongisation in Californian Eng lish is not complet e as both
original d iphthongs are st ill pronounced with an offglide. This has
been indicated in the phonetic representat ion of each of these two
vowels on the appropriate di agram, above.

In the above diagrams, the sample words are different from those
used in the diagrams of the other Eng lish d ialects that are
illustrated on accompanying pages. T his is because American
English is a rhotic dialect of English a nd a post-vocalic /r/ has a
significant effect on the actual rea lisation of its preceding vowel
(Olive et al, 1993). Wherever possible , words that do not include a
post-vocalic /r/ have been used.

Another consequence of the difference between rhotic and non-

rhotic dialects of English is that in rhotic dia lects such as American
English, the centring diphthongs (/rn/,/e:,ea/ .and ua/) are not to
be found.

On these diagrams, a phonemic transcription typical of those used

by American phoneticians has been indicated in red for each vowel.

See also the page on D isti nctiv e Featu res: Aus t ralian Eng li s h
Vowels for.a comparison of Australian and American English vowel
features.

References
1. Ladefoged, P., A Course in Phonetics (3rd edition), Harcourt
Brace, Fort Worth USA, 1993.
2. Ladefoged, P., "American English", in Handbook of the
International Phonetics Association, IPA, Cambridge UK, 1999
3.· Olive, J., Greenwood 1 A., and Colema n, J., Acoustics of
American Speech: A dynamic approach, Springer, New York,
1993
 . . ·-··-·--·- ······-··· ···· -·····- ·- ---- ···----- -·

Tim EN&IJSH l/oW'ELS

4o
 Front Central Back

High Ii:/ as in tea /u:/ as in blue

/r/ as in big /u/ as in book

/er/ as in pay /3r/ as in bird

Mid le/ as in get /Al as in but /ou/ as in go
/-;;,/ an in ~bout

Low /re/ as in cat la! as in bar , not h/as infour

/ar/ as in my /au/as in cow /'JI/ as in boy

 Think about it

In small groups, discuss questions 1, 2 and 3 as you read. How much of this
information is new to you?

1. What is /~/?
The sound /~/ is so important that it has a name: schwa. Some people
wonder where the name comes from: it's a word derived from two German
words
Schwaches Ausspruch
weak pronunciation

An interesting feature to keep in mind is that /;J/ is the easiest sound

to produce: if we just open our mouth a little and emit voice, we wi! i be
pronouncing /~/. The mouth is in neutral position. For being so easy to
produce, it is the sound we automatically make when we think, "Uh .. . "

2. W11y is /~/ so important?

Because it is the most frequent sound in English. According ro the
chart of frequencies of English phonemes (Gimson, An Introduction to the
Pronunciation of English, Arnol4 1980), /';)/ appears with a frequency of
10.74%.
Part c .' Intro I The Schwa Sound ur1d thu U 11~u us~ed Sy ll~ ble
Part CI Intro I The Schwa Sound and the Unstressed Syllable

J . \Vhy is /-.:i/ so frcqui.:111 iu lhe English language?

II Ji11ns1 al l u11strcssed syllables are />J/. Analyze the pronunciation of this
r;t.fi§i!ij
word: Take a look:
/'JI /'JI !'JI /'JI Jal /'d/ la/ /al !GI /'JI lei
av til ab I e (4 syllables, 3 I'd() Braz!lian constt'!lction jealous mfnute propQrtional
Pronounce these words and mark the stressed syllable. You see, except for the stressed syllable, all the other vowels are hi.
It's important to notice that unstressed vowels are pronounced fa/ no matter
Dr::izilian construction jealous minute proportional how they are spelled. In the example above we have h/ spelled a, ia, o, io,
ou and u.

[fow many /-;;i/ can you count in each word? Write the number of !-:JI under Look at this pair:
each word above. /'JI /al
pr&ject (noun) X proj~ct (verb)

The /'JI changes place because the stress changes.

Do you understand now the name schwa (weak pronunciation)?

\ 0 3/02 Listen to these words. Mark the vowel in the stressed syllable and
circle the /a/.

Example: mQ_th@"

kitchen computer confusion famous

stomach excellent necklace p1ivate

 Part C / Intro I The Schwa Sound and the Unstressed Syllable Part C /Intro/ The Schwa Sound and the Unstressed Syllable

fl@§ihj In summary, this is what usually occurs:

Learners don't realize there are so many /g/ sounds in. English and, Stressed Unstressed
consequently, don 't produce them. They go by the written form, and
pronounce the letter they see, as if the letter sounded as in Portuguese. For
example: foul

Typical wrong Correct /Al Ii:! /';JI/ III

pronunciation pronunciation
ous in various /ouz/ /~s/ /a1/ l'JI
IE/ /re/
pro in production /pro/ /pm/ /e1/
ion in illusion /on/ /'Jn/
/u:/ /au/
/3r/ /';J/
Although /gl is the most frequent vowel sound in unstressed syllables,
III can also occur. In the words below, they can be used interchangeably, You
can say:

I'd! Ill /'d/ /r/ lrl !'di fa/!'JI III /1/

13.J.l!.IOI
behind or behind prefer or prefer delicate or delicate or delicate \ 0 3/03 Don'tjump to the extreme conclusion that all unstressed syllables
are /:JI, III or l ul. Do the next exercise in four steps.
Likewise, lu/ also occurs in unstressed syllables. You can say, for example,
1. Underline the vowel sounds to check how many syllables eacl1 word h<ts.
/u/ /g/ Watch out for the silent "e" at the end of some words.
today or today 2. Listen to the words below.
3. , Mark the stressed syllable.
Note that you lyu:/ can be reduced to /yu/ or /y:J/ 4. Indicate the vowel sound of the unstressed syllables.
as in See you! /si: y:J/
/a1/ /:JI I ii /re/ /::1/
/J/ /~/ Example: biolQ.gY. ~d v~rti_se

Some dictionaries show this choice like this: behind today

.J;:'- beautiful /byu:trful/ hypothesis technology justify operator female
..r:: 'J'J organize television guarantee teenager acrobat

We call sile11t e the letter e which is not pronounced at tl1e

The choice depends on the speaker, dialect or even situation. When end of words. It does not constitute a syllable, as in like
people are tired, sleepy or even drunk, they produce more /g/ sounds because (one syllable) and language (two syllables).
it is the easiest sound to produce.
 I ,1tl C / lnln / lh~ \'hwn 11ru 111rl nr1rl th• liMlrr<~od Syllable

Unit 1: /i:/ as in tea and /1/ as in big

Pd fr rcnl languages have 'different ways of showing hesitation to make
1111w to think. In English, I'd/ is used for this purpose and is shown as uh in
wri 1tcn language. In Portuguese, we make the final sound longer. We say, Eu
ac/10-0-0-0 ... Ele disse-e-e-e...

Brazilians tend to transfer this behavior to English, getting bad results: J

t/Jink-i-i-i ... His name is-z-z-z... Native speakers do the following: I think...uh...

Think about it
(j) 3/04 Let's practice hesitation with /'JI. Work in pairs. Ask each other the
questions below and supply free responses, using one of the phrases given. \ Discuss these questions.
Listen to these examples.
.: 1. Do the words hit and h eat sound the same?
'l
I ~'
! don 't know... uh .. .
Let me think... uh .. . 2. Would you say that the Portuguese /i/ is the same as ...
IVclL, let:~ see... uh .. . a. Ii:/ as in tea
! guess... uh ... b. !Ii as in big
c. neither
1. Do you think computers will replace human beings in the future?
2. Who's the most wonderful person you know? 3.
3. ·where in the world would you like to spend the rest of your life? a. What is the sound that can have all the spellings below? /_ _ I
4. .t\re you for or against same sex marriages? Why? b. Can you think of one example for each spelling?
'i What's the best movie you have ever seen?
6. Was your city a better place to live 100 years ago? ee
ea
e
ey
et
You are not going to practice fa/ in depth in this unit. You have been ie
·1
doing that without being aware of it while practicing the consonants and will
continue doing it as you study the vowels. The important thing to remember
is that the vowel sound in most unstressed syllables is /~/. Don't look at the Answer Key now! Study the unit to the end and then
check your answers.
 Part CI Unit 1 / /i:/ and /ii
Part C I Unit 1 I Ii:/ Jntl Ill

Cifi·HJl!i 0 3/06 Exercise 2: Repeat these words with /i:/. Remember that this sound
is long and tense, so "smile" as you pronounce it.
Because the Portuguese /iJ is between (i:I and II/, many Brazilians don't
differentiate the two sounds, so they pronounce seat and sit the same way, for feet/fi:tJ sea/see /si:/ eat/i: t/
instance. It's important to distinguish these sounds because each will form tree Itri:/· beat/beet /bi:t/ each /i:tJ/
a different word. If you are not careful, you might inadvertently produce a knee /ni:/ meaUmeet /mi:U speak /spi:k/
word you don't mean. i
Observe the words above and complete the statement:
Ii:/ and II/ are usually called the long "(" and the short "i," respectively,
but there's more to this difference than just duration. Ii:/ is articulated higher \ The sound /i:/ is usually written with the letters _ _ or _ _ .
in the mouth than Ir/. When you pronounce these .sounds in this sequence:
@ 3/07 Exercise 3: Notice other spellings for /i:/. Listen to these words.
Ii:! English
j Iii Portuguese
III English
be
complete
receive
conceive
believe
achieve
he seize chief
you'll notice that your jaw starts high and your mouth will open more and even ceiling field
more as you go down. That means that /i:/ is pronounced higher in your ego piece
mouth, followed by the Portuguese /i/ a little lower, and then /I/. Egypt

/i:/ is also tenser than Ir/. The height causes the tongue to go up and the @ 3/08 Exercise 4: These are unusual spellings for Ii:!. Listen and repeat:
lips to spread more, yielding a tenser sound. When you take pictures, don't
people tell you to say cheese to look like you're smiling? That's because you ski machine key
have to tense your muscles to spread your lips to say Ii:/. When you relax visa chic people
your muscles and your mouth goes back to a more neutral position, then you magazine police Phoenix
articulate II/.
@ 3/09 Exercise 5: When /i:/ occurs in final, non-stressed posit!Qrr, it is not
as long. For this reason, we use the symbol Iii without(:), which indicates a

...!::::-
1a+mm1 .
long sound. Repeat these words:

~ 0 3/05 Exercise I: Listen: /i:/ -/1/ IU - hi merry / meri/ funny money movie recipe
pretty / 1pnti/ sunny turkey calorie coffee
Ii:/ eat seek sleep beat/beet bean
III it sick slip bit been/bin
P~rt C I Unit 1 I Ii:/ and /I/ I'm t c. / Unit 1/ /I:/ mid II/

(i;. 3/10 Exercise 6: Repeat these phrases with /i:/ and Iii. Did Nick miss him?
If Bill sings, Bill will win.
believe me an easy recipe Tim is the sixth on this list.
see the police meet me at three
green wheat field speak and leave \ Analyze the words in Exercises 1 and 2 and complete the statement:
extremely windy coffee or tea
The sound /J/ is usually spelled with the letter _ _ _ _ _ _ _ between
Thjnlc of more words with /i:/ or Ii/ and write three more phrases or - - - - - - - - or in position followed by a
sente-nces . Read them aloud.

While /i:/ can have many different spellings,

/1/ is much easier to identify. It's usually:
C ! C = consonant + i + consonant
The short /r/ is more similar to "e" than to "i" in Portuguese. The sequence
would be:
@ 3/13 Exercise 3: Pay attention to the unusual spelling of /I/ in these words:
Ii: ' ·cnglish We open our mouth in
,; ; Porruguese this direction. The businessman in England was guilty.
III English The busy English women were in the building.
~ Portuguese The typical system has been running pretty quickly.

When we pronounce II/, our muscles are relaxed (you don't "smjle") @ 3/14 Exercise 4: We saw that "ee" and "ea" are the typical spellings for /i:/.
and this sound is short in duration. But when these letters are followed by "r," the sound is Irr/. Listen and repeat.

near /nrr/ beer /bir/ pier /pir/ mere /mir/

clear /khr/ dear I deer /du/ Also: fierce /firs/ here/hrr/
cheer /tf1r/ sheer I shear /Ju/ weird /wrrd/ severe /s~/vrr/
..___
fear /fu/ peer /pir/
0 3/ 11 Exercise 1: Repeat these words with /1/:

if - big - did - sit @ 3/15 Exercise 5: Repeat these sentences.

visibility - insipid - timid
The beer on your beard looks weird.
G~ 3/12 Exercise 2: Repeat these phrases and short sentences. My dear, don't fear and dry your tear.
Don't shear the deer near here.
a quick kiss his trip
drink milk if it's ill
sick fish since spring
i' .11 l CI U11lt I / /I:/ und It/ Part C I Unit 1 I Ii-/ and / 1/

I
/.
c;t.f1ji!j 13'I.J .. I tll
Some people believe that it's not important to worry about the difference 0 3/16 Exercise l: Repeat these minimal pairs.
between / i:/ and /r/, as the context should solve any possible doubt. This can
be true, but read these anecdotes: feet-fit cheap - chip steal/steel - still beat/beet - bit
peak-pick eat- it heal/heel - hill least - list
I was in Honolulu looking at the sea admiring the view.
I have no idea why a girl .slapped me in the face when I said to her:
Try this exercise in pairs: articulate one of the words above, but silendy,
~at a beautiful /brtSf! )
not making any sound. Your classmate will have to identify the "i" sound just
*~~ ' looking at your mouth and say "long" or "short." If you articulate /i :/ and I rl
correctly, that is, if you move your muscles the right way, and pay attention to
~
duration, your classmate won't have to actually hear the sound to identify it.

\ Exercise 2: Circle the /i:/ and Iii and underline the III in the sentences
below.

Cindy and Rita are busy women, but they manage to keep fit.
Will Peter sit and listen?
Athletes wish the system weren't tricky.
Please dear, be clear.
I was at the mall looking at bedspreads and linens, and
I was really surprised to get a nasty look just because I said:
0 3/ 17 Exercise 3: Now repeat t he sentences above.
Wow, look at this /frt/!

Stay tuned

\ 0 3/ 18 Exercise 1: Listen and check the pictures according to what you

hear.

I. b

Words like fit and feet, slip and sleep only differ by one sound. They're
called minimal pairs.
Pd1 t CI Unil 1 / /i:/ and fl/ Part C I Unit 1 / /i:/ and /II

6.b

·-··,1·-··· '"II
..... I.-· ·
·1,...........
_,[_,,_:~
J
~~--~1--""J
-·-~ .~i~~--~"J ~~-;

Exercise 2: Listen again and write the sentences you hear.

\ Exercise 3: Now write the other possibility (the minimal pair).

4. a
Exercise 4: Work in pairs. Say a sentence and your friend points to the
corresponding picture.

lilhlfo,fj·
\ Work in pairs. You have five minutes to list as many parts of the body as
you can think of with /i:/ and II/. You can use both singular and plural words.
5.1 - - -- - - - The pair that gets the most correct words wins the game.

Clue: Think of the spelling rules when sorting the words.

Ii:/ III

-
Part CI Unit l / /i:/ and /ii

/fa 1na:t1k for fa 111£ttks/ Unit 2:/£/ as in get

\ Now this is the big challenge! Transcribe the words corresponding to the I and I ref as in cat
parts of the body correctly. i
/bre/, /bee/, /b-.e/
1. I 2. I I 3. I I 4. I I

5. I 6. I
I 7. I 8. I I

9. I I 10. I I 11. I I 12. I I

Think about it

\ Discuss these questions.

1. Do you pronounce man and men the same way?

2. Do you think Brazilians have problems differentiating these souuds?

Why (not)?

3. How is the sound /re/ as in cat usually spelled?

4. Pronounce /c,/ as in get and /re/ as in cat. Now pronounce ein Portugues~.
Pay attention to how much you open your mouth to pronounce these thre~
sounds. Now place le.I, /rel and e in this scale.

a. _ less open
b. in between
c. _more open

Go back to Think about it and go over the questions again. Then check Don't look at the Answer Key now! Study the unit to the end and then
your answers in the Answer Key. check your answers.
Part C I Unit 2 / /re/ and /t/ Part CI Unit 2 / /re/ and /e/

\ Observe the words in Exercises I and 2 and complete the sentence:

Por' uguese has only one esound. English has two and they're different The sound IE/ can be spelled with the letter - - - - - - - between
from the Portuguese e, which is between /e/ as in get and /re/ as in cat. _______,or in initial position followed by a _______

So this is the scale: The letter e in initial position is also pronounced

/el in words with more than one syllable if
less open: /'c/ as in egg the e is stressed and followed by a consonant.
in between: Portuguese e as inpe
m ore open: /re/ as in cat 0 3/21 Exercise 3: Repeat these words:

To produce these English sounds, follow these steps: Saye in Portuguese. f mpty fnergy f lbow
Then close your lips a little and you will pronounce /S:_/. Now, open your .fducate fngine .fmbassy
mouth to say a in Portuguese but don't say a, say e. That's the /re/ sound.
0 3/22 Exercise 4: If e is unstressed, it's usually pronounced /1/ or /a/.
P r:tcticc. Listen to these words.

l
irl e.n!ble eff1cient ex~mple

e open your mouth excyse encQurage em~rgency

he/
0 3/23 Exercise 5: Here are some spellings of Ier/. Listen.

share pair tear

care fair bear
Let's practice /e/. Remember it's not as open as e in Portuguese. Follow the prepare dairy pear
technique: Say e, close your lips a little and say, /e/, le/, /el.
0 3/24 Exercise 6: In these words, the spelling of /e/ is atypical. Listen and
0 ~/19 Exercise 1: Repeat these words. This is a short sound. repeat.

egg - ever - echo - end any heaven again says friend jeopardize
many bread against prayer bury leopard
3> 3/20 Exercise 2: Repeat these phraseswith /e/. heavy said mayor heir Leonard
weather scarce
where else send ten bells
redneck dress on the bed Air and heir are homophones.
get the test led the men The heir conditioned his driver to keep his car ait-conditioned.
 Part CI Unit 2 I /rel and / el Part CI Unit 2 I /:cl •nd Ill

1I
Get your tongue around it 0 3/27 Exercise 2: Repeat these sentences with Ice/ in initial position.

0 3/25 Some verbs change from /i:/ to_/el in the simple past ~isteri and repeat. The ambitious ambassador was angry with the amateur ambulance cl.river.
The agile ancl1orman had no alibi for the accident.
: .
Ii:!
breed
le/ ·
bred \ Take a look at the words with /re/ in Exercises l and 2 and complete the rule:
feed fed
sleep slept Ire/ is usually spelled with the letter _ _ _ _ _ _ between _ __
keep kept or m position followed by a _ _ _ _ __
lead led
leave left 0 3/28 Exercise 3: Repeat these sentences with /re/.
read read
You can't catch salmon in flat land.
Work in pairs. Ask and answer choosing from the verbs above. Remember to Adam can't stand dancing rap.
stress the verb, not the pronoun. Pam is glad her cattle are in the pasture.
Don't laugh at my aunt's plaid cap.
A: Did he feed it?
B: Yes, he f_4d it. Note: ant - always /rent/
. aunt-lrentl (mainly American) or /an.ti (mainly British1

l!'·Hm \ Exercise 4: Many irregular verbs with II/ make their past tense with , ;.c '·
Let's practice /re/. Remember to open your mouth to say a but say e instead.
In fact, if you look at the /re/ symbol, you'll see an a and an e. ring Ir/ - rang /re/

Can you think of any other verbs? Complete the table in pairs.

III /re/

01
IJ.J.'1.lttl --1I
e-o 0 3/26 Exercise 1: Repeat these phrases and short sentences with Irel. This -l
I
is a long sound. I
I
J
sad fat man Scratch my back. Batman sang.
lack of ham
mad black cat
Pack your bag.
The rat ran at last.
Chat with Dad.
Sam can't be a bad man ( Also: run IAl - ran /re/
J
I "1 1 / Ur11l ? I /11•/ 1111d Ir/ Part C I Unit 2 / /re/ and le/

Chcc:k lhc Answer l<ey before you do the next exercise. Get your tongue around it

\ 3/29 Exercise 5: Completethe sentences using the verbs in Exercise 4. @ 3/31 Exercise 1: Repeat these pairs of words.

Matt _ ___ down, black rum and _____ sadly. t !£!(short) /re/ (long)
Sam _ _ _ _ till his pants _ _ _ __ \ ten tan
Pam _ _ ___ to chat with Nat in January. pen pan
men man
© Now listen, check your answers and repeat the sentences. said sad
bed bad
send sand
onversation
- ,._,.. -:.

Work in pairs. Articulate one of the words above silently. Your friend will
© 3/30 Practice this conversation in pairs, paying attention to the /re/ sound. &ave to identify /re/ or le/ just looking at your mouth and say "long" or
"short." Note that if you move your muscles correctly, and pay attention to
duration, you don't have to actually hear the sound to identify it.

@ 3/32 Exercise 2: Listen to these groups of words.

1 2 3 4
Sally: Pam, you can dance, can't you? Ii:! /r/ le/ /re/
Pam: I'm no professional dancer, but I can jazz and tap. Why do you ask, beat bit bet bat
Sally? bead bid bed bad
Sally: Jack asked me to a dance, and he's a fabulous dancer. In fact, I meet mitt met mat
drag as a fat cat, and I'm so embarrassed. I can't go unless I look deed did dead dad
attractive. Pam, you have to give me a hand! keen kin Ken can
Pam: I'll teach you all I can, Sal. Then we'll buy you some eye-catching
pants. OK? Now do the same activity silently, and try to guess which of the four sounds
-;~.lly: Thanks, Pam. You're a real pal. your friend is mouthing. Identify the sound by its number.

Stay tuned

The most obvious way to differentiate /e/ and /re/ is to listen for the \ 0 3/33 Listen and circle the word you hear.
different sounds. Another way, though, is to look at the speaker's mouth to
see what sound is being articulated: the speaker will open his or her mouth a 1. The vet I vaf is in the barn.
101 wider to produce the /re/ sound! 2. The pen IP.!!!} is on the table.
 Part CJ Unit 2 / /'6)/ and IE/ Pa rt CI Unit 2 I la:./ <ind/•: I

3. I couldn't find bread/ JJJ:ad. Conversation

4. My celery I salary is awful!
5. Where did you place the bet I b.Q.t? 0 3/34 Repeat this conversation with /re/ and i£1.
6. This is what was really said I s.gsf.
7. Try not to mix the sgxes I saxes.
8. The men I man arrived.

Get your tongue around it

Work in pairs. Choose one of the possibilities in each question and ask a
classmate. He/She has to listen up and give an appropriate free response that
shows he/she has identified the sound.

Example: What do you use a pedal for?

paddle

A: What do you use a pedal for? Ted: Hi, Alan. Have you met Jack, the new manager?
B: To make a bike go. Alan: I have, Ted. I guess Jack hasn't impressed you very well, has he?
A: What do you use a paddle for? Ted: Correct. He acts as if he's better than everyone else when we're by
B: To play racquetball. ourselves, and he pretends to be ftiendly when the general mam1.c.,er
is present.
I. Do you know why he left? Alan: There's more. Jack asked Cathy, his secretary, to prepare his
laughed? breakfast - eggs included - and ye lled at her because she wa~;n'i
fast enough. Ma.n, was Cathy mad!
2. Why do you need a pen? Ted: Let's just say a prayer so Jack won't last!
pan?

3. Why did the man run?

U'I men
_s::.. \ Identify the words and write le/ or /re/. Think of the spelling rules you
4. Who's going to many Ellen? have studied!
Alan?
I. ch/_/nce 5. w/_ /ther 9. b/_ / nk
5. Where's the wonderful gem? 2. /_ /lephant 6. r/_ /cipe l 0. p/_/ragr/_ /ph
jam? 3. chimp/_/nzee 7. p/_ /r 11. h/_ /vy
4. h/_ /ppen 8. d/_ /nce 12. g /_ /t tog/_/tber
 1',11 t l / Unit l / /:~/and /e/

Unit 3: /u:/ as in blue and

\ In groups, complete the chart with words with /E/ and /re/. The first group
to finish is the winner!
/u/ as in bo()k
1 mo nth /el: - country !el: _ Sue's clue to do it
/re/: - !rel:_ is to use prunes
and fruit juice
I animal le!: -
/re/:
part of the house le/: -
/rel:_
when you cool it.
r----
1 food /e/: - color le!: _
/re/: - /re/:_
~.
I object le/: - place around town /el: -
I_ _ /re/: .. /re/: _

Go back to Think about it and go over the questions again. Then check
your answers in the Answer Key.

Think about it

\ Say the word blue. Now say the word book. Are the "u" sounds different?
Answer these questions.

1. Look at the illustration. What sound do the highlighted words in the

0'. question have in common? How about the words in the answer?
Ln. 2. For which "u" sound are your lips more rounded?
3. For which ''u" sound are your cheek muscles more relaxed?
4. Which "u" sound is longer?
5. Which "u" is more similar to the Portuguese "u?"

Don't look at the Answer Key now! Study the unit to the end and then
check your answers.
 Part C I Unit 3 I / u:/ and /u / Part C I Unit 3 I /u:/ and /o/

@ 3/38 Exercise 4: As we saw in Part B, Unit 8, many times /u:/ is preced~d

by /y/. Repeat the following words with /yu:/.
Portuguese has only one "u" sound. English, however, has two: the long
/u:/ and the short /u/. The Portuguese "u" is similar to /u:/ in English, but few argue use
not as long. When you pronounce /u:/, your lips are rounded and your cheek music view university
muscles are tense. When you pronounce /u/, ~our lips are not so rounded and
your cheek muscles are relaxed. \ Exercise 5: Complete these sentences with words with /u:/ or /yu:/.

l. Beth is in the living _ _ _ _ __

fa.r.l "ti II 2.
3.
Old is the opposite o f - - - - -- -
Think about the past, present and _ _ _ _ _ __
@ 3/35 Exercise 1: Repeat these words with /u:/. Remember that this sound 4. Witches fly on _ _ __ __
is long and t~nse, and your lips are rounded. 5. A lot is the opposite of a _ _ _ __ __
,.f ' 6. One .plus one equals _ _ __ __ _
!!
flew I flu soup tooth 7. Strong shoes with tall tops are called _ _ _ __ _ _
do true clue 8. My favorite color is _ _ _ _ _ __
June soon shoe 9. You can swim in the - -- - -- -
10. Don't lie. Tell me the - - - - ---
Pay attention to these words pronounced
with /u:/: tomb /tu:m/ and super 0 3/39 Listen and check your answers. Read the sentences in pairs. Then
write two similar sentences and ask your classmates to complete them.

@ 3/36 Exercise 2: Repeat these phrases with /u:/.

·· Get your tongue arot.1nd if~
Sue's boots a blue suit
choose the fruit chew your food Lou is surprised at the different things Prue does. Substitute the verbs as in
super tool Movie on Tuesday? the example.
zoo rules Who will lose?
do kung fu
When /u:/ is followed by Ill, sometimes you can hear a
C)'l @ 3/3 7 Exercise 3:
6'\ schwa sound/~/ after the /u:/. Listen and repeat. Lou: Prue, is it true you do kung [u?
Prue: It's true, Lou. I've been doing kung (u for over two years.
fool school cool
pool stool . rule chew a few roots / use a super scooter I brew prune vermouth/ group troupers
to play snooker I glue rulers on your shoes
1•,,,1 r: / llnlr \I /11•/ 1111d / u/ Part C I Unit 3 I /ir./ and / u/

"I take the bus every day."

He said he took the bus every day.
~)
J/ 10 I ~xcrc ise l : Repeat these words with /u/. Remember that this is a
.~ hurt sound. Don't round your lips. 1. I shake the butcher's hand.
2. I put on a hood to avoid the soot.
Po~s lble spellings: 00 ou (mod11ls) cue others · 3. I stand up to greet Brooke.
good should put woman 4. I can go to the brook on foot.
wood would bush wolf 5. I will push the poor wolf.
cook could . sugar 6. I look good.
foot butcher 7. I understand the cookbook.
wool full

Pay attention to the pronunciation of /u/ in the words put, push,

*+M;,1nw
cushion and bush, which are often mispronounced.
0 3/43 Exercise I: Repeat these pairs of words.

/u:/ - /u/ /u:/ - /u/

(!;, 3/41 Exercise 2: Repeat these words with /ur/ and /yur/.
pool - pull who'd- hood
L__
~

/ur/ /yur/ fool - full shoed - should

I poor tour cure pure suit - soot wooed - wood/would
-·· Luke-look stewed - stood
I sure assure curious furious
cooed - could

The /ur/ is the words on the left can be

@ 3/44 Exercise 2: All these words are spelled with "oo" but their
pronounced /3r/ or /':Jr/ in some dialects.
pronunciation is different. There's no way to predict the sound. You just have
to practice. Compare.
0 3/4 2 Exercise 3: Repeat these sentences paying attention to the /u/ sound.
/u: / /u/
run the hook from the pulley. broom took
The wolf is by the bush. spoon stood
The crook is putting on a hood. moon wool
The cook needs sugar to make cookies and pudding. room look
mood wood
food foot
l.0..~fy'~ur tongue around it choose /tfu:z/ cook
goose /gu:s/ good
\ The past tense of these verbs is pronounced with /u/. Report these
sentencc.'s as in the example.
Part CI Unit 3 I /u:/ and /u/ l'nll 1 I 111111 I I

0 3/45 Exercise·3: Repeat these sentences with /u:/ and /u/. In context

Brooke was in no mood to clean the room with a broom.
Woody looked at the good food Sue cooked.
Lou stood up and pushed the stool.
.The cook always chooses the wooden spoon.
The wool boots are on the footstool.
Stay tuned
\ 0 3/46Listen, repeat ~nd write /u:/ or /u/. Remember: if you round your
lips, it's /u:/.
0 3/47 Exercise l: Practice the names of these books with /u :/ and /u/.
On Food and Cooking, by Harold McGee
Feeling Good: the New Mood Therapy, by David D. Burns
Curious George Visits the Zoo, by Alan J. Shalleck
The True Woman: the Beauty and Strength ofa Godly Woman, by Susan Hunt
Push and Pull (Rookie Read-About Science), by Patricia J. Murphy
A Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story, by Kurt Eichenwald
Fool Moon, by Jim Butcher
Wolf, by Becky Bloom
New York Dead, by Stuart Woods

l . good IJJL 0 3/48 Exercise 2: Listen to this conversation.

2. lose
3. woman _ A: I'm looking for a book: Fool Moon, by Jim Butcher.
4. human B: Sorry, but we should be receiving Fool Moon next Tuesday. Would you
5. crooked _,_ like to choose another book? ·
6. furious A: Well, do you have Wo/fby Becky Bloom?
7. fuse_ B: Here it is. Would you like me to put it in a blu e box?
8. hook A: Yes, thanks. It looks good!
9. student_
10. tomb_ Exercise 3: Use the names of the books above to practice this conversation
t 1. butcher _ with a partner. Use some of the words in the box in the last two lines .
12. wolf_
good - should - could- would - poor- sure - new - tru e - soon - super - school - co'.ill
In pairs, make sentences using the words above.
A: I'm looking for a book: , by _ __ __
B: Sorry, but we should be receiving _ __ __ next Tuesday. Woul<,
you like to choose another book?
A: Well, do you have by _ __ _ _ ?
B: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-· 'i

A:_---:------- -- - - - - - - - - - -- -
 l'Ht CI Unit 3 / /u:/ nnd /u/

Unit4:/o/ as in bar
\ \ latch the sentences and the transcriptions. There are two extra sentences! and /'J/as in four
l. The food the fool cooked made me full.
2. The food the fool cooked was good.
3. The fool understood the good book.
4. The full moon looked truly good.
5. The fool understood he could move the book.
6. The fool threw the food into the brook.

a. ( ) Joa fu:d oa fu:l kukt waz gud/ Think about it

1
b. ( ) /o'J fu:l 1Andar stud oa gud buk/
1 \ Discuss the following questions in pairs.
c. ( ) i o-;i ful mu:n lukt tru:li gud I
d. ( ) /(Jg fu: l 8ru: oa fu:d 1mtu oa bruk/
1. Are these statements true or false?

a. Words such as hot dog can be pronounced /hat 1dag/ or / h::it 1d::ig/. _
b. Most Americans say /hot 1d::ig/. _
In p:iirs, answer these questions as tmthfully as possible. Begin your answers c. Saw in English and s6 in Portuguese sound the same. _
with If ____. d. Compare the word bar in English and in Portuguese. The /a/ is longer in
English._
Wllat would you do if...
• you were a good cook? 2. Put the words in the correct column according to the sound of the letters
• you wanted to look good? in bold.
• you met a wolf in the woods?
• a woman pushed you? sergeant - talk- heart - call - bra - law - calm - war - author - guard
• you needed a new suit?
Jal as in bar h/as in/our
• a poodle pooed on your shoe?
• you never understood anything at school?
• a fool drooled on you?

Go back to Think about it and go over the questions again. Then check Don't look at the Answer Key now! Study the unit to the end and then
YL'llr amwers in the Answer Key. check your answers.
..,.
 "~" I I''"" •, /11 / "''' I,, 111111 CI U11ll •I / /11/ .1111/1

l'U.BJ!li 0 3/50 Exercise 2: Repeat these sentences.

The sound lol in English is similar to 6 in Portuguese, but lol is longer The Australian horse has fallen on the lawn.
than 6, so saw and so do not sound exactly the same. The Austrian officer had a long talk with his daughter in August.
The bald laWYer always put his audio books in the drawer.
lo/ has many possible spellings: The audience didn't applaud the awful author.
They thought they saw Doris yawn.
• au or aw as in daughter and law
• a followed by l or Ii as in always and mall Compare these pairs of words:
• o followed by ng as in wrong · / -;,/foul lo/ foul
• o followed byff, th or ss as in off, moth and cross bald - bold cloth - clothes
• augh or ·ough as in caught or thought

Important note: the words above can als'o be pronounced with la/
instead of h i. The words that are exclusively pronounced lb/ are spelled
as follows:
• o, ou or oo followed by r as in or.four and door
In some varieties of American English, words like call and
daughter are pronounced with la/; likewise, in some places,
words like hot and cop are pronounced .with h i. Don't worry
about having to change your pronunciation if you speak in
the range of accuracy. Use this book as a guide to what is
considered correct American English pronunciation, but be
ready to hear - and understand - many variants.
Conversation
0 3/51 Exercise 1: Listen to the conversation. Practice in pairs.
Cory: Morning, Laura. Your landlord called at. four. He wanted to ta lk
about the faucet.
Laura: Finally! Water has been pouring all over my floor. My daughter
has fallen and hit her forehead on the corner of the drawer.
Cory: That's appalling! You must have fought with the landlord!
Laura: I wamed him I would report him to the authorities. He looked bored
and returned to his chores. I was at a loss.
Cory: What a horrible story!

1a+1..ura
~ 0 3/49 Exercise l : Listen to these words with lol.

auditorium fall long floor taught coffee across war

awful bald wrong pour bought office loss warm
dawn walk strong store fought coffin cloth warn
Part CI Uni1 4 / /o/ and /o/ Part CI Unit 4 / /al and / o/

r
Exercise 2: /\nswcr these questions about the story with short answers.' All Pay attention to the silent letters in these words:
the nnswNs contain the lo/ sound. Try not to look at the story! Silent "u": guard /gard/
Silent "l": calm /kom/ - balm /barn/ - palm /pam/
I. Who called Laura?
2. What lime did he call?
J. What did he want to talk about? 0 3/53 Exercise 2: Practice these words spelled C QC with "o" pronounced
4. Who's Laura talking to? la!, as most Americans would say them. Repeat.
5. What 's pouring all over the floor?
6. Who has fallen? lock the box on the dot hot object
7. Where has she hit her forehead? shot the fox body clock got an Oscar
8. Who did Laura want to report the landlord to? shopping for socks odds and possibilities pocket opera
9. How did the landlord look?
10. [ f ow did Cory describe the story? 0 3/54 Exercise 3: Here are some atypicalspellirigs for /o/. Listen and repeat

father sergeant entree

bra heart entrepreneur
facade · ensemb_le
ln Portuguese when you are disappointed, you make the sound Ah ... corsage
This eorresponds to /a/ in English, as /a/ is longer than the regular "a" in
Porhtguese. It's usually spelled: 0 3/55 Exercise 4: Repeat these sentences with lo/.

• o bet ween consonants (C QC) or in stressed initial position, as in pQt and The word gone can be pronounced /gan/ or /gnn/, and it
Qbj ect doesn't rhyme with done ldAnl.
• " fo llo\wd by r (a+ r), as in stm::t

Many Brazilians pronounce words written C QC with the sounds /n/, which Thpmas is a popular doctor in Chicago.
is closer to the Biitish standard pronunciation. You don't have to worry about Operator.John disarmed the clock on the bomb in the box.
changing your pronunciation. Just make sure you.can recognize these words as My father has gone to college in Colorado.
an American will most probably pronounce them - with the sound /o/. The cops parked their car in Harvard Yard.
Honestly, Bob is ·a problem toddler.
The sloppy rock star has a loft on our block.

0 3/52 Exercise 1: Repeat these phrases with /a/ spelled a+ r.

shatp and hard a garden party gliard the park

 \
l'•tl I I 111111 4 / /11/ •111J / "/ 1°1111 t I Unit •I / /11/ .,ncJ / 1

Stay tuned B: I'm not sure, but I think that was Johnny Depp.
A: Have you watched any other film starring Johnny Depp?
\ @ 3/56 Listen to this paragraph and fill in the blanks. All the words will B: Yes, in fact ... I No, but...
have the sound /a/.

Polly and Mark wanted to buy presents for their family, so they went to the /fo'met1k for fa 1m:t1ks/
shopping mall. Polly got a of for her
father, but Mark just got . Polly got some _ __ _ _ \ Fill in the blanks with the words transcribed below.
lotion for their mother, but Mark only got a cheap . Polly
got a Barbie for their little sister, but Mark only got /b::it/ /w:Jr/ /m:Jl/ _j
a of chocolates. Polly got a toy for /blak/ !'kal;:irz/ /n'bl/ J
1
/ pram1st/ l'dal;:irz/
~
their little brother, but Mark only got him a pet . Polly IS'JfJ zl
shouted at Mark," ! I'm ! What are you /pJfilTI/ /rak/ f d3:Jrd3/ .J
/

going to get me, then? A ?"Mark replied, "Right on the

_ _ _ _ _ _ _!" It was J2LQ!J1 night, and all the seniors at St. High School were very
excited. There was going to be a band, and they to p1ay
Repeat the paragraph. all the most popular . Some of the girls spent thousands of _ __
on their 4resses, and boys them the most beautiful corsages at the
. All the boys white and ties and music could
In context be heard all around the . It was a night they would for
the rest of their lives.
\ Do you know what star starred what movie? Match the columns.

l 1. ) Pierce Brosnan a. Sleepy Hollow, Charlie 14!1,ifo.tj

and the Chocolate Factory

I
j
2. ( ) Jane Fonda b. Erin Brokovich, Notting Hill,
Conspiracy Theory
Play I went on a trip. Use only words with la/ or !:JI. Follow the model.

I 3. ( )Tom Hanks c. Top Gun, Mission Impossible A: I went on a trip and I took a doll with me.
I 4. ( )Tom Cruise d. You've Got Mail All:I went on a trip and I took a doll with me.
!
I O'\
5. ( ) Dustin Hoffman
6. ( ) Johnny Depp
e. On Golden Pond, Monster-in-Law
f. James Bond - Tomorrow Never Dies
B: I went on a trip and I took a doll and some coffee with me.
All: I went on a trip and I took a doll and some coffee with me.
\I ~ g. Confidence, Meet the Fockers
7. ( ) Julia Roberts C: I went on a trip and I took a doll and some coffee and _with me.

l Talk about these movie stars and movies.

All:I went on a trip and I took a doll and some coffee and _ with me.

l I
A: Did Pierce Brosnan star in Sleepy Hollow and Charlie and the Chocolate
Factory?
Go on without repeating any words. If you fail to come up with a new word
you're out.

I
Dart CI Unit 4 I la/ and fa/

WfHIDi . Unit 5: IA/ as in but

Go back to Think about it and go over the questions again. Then check and /3r/ as in bird
your answers in the Answer Key.

Think about it

\ Work on the questions below in pairs.

l. Do Brazilians have problems articulating / 11./ and 13r/?

2. What's the difference between I A/ and /-:~/?
3. What sound do these words have in common?

won - such - come - one - blood - rough

4. Place /A/, /3r/ or/~/ above the corresponding vowels. Each symbol is
. going to be used three times.

search ;!bQVe QCC.\:!.f SQn

Don't look at the Answer Key now! Study.the unit to the end and then
check your answers.
l
Parl C I Unll SI hi and /sr/ Part CI U ni t ~ I IAl .rn.11 11 /

Et.tJJ!i!i Alpo, be careful not to nasalize these sounds, especially when tl1ey are
followed by nasals, Im, n, QI. The Portuguese "ii" does not exist in English .
Some people refer to /Al as the stressed j -;J/, and it's also known as the
"Chinese hat" ciue to its shape. When this sound is followed by Ir/, we use
the symbol /3r/. 'i·t.l ;.t OI
There's a lot of variation in relation to the phonetic notation of/'di, I tJ and 0 3/57 Exercise 1: Repeat these troublesome words with I tJ and h r/.
13r/. In order to simplify, some textbooks don't contrast these tlu·ce sounds
and use /'di for all three regardless of stress. However, most dictionaries do won love circle
show this distinction. trouble color work
country tongue word
above -/'J 1bAv/ culture brother firm
-~
unstressed~ stressed Mr. Won wonder ifsomeone won the sum ofone hundred bucks.

occur - h'br/

unstressed~ - ~ed + /r/

mother - / 1m1J,.5W

stressed ~ ~sed+/r/ Remember that one and won are homophones: /w Anl!
I
f Contrast the vowel sounds:
Brazilians in general have no trouble articulating IAl and /3r/. The only I Al la!
problem is mispronouncing words which sometimes are very common, and mother but father
using another vowel sound instead. I Al /al
IA! brother but bother
Example: country - typical mistake: /au/ '
/sr/
firm - typical mistake: !Ir/ G;l 3/58 Exercise 2: Repeat these phrases and sho1t sentences with IAl and /3r/.
/Al
pronunciation - typical mistake: /au/, because of the verb to mother tongue Come at once, jerk.
/au/ some courage My company's in London.
pronounce the other firm Search for the cup.
one first turn There's just enough blood.
The problem is mispronunciation due to spelling, not articulation. My country won. My brother's pronunciation stu nk!
1•11 1' / llttll '•I IA/ n111l /1r / Part CI Unit 5 I 1"1 and /3r/

J\ liliough I he W()rd colonel has no "r," it's
pt 011ot111ccd just like the word kernel, l'k3rn::>Ii.
l•: x: Colonel Saunders created the recipe for KFC.
tj;i 3/50 Exercise 3: Repeat these sentences.
0 3/61 Exercise 2: Repeat these sentences.
, The earl's girlfriend has swirling curls.
The world twirls and twirls.
The earl gave the girl the biggest pearl in the world.

I heard the hurt bird at the circus. Conversation

Does a worm have a tongue?
Colonel Burns searched for the hurt insurgent. 0 3/62 Exercise 1: Practice this conversation in pairs.
Bert doesn't earn much money.
A:· Mother, I love this pearl necklace.
B: Girl, don't you ask me to purchase you one. You're too young to wear
pearls. Where in the world did you see girls with curls wearing pearl
necklaces?
The l3 rl/ as in girl is hard for Brazilians because we don't have this A: Earl's girlfriend got pearls for her birthday.
/r.' + 111 sequence in our language. Besides, some students think /r/ and B: Done then. When you turn thirty like Earl's girlfriend, you' ll get your
Ill have to be pronounced at the same time, which makes the sounds pearls too.
impossible to articulate!
\ Exercise 2: Organize the words in bold according to the sound:
Let's practice. Very slowly, say the word girl, pronouncing one sound at
a time : girrrr-1. Make sure your tongue touches the alveolar region for /l/. IA! /3r/ /3rl/
T1y again: girrrr-1. Now link:
gi[.! - girl.

World creates more problems because it has three consecutive consonants:

:
/r/+/l/+/d/. Follow the same procedure. Practice pronouncing world saying
one sound at a time: wor-1-d. Say it very slowly, until you can articulate all I
the sounds more easily: wor-1-d.

fi.t.l!.•tfl
0 3/63 Listen to these questions.
0 3/60 Exercise l: Practice these words with /3rl/, saying one sound at a time.
1. Why on earth is it absurd to buy a fur skirt?
pearl - curl - earl - twirl I
I ., 2. Do girls flirt with jerks and nerds?
3. What's worse: to be dumb or tough and rough?
I' <'
 P01t CI Unit 5 / IA/ and /3r/ Part CI Unit 5 / /"/ ,1nd / 11/

4. Was your cousin your first love?

5. Do you prefer girls with curls or with brushed hair?
0 3/66 Exercise I: Compare these pairs of words. Listen and repeat.
Now ask and answer the questions in pairs. Write two similar questions with
I Al, /3r/ and hrl/ and ask your class. /tJ la/
nut not/knot
cup cop
Stay tuned buddy body
color collar j
duck dock I
@ 3/64 Exercise 1: Compare these pairs of words. Listen and repeat. '
/Al
luck
/u/
look
fund
bum
fond
bomb i
cud could j : i I I

··... ~~-~;·· ~- --! i ·-

buck bo.ok ·--....' '·· - ---..
: ·- ··-···
stud stood
tuck took

\ © 3/65 Exercise 2: Lis1en and check the sentence you hear.

~ - ..- .:
l. a. How many bucks do you want?
b. How many books do you want?

2. a. They tuck him in. A bum is a beggar who doesn't earn money by working.
b. They took him in.
\ 0 3/67 Exercise 2: Identify the sounds in these sentences. Underline the
3. a. Did you say stud? sounds I tJ and /sr/ and circle /a/. ·
b. Did you say stood?
6"' It's hot in this country.
'5"'I 4. a. My luck almost killed her. Lock the hut or trust your luck.
b. My look almost killed her. My puppy ate all the poppies in the garden.
My heart hurts.
5. a. How do you spell cud? There's one buck in the box.
b. How do you spell could? ·1 heard apout the hard work.
Don't bother my brother, my father or my mother.

Now practice in pairs.

P.111 r I Unit 51 IA/ und h i'/ Part CI Unit 5 / I A/ and /sr/

6. a ( )

\ 0 3/G8 Listen to these sentences and choose the correct pictures.

l. a ( ) 1. b ( )

7. a ( ) 7. b ( )
2. b ( )

/fa'nret1k for fo1n£tiks/

\ Write the transcribed minimal pairs:

/fren/ fan /hot/

4. a( 4. b ( )
/fin/ fin /hret/
/fan/ fun /hAt/
/h3r1J
/lak/ /hart/
/luk/
/lrek/ /boks/
/!Aki /buks/
/li:k/ /bAks/
5. a ( ) 5. b ( )

/farm/ fb3rdJ
/form/ lb:lrd/
/form/ /b1rd/
I'~• I 1 / llnlt '•I /t./ 11111J/:J1/ Parl CI Unll ~I /\/ l!n•J I tr/

lil!.lfo,tj THEM
---,
I
Play Battleship with a friend. Draw in yciur ships vertically and horizontally
~ :t: ..... ~
>,
"O
according to the list below. · .!:l
..... c<l
.~ 0<)
0
.....
I'll "' 12 Cl)
i= .....
Cll
"O
;::s
..0

one ship that is 3 squares long

three ships that are 2 squares long star
two ships that are 1 square long not
-
nut
You have to find all of your opp~>nent;s ships. If the opponent hits a ship of stock
·-
yours, you have to say, "Hit!" If there are rio ships on the square, you say, stuck
"Miss!" Once a whole ship has been hit, the person losing itm1:1st say, "Sunk!" cut '
At the end of the game compare your sheets to see ifthere were any mistakes. body
The trick here is that instead of the· traditional letters and numb,ers you have
words with different vowel sounds. Pronouncing the words incorrectly or not
understanding them might cost you a battle!

Follow the example: Go back to Think about it and go over the questions again. Then check
your answers in the Answer Key.
A: Stock - neat
B: Miss! Body- stir
A : Hit!

us

~
·~
.....
] ~
g
..!>4
0
.s
-g
......
0
B Cll ·~
I'll
(J

"' .0

star
not
nut
stock
stuck
cut
body
 Unit 6: /e1/ as in pay
and /ou/ as in go.
Meu beibel quer sorvete de coucou.

Think about it

\ Discuss these questions.

1. Why do English speakers say things like "beibei" instead of "hebe" and
"coucou" instead of"coco" when they are learning Portuguese?

2. Can a final silent letter "e" (such as in ma~ or not~ help you guess the
pronunciation of a word?
Port C I Unit 0 I /01/ and /ou/ 111111 \ / 11111! ll / I I 11,j l

3. Pronounce these words. Separate the words in two groups according to c;t.tj§!li
the sound of the Wlderlined vowel.
In Portugµese, /e/ and /o/ are pure sounds. In English, however, these
though toe sew sounds never occur by themselves: they always come as /e1/ and /ou/. These
~nger Joan mfil.n double sounds 'are called glides. Compare:
bowl steak freight
SQ.le valet Qbfil'. Portuguese English .; I

Roma
br~celet Rome /ou/ I
omite omit foul
/e1/ /ou/. file .. '· I
bale
filet /e1/
ballet /er/ ==J
'*+'"'"'
@ 3169 Exercise 1: Repeat these phrases with /er/,

... ~ .. same domain play the game· wait at !he gate

Don't look at the Answer Key now! Study the unit to the end and then bake a cake stay away" made in Spain
check your answers.
0 -3/70 Exercise 2: Repeat these words with /em /. Make sure your tongue ·
touches the alveolar ridge for /n/.

rain - explain - change - danger - main - saint - fain t

Remember My Fair Lady?

The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain!

\ Look at the words in Exercises 1 and 2 and complete the spelling rule.

The sound /e r/ is usually spelled:

a. or
b. C C + silent
r 111 I U1111 1.1 let/ and foul Po1l C / lJ11ll 11 / /rt/ •1111 /uu/

~> 3/71 Exercise 3: These words are pronounced with /er/. Notice the @ 3/75 Exercise 7: The spelling of /ou/ is unusual in the following words:
unusual spelling.
toe - foe - Joe
break - steak - great though - although - doughnut
eight - ·freight sew-comb
ballet - valet - gourmet*
In most British dictionaries, the notation for /ou/ is fau/.
Contrast:
/er/ le/
break breakfast
In context

8 3/72 Exercise 4: Repeat these sentences with /er/:
I'm afraid the steak is not great.
Lace Gray escaped from the state jail.
This sacred place is the cradle of an ancient civilization.
Make the maid change the bracelets.
T h<? freight train from Spain was delayed eight days.
G 3/73 Exercise 5: Let's practice /ou/. Repeat these sentences.
~.
Do you believe in these old wives' tales and superstitions? Discuss them in
pairs.
1. You '11 catch a cold if you stroll around in the rain.
2. If your nose itches, you'll have to host a guest.
3. There's gold at the end of the rainbow.
4. It's bad luck to open an umbrella and hold it over your head inside the
house.
5. Mango and milk are a fatal combination.
6. All windows should be opened at the moment of death so that the soul

Joe stole the floating boat out in the open. can go away.
The ~o ld snow froze our bones:
.I oa11 rode the notable colt in October.
t ly folk~ don't like yolk

(-~~---------T-he_'_'l_"_is_s_i_le_nt_i_n_fo_J_k_a_nd_y_o_J_k!----------~) 0 3/76 Exercise 1: When "a" is between consonants followed by a silent

"e," the "a" is pronounced /eI/. Compare:

Ca C= /re/ C a C + silent e = /er/

0 3/7 4 Exercise 6: Pay special atte11tiQn to the words with /ou/ followed
fat fate
bv. i ll . Make sure you pronoimce the / I/! Your tongue \touches the alveolar
snack snake
ridge.
mad made
nap nape
toll - bowl - coal - fold - gold - bold
cat Kate
cap cape
~ fr~nch words
 Part C I Unit 6 I lei/ and /ou/
Part CI Unit 6 I lei/'"'" l<u

0 3/77 Exercise 2: When "o" is between consonants followed by a .silent Also, notice what happens when-the consonant doubles:
"e," the "o" is pronounced /ou/. Compare:
/ai/
' Ir/ I
Co C=/a/
rod
C o C + silent ~ = /ou/
rode
ride
write
ridden
written
. I

i cod code bite bitten

i not note hide --
I hidden
:! con cone diner dirmer
" pop Pope

,If Even though we don't double the consonant in driven, it's also
I
Notice the pronunciation of these words: pronounced with Ir/!
I /ou/ lo! or lo/
know - knowledge
Afinal ''y" affects the previous vowel the same way as the silent S'.·
I However, it is pronounced Iii and counts as a syllable.
I
c;t.}jjl!j / er/ - lazy, navy, baby, lady, crazy
I
1·
foul - nosy, cozy, pony, Tony, rosy
The silent~ rule is very useful to help you predict the pronunciation of
many words. According to this rule, the silent e indicates that the previous
vowel is pronounced as the name of the letter. Stay tuned

For example: datg____. silent e . 0 3/78 Exercise 1: Compare these pairs of words.

L t h i s letter is pronounced /e:r/ so we say /dert/ /en/ /em/ /rem/ /crm/ -]

sent/cent/scent saint am aim I

I name of the letters men main clam claim

I
I

I a-/er/ mgke /me1k/ trend trained Sam same

I -\-1- e - /i:/ scgne /si:n/ plan plane/plain lamb lame __J
1 ~ i - /ar/ lrke /la1k/
o-/ou/ bQne /boun/
u -/yu:/ use /yu:z/

There are exceptions, of cow-se:

Iii: live - give - since ItJ: come - done - some - love /a/ or /o/: gone \',
·~
~
 \
Pat"1 C: f Unit 6 I l ei/ and l out Part CI Unit 6 / I e1/ and l out

G.) 3/79 Exercise 2: Now compare these words with and without IV. 4. What do you think about people who lie to save face?
5. Are you .the kind of person who makes a decision and always has a
r
/ou/ /oul/ change of heart?

~
!--
tow/toe
bout
towed/toad
toll
bolt
told
6. What job do you consider a gravy train?
7. Are you salting away to buy something important?
8. What is something you want to get that you wouldn't mind paying

t
I
sow/so/sew
bow
code
soul /sole
bowl
cold
through the nose for?

\ Exercise 2: Match the idioms with /er/ and /ou/ and their meanings.

\ 0 3/80 Exercise 3: This is a dictation. Listen and write the words you hear. A: What does go ape mean?
B: It means behave in a crazy way.
!. 6.
2. 7. 1. ( ) go ape I go bananas a. pay a high price
3. 8. 2. ( ) bring home the bacon b. work that pays more than it's worth
4. 9. 3. ( ) go against the grain c. save your reputation
5. 10. 4. ( ) save face d. behave in a crazy way
5. ( ) have a change of heart e. save money
6. ( ) gravy train f. support the farnily
~ ~ .~ .yo~~ tongue around it 7. ( ) salt away g. change your mind
8. ( ) pay through the nose h. go against your natural behavior
0 3/8 1 Repeat these sentences. Make sure you pronounce the Ill's, /n/'s
nnd .'mi's! Now discuss the questions in pairs.

They stole the golden grain from the old train.

The foam went down the dangerous drain. Conversation
Thi: c-0ld rain made them change planes in Stockholm.
The aim of the game is to hit the hole by the pole. © 3/82 Practice this conversation in pairs, paying.attention to /er/ and /ou/.
·tl-
l}J Moe: Jane, the plane is late, so why don't we take the train to Maine?
Jane: No, Moe, don't go over this. I won't go on the railroad.
Moe: Let's change trains on the way and we'll get to Maine at eight.
Exercise 1: Read these questions. Jane: Are you afraid of planes or still stuck in the old travel modes? Go!
The line is in motion!
1. \Vhat makes you go ape? Moe: Too late to run away! Let's just pray we'll be safe!
2. Do you think the man should always be the one to bring home the bacon?
3. Do you sometimes go against your grain to get somethin.g you want?
l'ur l C I Urrlt 6 / lei/ and /ou/
Pa rt CI Unn (J I / ct/ Jrrd /ulJ/

/fo1na:t1k far fa 1rn:t1ks/ 1411.u1,,t1

\ Work in small groups. Look at the pictures and find words that rhyme. \ Wo'rk in pairs. Match the rhyming words. There are three matches fo r
They are all one-syllable words. Then write the pairs of words under the each item. The first pair to do it correctly wins.
corresponding vowel sound. The first group to finish correctly wins the
game! Set 1

1. ( )( )( ) done a. won
2. ( )( )( ) gone b. own
3. ( )( )( ) cone c. Sean
d. ton
e. loan
f. prawn
g. sun
h. Bonn
i. sewn

Set2

l. ( ) ( )( )comb a. balm
2. ( )( ) ( )bomb b. foam
3. ( )( )( )tomb c. broom
d. Tom
e. doom
f. Rome
g. palm
h. gnome
/Al /3r/ la/ hi
I. consume

/el /re/ Ii:/ hi

Go ~ack to Think about it and go over the questions again. Then check
/ell /ou/ /u:/ /u/
your answers in the Answer Key.
no,te
boat .
'
 Unit 7:/a1/ as inmy,/au/
.a·s ·in cow and I ~II as in boy
~

Think about it

\ Do these activities in pairs.

'f 1. Match the sounds with their usual spellings.

1. /a1/ ·a. ( ) oy
2. /au/ b. ( ) OU
3. h1/ c. ( ) ie
d. ( ) Ci C + silent e
c. ( ) oi
f. ( )igh
g. ( )ow
h. ( )y
~
U"'• 2. Write a word as an example next to each spelling above.

3. /elf and /ou/ are called glides, while /ai/, /au/ and /'JI/ are called
diphthongs. What's the difference between a glide and a diphthong if
both are compound of two sounds?

Don't look at the Answer Key now! Study the unit to the end and then
check your answers.
 Part Cf Unit 7 I f,u/, f .wf drld f r

. 0 3/84 Exercise 2: Repeat these words with io1/.

. ,. I
The difference between glides and clipht~ongs can be explain_ed in two ways: oi oy I
choice oyster I
• A glide is a vowel accompanied by an adjacent sound. A diphthong is boil annoy i
a vowel accompanied by a non-adjacent sound. Look at the chart to see coin toy I
how it goes: ·
0 3/85 Exercise 3: Repeat these words with /ail.
glides: /eJ/ _,. foul diphthongs: /ar/ - /au/ - /'Jr/
ie igli y ·1
----1
Ii:/ /u:/ /u:/ pie night my
f.r/ ~ui .. /u/ die I dye might cry
/'er/ /A} tout I
/er/ tie high terrify
le! !el /el lie sigh deny ·
/re/ la/ !'JI /re/ !'JI
These -ing forms are also pronounced /ar/.
• Other phoneticians call the attention to the fact that the sounds involved Notice that -ing makes another syllable.
in the diphthongs occur by themselves: /a/, III, !'JI and /u/. Differently, the
sounds involved in the glides are never pure vowels. The sounds /el and die - dying l'da1-1IJ/
fol don't occur by themselves in English, appearing only in the glides /er/ lie- lying l' lai-uJ/
or /ou/. tie- tying / 1ta r-1IJ/

f@foifil 0 3/86 Exercise 4: Repeat these contrasting words. All the words in tht-
second column have a silent e.
0 3/83 Exercise 1: Repeat these words with /au/. --
c ! c =Ir/ C ! C + silent ~ = I ar/
OU ow C y C + silent e = /a1/
cloud clown bit bite I byte
out town ' fin fine
mouse cow sit site
found renowned dim dime
win wine I
-l
tip type
still style
rim rhyme
 Part CI Unit 7 I !ail, /au/ and /~1/ Part c I Unit 7 I tail , /au/ and /or/

0 3/87 Exercise 5: Repeat these words with atypical spelling of /a1/. Jr/ /ail
live (v.) live (adj.)
align '-- sign - climb wind (n.) wind (v.)
bind - mind - mild - wild
eye - dye - rye ./u:/ /au/
guy - buy wound (n. or v.) wound (past form) I
height

Pay attention to the different vowel sounds:

foul
bow (n.)
· /au/
bow (v.) J
/ail hi hi . \ Exercise 2: Match the definitions or pictures to the transcriptions.
sign - signature - signal
/a1/ /1/
1. / Irv/
wild - wilderness
2. /la1v/
3. /wmd/
G 3/88 Exercise 6: Pay attention to the changes in these words related to 4. /wamd/
mea~urc ments : 5. /wu:nd/
6. /waund/
adjective noun 7. /bou/
high /a1/ height /ar/ 8. /bau/
wide /ar/ width /r/
deep /i:/ depth /e,/ a. the natural movement of air b.
long /-:JI length le/

J\Js0: strongh/ strength/el

c. past of wind d.
0 3 '89 r:xercise 7: Repeat these sentences with:
~
+ /au/ : The brown mouse and the cow were not allowed in the town house.
/:Jy.': The joyful boys spoiled their voices at the noisy joint. e. broadcast at the time of the performance f.
/ar/: Guy the Knight might fight for his life with his ivory knife.

g. to reside h.

Exercise l : Pay attention to these homographs.

 l'nH I / 111111 11 /111/.lriU/ 1111.J /J I/ ·. 1! Part CI Unit 71 /a1/, /nu/ and /.11/

\ Exercise 3: Look at the table on page 231 and write the correct sym~ol. I l Model: pure
You: · purify
1. 1_ 2. 1_1 3. /_ / Model: purify
The show "Live and Let Live" is going on live tonight. You: purify (repetition)

4.1_ 1 5.1_ 1. \ 0 3/93 Exercise 3: Now change the nouns ending in the su ffoc -ation
Rewind Gone with the Wind, please. into verbs by changing the suffix to -ify. Notice the change in stress.

6.1_! 7.1_ 1 Model: identification

The child got a wound as she wound the toy. You: identify
Model: identify
· _I 9. I_!
8. !_ You: identify (repetition)
He might die on the wiµdy winding road.

10. !_I 11. /_/ Conversation

He bowed after he undid the bow.
0 3/94 Listen to this conversation.
0 3/90 Re.a d the sentences in pairs to check your answers. Then listen to
. .
the model. !oyce: Roy's so joyful about his birthday, but I don't want to toil around a
party with noisy boys.
Clyde: Instead, you can buy him a nice white Thai kite, or hire a guide 10
Get your tongue around it take him on a night bike ride. That's wild!
Howie: No doubt he'll prefer to go around with his crowd on his bnrnn
\@ 3/91 Exercise 1: Listen to these nouns and adjectives. Change them mountain bike.
into verbs by adding the suffix -ize /arz/. The stress remains in the same
syllable as in the base word. Follow the model. Read the conve~sation in groups of three.

Model: terror
~ You: terrorize Stay tuned
Model: terrorize
You: terrorize (repetition} \ 0 3/95 Exercise 1: Listen and fill in the blanks with one of the words in
parentheses. The spelling rules should help you do it correctly.
\ @ 3/92 Exercise 2: Change the nouns and adjectives you hear into verbs
adding the suffix - ify lrfari. 1. The .hairdresser _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ my hair. (did I dyed)
2. At what time is our
3. The secretary
. arriving? (dinner I diner)
· the form. (filled I filed)
4. Those look awful! (strips I stripes)
P.u 1< / Unit I/ liul,/nu/ n111t /.111 i
.~
Part CI Unit.7 I Jar/, / au/ and l:lrl

'
~. u _ _ __ _ _ __ lady. (prim I prime)
~~11~ 1111 1~ f. A small city is. called u ( ).
6. 'I Im is not working. (kit I kite) g. Sing! I want to hear your ( ).
~, 1 likc thcbeautiful .(rim / rhyme) h. Stay here by my ( ).
i. Quiet! Don't make ( ).
Exercise 2: Now work in pairs. Read the sentences choosing one of the . j. A Jot of people is·a ( ).
alternfltives. Your partner has to make a free comment to show he.understood k. It's not wrong, it's ( ).
what you said. l. It's not day, it's ( ).
m. ( ) plus ( ) equals fourteen.
Example: n. Speak softly; don't ( ).
o. At this moment is the same as ( )'
A: I like th·~ beautiful rhyme. p. I chose it. It wa~ my ( ). {
B: Yeah, it sounds really great. q. At 100° water will ( ).
r. A small rat is a ( ).
A: I like the beautiful rim. s. A sofa is also called a ( ).
D. You mean the rim of the hat?

\. Read the cue and think of the one-syllable word that would best complete
it. All the answers contain a diphthong.

/ar/ - /au/ - /':JI/

l 2 3

Write the number corresponding to the diphthong. The first group to finish
numbering the sentences correctly is the winner.

Example: ·

Milk is produced by ( 2 ). (the word cows has the sound /au/.)

a. ( ) is a dark color.
b. That's not a girl, that's a ( ).
c. If I sell, you ( ).
d. Children play with ( ).
e. I bought it, so now it's ( ).
' . . ~
~ml c /Unit f I /111/, /t1u/ and /~ 1/ i••rt' ""'" '11 •• '"''

/fa'nret1k for fo 1n£t1ks/ Across Down

\ This is the big challenge! Complete the crossword puzzle using phonetic 1. You use it to cut wood. l. preposition
symbols. 2. get · 2. separate (v.)
5. red yegetabk 3. I ; you are
6. not going. 4. under your mouth
3 4 7. should = to 5. shower or
.tS 8. thinking, caring 6. · Give me a _ _ !
12. cut into pieces 9. The planets_ around the sun.
14. advertise on the _ __ 10. _ _up the tank.
17. although 11. You sleep on it. .
18. an alcoholic drink 12. American for lorry
19. cocoa 13. Friends is a TV _ __
21. cold and good 15. You hear with your _ __
23. a car-'-- 16. They sell meat.
25. sick 17. not this
26. Please be at __. 20. addr_ess pronounced as a verb
27. a place for animals (pl.) 21 . passages
28 . opportunity 22. You need these to open doors.
24. a kind of bean

I.

Go back to Think about it and go over the questions again. Then check
your answers in the Answer Key.
• t

•
 .. ENGLISH .SOUNDS IN
r ":' r

3 CONTEXT

Peter Avery and Susan Ehrlich

.. Positional variation
Contrastive sounds ofEnglish
In our description of English .consonants and vowels, we introduced the
sounds in English that contrast; that is, those sounds that can be substituted
for one another in words ro cause a change in meaning. For example, in
English, /8/ contrasts with /s/. We can show this by conmuctirig what are

l
!
termed minimalpairs. These are pairs of words chat differ in meaning on the
basis ofa change in only one sound. The following list of minimal pairs illus-
trates that /8/ and /s/ contrast in English.
I 01 Isl
thank sank
think sink
I
bath bass
L math mass
-'l ·
I In the previous section, 'Individual sounds of English', we presented the
.l articulatory characteristics of the contrastive sounds of English. This infor-
'' mation can be used to help your studenrs who arc having dlfficulcy making
the appropriate contrasts of English.
In linguistics, the study of how sounds pattern in languages is called
phonology. Phonologists study how individual sounds in a pnrriculnr
language can vary depending on their position within a word or sentence.
For example, /p/ in English is pronounced differently in 'pot' and 'spot',
even though English speakers perceive these variations of !pl co be the same
sound. These variants, then, cannot create a meaning difference (as'can I 0 I
and /s/, for example) and are said to be non-contrastive sounds of English.
Because such variants differ on the basis of their position within a word or
sentence, they are c:i.lled positional variants. In chis section,> we will inrroduce
some of the major ~~.icional variants of English and show their relevance in
undemanding the P,rnunciation problems of second language learners.
. .
 ;>.~ • •

Non-contrastive sounds ofEnglish of /t/ arc positional variants. Substituting one for che ocher does noc cause
che meaning of a word to change-it is merely an incorrect pronunciarion
Aspiration
of the word. In some languages, rhe difference berween an aspirated and an
Have a paper handkerchief handy before reading this section. Take the unaspiraced /t/ sound can cause a difference in meaning. For example, Vier·
.• !.
paper handkerchief, hold it about three inches from your mouth and say the namese has both an aspirated arid an unaspirared I ti sound at the beginning
word 'pit' rather loudly. When you release the /p/ sound, a burst of air will ·of words. These are nor jusr variants of the same sound; they represent rwo
blow the paper handkerchief away from your mouth. Now say the word different sounds in the language, just as /ti and /d/ represent cwo different
'spit' while holding the paper handkerchief in the same posicion. This time sounds in English. Therefore, substituting the aspirated /t / for the unaspi-
when you release the /pl sound, there will be no burst of air and the paper rated /t/ in Vietnamese will change the meaning of a word. The follo wing
· handkerchfef will remain in the same position. In both words we have the list illustrates this point. The phonetic symbol for the aspirated /t/ is a /t /
same consonant, /p/, but it is pronounced rather differently. This is a good written with a raised h: I t1' /.
example of positional variation, as a sound is p1onounced differently
depending on the position of the sound within a word. Unaspirated / t/ (as in 'sty') Aspirated /th/ (as in 'de')
Vietnamese Phomtic Meaning Vittnamtst Phonetic Meaning
Try th~ experiment with the paper handkerchief using the following wo.rds: _ spelling transcription
spelling transcription
cua [tua] tassel thua (thua) lose
Table 3.1: Examples ofpositional variation ru [tu) repair rhu (thu] mackere l
tinh (trn) smart rhinh (thrn) silent
the sound /p/ the sound le/ the sound /kl
We can see rhat the aspirated and unaspiraced /t/ are porencially contrastive
pie spy tie Sty key ski sounds in a language. In English, these rwo sounds parrern togerher and are
pool spool tool stool cool school perceived as the same sound. In Vietnamese, these rwo sounds are contras -
pat spat too stew cold scold tive and thus arc perceived as different sounds.
pear spare tore store · core score
Flapping
i s Pronounce the following words in as natural a way as possible, listening co
When you say che words in the firsc, chird, : n.B.fifth columns, there should how you pronounce the It/ in each word:
be a noticeable burst of air on the release of the initial consonant. With the
words in the second, fourth and sixth columns; .there is no such burst of air. cottage p retry bucter coca!
Peter attic pucting city
This burst of air is called aspiration and is cha£!a1teristic of the voiceless stop
If you are a speaker of North American English, your pronunciation of the:
consonants I pl, I ti, and /k/ in English when they occur at the beginning ofa -
/ti in a word such as 'putting' sounds like the /d/ in 'pudding' and these rwo
word. Note char /p/, It/, and /k/ share certain articulatory features. They are.
words are pronounced in exactly the same way. The sound rhat you are using
all scops, that is, they involve a compiece blockage of the airsmam, and they
. is not the same as the /d/ sound in a word such as 'down', however. While it
are all voiceless. This is typical of positional varia.tion. It is rarely restricted co
is a voiced sound ~nd is artic.t.ilared at the tooch ridge like a /d/, it is much
a single sound, but racher is a characteristic ofsounds chat share arciculatory '
shorter than a I di. The tongue touches the tooth ridge.and is quickly pulled
features.
back. This sound is called a flap and its occurrence is one of the major dif-
The difference becweeh the aspirated and unaspiraced /p/, It/, and / k/ is not ferences becWeen North American and British English. The phonetic
contrastive in English. Thar is, there are no minimal pairs that contrast · symbol we. use for a flap is a capital D: ID/.
aspirated and unaspirated / p/, /t/, and/k/. To the English speaker the aspi-
·5 ·When / t/ is pronounced as a flap, ic is a positional variant of the /ti sound. It
rated and unaspirated versions arc really one and the same sound and, thus,
only occurs between vowels when the preceding vowel is stressed. Compare
are positional variants.
the pronunciation of the words below, which con rain aspirated and flap ped
Sounds that are positional variants in one language may contrast in another /ti's in similar positions:
language. Iv; we have seen, in English the aspirated and unaspirated versions
 .
.!:
Fl"pp~d /l/ Aspirated /t/ t" icy. However, students should be given ex:tensive practice in the recognition
piuio po tential ·'!-·
of fl;i.ps. They are very frequen t in the spoken language and the ability to
111eteor meticulous r.:~
.recognize words chat contain flaps ls very important in improving students'
.. platter
citizen
platonic
citation
comprehension of natural speech.

A word ending with a t may be pronounced as a flap if the following word
begins with a vowel. In rapid or informal speech, the italicized Is of the fol-
lowing senrenc.es are usually pronounced as flaps: · Pronounce the following words, concenrraring on the pron unciation of the
I got~ charge out of thac.
The light at the end of the tunnel.
The police shot at him.
He cur a lot of wood yesterday.
Shut up.
Getoutof here.
The flap is also a positional variant of the I di sound when it occurs between
a messed and an unstressed vowel. This creates many homophones (words
that sound the same) between words char have a flapped It/ and a flapped
I di. The following set of words illustrates this:
Flapped /t/ Flapped /d/
purring pudding
lacrcr ladder
debtor deader
bitter bidder
litre leader
Many people feel that the flap, especially when used with 'words spelled with
at, is rhe result of lazy or sloppy speech. However, both the flapped / t/ and
!di are pare of standard North American English and not rhe result oflazy
speech. Narive speakers ofN orth American English often adj usetheir speech
when speaking co non-native speakers by pronouncing /t / ins read of a flap in
words spelled wirh at. For example, in pronouncing a word such as 'city',
they will say (srtiy] rarher than rhe more common (s1Diy]. However, our
srudenrs are not alway exposed to such adjusted speech. We remember an
advanced srudenc telling us .chat he could nor understand a man who came
co his door to read rhe 'water merer'. The srudems mimicked the pronunci-
ation of the flaps in chese words, producing a native-like pronunciation of
'water mecer'- [ waD~r miyD~r] . However, he had no idea whac the~e
common words meant when pronounced in chis way, espedally under the
pressure of rhe communicative sicuation. Thus, we can see rhe importance of
reaching our students about rhe flap.
You should not insist on having scudents pronounce flaps because using a /t/
where native speakers use a flap results in very litcle loss in comprehensibil-
Glottalization
Glottalized It I
!ti sound:
button mutton
mountain fountain
certain curtain
In rhe speech of many North Americans, the pronunciation of the /t / in
rhese words is much different from the pronunciation of che flapped /t / as in
'city', the aspirated It/ as in 'cop', or rhe unaspirated It/ as in 'stop'. This
sound is referred co as a gloi:talized .It!. Ir is a glottalized !ti because the air
moving.out from che lungs is momentarily blocked at che glottis (see Figure
2.1 on page 12) by the coming together of the vocal cords. ln the words
above, the I ti sound is pronounced at the tooth ridge and at the glottis
. . simultaneously.
'
This positional variant of the It/ sound only occurs before unstressed
syllables containing / n/. A word such as 'baton' has an aspirated /t / rather
than a gloctalized /ti because che sylla.ble containing the /n/ is stressed.
The glotralized /ti often occurs in sentences when a word char ends wich a
It! is followed by a word that begins with a consonant. Consider che pro-
nunciacion of the I ti in the following sentences when spoken fairly rap idly:
John bought the book for you.
Bill ate four hamburgers.
Susan saw Pete running down rhe srreec.
The glottal stop
A glottal stop is a non-contrastive souf)d of English chat involves blocka ge of
the air at the glottis. le differs from glottalized / t/ in rhar the congue does noc
touch the cooch ridge in its production. In some British dialects of English,
the gloctal stop occurs as the middle consonant of a wo rd such as 'bottle'.
Thus, in these dialects, it is a positional varianr of / t/. In North American
English, the glottal stop occurs in the eJipression of dismay, 'Uh-oh'; it pre-
cedes the vowels in both syllables.
Many Camone~e speakers of English substitute glocral stops fo r word-final
stops such as I ti and /d/ and this gives their speech a staccato-like rhythm.
 Vowel lengthening Alternacively, learners may use a light /1/ in positions where most English
One other important example of positional variation in English concerns speakers use a dark /1/. This is the c~sc . wich German learners.
the length of vowels. A vowel. is longer when it occurs before a voiced con-
sonant than it is before a voi.ccless one. Pronounce the following pairs of · r-~oloring
words and you will notice the difference in vowel length: We have seen chat consonants can affecrthe pronunciation of a vowel. T hus,
Shorter 'vowel Longer vowel a vowel will be longer before a voiced consonant than before a voiceless one.
(before voicelc~ consonant} (before voiced consonant) The consonant /r/ also affects the pronunciation of vowels. The following
· beat bead list contains the vowels that occur before / r/.
back bag /iI as in 'beer'
bat bad I el as in 'bear'
race raise fol as in 'burr'
loose lose /a/ as in 'bar'
cap cab / u/ as in 'boor'
ESL learners often have difficulty in distinguishing between voiced stops lo/ as in 'bore'
(/b/, /di, lg!) and voiceless ones (/p/, / t/, / k/) in word final position.
Teaching these students to lengthen vowels before voiced scops will often
.. The tense/lax: vowel distinction that is apparent in words such as 'beat' and
· 'bit' is lose when vowels precede /r/. Thus, /iy/ and/ r / do not both occur
help them with the voiced/voiceless distinction. before /r/. What occurs is a vowel between /iy/ and I rl. The same holds
crue for the other tense/lax vowel pairs. When you pronounce each of the
Light and dark I 11 words in the list above, you should concentrate on the tongue position dur-
A further example of posirional variation in English involves the Ill .sound. ing the pronunciation of the vowel and the following IrI sound. Notice char
Say the word 'leaf very slowly prolonging the /1/ sound: '1-1-l-leaf. Now say during the production of the vowel the tongue curls slightly and is p ulled
the word 'feel', again prolonging the /II: 'feel-1-1-1'. During the pronunci- back in the mouth. This pronunciation of vowels when followed by / r/ is :e·
ation of the Ill in 'leaf, the tip of your tongue should be touching the tooth ferred to as r-coloring. ·
ridge. When you pronounce che word 'feel', the tip of your tongue need not If your ESL students are unable to pronounce these I rt so unds, inform them
touch the rooch ridge. However, the back of your tongue is raised so chat it is thac there are many dialects of English, for example British English, where
near the soft palate. The /1/ sounds in chese two words are pronounced the Ir/ is not pronounced after vowels. This will usually make them feel a
rather differently, but native speakers consider chem co be one and the same little better about their difficulty.
sound. The /I/ in 'leaf' is referred to as alight /1/ and the /I/ in 'feel' as a dark
/1/. The light /I/ occurs before a vowel and the dark /I/ occurs after a vowel.
Identify which / 1/ you use in the following list of words. Implications for teaching
leak pull
Production
late pal
plate milk Students may transfer the sound patterns of their native languages inro
English and produce positional variants chat are appropriate to the native
The /I/ sounds in 'leak', 'late', and 'plate' are examples of a light /1/, and
language but inappropriate to English. Consider the case of Spanish learners
those in 'pull', 'pal', and 'milk' are examples of a dark /!/. Notice that you
of English. Spanish speakers generally have difficulty in pronouncing the
cannot substitute a light /I/ for a dark /1/ or a dark /I/ for a light /11 without
l o/ so und in a word such as 'this' or 'the'. However, in many dialects of
making the word sound very strange indeed.
Span is~ the I of sound does, in fact, exist as a positional variant of I di . The
When sounds differ in the way light Ill and the dark /1/ do, learners gener- ! di occurs at the beginning of a word and the /o/ occurs after vowels. In
ally have quite different problems with the two variants and each must be speaking English, a Spanish speaker· may transfer the sound patterns of
practiced separately. Cantonese learners, for example, confuse the light /1/ , ,Spanish onto English. Thus, a word such as 'mad' may be pronounced as
with /n/ and che dark/I/ with lw/ . [ma:o]. When teachers cell Spanish-speaking students co substitute a I di fo r

••
 the incorrect Io/, they will often get a look of disbelief. As Io/ and /d/ are Conclusion
positional variants in Spanish, the Spanish students believe chat the sound
Sounds pattern differently in different langtu1ges What are positional vari·
.. they have produced is a /d/. That is, these two sounds are perceived as being
one an4 che same sound . ants in one language may be. contrasting so.unds in another. In English,
aspirated and unaspirared /ti are positional variants while in Vietnamese
A similar situation exists for Korean learners of English. Korean speakers these are contrasting sounds. In English I di and Io I are contrasting sounds
generally have difficulry in distinguishing between the English /r/ and /1/ while in Spanish they are positional variants.
sounds. However, the /r/ and /!/sounds do exist in Korean as positional
varianrs. The /r/ sound occurs berween rwo vowels and rhe /1/ sound occurs Leve/ ofawareness Native speakers are usually unaware of the differences
at the beginning' or end of a word. between positional variants. English speakers are generally unaware of the
difference between aspirated and unaspirared /p/, It/, or /k/, just as Spanish
When an /1/ sound in English is found between vowels in a word such as speakers are unaware of the difference between /d/ and /o /.
'filing', the Korean speaker may impose rhe sound pattern of Korean onro
English and produce a word char sounds more like 'firing'. As wich rhe Production ofsounds in different positions Pronunciacion teachers musr
Spanish speakers, it is difficult to bring this co rhe consciousness of Korean ensure that sounds are practised in all positions. It is possible char a. student
learners because they usually believe that they have produced an /1/ sound will be able co produce a sound correctly in one position without being able
in words such as 'filing'. They are nor aware that they have produced an co produce ir correctly in another position. ·
fr/, which is a positional variant of the /I/ sound in Korean.
Just as che positional variants ofrhe /ti sound in English are not part of the
consciousness of English speakers, so too the positional variants of rhe I di Grammatical endings
sound in Spanish or o'f the /I/ sound in Korean are not part of the conscious- Grammatical endings are suffixes chat add grammatical information such as
ness of Spanish or Korean speakers. Thus, it is very difficult to correct errors tense or number to nouns or verbs. In chis secrion, we look at rhe pronunci-
chat arise as a resul t of positional variation in sounds. Ir muse be pointed out ation of grammatical endings in English, . using some of rhe concepts
co che students exactly what sound they are producing and under what introduced in the secrion on individual sounds.
circumstances chey are producing this sound. If Spanish speakers can
become conscious of cheir use of rhe /o/ sound or if Korean speakers can
become conscious of rheir use of rhe Ir/ sound, che information will help The re~lar past tense
these learners ro make these sounds in the appropriate positions in English. Read the following words aloud: .
A B
roped robbed
Perception liked lagged
If learners of English are unable ro procluce rhe appropriate variants of a laughed lived
given sound, misinterpretation or incomprehensibility may result. For ex- missed realized
ample, if a learner substitutes an unaspirated /p/, It /, or /k/ for rhe initial wished judged
sound of words such as 'plot', 'rot', and 'cor', narive English speakers may watched hummed
hear rhe voiced scops /b/, Id/, and /g/, understanding rhe words robe 'blot', fanned
'doc', and 'got'. Thus, ic; appears-to the English reacher that rhe learner is nor winged
contrasring voiced and voiceless scops in initial position. However, chis error feared
is nor rhe result of learners failing ro make the voiced/voiceless distinction rolled
between scop pairs, but rather the result oflearners not producing the appro- These words are alt'exa~ples of the regular pasc rense, which is spelled -ed.
priate positional variants of voiceless stops. Thus, in correcting this error, Norice, however, 'chat the past ccnse ending is pronounced differendy in
the teacher should nor focus on rhe difference berween voiced and voiceless coli,unns A and 'B. Furthermore, in neither case is it pronounced as rwo
stops, but rather on the difference berween aspirated and unaspirated scops. sounds bur rather iris pronounced as a single consonant sound.

'
'} '
 The past tense ending of the words in column A is pronounced as /ti ; in. The plural, possessive, and thirdperson singuUzr
column B, it is pronounced as I di. Is the choice of I ti or I di just random or
is there some regularity that will allow us to predict the pronunciation ~f the
The plural
past tense? As these are all examples of the regular past tense ending, we Read the following lists of plural noun forms aloud:
would expect .that the choice of It/ or/~/ would be predictable. By examin- A B
"
ing the phonetic characteristics of the sounds surrounding these past tense · ropes robes
) endings, we will show the way in which the choice is predictable. ..:. cats cads
.~ :~ docks dogs
Recall chat che gifference between It/ and I di is a difference in voicing. Boch J _ ;:
are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the tooth ridge, but the reefs reeves
It / is voiceless and the /d/ is voiced. If the final sound of the verb to which cloths clothes
the past tense is attached is voiceless, the past tense is pronounced as /ti . This gems
is the case with the verbs in column A. For.example, 'rope'; which ends with pawns
che voiceless sound Ip/, has the past tense pronounced as /t/. If the final kings
sound of the verb to which the past tense is attached is voiced, the past tense cars
is pronounced as /d/. This is the case .with the verbs in column B. For ex- halls
ample, 'rob', which ends in the voiced sound /b/, has the past rense We have a single spelling, s, fo r the plural form, but rwo different pro nunci-
pronounced as I di. ations. The plural is pronounced as I sl in column A and as /z/ in column B.
I
Now pronounce the following verbs: ,. As with the past tense ending, these two sounds are made at the same place in
'
wanted the mourh. The only difference is that the I sl is voiceless and the I zl is
deleted voiced. Also, like the past tense ending, the choice of Is I or /z/ is predictable
handed on the basis of the phonetic characteristics of the sounds surrounding the
surrounded plural ending. If the final sound to which the plural is attached is vo iceless,
the plural is pronounced as Isl . This is the case in column A where all the
With these verbs the past tense ending is not pronounced as a It/ or a / d/ , nouns end in voiceless sounds. If the final sound of rhe noun co which che
but as a vowel plus the /d/ sound, Again, these are perfecrly regular verbs and . plural is attached is voiced, the plural is pronounced as /z/ . This is the case in
the pronunciation of the past tense ending is entirely predictable. If the verb column B VJhere all of the nouns end with voiced sounds.
to which the past tense is attached ends with a I ti or a I di, the past tense is
pronounced as /:id /. Now consider the following plural fo rms:

Notice that the past tense ending of a verb that ends with a vowel is pro- mazes
nounced as /d/. This is because all vowels are voiced. T o confirm this for . marshes
houses
yourself, pronounce the words below: ~
churches
flowed judges
glued
prayed . ': With these forms the plural is not pronounced I sl or /z/, bur I n /. If you
have trouble hearing the .final sound as a /z/, tty pro nouncing the words
The fo\lowing rule is a2 plicable co all verbs that have t.h ~ regular past tense with /s/ at the end, making the Is/ very Strong. This should sound m ange.
ending: .·. Now tty pronouncing them wi th / z/, making the l zl very strong. This
should not sound strange at all.
Past tense rule
A If a verb ends with / t/ or I di, the past tense is pronounced /-;id/.
Otherwise,
.. .. .,
$
T here are six different sounds after which the plural is pronounced I n l : I sf,
/ z/, I J/, /3/, /tJ /, and /d3 /. All of these sounds are rathe r high-pitched
sounds and are referred to as sibilants because of this characteristic.
B Jf a verb ends with a voiced sound, the past tense is pronounced I di. '
C If a verb ends wirh a voiceless sound, the past tense is pronounced It/. ; You should be able to p;edict that the plural i~ pronounced /z/ after nouns
.I .•
!
 .,
\~
that end wirh vowels since all vowels are voiced and che plural suffix is voiced Grammatical endings in thepronunciation classroom
after voiced sounds. Pronounce che following nouns chac end wich a vowel.
spas Grammatical endings can be used co make your studencs aware of the im-
pl:iys portant difference between voiced a.nd voiceless consonants. Even students
at a relatively low level"of proficiency have some knowledge of the past tense
dues
bows and plural endings. Provide your scudenrs with a lisr of verbs or nouns and
ask them how they \\\iuld pronounce the past tense or plural form. They
The following rule is applicable to all nouns ch.ac have rhe regular plural usually carch on very Cifickly co rhe disrinction'between voiced and voiceless
ending: soupds.

Plural rule Conclusion

· A Ifanounendswirh/s /, /z/, /J/,/31,/tJ/, or / d3/ (asibilantsound), the in rhis section we have seen how the pr~nunciarion of grammatical endings
plural is pronounced I nl. Otherwise, such as the pa.st tense and plural differ depending on the sound that precedes
B If a noun ends with a voiced sound, the piural is pronounced /z/. them. We have also seen chat the pronunciation of the grammatical·ending
C If the noun ends with a voiceless s·ound, the plural is pronounced Isl. is entirely predictable. Two relatively simple rules rel! us how these suffixes
will be pronounced. Rules of this nature are very common in languages in
Third person singular and possessive genera.I. That is, the pronunciation of sounds will vary depending on the
The Plural Rule is also applicable ro the third person singular present tense phonetic cbntex:r in which they occur and these variations can be stared by a
ending and the possessive ending. Pronounce the following words to con- rule.
firm this. What is interesting about these variations in sounds is that native speakers
Table 3.3: Prommciarion ofthird person singular andposswive are not usually aware of them until they are pointed our. Moseof us consider
rhe regular past tense ending robe ed until it is pointed out to us thar it is ac-
third person singular possessive tually more often pronounced as a /t/ or a /d/. (This is, of course, partly rhe
Isl I /zj I /eiJ I I influence of the spelling system.) This variation in the pronunciation of
Isl lzl /e7l
voicelm .I voiced I 1ibilant voiceless I voiced I 1ibilanr grammatical endings is similar to the variation in the pronunciation of pos-
I I I itional variants in that icis below the level ofconsciousness of native speakers
hopes I lobs I misses Jack's I Doug's : Thomas's and it is entirely predictable based on phonetic context.
laughs I believes I realizes Ralph's I Dave's I Liz's
Exercises
As we can see, the third person singular present tense and the possessive are For each of the errors described in question 6 in rhe previolls chapter
pronounced in exactly the same way as the plural. ·
(page 37), provide three minimal pairs that conrrasr che inconect sound
wirh the correct sound. Wich the consonant errors, [ly co find minimal
Contractions
pairs chat contrast these sounds wol"d-initial!y, word-medially, and w01·d-
The1·e are rwo other situations in which the Plural Rule is applicable. Con- finally. (Nore: This may noc always be possible.)
sider the sentences below where 'is' and 'has' occur in their contracted forms:
2 a. In Japanese, /s/ and ISI are positional variants; IJ I occurs before high
Contraction of 'is' Contraction of'has' . -~ front vowels and /s/ occurs before all ocher vowels. On the basis of chis
· Pat's leaving early. Par's already left. positional variation, how would you predict Japanese learners would pro-
This book's quire interesting. This book's been selling well. nounc;:e the following pairs ofwords?
The dog's a bir thirsry. The dog's been acting strangely. sear sheet
Ilsa's not here yet. . Ilsa's been lace three rimes.
In saying rhese sentences nore how rhe conrracred form of'is' or 'has' is pro-
.. sip ship
·seep sheep
nounced. Nore the parallel between the p·ronunciations of che concracced seed she'd
forms and che plural, possessive, and third person singular endings. -. sin shin
 b. Similarly, / t/ and /tJ/ are positional variants in Japanese; / tj I occurs
before high front vowels and It/ occurs before all other vowels. On the
basis of this positional variation, provide examples of pairs of English
words that Japanese learners may have ·'djfficulty distinguishing. How
would you predict these pairs ofwords would be pronounced?
3 In Spanish, the voiced stops /b/, /d/, and /g/ occur as their fricative
counterparts after vowels. Thus, the positional variant of /b/ is the voiced
·bilabial fricatiye /Bl, the positional variant of/d/ is the voiced interdental
fricative lb/, and the positional variant of lg/ is the voiced velar fricative
/"(/. On the basis of this positional variation, provide examples of English \.1·
words in which /b/, /d/ and/g/ maybe pronounced as /Bl, lo/, and /y/, ;.·.
respectively. How might English speakers interpret these mispronounced
words?
4 Consider how a Polish speaker might pronounce the following words:
Target word Pronunciation
cab /kiep/
rise /rays/
bad /biet/
leave / liyf/
bag /biek/
dock /dak/
ridge /ntJ I
vine /vayn/
side /sayt/
judge /d3AtJ/
zone /zown/
doze /dows /
a. Describe the incorrect substiq.1tions the learner is producing in the
above words.
b. What generalization can you make regarding che learner's pro-
nunciation problem? Him: Think about the class of sounds chat
is mispronounced and the position in which these sounds are
mispronounced.
5 Pronounce each of the following words and provide the phonetic sym-
bol(s) that represenc(s) the sound(s) of the grammatical ending. In each
case explain why-the ending is pronounced as it is.
a reached g stopped m Ralph's
b churches h handed n rags
c lunged i tables o stated
d opened j fixes p piths
c elbows k garages q passes
f Jim's 1 played r robed
 WORD STRESS

5 AND VOWEL REDUCTION

Ilsa Mendelsohn Burns, Peter Avery,

and Susan Ehrlich

What is stress?
Another important dim.ension of English prommciacion is mess. In this sec-
tion, we will represent stress wich dots: che larger the dot, the heavier the
sctess; the smaller che dot, the lighter the stress.
Listen co yourself as you pronounce che following rwo-syllable words:
• •
cabbage • •
cocron • •
sentence
Even chough each word conrains rwo occurences of che same vowel lcrrer,
there are some imporcanc differences in the pronunciation of the rwo vowels
in each of che words. Whac are these diffe rences?
The firsc vowel in each word is louder chan che second; we can hear ic
more easily chan the first. In face, it wouldn't sound too unnatural if we
were to scream ir ouc: 'cabbage!'. Try ir.
.,. '
·~ ' 2 The first vowel in each word is longe~ chan the second. It wouldn'r sound
' . terribly strange if we were co really lengthen it: 'ca-a-a-bbagc'. Try ir.
'
· ., .
,,.,-~·
•':J .
The long, loud vowels thac we find in the firsc syllables of these three words
'f'
f· are stressed vowels. Scress i·nvolves making vowels longer and louder. When
~; teaching students about stress in English, it is a good idea to exaggerate boch.
t.
' r.:' of these properties. This is because in many: ocher languages, slrcss involves
~
f
'.)!
simply making vowels louder or saying che m ac a higher pitch. Therefore,
even if your scudencs understand che concept of scress, chey may sciII need co
~ be taught chat, in English, stressed vowels are both lo-o-o-onger and louder.
1
·]:

Schwa
Now, lee us look ac some common two-syllable words .

.
'

,' ,
.!" :
 Table 5.1 Ocher word pairs exhibit this same alternation:
spelling a e i 0 u •• • •
•. ••
photograph photography
suess

groupA adas college

••tulip
••
anchor
••
lettuce
•
drama•
•
•
dramatic
disiant
palace
illness
socket
cousin
promise
purpose
ribbon
minute
circus
••
democrat ••
democracy

stress .• .• .• .• • •
The first vowels ofthese pairs ofwords are full in rhc first column where they
are srressed, and reduced to schwa in the second column where they are
group B advice escape disease offend suggest unstressed. Similarly, the second vowds of these pairs ofwords are full in che
canoe dessert divide co main subtract second column where chey are stressed, and reduced to schwa in rhe first
machine reveal ignore tonight support column .wher~ they are unstressed.
ESL students, generally, have to be taught explicitly to reduce unstressed
When you pronounce these words, notice that all the words in Group A are vowels co schwa. One reason for chis is that their native languages may not
stressed on the first syllable and chose in Group B are stressed on the second have reduced vowels in unstressed syllables. For example, Spanish speakers
syllabic. Now concentrate on the vowel of each word chat is not stressed. In have a difficult time in learning to reduce vowels co schwa because, in Span-
spite of the many vowel letters represented in these unstressed syllabics, they ish, unstressed vowels are not shortened and reduced to the extent that they
are all pronounced in almost exactly rhe same way. This may be difficult to are in English. This affects both the pronunciation of individual words and
hear at first, In comparison to vowels made in stressed syllables, these vowels the overall rhythm of sentences. Furthermore, the English spelling system
are much shorter and quieter. As a result, they are often described as reduced has no way of representing the schwa and thus students may give the
vowels in contrast to the vowels of stressed syllables which are described as reduced, unstressed vowels the sound value that rhey associate with the
fall vowels. Pay close accenrion to rhe unstressed a, e, i, o, and u: 'aclas', vowel letter used in the word chey are attempting to.pronounce.
'colJege', 'promise', 'purpose', 'lettuce'. The vowel sound chat you use in the In helping your scudems co become more aware of the effect of stress and
unstressed syllables is called schwa. We previously described the schwa as a unstress on vowels, you might want co give chem a list of common English
.. mid central vowel (see 'Individual sounds': 'Vowels', page 52). In general,
unstrmedvowds in English are pronounced as schwa and, because of this,
the schwa is the most frequently occurring vowel sound in English. Recall
words such as chose provided above. Try two-syllable words first, having
them pay close attention to rwo things:
that the schwa is represented by the phonetic symbol /-;if. a. which syllable is stressed
b. how the vowel in the unstressed syllable is pronounced relative to the

...
If you have difficulty hearing the schwa in the rwo-syllable words above, stressed vowel.

Canada
.
consider the following pair of words:
••• Canadian
. 'Canada' is stressed on rhe first syllable while 'Canadian' is stressed on the
second. Compare the pronunciation of rhe first vowel in each word. Norice
tharwhen this vowel is s"rressed, it is pronounced as /re/. However, when this
vowel is unstressed, it is pronounced as (-;i/, schwa.
Now consider the second syllable in this pair of words. When the vowel in
the second syllable is unstressed, as in 'Canada', it is pronounced as fa(,
schwa. When the same vowel is stressed, as in 'Canadian', it is pronounced
as /ey/.
Be careful that you are actually pronouncing the vowels in unstressed syl-
lables as schwa. If you try to say the words from our lists in isolation, there is
a danger.that you will pronounce them in a manner different from the way
they arc normally pronounced in sentences. For example, the first vowel in a
word such as 'advice' is pronounced as schwa in normal speech. In order co
con~rm chis for yourself, pronounce the weird in the context of the fol-
lowing sentence.
He gave me some good advice.
le is extremely important for both yo~ and your students co recognize chat
pronouncing unstressed vowels as schwa is nor lazy or sloppy. All native
spea,kers of Standard English (inC!uding the Queen of England, the Prime
Minister of Cnnacla, and rhe President of rhe Un ired Scares!) use schwa. Fur- ·
thcrmorc, rhe speech of your students will be more natural and easier for
orhcrs to understand ifthey can master the use ofschwa. In rhe ·next section,
'Connecred speech', we discuss the importance of schwa to the overall
rhythm of English sentences.
Major and.minor stress· !('
.,..
Very often 'in words with more than one syllable, all the vowels in rhe
unstressed syllables are pronp4nced as schwa. We have already seen chis to
be true in two-syllable words. NOW consider the three-syllable words below.
The first gr~up is messed on the first syllable; the second is messed on che
~econd syllable., · English, ESL students may want to know if rhere is any ruLe for the place-
List A List B
•••
acrobat
celebrate
· relephone
The first syllable of all three words receives major stress, the second syllable is
unstressed and the final syllable receives minor srress. Notice char it is only
rhe second syllabic, the one that is unstressed, rhar is reduced to schwa.
Thus, our generalizarion about unstressed syllables reducing co schwa does
not apply to syllables receiving minor stress.
Placement ofword stress
Given the relarionship between mess and the pronunciation of vowels in
ment of stress. Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules. T hus, stress

•accident
•• •••
addition
patterns must often be leamed with eachyocabulary item. However, in the
sections rhat follow, we provide a few generalizations regarding rhe place-
calendar diploma ment of stress in English.
elephant completion
instrument proportion , Two-syllable words
oxygen opinion •~
,.
~··
1·
The major stress on two-syllable words is more likely to fall on rhe first
vegetable conclusion syllable if the word is a noun, and on the second syllable if the word is a verb.
If you look carefullyanhe two-syllable words on page 97, you will see char
N orice in saying these words that all of the vowels in rhe unstressed syllables, mosr of the words in group A, which are stressed on the firsr syllable, are
regardless of how they are spelled, are pronounced as schwa. The difference nouns, while most of the words in group B, which are smssed on the second
between List A and List B is only that the words in List A are stressed on rhe syllable, are verbs. More than 90 per cent of all English nouns of two
first syllable and the words in List B.are stressed on the second syllable. syllables are stressed on che first syllable, and more rhan 60 per cent of all
Now cry pronouncing the following two-syllable words. Pay arrenrion to the English verbs are messed on the second syllable. Try ro have your scudenrs
come to this conclusion themselves. One way ro do chis is co have chem
way in which the italicized syllable is pronounced.
volunteer two-syllable words. You can rhen help chem ro discover rhar rhe
••
athlete
vast majority of nouns are stressed on rhe first syllable while many verbs are
stressed on the second syllable.
contact
boycott A good example of the difference in mess on nouns and verbs involves
relared noun-verb pairs in English. These are words rhac function as nouns
Boch syllables in these words are stressed bur the first syllable receives when messed on the first syllable, and as verbs when stressed on rhe second
stronger srress than the second. Because the second syllable receives some syllable. Consider the following two sentences, paying amnrion co the
stress, iris nor pronounced as schwa. We say that the first syllables of these placemem of mess in the italicized words.
words receive major stress and char the second syllables receive tninor mess.
a. The unhappy customer may inmlt the manager.
What we have been calling stressed syllables up to rhis point can be more ac-
curately described as syllables with major stress. b. Thar's an imu/t.
In (a), the verb 'insulc' receives major mess on the second syllable. In (b), the
Now pronounce the three-syllable words below. Try to determine where the noun 'insulc' receives maj9r stress on che first syllable. There are many noun-
major.suess occurs in these words and "".here the minor stress occurs. verb pairs of rhis cype. Here are some more examples:
.(:JI
:,, 1 Nouns Verbs word andsomccimes as two separate wor.ds. The way in which they are wri t-
~.
·. ;· .
.·: • • (or•) .• ten, however, does not affecc cheir stress pattern.
produce
pervert
produce
pervert (
••
' airplane ••
bedtime • ••
eyelid
record record .~ armchair birthplace farmhouse
convert convert ~ backache doorbell file clerk ·
present present bookstore haircut gold-dust
conflict conflict classroom hair-sr.yle gold mine
perfe~t perfect
conduct conduc[ In order to illustrate further the stress patterns of compounds, it is helpful co
project consider the.differences between adjective-noun phrases and adjective-noun
project
contrast contrast compounds. In the adjective-noun phrases below, major stress falls on the
contract confracc noun and minor stress falls o.n the adjeccive. 'T <., Vo, l 1-']

Three-syllable words
• •
That's a black board. (a board that is black)
1

He works in a green house. (a house that is green)

With words of three syllables, che·major scress usually falls on the first or I saw a black bird. (a bird that is black)
second syllable. In list A below, major mess falls on the first syllable; in list B,
major stress falls on che second syllable. · In the adjective-noun compounds below, however, major mess falls on the
adjective and minor stress falls on the noun.

•
List A List B
• •• • •
That's a blackboard. (a board for writing on- green or black)
instrument commercial He works in a greenhouse. (a place to grow plants)
calendar vanilla I saw a blackbird. (a kind of bird) .
curious develop The difference between adjective-noun phrases and adjective-noun com-
sentiment astonish pounds illustrates che importance ofstress in.determining meaning. For this
document opponent
.. In Liscs A and B, all of the syllables without major scress are unstressed and
reason, ic is beneficial to have students disringuish between phrases and
compounds on che basis of stress.
therefore, che vowels of these syllables are pronounced as schwa. With many
'I,1 three-syllable words stressed on the first syllable, the final syllable receives Suffixes
minor stress. Some examples are provided below:
With certain suffixes in English, the placement of major smss is predictable .
• • •
artichoke
Sometimes chis results in what is termed a scress shift. For example, che
relaced words:
hurricane
appetite
crocodile
•• •
photograph.
• •• •
photography
• •••
photographic
porcupine all receive major stress on a different syllabic. This change in stress is caused
congregate by the addition of the suffixes -y and ·ic.
The following rules describe che effects of particular suffixes on stress place-
Compounds ment. Mose of the examples we provide below are words of Greek and Lacin
In compound words, stress placement is very regular. Consider the words origin. These words will often be familiar to Portuguese, Spanish, Italian,
'drug' and 'store', which form 'drugstore' when combined. Notice where the French, and Greek students because they exist in their native languages.
stress falls on this compound; the first word receives major stress and the This familiarity can cause problems for such students because the stress pac-
second wo rd receives minor mess. All of the compounds listed below have teC!).s will almost always be different in English than in the students' native
this same S[l'CSS puccern. Th~sc compounds are sometimes. wrircen as one languages.
/ly
Mujor 111rn is ulways on the syllable before the suffix -ity:
•
Noricc rhc changes: possible
able
•
possibility
ability
-ation

' .
Major stress is always on the first syllable of che suffix:

"N ocice the changes: accuse

perspire
•
accusation
perspiration
festive fescivi ty invite invitation
Other examples: activity Ocher examples: administer administration
cpmmuniry appreciate appreciation
diversity communicate communication
. maturity explain explanation
responsibility populace population
univcrsi cy participate participacio n

·i'c Conclusion
Major stress is always on the syllable before the suffix -ic: Devoting class time to these rules of stress placement can benefit your Stu·
•
Notice the changes: democrat •
democratic
dents as it can save them the trouble of memorizing the stress patcerns of
many vocabulary items. Once your students have discovered the correct
magnet magnetic placement of major stress in words such as the ones above, ensure that they
alcohol alcoholic
pronounce che vowels in the unstressed syllables as schwa.
Ocher examples: antiseptic
athlete athletic
cosmetic Exercises
economy economic 1 Consider the stress patterns of the follo"."'ing word pairs:
mechanism mechanic
Noun Verb
apologetic
graduate graduate
·ical alternate alternate
Major stress is always on the syllable before the suffix · ical: "
~. :

duplicate duplicate

•
Notice the changes: alphabet •
alphabetical
moderate
syndicate
moderate
syndicate
history historical estimate estimate
psychology psychological What is the diffe rence between che pro nunci:ilion ol the final vowels i11
Ocher examples: theory cheorecical the nouns and the verbs? What is t he stress pattern n( 1he nouns? Wha t is .
chemical the stress paner~s of che verbs?
dectrical
2 Consider the following word pairs:
identical
politics political . Noun Adjective
technical government governmenral
instrument instrumental
'development developmental
departrncQt departmental
What is the difference between the pronunciation of -ment in the nouns
and the adjectives? What is c.he stress pattern of the nouns ?What is the
mess pattern of the adjectives?
 72 The round system ofEnglirh

3. In Polish, major mess generally falls on che second-co-lase syllable of a

word. Thus,. a Polish speaker might pronounce the words below in the
following way (we use italics to indicate where the stress is placed):
believe atlas
conceive Canada
table mustard
economical cigarette
economics midget
dividen4 paper
abandon picture
apprehend disagree
acrobat dilemma
Determine which of these words is stressed correctly and which is stressed
incorrectly.
4 Consider the pronunciation of the following words when the suffix -y is
added:
Group 1
democrat democracy
aristocrat aristocracy
photograph photography
.. diplomat
Group 2
diplomacy

literate literacy
secret secrecy
pirate piracy
consistenr consistency
private privacy
confederate confederacy !1
In Group 1, stress shifts upon the ~dition of the suffix -y whereas in
Group 2, scress does not shift. What !\Cneralizacion can you make regard-
ing the effect of the suffu -y on stress?.J.Describc any changes to the vowels
of Group I which are associated .,Yirh .the stress .shift.

• ". r ,
.......... _
6 CONNECTED SPEECH

Peter Avery, Susan Ehrlich, and Douglas Jul!

The segmental aspects of the EngliSh . ·sound system-consonants and

vowels-are often distinguished from the supra.segmental aspects-rhythm,
stress, and intonation. In this section, we describe rhe rhythm, srre'ss, and
intonation pacterns ofEnglish phrases and sentences, and some of rhe modi-
fications of segments rhat occur as a result of rhese pamrns. If our students
are to develop fluent, natural English, we must consider chese aspects of
pronunciation as they are essential co the production of connected speech.

Rhythm, sentence stress, and intonation

The stress-timed rhythm ofEnglish
English is a stress-timed language. In a st ress-timed la.nguage, chere is a
tendency for messed syllables to occur ac regular intervals. The amounr of
time it takes to say a sentence in a stress-timed language depends on the
number of syllables that receive mess, either major or minor, not on the
total number of syl1ables. Unlike English, many languages of the world are
syllable-timed. This means chat the amount of cime required co say a sentence
depends on the number of syllables, noc on che num~er of stresses.

Figure 0.1 : The rhythm ofa syllable-rirrud language

Figure 6.2: The rhythm ofa stress-timed language

 The stress-rimed narure of English can be illustrated by the sentences below: English words can be divided imo two groups: content words and function
words. Content words are chose words chat express independent meaning.
I~cl_uded in this group are:
i B i r d s e a t w 0 r m s. 1 Nouns
2 Main Verbs
The bi f d S e a t w 0 r m s. 3 Adverbs
4 Adjectives
The bi f d S e a t thew or ms. 5 Question Words (e.g. why, when, what)
6 Demonstratives {this, that, these, those)
The bi f d S wmea t thew or ms. 11"
,," Content words are usually stressed.
I
I

The bi f d S wiJlhave ea ten thew or ms. Function words are words chat have litde or no meaning in themselves, bur
which express grammatical relationships. Function words include:
Figure6.3 {
1 Articles (a, an, the) .
. 2 Prepositions (e.g. at, to, of)
When you say each of these senrences, the same three syllables are .'~ .,
,: 3 Auxiliaries {e.g. will, have. and forms of the verb be)
stressed- 'birds', 'ear', and 'worms'. Although the sentences become 4 Pronouns (e.g. her, him, it, chem)
~; .
increasingly longer in terms of the number of syllables, it cakes approxi- 5 Conjunctions (e.g. and, or, as, that)
mately che same amount of time to say them. You can rest chis yourself. Use
6 .Relative pronouns (e.g. that, which, who)
your index finger to tap out a regular rhythm on the edge of a table, keeping
the beats constant, ac about one beat per second. Say the sentences above, so Function words arc usually unstressed, unless ihey are to be given special
that the three stresses in each sentence coincide with a tap. In doing this, you attention.
should notice that the unstressed words are greatly reduced in comparison co Placement of main stress in sentences
the stressed ones. It is as though the unstressed words muse be sandwiched
While all content words receive major word stress, one content word within
together in order ro allow the stressed syllables to recur at regular intervals.
a particular sentence will receive greater stress t~ian all the ochers. We refer to
In the examples above, all the vowels in the unstressed syllables are pro-
this as che major sentence stress. In most cases the major sentence stress falls on
nounced as schwa. As was discussed in che section 011 word stress, chis is a
the lase content word within a sentence. Consider the pronunciation of che
reduced vowel. As it is a reduced vowel, it rakes much less time to pronounce
sentences below:
than a full vowel. It is the reduction associated with the schwa that is in large
.. pan responsible for the characteristic rhythm of English. • • • • • •• •
Susan bought a new sweater at Creeds .
•
Languages such as Spanish, French, Cantonese, and Polish are syllable-
timed languages. ESL students who speak a syllable-rimed language will • home
•I walked • •
• in• the• rainstorm.
often assign e.qual weight to each syllable in English sentences, regardless of
whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed. This may give their speech a
• • • • • • ••
Peter likes your suggestion.
staccato-like rhythm chat can adversely affect the comprehensibility of their In each of these sentences, the s~ressed syllable of the final comen t word re-
English. ceives the inajor sentence stress.
With individual words, we distinguished between three levels of stress:
Placement ofstress in sentences major, minor, and unstress. With sentences, we must distinguish between
four levels of stress: major sentence stress, major word stress, minor word
Content versus function words
stress, and unstress. Thus, in the sentence 'I walked home in rhe rainstorm',
For students co produce sentences that have the appropriate stress patterns 'I', 'in', and 'the' are function words and are unstressed; 'walked', 'home',
and thus the appropriate"English rhychrn, it is necessary chat they know and 'rainstorm' are content words and receive major word stress; and 'rain-
which words of a sc:ritence are stressed and which arc not stressed. storm', in addition, receives the major sentence stress. As 'rain' is the syllable
of 1hlR coment word that receives major word stress, it is also rhe syllable that'
receives major sentence stress. This makes 'rain' both louder and longer than
'walked' and 'home'. Since 'rainstorm' is a compound, 'storm' receives
minor word suess. ·
In some cases major sentence stress will not.fall on the major stressed syllable
of the final content word of a sentence. That is, when a speaker wishes to
direct the hearer's attention to some other content word in the sentence, this
word will receive. major sentence stress. Consider the following dialogue:
• • • • •
Speaker A What did you buy ac Creeds?
• the meaning of English sentences. These changes in pitch in English occur
• • • • •• • •
Speaker ·a I bought a new sweat;er at Creeds.
•
Nocice that the second sentence does not receive major sentence stress on
'Creeds', but rather on rhe stressed syllable of'sweater'. This is the element
of the sentence that Speaker Bis directing Speaker A's attention to. We call
this element the infannation focus of the sentence. Generally, it is the messed
syllable of the content word representing information focus that receives
major sentence stress. Most often, the information focus occurs at the end of
a sentence. Indeed, a more natural response to Speaker A's question abov~
would be: 'I bought a new sweater', or simply 'A new sweater'.
Contrastive stress
It is also possible for major sentence stress ro function contrastively. Con-
sider rhe following shore dialogues. In rhe first, the contrast takes the form of
a contradiction. In the second, the contrast takes the form of a choice
between alternatives. ('We use capital letters to represent contrastive stress.)
Speaker A I hear that Susan bought another second-hand sweater.
Speaker B No, she bought a NEW sweater.
Speaker A Did Susan buy a new sweater or a second-hand one?
Speaker B She bought a NEW sweater.
We might expect the major sentence stress in Speaker B's responses to fall on
'sweater' because it is the final content word of both sentences. However,
notice chat it is the contrasted information in Speaker B's responses that
receives major sentence stress, i.e., the fact that the swearer is new. This con-
rrasrive stress can be eve1,1 heavier and louder than the normal major sentence
stress, particularly in sentences where a contradiction is being made.
Intonation
What is intonation?
Intonation is often called the melody oflanguage since it refers to the pattern
of pitch changes that we use when we speak. ff you listen to someone
speaking, you will notice that there arc many changes in pitch. These pitch
changes are called intonation patterns and play an important role in convey-
ing· meaning. Some languages, like Cantonese, Mandarin, and Viemamcse,
use· pitch to distinguish word meanings. For example, in Mandarin, the
word na said with a rising pitch means' to take'. Said. with a falling pitch, ir
means 'to pay raxes'. Languages that use pitch to signal a difference in mean-
ing between words are referred to as tone languages. English does not use
pitch in this way. Nevertheless pitch changes do contribute significantly to
over entire clauses or sentences and different pitch patterns can signal very
different meanings for rhe same sentence.
In the following sections, we introduce some of the basic intonation patterns
of English. We represent these patterns wirh arrows.
i''
Final i~tonation
Risingfalling intonation Listen to yourself when you say rhe following
sentence:
\ :
Susan bought a new swearer.
Notice that rhe pitch of your voice rises at the major sen tence stress, the first
syllable of the word 'swearer', and falls over rhe second syllable of this word.
The pitch of the en tire sentence is referred to as che intonation pattern. The
pattern in chis sentence is rising-falling. Ir is the most common intonation
pattern in English and is characteristic of simple declarative sentences, com-
mands and questio ns chat begin with a wb-word, such as 'who', 'what',
'when', 'where', 'why', or 'how'. Say the sentences below, concenrraring on
the pitch change at rhe word receiving major sentence stress.
~
He wants to go home.
~
She gave him five dollars fo r ir.
~
Give her a sweater.
~
What do you want to do with it?
In each case, the pitch rises at the major sentence stress and falls over che
remaining pare of the sentence. This descent in pitch can be rather abrupt,
especially when it must be accomplished over just one syllable as is the case
with 'home' in the first sentence. When the voice falls to the bortom of che
pitch range, it usually indicates that the speaker has finished speaking.
! .. \'
 Rising intonation Listen co the pitch of your voic~ when you say the fol- Here the pitch rises and falls on rhe word 'ability', and also on rhe word
lowing sentence: . 'scholarship'. On 'scholarship', the pitch drifts to the bottom of the pitch
Did Susan buy a new sweater? range, while on 'abiliry', the pitch does noc fall nearly as far. The imonacion
Notice again chat rhe pitch of your voice rises at rhe major sentence srress. contour on the first half of the sentence is a non-final rising-falling contour.
However, rather ch;in a sharp decline in pitch level after the stressed syllable, The following senrerices usually have rvio intonation contours-the non-
as with the rising-falling intonatio.n pattern, the voice continues to rise. The final contour on the first phrase and the final contour on the second. We
. intonation pattern in chis case is rising and is characteristic of questions chat represent these contours slightly differently, as shown by the arrows. The
requir.e a simple yes or no answer. arrow on the non-final contour does not go as far down asir docs for the final
contour. (We indicate chac there should be two separate concours by the use
In order to f~iliarize yourself with this pattern, say the following sentences, ~ nJ . . .
concentrating on the pitch of your voice. We represent chis intonation pat-
~~
-- .
tern with a rising arrow.
When John left the house II ir was raining.
~
Does he want to go home? ---___..:._· . ~
The man you say you met yesterday I I has left rown.
~
Did she give him five dollars for it? ~ ---/e\
After we have dinner II we'll go to a movie.
~
Couldn't she have seen him?
Thus, a fall ac the end of the sentence.to the lowesc pitch possible indicates
chat our thought is complete, and a fall char is not co the boccom of rhe pi rch
~ range indicares that we still have more to say. It is very useful to bear this in
mind when listening to your students' pronunciation. Our experience is rhat
Do you wane to give it to him?
if a scudenc does noc have a large enough drop in pitch in ending a sentence,
~
Do you chink he wanes it?
native speakers will expect chat there is more to come. This can lead co em-
barrassing silences and communication breakdowns.
This intonation contour is used to express doubt. That is, rhe speaker is not Continuation rise Say the following sentence.
sure what the answer to the question is and would like the information sup· Susan bought a new sweater, new shoes, and a new dress.
·plied. We can turn a si mple statement into a yes/no question through the
This intonation contour of chis sentence is termed a continuation rise and is
use of rising intonation. For example, if we say:
often us.ed with lists. The pitch of the voice rises slightly on each noun of the
---/. list, indicating that we are not yet finished speaking. On che final noun of

--. -.
the list, we find the farnilia'r rise-fall. Pronounce the following sentences ir,
John lefr town.
order to familiarize yourself with this pattern.
with a rising intonation, we are not making a statement. We are expressing
some doubt regarding rhe truth of the statement, indicating to the listener .,,.,.--
.. char a response is required. Thus, we can see chat inronation parrems can -------.._/. ~
He bought apples, peaches, pears, and oranges .
concribute co sentence meaning in English.
~ __;. ---f.\
Non-final intonation
Rising-falling intonation
Comp lex sentences o~cn have rwo separate intonation patterns. An example
of such a sentence is providcd below.
--_/.....
I'll have two pencils, a black pen, and some ink.

<..--~
We went to Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam, and London.

~ -;~
Because of his athletic abiliry, he was given a scholarship.
I saw Esther, Jane, Neil, and Susan.
So111c romplcx sentences display a continuation rise on the first half rather'
rl11u1~ ~
If you wane to get ahead, you have co work hard.
In this sentence, the int~n.ation may rise slightly on t~e word 'ahead'. Fol- ·
lowing a slight pause; we find the rising-falling contour on the next clause.
potential for ESL scudems to be misundersrood if their intonation patterns
are coo dissimilar from the English ones. For example, many languages of
the world display less pitch variation than English. Thus, learners who speak
these languages may unwittingly convey boredom or lack of incerest through
the use of too narrow a pitch range.

Tag questions . Modifications of sounds in connected speech

Tag questions can display either final rising-falling or final rising intonation
contours. Their meaning will differ depending on which of these contours is The characteristic stress and intonation patterns of English have a profound
used. Pronounce the following rag questions with the intonation contours effect on che pronunciation ofsounds in connected speech. In pardcular, the
indicated: fact char function words in English are generally unstressed and reduced
_./' makes them almost unrecognizable co beginning ESL students. In chis sec-
tion, we provide specific information regarding che ways in which sounds
~. are modified in connected speech. In addition, we discuss the ways in which
Deanna's helpful, isn't she?
words are linked co one another in phrases andsenrences. Such information
~~ is not only important in helping students to improve their production of
Deanna's helpful, isn't she? spoken English, but is also essential in hdping scudenrs co improve rhcir
comprehension.
The first sentence, with a rising contour, indicates char the speaker genu-
inely does noc know whether Deanna is helpful and wants the liscener to
provide this information. The second sentence, with a rising-falling con- The pronunciation offunction words
-tour, indicaces that the speaker believes chat Deanna is helpful and is merely Strong forms and weak forms
eliciting confirmation from the listener.
When function words are spoken in isolation, chey are messed; that is, they
Tag questions with rising-falling intonation are very often used co begin arc pronounced in their strong form. In connected speech, where function
conversations. For exampl~, in attempting to begin a conversation wich a words arc normally unstressed, they arc pronounced in their weak form. In
stranger, one might say: the following list of words, compare rhe pronunciation of the strong forms
ro the pronunciation of the weak forms.
---./i\~ Strong form Weak form
Lovely day, isn't it?
can [kren) [bin)
In uttering chis sentence, the speaker is nor demanding an answer to a ques-
will [wtl) [wol). [ol]
tion bur rather opening the lines of communication.
have [hrev] [ov], [vl
to [tuw] [to]
Speaker attitude
he [hiy) (iy)
Speaker attitude can be signalled through the use of pitch variation in into- them [oEm] [o<im), [om]
nation patterns. For example, if we raise our pitch, we may be indicating and (rend) [on], {n)
surprise; if we lower our pitch, we may be indicating anger. If we expand our
pitch range (that is, if our high pitches become higher and our low ones Nore: In many cases where we find schwn + / n/, che resul cing sound ii closer to whar is
termed a syllabic nasal. We consistently cranscribc this as /~n / . We do however agree
become lower), we may be indicating deference. If we narrow our pitch chat chere is really no vowel miculacion in chis sound.
range, we may be indicating boredom.
Below we list the specific ways in which strong forms of function words are
Given che role of intonation in conveying speaker attitude, there is great modified in con nected speech.

'·
 ,·
1 The vowel is reduced co schwa in function words such as 'ro', 'rhem', If your students arc having difficulty in reducing function words in sen-
'the', ··a', 'and', 'as', and 'of. tences, it is a good idea to give them pairs of words and phram like the ones
Examples: He wenr co rhe store. (hiy WEnt ta Oa Stor) above. Have rhern concentrate on pronouncing both members of the pair
Give them a break. [grv oam a breyk) with' the same rhythm. This type ofexercise can aid students in undmrand-
Apples and oranges. [repalz. and orand3az] ing rhe extreme reduction that function words undergo in connected
As sweet as sugar. [az. swiyt az Jugar] speech.
A cup of coffee. [akAp \lV kafiy)
2 An initial consonant can be lost, as with the pronouns 'he', 'him', 'her', Contractions
and 'them'. ·
Auxiliary verbs, such as 'will' and 'have', and some forms of the verb 'be',
Examples: Where did he go? [wer drd iy gow] often display both rhe loss of a consonant and the loss of a reduced vowel.
Have you seen him today? [hrev yuw siyn am tadey] The resulring forms are referred to as contractions. Contractions always
I warched her do ir. [ay watJt ar du w It] involve the loss of rhe inirial consonant of the auxiliary verb. In written form
l watched rhem last night. [ay watJt am !rest nayt) the ·vowel is also lost. Whether the vowel. is lose in spoken form depends on
3 Some function words lose their final consonants. This is particularly true the preceding sound.
of 'of' and 'and'.
Examples: A cup of coffee. [a kAp a kafiy) Contractions with 'will' and 'have' The auxiliary verbs 'will' and 'have' are
A lot of nonsense. [a lat a nansEns) contracted to the single consonants I.JI and /v f if rhe preceding word ends
Cream and sugar. [kriym an fugar) with a vowel sound, as in the (A) senrences below. If the preceding word
Now and then. (naw :moen] ends with a consonant, they are usually pronounced as /al/ and fa v/, as in

Words and phrases .).: rhe (B) sentences below.

Written form Spoken form
·

I
. l.
Due to the reduction of function words in phrases, some phrases can sounc! A They'll arrive soon. [9eyl arayv suwn)
like single words. Consider the following sentences: i- They've finished. [9eyv fnuft]
;u;
-~~ (
All of her seams ripped. [al av :ir siymz rrpt] · B John'll arrive soon. (d3anal -:irayv suwn]
Oliver seems ripped. [al:ivar siymz npt] The men have finished. [o::i men :iv f:rruft]
When spoken ar a normal conversational rate, the phrase 'all of her' and rh~
name 'Oliver' are pronounced in the same way. In both cases, the first syl- Contractions with 'would' and 'had': When concracced, the auxiliaries
lable has major srress and the second and third syllables are unstressed. The 'would' and 'had' are both pronounced as !di or /-:id/ depending on the pre-
function words 'of and 'her' occur in rheir weak forms. The vowels ar~ ceding sound, as was the case with 'will' and 'have', 'Would' and 'had' are
reduced to schwa and the inirial consonant of 'her1is deleted. (For speakers contracted to the single consonant I di if rhe preceding word.ends with a
who have the distinction beteween /a/ and /'J/, the initial vowels in these vowel. as in the (A) sentences below. If che preceding word ends wirh a con-
sentences may be differenr.) so~arit, they are usually pronounced as fad/, as in the (B) sentences below.

Below we give furrher examples of comparable phrases and polysyllabic Written form Spoken form
words. Say each word a~d phrase at a normal conversational rate and notice A I'd like co se.e you. [ayd layk t-:i siy yuw]
char ~oth are pronounced in a similar way. He'd never seen ir before. (hi yd n£var siyn at b~for)
approximare confederate orthopedic ,B The boss would like co see you. [oa bas -:id laykta siyyuw]
a box ofo can berter it or to feed ir Bob had never seen ir before. [babad nev~r siyn ~t b~for]

.. justifiable
j usr as viable
opinion
a pinion
alphabetize
half of her size
'
Con~actio~s· with 'is' ana'has' When 'is' and 'has' are conrracted they are
also indistinguishable. As was pointed out in the section on 'Grammatical
Acknowledgement: Some of these examples are taken from Woods (1979). .
:~ . endings' (page 50), the pronunciation ofthese forms follows the Plural Rule.
 Pronounced as /~z/ after the sibila~t sounds /s/,_/z/, /J/, /3/, /tf/, and' ,. C(labial) +V C(denta1).+ V C(alveolar) t V C(palata.l) t V C(velar) +V
.. /d3/:
The .boss is mad.
.
[o~ bas ~z mred]
sropjt
grabjt
withJt
breachvt
washedjt' · · casf\.,our
playec\_pn
bacl~put
camouAageJc drag_puc
The church has been closed. [o:i tJ:irtJ:iz bxn klowzd] cameJn ru'Vround rnarchJn singjt
Pronounced as /s/ afcer the voi.celess consonants /p/, /t/, /k/, If /, /0/: lauglvbout paS5u0Ut rage._,on
What's the problem? J (WAtS O~ prabl~m) leave._,early carve5uUP
My cat's been sick. [may krets bm slk] foo!Jiround
Pronounced ;is lzl after vowels and the voiced consonancs /b /, ! di, I gl, l vl , fairuenough
fol, Im/, lni, /IJI, Ill and/(/:
C = consonant V=vowel
The dog's outside. [o~ dagz awtsayd]
Who's been asking anywax?· [huwz bm resklIJ rniywey] Linking consonants to consonants
Contractions with 'not' Contraccions arc also formed wi!h auxiliary verbs When a word chat ends with a scop consonant is followed by a word that
and 'not', Because contraccions with 'not' are stressed, the scrong form of rhe begins with a consonant, the stop consonant is usually not released. That is,
auxiliary is used. che tongue or lips will move ro the place of articulation of che stop consonant
and then move immediately to the place of articulation for che next conso-
Written form Spoken form Compare nant. Read the following examples, noting how che co nso nant ac the end of
She can't hear me. [Jiy krent hir miy] She can hear me. the first word in. each pair is pronounced.
[Jiy kl)n hir miy]
p_+ t t+k p+d gtb
He hasn't left. [hiy hrez l)nt left] · He's seen chem.
[hiyz siyn Ol)m] scoputrying pe\_,crocodilc lapJiog big_,boy
He isn't leaving. [hiy IZ~nt liyvIIJ] He's leaving. t+ tf d +d3 g +k t+d
[hiyz llyv11J) fa\_,chance ba~udge log__,cabin leivdown
ESL scudencs often avoid using contracted forms. This is partly because of t+l p+s g+z k+f
the final consonant clusters chat are created through contraction. The pro- pei;jizard keep._;peaking big_,zoo decJvhoes
nunciation teacher should assure students chat contractions are a normal
part of spoken English, and should provide practice in using them. · Linking identical consonants
Very often the consonant that ends one word is idenrical co the consonant
Linking chat begins the next word. When chis happens, the two consonants are
usually pronounced as one long consonant. Pronounce the foll owing shore
In connected speech, words within the same phrase or sentence often ·blend phrases co see rhat chis is rhe case.
together. Conneccing groups of words together is referred to as finking.
When wol'ds ore properly linked, there is a smooth transicion from one word p+p t+ t k +k b +b dt d a+u
to the nex.t. Below we provide information concerning the linking of ripe._,plum hurivTom. \;>lacl<vcat grabj3ill playec\.,dam big_girls
sounds. f+ f 8+8 s+s f +f r+ r I+1
i(Jred witl\J hanks icvkating pus!Vhirley farJeaches fa!Uc:ives
Linking consonants to vowels
When a word rhat ends' with a consonant is followed by a word that begins Linking vowels to vowels
with a vowel, the consonant seems to become part of the following word. When a word that ends with a tense vowel such as I iy /, Iey /, /uw/, or I OW I
This is especially true when th~ word beginning with a vowel is a function . is followed by a word chat begins with a vowel, the words are usually linked
word. ·· · · ' · , · by the semi-vowel endirtg the tense vowel.
 iy+V ey+V uw+V ow+V Clusters created by the ad_dition of grammatical endings, however, are not
bt;_,on time payuup blu9ngel grow~up usually simplified:
heJsn't here layjt here ~ewjn ·rowuover
.. Cluster ~ample Pronunciation
seeJt's done wayuup north _ stewJt blowvout
nd -canned peaches [krend piytJn)
Linking vowels to semi-vowels ft laughed hard [Ja::ft hard)
st missed chances (mrst tf rensnJ
Whena word ends with a tense vowel, such as /iy/,/ey/, /uw/, or /ow/, and st taxed me [ta:kst miy]
the next word begins with the same semi-vowel that ends the tense vowel
these will be/inked like identical.consonants. .· '
Assimilation
iy + y ey·+y uw+w ow+w The linking of consonants to consonants ofren causes a change in the p[a,ce
beyourself payurourself douwe? blowuwind blow of articulation of the first consonant. This is know as assimilation because
free,___.union srayuunited whouwouldn'.t govwest ~he first consonant becomes more like (i.e., assimilates to) the second one.
set;_,furope sayvres blut;_,water showuwindow
Assimilation of nasals
Deletion ofconsonants One very striking example of assimilation occurs with the final nasal conso-
nants of function words. In the examples below, the final /n/ sound of a
In Chapter 4, 'The shape of English words', we menrioned that, in con- function word assimilates in place of articulation to a following stop conso-
nected speech, final consonant d usters are ofren simplified (see page 96). nant. This is eart~cularly true in ·casual speech.
This simplification depentis on the following sound and on the nature of the ,!_'.,
Written form Spoken form Assimilation
cluster. If the following 1ord begins with a vowel, then the final consonant ~'.·:
... I can believe it . [ay k;')m b:iliyv :it)
of the cluster will be linkd::l to that following vowel and, therefore, cannot be '.i n -t m
deleted as the examples below show. I can go. (ay k;)IJ gow] n -t 1J
There's nothing on my plate. (o:>rz OA8IIJ am may n -t m
Cluster Example Pronunciation pleyt]
nd hand out [hrend awt) I saw him in Korea. [ay sa ~m IIJ k~riy;')] n -t 1J
st last offer [!rest afar]
st
As the transcription indicates, the final nasal sound of the function words
next up (m:kst11.p) 'can', 'on', and 'in' changes its place of articulation to that of the initial con-
ft left our [left awt) sonant of the following word. That is, the tooth ridge sound f nf changes co
If the following word begins wirh a consonant, the final consonan cis usually che bilabial sound Im/ before the initial bilabial sounds /bl of 'believe' and
unreleased and can even be deleted as the examples below show. /p/ ·of 'plate'. Similarly, it changes to the v.elar sound f TJI before the initial
velar sounds /k/ of 'Korea' and I g I of 'go'.
Cluster Example Pronunciation when simplified
nd ·When the negative ·n'r Is attached to an ~uxiliary verb, the /t/ is often
band shell [bre~ Jell
ft left field • changed to a short transitional sound at the same place of articulation as the
[IEf fiyld]
st following consonant and the I nl assimilates to this consonant.
past president [pres prezadant]
st next mon th [neks m1m8) Written for.m Spoken form Assimilation
I can't believe it. [ay kremp baliyv at] nt -t mp
Consonants are also deleted in words chat have suffixes or are compounds:
l'can't go: [ay k~uk gowJ nt -t 1Jk
Cluster Example Pronunciation I don't believe it. [ay domp b;)Jiyv ;')!] • nt -t mp
nd kindness [kaynnas]
ft softness [safn:is] '·· Palatalization -
st pos tman [powsman] Consider the pronunciation of the following sentence:
:ii lCXtbook [tEkS buk] Did you tell him what you saw? [drd3~ tEl am watJa sa]

..
 SevernI things happen in the pronunciation of this semence: 'Dtmno' The common expression 'I don't know' is frequently pro-
1 The final /d/ of'did' and the initial /y/ of'you' are pronounced as the nounced as 'I ~unno', causing some confusion for beginning ESL students.
consonant /d3/. . The.type of modification present in the pronunciation of'wanna', 'gonna',
2 The vowel of the word 'you' is reduced to schwa. The two words 'did' and and 'dunno' is familiar in many words and expressions that are used with
'you' are often pronounced as a single ~yllable: /d3a/. high frequency in the spoken language. The word 'Toronto', for example, is
3 The word 'him' is reduced ro I am!, the initial consonant being dropped pronounced by those who use it very frequendy as 'cranow'. The modifi-
.. and the vowel being reduced co. schw:!.
4 The final / t/ of'what' and the initial /y/ of'you' are pronounced as the
cation of chis word is very similar co the modification of'don'c know' .
When our ESL students use 'wanna',' gonna', and 'dunno', rhey often so und
consonan~ sound I t.f I,
5 Again the vowel of the word 'you' is reduced to schwa. unnatural. This unnaturalness stems from che fact char the overall rhythm of
We have discussed che reduction of function words in a previous section. che sentence is incomer and the comracced forms stand ouc. We should
· Our interest here is the change of/d/ +/y/ to/d3/ andof/t/ f/yl to/tf/. probably not insist on having our srudenrs produce these forms until their
Assimilation of this nature is referred to as palatalization. Ir is called palatal- spoken English is fairly advanced. We should, however, introduce rhese
ization because the tooth ridge sounds /t/ and /d/ arc pronounced furrhcr forms for recognition to even basic students as they appear frequently in
back in the mouth, closer to the hard palate, in the same place as the semi- spoken English.
vowel I yI is pronounced. Palatalization occurs regularly with words such as
'did' and 'what' when they occur before words that begin with the semi-
vowel /y/. It is also common for /s/ and /z/ co be pronounced as IS I and /3/ Summary
when they occur before a word beginning with /y /, For example, the fol- Developing fluent and comprehensible speech in our ESL students is the
lowing phrases all display palatalization in casual speech: primary goal of training in the spoken language. Extensive wo rk on the
Spelling Palatalized form aspects ofconnected speech discussed in this section will not only contribute
nor yet [natJ Et] co students' ability co produce fluent and comprehensible speech, bur also ro
Where did you go? [w.erdrd3agow] or even [werd3gow] their abiliry co comprehend the spoken language. We have seen char differ-
this year [orSyir] entiation between stressed and unstressed syllables, rhe reduction of
Where's Union station? [wer3yuwny:mstey.f :m) function words, the linking of words and phrases, etc., all combine co give
Would you mind? [wud3amaynd] English its characteristic rhythm. In attempting ro increase your students'
Could yo\.1 move [kud3amuwv] fluency and comprehensibility, ic is essential that all of rhese aspects of con-
Please yourself. [pliY3yarself] nected speech be practised in rhe ESL classroom.

High frequency phrases: 'wanna', 'gonna', and 'dunno'

Certaiu English phrases undergo sound modifications because of their high Exercises
frequency
.,,
in the spoken
"
language. Read each of the sentences below :tr a normal conve rsarional speed. ·
flYzd 'gon~a When 'want' a·nd 'going' are followeQ by 'to' in verb
• 'Wfl/11Jfl
1
I • Describe how the pronunciation of the function words in these: sen rc nccs
+infinitive consrrncrions, rhey are usually pronounced [wan:i) and [gan:l], is different from their pronunciation in isolarion.
respectively: a. Do you want a cup of coffee?
I want ro leave. [ay wanaliyv) . b. Would you like cream and sugar?
She is going ro leave soon. [Jiyz g:lna liyv suwn] c. Where did he go lase night?
Because these contracted forms blend in with the overall rhythm of English d. Give her a hand.
sentences, we do nor often notice their use. As a result, native speakers may e. He can go to the score bur sh.e can't.
consider them to be lazy or sloppy. However, if you listen carefully to the f. She can't go co the score bur he can.
speech of native speakers, you will notice that these contracted fo rms are 2 Read the dialogues below and determine wh.ere the major sentence stress
more commonly used than the unconcractcd forms. falls in each of the sentences.
,·
 a. In a Resrauranr
Customer: I'd like a hamburger.
Waiter: Do you wam cheese on your hamburger?
Customer: No, just a plain hamburger.
b. Discussing a Trip
Speaker A: Last week, I flew ro San Francisco,
Speaker B: Oh, what kind of plane were you on?
Speaker A: I was on a DC-9 from Toronto to Detroit and a 747 from
Detroit to San -Francisco.
In these dialogues, major sentence stress does not always fall on the last
content word of the sentence .. Explain the reason in each case.
3 Transcribe the sentences below, first as though the words were spoken in
isolation, and then as they would be pronounced in connected speech. · ,·
Example: Wo.~ld you give him a hand?
In isolation /wud yuw g1v !um re hrend/
In connected speech /wud3~ gI vnn ~hrend/
a, What did he do last night?
b. Give her some help.
c. Could you tell me what you're doing? .
d. Are you going to be coming co rhe party tomorrow?
4 Tape and transcribe phonerically two minutes of natural conversation be-
rween native speakers of English. Describe the differences between a
written and spoken transcript of rhis rape.
5 In English, polite requests generally have a rising intonation pattern as in:
~
Would you close the window?
Many languages of the Indian subcontinent use a rising-falling inton-
ation pattern for requests of this nature, producing a pattern as shown
below:
~~
Would you close the window?
..
How mighr·a speaker of Indian English be perceived by native speakers of
American English if she or he used a rising-falling pattern in this context?
,. ,.

.
 :
Intonation
Jonathan Harrington

I ntroduction to the Phonology of

Intonation
Sentence or utterance prosody
' .
Sentence-stress or accent
Some words sound more prominent -- they 'stand out' to a greater
extent than others.

The relative prominence of words depends very much on how the

intonation is associated with the words, or with the text, of the
·.u tterance. Above all, the same string of words can be accented in
different ways.

fmarianna made the [marianna made the

marmalade] marmalade]

Prosodic phrasing
The same set of words can be broken up into prosodic phrases in
different ways. At the boundaries between prosodic phrases we
often hear a change in the rhythm of the speech or a pause .

._flt- [marianna] [m ade the marmalade]

Intonation
The same set pf words can be associated with any number of
different tunes that are signalled by the rise and fall in pitch - -
there is always one tune for each prosodic phrase

~~ [marianna made the marmalade?]

-109
How do we hear accented words?
One of the m ain reasons why we hear certain accented words as
prominent is beca use of intonation. Specifically , a speaker
synchronises a unit of intonation known as a pitch-accent with t he
vowel of the primary stressed syllable of each word that is
accented. We represent-this as follows :

These words This word Is also

are accented · nuclear accented

..{fr Marianna made the marmalade

/
f I
_..... These are the
H*-""""- pitch accents

Tlu::se words are unaccented

Another unit of sentence stress is known as the nuclear accent.

The last accented word in any prosodic phrase is nuclear acce(>ted.

(Prosodic phrase is still to be defined : assume that there's one

prosodic phrase above that extends from the beginning to the end
of the sentence) .
. . '~ ..

p·r osodic phrases

Every utterance consists of one or more prosodic phrases.

In every prosodic phrase, there is one (and only one) n.u clear
accented word.

You can often hear if an utterance has more t han one prosodic
phrase because:

1. You can sometimes hear a pause between intonational

phrases
2 . A speaker 'slows down' at the end of a prosodic phrase which
makes the last syllable a bit longer (known as phrase-final
lengthening).
The anatomy of a tune
A tune is composed of:

pitch accents: H* or L*
·- boundary tones: L- L%, L-H%, H-H%, H-L%

The association of tune and prosodic phrase

• one pitch accent is associated to each accented word

· one boundary tone is associated to the end of each
prosodic phrase

boundary tones

[ marianna ] L-l% ( made the marmalade ) L-L %

pitch-aCGents ti"
I I I
tune .. -- --
Pitch-accents
H* l*

There should be a pitch peak There should be a pitch

on, or near, the accented
'(ford's primary stressed
voweL
Preceding consonant is voiced
(e.g. 'bit')
trough, on, or near, the
accented word's primary
stressed vowel

Aq
,'II
 :
3. There can be a marked change in pitch either at, or just
before the end, of a prosodic phrase.

nuclear accented words

..s.~ [ marianna ) [ made the marmalade J

~!
phrase boundary
l \L
unaccented word
accented word

Tv.to example proso dic phr ases

~ Amongst her friends she was considered beautiful

~~ The museum hires musicians every evening

Intonation and tunes

Speakers 'Can select one _of a number of tunes to be associated to
each prosodic phrase.

T ~-
.._,,

ei d m a

. '
 H* L*

f~

\ \

Sometimes this is labelled

L +H* if there is a long rise to
the peak

Examples of H* tones

marianna made the marmalade

Ii~ L~L~
240

200
FO
(Hz)
160 .

120
. Je.II ·: · 1° l
0 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
time (ms)

..:,
~ -~
._,
 :
marianna made the marmalade
L+W L-L%
300 .· ~ ..
•
& ... .,,•
.
250· ' •
.
~ .
<.

FO : : ) "!"
.
(Hz.) 200·. : .
- ~ . .
•.
....
150 . . .
·:
.
" . .
.. ~ 100 I re ·t ~ .f 0 f
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
time ims)
' .

A new mole
L-L%

200
·1501
0 200 400 600 800
time (n1$)
.,,.
..
 \.JU1V11Yl U 1"1

7 PRONUNCIATION
PROBLEMS

Peter Avery and Susan Ehrlich

Pronunciation ceachers do not usually find themselves in a classroom

populated with studencs who share a common native language. This is often
a source of great despair. Teachers feel that the pronunciation problems of
rwo or more given language groups are so different that working on the diffi·
cultics of one group leads to rhe exclusion of the others. While it is true that
many pronunciation problems vary according ro the native languages of the
learners, it is also true chat many problems of a more general nature can be
found. For example, learners from most language backgrounds have diffi.
culcy with che English th sounds. This is simply because these sounds are noc
common in the languages of the world. Th us, praccising rhese sounds with a
class of!earners usually benefits everyone.
In this chapter we incroduce some common pronunciation problems. A
description of each problem will be followed by tips on correction. The rips
are not necessarily presenced in sequen rial order. Teachers should cho.ose the
cips that are most suitable for the needs of their students.

English vowels
ESL students generally have difficulcy producing English vowel distinctions.
This is because there are more vowels in English than in most ocher lan-
guages. Many of the world's languages (e.g. Spanish and Japanese) have only
five vowels. In Tables 7.1 and 7.2 below, the Engl ish vowel systems is pre-
sented along with a rypical five-vowel system.
Table 7.1 Table 7.2

front cenual back front centrlli back

high iy uw high i u
I u m id e 0

mid ey ~ OW low a
E A. 0

low ~ a
 Cotrtpatihg the Englis~ vowel system to a typi~ five-vowel system reveals·· ·
several potential problem areas. For example, the tense/lax vowel pairs·of
· English, / iy I vs. /1/, I ey/ vs, IE/,/uw I vs. /u/, do not exist in a five-vowel sys-
tem as there is no tense/lax distinction. The low front vowel he/ and the
central vowels I11./ and/~/ do not exist in a five-vowel system. Furthermore,
the English vowel I al is further back than th~ low vowel ofa typical five-vowel
sysrem. Notice also rhat in English there are five front vowel sounds and,
depending on one's dialect, four or five back vowel sounds, whereas 'in the
five-vowel sy~rcm, there are only two vowels made in both the front and back
part of the mouth. Therefore, the small differences in tongue positioning
•• between the five front vowels and the five back vowels of English may pose
problems for second language learners who arc accustomed to making only
~o distinctions in tongue heightin the frontand b~ckof the mouth.
Problem Tense vs. lax vowels
/iy/ vs. III as in 'beat' and '.bit'
/ey/ vs. IE/ as in 'bait' and 'be't'
/uwl vs. /u/ as in 'boot' and 'book'
The distinction between tense and lax vowel pairs of English almost always
creates problems. Second language learners often produce the two vowels of
each pair identically, using neither the tense nor the lax vowel, but a vowel
between the two. Failure to make these distinctions can lead to mis-
understandings. Words such as 'sleep', 'raste', and 'stewed' may be heard by
English speakers as 'slip', 'test', and 'stood' respectively.
Learners from some language backgrounds (e.g. French and Arabic) are
reported to have difficulty with ·the distinction between /ow/ and /o/, at
least in dialects that have the/-;,/, It is our understanding that this problem is
most prevalent for those learners who are being taught British English,
where there are even more vowel distinctions in the low back part of the
mouth than in any North American dialect. We therefore ignore the I ow I
vs. I ol problem in the tex:t, though we do think that teachers should check to
make sure that pairs such as 'boar' and 'boughr' are nor confused.
Before working on rhe tense/lax distinction, we recomn;iend that you begin
by concentrating on the four tense vowels of English, rh.e vowels I iy /, I r;y I,
/uw/, and /ow I as in 'bear', 'bait', 'boot', and 'boat'. Students generally pro-
duce a pure form of the fowel without the following semi-vowel, /y/ or ~w/.
Thus, the vowel they produce is shorter than the equivalent in English and
has no tongue movement during its production.
Tips for teaching tense vowels
1 Exaggerate your pronunciation of each vowel sound in 'bee', ' bay', 'bpo',
and 'bow'. In saying /iy/ and /ey/, be sure chat you spread your lips. Tell
the student ro smile when pronouncing these vowels. With /uw I and
fowl, be S\,\rc that yourlips are rounded. · ' i
2 ,Tq ei:nphasize that all these vowels are long, prete.nd you are stretching an
imaginary elastic band.
3 Work on each vowel in isolation. Begin with I ey I as rhis vowel involves
more tongue movement than the ocher tense vowels._Have the students
produce a very long /ey/: [eeeeyyyy). Repeat the procedure for the ocher
three vowels.
4 Do linking exercises in which a tense vowel is followed by a word begin·
ning with another vowel. In linking the two vowels, students are more
likely to produce the desired semi-vowel, /y/ or lw/! as part of the tense
vowel.
I see it. [ay siy1t]
I play at ir. [ay pleyret It]
A blowout. [ablowawt]
They blew it. [oey bluwlt]
5 Have students concentrate on lengthening the vowels. Ir is good to begi n
with single-syllable words that end with these vowels: 'bee', 'pay', 'boo',
'low'. Construct sentences in which the word containing the tense vowel
is heavily stressed. For example, create shore dialogues like thefollowing.
Teacher Did you say you live on Bloor Street?
Student No, I said BaySrreet.
Teacher You said you came last June, didn't you~
Student No, I said I came last May.
The heavy stress will result in the vowel being much longer and the semi·
vowel being more noticeable·. Note that the le'ngch contrast between the
tense and lax vowels is relative to the phonetic environment. For example,
the /iy/ in 'beat' may be shorter than the /r/ in 'bid' because the final
voiced consonant of 'bid' serves to lengthen the vowel (see section Oil
'Vowel lengthening' in 'English sounds in contexr', page 44). It is wise ro
keep this in mind when having students lengthen the rense vowels.
6 When,you use words of more than one syllable to illustrate tense vowels,
choose w'ords in which the tense vowels receive major stress: 'peacock',
'payment', 'poodle', and 'morion'. Do not use words like 'happy', 'birth·
day', 'curfew', or 'bellow' as examples, as rhe tense vowels in these words
do not receive major stress. ru a result, they are pronounced withour
much lengthening. ·
Tips for teaching lax vow~ls
1 Illustrate the lax vowels by relaxing your body when producing them. Be
-·sure thacyour mouth is relaxed. Y?ur lips should not be too spread for /! /
·a:nd I£1-or too rounded fat Iu I.
" :i To emphasize th;i~ these ~owels are short, bring your hands together
quickly in a clapping motion.
J I fove the students pronounce words rhat contain i:hese vowels, c"oncen- fou r. The vo~el charrs given at rhe beginning of rhis chapter show rhat all
tradng on relaxing rhe facial muscles. fou r of these English vowels are made relatively low in rhe mouth. A five-
vowel system, on rhe other hand, has only one low vowel. Some learners may
/ I/ Ir:./ Jul
also have difficulty making the distinction between fol and /a/ as in
sic said book 'bought' and 'pot'. Because there are many speakers of Norrh American
lip mess push English who rhemselvcs do normake this distincrion, we advise teachers not
bid red hood
co b~ overly concerned with it.
window fender wooden
' Tips for teaching /e/ vs. Irel as in 'bet' and 'bat'
4 Srndenrs ~hould practise the lax fronr vowels, /1/ and /e/ , in minimal Students often pronounce these !\VO vowels in exacrly the same way. Most
pairs. commonly, srudenrs fail to lower' their tongue and jaw far enough in
III 1€1 atteinpring to produce the I rel sound.
rid red It is a good idea to have rhe students move through the entire set of from
pin pen vowels: Iiy //1/ /ey 11£1 1rel. Do this several times so chat they can feel the
pit pee mouth gradually opening as the sequence is produced. Tell the students
mint rneanr char the tip ofrhe tongue is against rhe bottom reech in rhe pronuncia tion
S Poinr out rhat the lax vowels do not occur at the end of a word in English. of/re/.
2 It often helps if the teacher demonstrates the contrast between /E/ and
Tips for teaching the tense/lax disrinccion /re/ by exaggerating rhe dropping of the jaw with /re/. Have rhe students
1 After you have caught rhc tense and lax vowels separately, have students imitate rhis.
distinguish bcrween them in minimal pairs. Be sure that you do both 3 The teacher should emphasize thar /re / is peculiar .to English. We have
recognition and production activities. In this way, students can deter- found it useful to describe /re/ as an ugly sound and then ro produce a
mine which member of the pair gives rhem rhe most difficulcy. long exaggerated version of the vowel.
/iy/ Ill fey / Ir:./ /uw/ /u/ 4 Many words with emotional overtones are pronounced with the vowel
mcar mirr mate mer stewed Stood / re/. Examples of such words are 'mad', 'bad', 'glad', 'sad', and 'happy'.
lead lid lace lee Luke look Srudents can express emotional stares using these words, e.g. 'I feel mad!'
sheep ship waist west pool pull 5 Practise comprehension and production of the vowels using minimal
reason risen main men cooed could pairs.
2 Work on che tense/lax distinction should also be done wirh minimal pair IE/ /re/
sentences. pen pan
/iy/ vs. /1/ Don't sleep on rhe subway platform. men man
Don't slip on rhe subway platform. denser dancer
send sand
fey I vs. /Et They'r~ going to caste rhac wine. lerd land
They're.going to tesc chac wine.
6 Have the students say sentences such as chose below.
/uw/ vs. /u/ I read Luke. (a bookofth.e Bible)
re re re re
I read Look. (a magazine) • I • # The fat cat sat on the mac.
Problem /c/ vs. /re/ vs. /A/ vs. /a/ as in 'b~r', 'bar', 'buc', and 'pot' r:.e e e e.
Great confusion arises with rhe /€/,I rel, I Al'· and/ al of 'bee', 'bar', 'buc', I bet Esther bet ten dollars on the Jets.
and 'pot'. Some learners produce all four vowel sounds in a similar manner. re€ Ere :e e
More commonly they produce cwo or perhaps three vowel sounds instead of The far men put ten baskets on rhe black desk.
.. ;:
•.. . =

...
 Tips for teaching I;J vs. /a/ as in 'buc' and 'pot' , English Con~onants
The vowel I Al is made with the tongue in its rest position, in the cen ere of
For the most pare, we have organi~ed the common consonant pn:>blems ac-
.~ the mouth, while /a/ is made with the back part of the tongue low in the cording to particula~ articula.tory features: This is because learners usually
mouth.
have difficulty with a set of sounds that share these articulatory features
I Explain chat the vowel I h/ is the sound produced if you were to be racher than with isolated sounds.
punched in the stomach.
2 Pronounce the sequence I Ml, pointing ouc chat the mouth is mote open Problem Aspiration: /p/, /t/, and /k/
with the P.ronunciation of /a/, Students fail co aspirate the voiceless scops /p l, It/, and / k/ at the begin ning
3 Practise comprehension and production of the vowels in minimal pairs. of a word. Therefore, 'plot', 'tor', and 'cot' may sound like 'blot', 'do t', and
IA! /a/ 'gor'.
hut hoc Tips
colour collar 1 A good way co begin teaching aspiration is to make the students aware
hunt haunt that aspiration is the puff of air that accompanies the release of the conso-
sung song nant. This is easily demonstrated with a match or a piece of paper using
•• 4 Have students say sentences such as those below. the consonant /p /. Exaggerate the pronunciation of the word 'pot'. Have
the students hold a piece of paper close to their mouth and say the word
a a a a
after you, making sure chat a burst of air blows the paper away from rhem.
John got lost in che shop.
Repeat the procedure for
/ t/. The consonant /k/ is less amenable co chis
A h A rype of treatment because the air has very licde force left by the cime ir
Young love is fun. reaches the lips. However, once the students have understood exacdy
what aspiration is, they can quite easily.aspirate /k/.
h a a A a h
Young John lost his love on Monday. 2 Tell the students chat the puff ofair that accompanies these voiceless stops
is much like the /h/ sound in a word such as 'ho t'. Have students practise
General tips for teaching vowels words beginning with / h/ and then have them place a voiceless stop in
front of t.hese words. For example:
le is good to keep in mind that it is probably the entire vowel system char is
cau·sing your students difficulry. When students learn to make a distinction ' f·i'.. hot p(h)ot t(h)aught c(h)ot
.,;
betw?e~ vowels such as I £1 and I re/, it may be a result of distorting the pro- hi p(h) ie t(h)ie k(h)ind
·~·f
nunc1anon of /e/ rather than a result oflearning to make the /re/ correctly. .,,~ he p(h) ea t(h)ea k(h)ey
This distortion may, in turn, lead to the loss of the distinction between./ El .~ ~ ..
and /r/. Thus, working on isolaced vowel distinccions has its limitations. It ' Problem Voicing of fricatives
can be useful ro work on all the front vowels at one time, for example, so chat ~~·: Iv I as in 'vote' or 'love'
all rhe front vowel discinctions are made. , Ii•·':
:~ {
l o/ '. then' or 'breathe'
·m' ,'· . ,. I zl 'wo' or 'rose'
The abiliry co produce difficulc vowel distinctions in isolation is noc necess-
.ti'! / 3 / ' beige' or 'measure'
arily extended to connected speech. Therefore, it is essential chat ;1.;;.
pronunciation work be conceicrualized. When working on vowels, cry to ~; · Many scudencs are ·unable to distinguish voiced and voiceless fricatives.
develop hand signals co repr~senr difficulc vow~! contrasts. For example, ;)ii'.: Most commonly, they will be able to produce voiceless fricatives bur nor
screech an imaginary elastic band to indicate the tense vowels; bring the :~ f , ... voicedoni:s. .for example, /fl:may be substituted for / vI so that a word such
hands together quickly to indicate che lax vowels; lower your jaw to indicate ·~ J · · as ·~eave' is pronounced as 'leaf'. Similarly, /s/ may be substituted for I zl, so
· 1~ ;:. that a word such as 'peas' is p(onounce~ as 'peace' .
. the vowel I ie/. If students recognize these signals, the teacher can use them
during more communicative tasks. See Chapter 9 for communicative activi- ;t~1 ·' . I
.?~• · Tips I-
ries and Chapter 14 for the use of mnemonic devices ig deyeloping the ]
1
, .1 fu vow~l5i 11;r~ ahy,ay_s voice\}, ~hey .can be useful in teaching students to
ability to self-correct. ' ~il · voice f:iq.t\ves. Haye srude.ncs place .their fingers lightly on their throat
while making a prolonged /a/. Pofnc out thac diey ·snould·feel some·v1. Before voiceless consonant aefor~ voiced consonant
bration of rhe vocal cords when the ".owel is ·pronounced. Next, have 'chem " (shorrer vowel) (longer vowel)
produce /a/ followed by /z/ co.ncenm,cing on m;tintaining the voice: .·, tap tab
[aaazzzaaazzzJ. While pronouncing th)s sequence, siuqenrs should ·feel pat pad
their throats, pµt a hand on rhe rop .of r_heir head, or cover ~eir ears _wlch back bag
their hands. If there is suf£cienc voicing of the consonant, they should feel 2 In producing the final sounds in the minimal pairs above, have students
the vibration. Repear the procedure for rhe other voi.ced fricatives: Iv/, lo/ 'release (that is, aspirate lighcly) the voiceless scops /p/, It/, and /k/, but
as in 'rhis', and /3/ as in 'beige'. . keep the articulato rs together for /b/, / di, and I g I. .
2 Once srudencs ·are able ro voice ch~ f~ic~riv;s, provide comprehension and 3 As srudenrs may be able to produce voiced stops at the beginning of
production practice of rhe voiced/voiceless disrincrion using ..minimal words, practise linking words with final voiced stops co function words
pairs. that begin with vowels. The voiced stops should seem to begin the fol-
/fl /v/ /8/ 101 Isf /zl IS I /3/ lowing function words as shown below.
fan van *igh thy sue zoo Aleutian allusion Don't rub it. (downt Th bit] ·
safer saver erher eirher ceasing seizing mesher measure He's m~d at me. [hiyz mre d~t miy]
leaf leave teer~ reerhe face phase A bag of it. . (~ bre g~v1tl.
3 Point out rhar vowels are longer before v.oiced fricatives than before rheir
voiceless countetparrs. Making the vowel longer before voiced fricatives Problem Initial consonant clusters
will help srudems co distinguish between minimal pa,irs such as below.. Many students have difficulty producing some of the initial consonant clus-
Before voiceless conson:lllt Before voiced consonant ters ofEnglish. T his is especially true when scops, /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, I di, and
(shorter vowel) (longer vowel) /g/ are followed by Ill or /r/, as in words such as 'brew', 'blue', 'drew', and
leaf leave 'glue'. ·
reerh teethe
·peace peas T~1JS
4 Practise rhe pronun'ciation of rhe plural in Engl_ish. This grammatical 1 If students cannot pronounce initial· clusters, have them insert a shore
ending involves a difference berween the voiceless fricative Isl and the schwa-like vowel between the consonants, for example, 'b-:ilue'. They
voiced fricative /z/ (see Chapter 3, 'Sounds in contexr': 'Grammatical should say the word repeatedly, increasing their speed, until the inserred
endings', page 47) .. vowel.disappears.
bo;ilue -7 b~lue -> b~lue -> b•)ue -7 blue
Problem Voicing ofFinal Srop Consonants: lb!, Id/, and /g/ ·2 If students have difficulty with inirial consonant clus[ers, they may have
Many ESL srudents will nor voice final scops, bur will substitute a voiceless m:ore success pronouncing rhe same sequence of consonants in separate
stop for a voiced one. Thus, 'cub' may sound like 'cup '. Ir is more difficult to words. For example, smdents may be able to produce the /ctr/ sequence in
dc:monscrate the voiced/voiceless distinction with scops than with fricatives the phrase ' bad rift', but be unable ro p~oduce r_~e I ctr/ cluster in rhe word
because srops cannot be prolonged. However, final voicing does affecr rhe · 'drifr'. Srudenrs can practise the c;luster across separate words, gradually
pronunciation of preceding vowels; they are longer before voiced conson· dropping more and more of rhe firs t word. . .
ants rhan before voiceles~ consonanrs. l his fact is helpful in reaching final . bad rift -+ ad rift -> d rift -> drift
voiced consonants.
.3 Have students produce' syllables with initial consonant clusters of increas-
If students are having difficulty in voicing final stops,_di'ey' will probably ing eoniple_xicy. .
have dilliculry with final ¥oiced fricatives also; 'Be .sure you ,also practise
voiced fricatives in the final position. · ·
.: : ~"pi~ . top cat pay . go
spa stop · scat . spay . • glow
Tips • ·~plir · . strap scrap spraY. gro~ .
1 Use minimal pairs such as chose bel·ow, pointing out' rhat the vowels-are Se~ 'Th~ shape ofEnglish w~rds' (pages 55-6) for lists of inirial consonant
longer before voiced stops tl.1an before voiceless ones·. clusters.
 Problem Final consonant clusters ·,
Tips
· Final consonant clusters such as /kt/ as in 'worked', ISt/' as in 'wash~d', 1 As these sounds are fricatives, make sure that. students produce chem
/dtJd/ as in 'judged', and /Id/ as in 'filed' are often difficult for learners to without stopping the airstream. It is helpful ·co have students place their
produce. The addition of grammatical endings produces many word-final tongue between their teeth. It is not vital that the tongue protrude be-
clusters, and an inabiliry to produce such clusters is often misinterpreted as a tween the.teeth a great deal, but if no contact is made with the teeth, [he
grammatical problem. sounds will not be produced correctly. For students from some cultural
backgrounds, it is embarrassing to protrude the tongue; chis should be
Tips . }· . ·• kept in mind ifyou are having the students exaggerate the articulation of
1 Difficult final consonant clusters can be practised usi g rwo words. For these sounds.
example, ro practise the final cluster /ld/ as in 'field', e the phrase 'feel
2 Mose of the ordinal numbers contain che /8 / sound: 'third', 'fou rch',
down'.: The students can gradually cli.minate more 'and more of the
second word. · 'fifth', etc. Therefo;e, practisi~g che dace or birth daces provides useful
practice :-virh the /0/ sound.
feel down -t feel dow ~ feel d ~ field
3 Try tongue twisters such as the one below to practise producing chese
.. 2 Practise consonant clusters created,through the addition of grammatical
endings. This will help students understand the importance of such clus-
ters in conveying meaning. For example, contrast the following two
sounds.
e a a o o a. a a
Those three thugs chink that they threw those things chere.
sentences.
I watch a lot of TV Problem English /r/
I 'watched a lot of TV
ESL students generally require work in learning to produce the English Ir /.
3 Have student~ produce syllables with final consonant clusters of increas- Mose languages have an Jr I sound, but the parclcular way in which Ir I
ing complexity. sounds are pronounced varies greatly from language co language. Learners
bread class car feel tax (/ks/) commonly produce the English /r/ as a crill, a sound made when the cip of
brand clasp card field taxed (I kst/) the tongue touches the tooth ridge repeatedly. Alternatively, learners may
brands clasps cards fields texts (ksts/) produce the English / r/ as a uvular sound, a sound made when rhe back of
See Chapter 4, 'The shape of English words' (pages 57-8) for lis~ of final 'the t~:mgue approaches the uvula (See Figure 2.1, page 2 1). As /r/ is a high
consonant clusters. frequency sound in English, learners are usually aware of cheir mis-
4 Native speakers of English often simplify final consonant clusters in con- pronu:nciarion of the English /r/ and often ask for inmucrion in the correct
nected speech. This occurs mainly with the final clusters /st/ and Ind/
'.
•,
"
~

pronunc~ation. Reca,ll that it is made with the tip of the congue curled back
" and the lips rounded.
when followed by a word beginning wich.a consonant, e.g.:
Hand me the book. -t ban me the book. Tips
Post the letter. -t pos the letter. 1 Have students pronounce a prolonged [aaaaaa], gradually curling the cip
Because students h~ve difficulty with consonant dusters, ic is imporranr co of the tongue back. Make sure that they do not touch the tooth ridge with
convey to them. thanhe simplification of clusters in certain contexts is the tip of the tongue and that their lips become slightly rounded. Then
characteristic of connected speech. For a description of cluster simplifi• have them uncurl the tongue and unround the lipno cha t the sequence
cation, see 'The shape o(English words' (page 59). · ' [aaairraaa) is produced. ··
· 2 "point 9ut .that.the / r/ sound is, made wi.th.the rip of the tongue curled back
Problem /0/ and /o/ as in 'chink' and 'this' ~nd not touching the tooth ridge. This is useful information for those scu-
Alm~st without exception, /9/ and /o/ are problematic for ESL.scudenrs. dencs who are producing a rrill.·
The particular native language ofa student usually determine~ which sounds 3 Contrast /r/ with the flap sound ID/ in words such as 'putting' and 'pud-
will be substituted: Iii, Isl, or /f l for /9/; and /dt, /z/, or Iv / for I of. In gen- ding' (See 'Positional variation': 'Flapping', page 41). Poinc out chat chc
eral, a voiceless sound will be substituted for the voiceless /8 / and a voiced rpngue ;rouches fhe •tooth ridge momentarily in pronouncing a flap. but
sound for the voiced /o /. . does not touqh the ~ooth tidge at all in pronouncing /r/.
 Jllnp Ir/
pucring purring
leading leering
hearing ·hearing
skating scar.ing
Stress, rhythm, and intonation
All studems Y(ill need practice in English stress, rhychm, and intonation.
These arc key elcmencs of English pronunciation and, if ,mastered, can .
greatly increase rhe comprehensibilicy oflearners' speech. In all contextual·
ized pronunciation praccice, the teacher should be sure thac students are
producing appropriate English mess and intonation patterns. For some
excellent activicies dealing IVith these aspects of pronunciation, see Chapters
9, 11, and 12 as well as Judy Gilbert's Clear Speech (see bibliography).
Problem Stress
A stressed or accented· syllable is one that is more prominent than rhe
surrounding syllables. Ir is generally agreed char stress (or prominence) may
be marked by three variables: length, pitch, and loudness. Each of these
variables may be presenc or absenc to different degrees in different languages.
The mosr imporranr marker of srress in North American English is length,
bur stress is also accompanied by greater loudness or clarity on the messed
syllable and also a rise in pitch. Unstressed syllables, on the other hand, are
very shore and unclear in English and rhey are generally reduced to schwa.
Some languages may indicace che_prominence of a syllable rhr?ugh pitch.
This is the case in Japanese and many other languages which are referred to
as pitch-accent languages. Learners whose languages have different acoustic
manifesrations of stress from English may have difficulty in masrering r~e
acouscic properties of che English srress system. For chis reason it is imporr-
anr rhac reachers emphasize the length (and loudness) aspects of English
srress.
Tips
1 Develop mnemonic devices for indicating stress. For example, the teacher
could indicate scressed syllables with a quick downward hand morion. ·
2 Use exaggeration ofbqrh lengrh and loudness in order co focus students'
arrenrion on messed syllables. Remember char if studen ts speak a lan-
guage chat indicates srress differendy from Am·erican English, they mar
have difficulry hearing stressed syllables. ' ·
Problem Word srress
Srress in English can fall on almost any syllable of a word. In many ocher lan-
guages, wo rd.mess regularly falls on the same syllable. Students who speak
such languages may have difficulry in changing rhe location of rhe srress for
different vocabulary items.
Tipi
1 When reaching new vocabulary items, always ensure that the studencs
know how co mess rhe item properly (see Chapter 11).
2 Give students related sets of words that display different stress patterns
and h,avc them practise.shifting the major stress, e.g.:
•
photograph •
photography •
photographic
3 A variation .o n the above rip. involves using nonsense words and having
students shift the stress. When nonsense words are used ther. should re-
semble English words which show the pattern in question, e.g.:
cortoplare corroplaty . cortoplacic
4 For activities that aid students' recognition of word-level stress patterns,
see Chapter 12.
Problem Rhythm
The characteristic rhythm of English is closely bound up with the correct
pronunciation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Vowels in unstressed syl-
lables are reduced and vowels in stressed syllabics are longer and spoken wirh
greater volume. Many ESL students fail co differenciare sufficiently berween
stressed and unstressed vowels, producing full vowels in unstressed syllables.
The particular full vowel used may be influenced by the spelling. Thus, a
learner who does not reduce unstressed vowels may pronounce a word such
as 'campus' (l kremp~s/) as /krempus/, and 'canoe' (lk~nuw /)as /krenuw/ .
Tips
1 A very good technique for teaching rhythm involves che recitation of rore-
learned lisrs: numbers, the days of the week, the months of rhe year, the
alphabet, ecc. The reacher can vary the rhythm of chc recitation cask by
having scudents grollp the .members of the lisc in differenr ways. For ex-
ample, students can group the OLlmbcrs in fours or fiv~s or rens. They can
do the days of the week as a single group or as two or .chree groups Md the
months of rhe year can be recited in groups of three, four, or six. 1'he
advanragc of using overlearned items is char the students can focus on
achieving the appropriate rhythm and do nor need .to worry too much
about meaning.
2 Nursery rhymes are.also excellent for pracrising rhychm. Nursery rhymes
such as 'Mary had a little lamb' and 'Jack and Jill went up the hill' are very
useful in practising rhyr,hm ..
3 For orher rips and techniques, see Chapters 11. 12, and 13 . For more
derails on stress and unsrress in words and sentences, see Chapters 5 and 6.
 Problem Intonation Tips
Students should practise all the characteristic intonation patterns ofEnglish: 1 Include contracted forms when working on individual sounds. For ex-
final rising as used in yes-no questions; final rising-falling as used in scacc- ample, include 'I'll' in work on the dark /I /, 'I've', and 'he's' in work on
mcncs, commands· and wh-quescions; non-final rising-falling as used in the voicing of fricatives, and 'he'd' in work on the voicing of final stop
complex sentences; and non-final rising as used in lists. · consonants. Contractions that create consonant clusters should be
included in work on clusters. For example·, the contraction 'it's' has the
Sometimes the pitch level of the learner's voice does nor fall or rise far" final cluster /ts/, and the contraction 'wrist's' (as in 'My wrist's so re') has
enough with final rising-falling or final rising intonation. This can result in the final cluster /sts/.
English speakers .misinterpreting the intent of the learners' ·utterances. For
2 See Chapter 9 for further activities involving contractions.
example, if a 1earner's voice does not fall far enough in uttering a statement,
an English speaker may misinterpret the statement as a question, or assume
that the learner has not &nished speaking.
Tips
Always include intonation practice in the pronunciation class. Any dia-
logues or sentences can be used for this work. For tips and techniques, sec
Chapters 11, 12, and 15. For more derails on intonation see Chapter 6,
'Connected speech' (page 76).

Proble~ Linking
Students often fail to link words properly in connected speech. Failure to
link words resuks in choppy speech.
Tips
•• 1 Do linking exercises in which words ending in consonants are linked to
following words that begin with vowels. It is best if the following word is
an unstressed function word.
Put the bool\,on topvof the shelf.
He taught;,,us a lolJlbouc language.
Breath<\.)n and breath<\_,OUt.
Sh_,at the backvof the room.
He madv lor__,of money.
Pas-\put the books.
He decidec!Jt wasn'r__,enough time.
2 See Chapter 11 for a discussion of the rdationship between pausing and
linking, and activities chat contrast the two.
3 See Chapter 6, 'Connected speech': 'Linking' (page 84), 'Assimilation'
(page 130), and 'Palatalization' (page 87} for specific details on the link-
ing of other sounds. See Chapter 9 for further activities.

Problem Contractions
Smdenrs ge11crnlly have difficulty with contractions. Very often chis 1s
because contractions create difficult sound combinations.
 :

,, .....
. .! ....;. .. '. ~ h
 PROBLEMS ·OF SELECTED
8 LANGUAGE GROUPS
Peter Avery and Susan Ehrlich

Portuguese
Portuguese i~ :i. Romance language closely related to Spanish and there are
similarities between the pronunciation problems of Portuguese and Spanish
speakers. There are rwo main dialects of Pon:uguese, Brazilian Portuguese
and European Portuguese. An important difference betw:een.Bra:zilian Por- .
ruguese and European Portuguese concerns rhythm: Brazilian Portuguese is
a·syllable-rimed language, whereas European Portuguese is mess-timed and
has vowel reduction.
The characteristic accent ofa European Po rruguese speaker is caused in part
by the widespread substitution ofI SI for /s/ ar rheend of English words. On
the other hand, the accent of a BrazHian Portuguese speaker is in part
marked by the replacement of Ill with /w/ at che end of a wor<l.
Teachers with a large number of Porcuguese students would be wise to
familiarize themselves with the sound-spelling col'respondences of Portu-
guese. Many of the mispronunciations of Portuguese ·speakers can be traced
to the in.6uence of the Portuguese spelling system rather than co an inabiliry
£O produce particular sounds. .
 Consonants
Problem /j I vs. ltfl as in 'share' and 'chair'; /31 vs. /d3I as in
'version' and 'virgin' · ·
As European Ponuguese does not have the sounds /tJ I and I d3/, Portu-
guese speakers may substitute I JI for /tJ I and /3/ for /d3/. Thus, pairs of
words such as 'share' and 'chair', and 'version' and 'virgin', may be pro-
nounced alike. In Brazilian Portuguese, /tJ I and I d3/ arc positional variants
of Iti and I di.I occuring before high front vowels .
. Tips
l Have students place the tip of the tongue at the tooth ridge as if they were
about to make a /ti or a /d/ an~ then release the sound as a IS I or /3/.
2 Point out to students that /tJ I and /d3/ are complex sounds, made up of
consonants that do exist in Portuguese.
Problem 191 and Io/ as in 'think' and 'this'
Portuguese speakers tend to substitute /ti for /0/ in words such as 'think'
.. and /d/ for fol in words such as 'this'.
Tips
dark /I/ after a vowel. Thus 'mole' will be pronounced as 'mow', 'goal' as
'go', and 'old' as 'ode'.
Tips
Have students produce the vowel /ow/. During the pronunciation of this
vowel, they should raise their torigue until it touches the cooch ridge. Ac che
same time the lips should be unrounded. This should result in the pro·
duccion of dark /I/. Then practise distinguishing between words such as
'mole' and 'mow', 'goal' and 'go', and 'cold' and 'code'.
Problem Consonants in word-final position
Single consonants (except I J /) may be dropped or weakened (difficult ro
hear) ac the end of a word, or a vowel may be inserted after the consonam.
Tips
Do exercises that involve linking word-final consonants to following vowels.
See 'Comm·on problems': 'Linking', page 108.
Problem
'rang'
Word-final /ml, In/, and / Tj / as in 'ram', 'ran', and

Portuguese speakers often omit word-final nasals. Preceding vowels often

1 See 'Common problems': '/8/ and /o/', page 104. take on the nasal qualiry of the omitted nasal, and thus che distinction be·
2 A sound very similar to English lo/ exists in some dialects of Portuguese tween /m/, /n/, and /!JI is lost word-finally. Words such as 'some', 'sun',
as a positional variant of /d/. Thus, if your students are having difficulty and· 'sung' may all be pronounced in the satne way, with a nasal vowel buc
producing fol in English, try to make them aware that they may pro- without a nasal consonant.

~:
nounce the /d/ in amado as fol.
Tips
Problem Isl vs. IS I Practice nasal consonants in word-final position in minimal pairs and trip-
·-·.~!· . lets such ~s those below.
Portuguese stude~ts may pronounce Isf as IS I at the end of a word or before
a consonant. This can result in words such as 'mass' and 'lease' being pro- Im! Inf / !J/
nounced as 'mash' and 'leash'. Similarly, 'mast' and 'messed' may be seem seen sing
pronounced as 'mashed' and 'meshed'. came cane
Tips ram ran rang
some ; sun sung
Use minimal pairs such as those below for comprehension and production.
;; ~;
Isl ISi . '\ ~ · J;>roblem Consonant clusters
...:::> last lashed "<\,,. Consonant clusters may be difficult for Portuguese students to pronounce in
~ mess
mass
mesh
mash
any position {word-initial or word-final) and may be simplified by the inser·
tion '?fa vowel or by the deletion of a cons~nanr in word-final position.
lease l~h · Therefore, Isl+ consonant clusters ac the beginning of a word will probably
crass crash be pronounced as /eJ I+ consonam, as in [eJkuwl) for 'school'.
.-\;'
~.' ... Tips
Problem III vs. lw/ as in 'mole' and 'mow'
See 'Common problems': 'Initial consonant clusters' (page 103), and 'Final
Brazilian Portuguese speakers will produce a sound more like a /w I than a consonant clusters', page l 04.
 I In hll'Jltifionion r111d correction ofspecific problems i :

Vowels -.
Problem Tense vs.. l ax vowels: / iy I vs. I 1 I, /ey I ys I cl, luw I
vs. lu/
T he distinction between tense and lax. vowds does not exist in Portuguese.
Portuguese speakers usually produce vo~el sounds chat are between the
tense and lax vowels of English.
Tips
See 'Common problems': 'Tense vs. lax vowels', ·page 9.6.

Problem Ir:./ vs. Ire I vs. I Al vs. I al

Portuguese speakers may have difficulty with these four vowel sounds. In
particular, cheywill have difficulty i_n distinguishing beween 'IE / and / re/ as
in 'bed' and 'bad'.

Tips
See 'Common problems': ' /El vs. /re/ vs. I Al vs. /a/, page 98.

Stress, rhythm, and intonation ·

P r oblem Word mess
Portuguese word stress is quite regular, with most words being stressed on
che second-last syllable. This means thac che rather unpredictable stress pat- "'
terns of English may prove difficult for the Portuguese learner.

Tips
See 'Com mon problems': 'S tress' and 'Word mess' (page 106).

Problem Rhyrhm
Brazilian Portuguese does nor have a reduced, short vowel equivalent co the
English schwa. T his affects the rhythm of the Brazilian Portuguese speaker's
English, as func tio n words and unstressed syllables may not be reduced. As
European Portuguese is a stress-rimed language, European Portuguese
speakers will have less difficulty with i:lie characteristic rhythm:OfEnglish.
-~-
Tips
See 'Common problems'.: 'Rhythm' (page 107), ,and also Chapters 11, 12, - .
and 13 in Part Three for activities that provide practice in vowel reduction
and rhythm. · ·· - - ,,. -' .. - ·
•. . . 'J •

' ..
' . • • • • :· . \ • • • ~ -r •
,.
•'·
 16
UNINTELLIGIBILITY AND
THE ESL LEARNER

Nicholas Elson

Introduction
The painful experience of not being undersrood is well known ro anyone
who has actively tried to learn a second language. The familiar scenario is
played out when the reacher's remarks confuse the learner, or when one
student, in conversation with another, is faced wirh rhe realization that he or
she does nor understand what the speaker is trying ro say. Outside rhe
classroom the learner meets similar frustrations, made all the more intense
without the support which rhe clamoom offers.
We should remind ourselves, as second language teachers, that there are
causes of incomprehension chat have liccle to do with rhe fact thar the people
we are speaking with may be learning English as a Second Language. We
have only to observe che number of times in a normal day chat we ourselves
.. are asked to respond to 'What1', 'Pardon', or 'Sorry, I didn't get that,' from
orher native speakers co realize that not undemand ing another person's
meaning is a normal aspect of conversation. Contributing elemen rs could be
background noise, a too-sudden change of ropic, false assumptions about
che listener's background knowledge, an ambiguous srylc ofdelivery, or sim-
ple inarrention on the part of the listener. In exchanges wi ch native speakers,
these occurrences are usually dealt with smoothly, an dabol':11i o11 Cll' rep-
etition is inserted and the exchange continues.
Pronunciation is clearly a central factor in scudencs' success in making d1tm•
selves understood. The ability to employ stress, intonation, and arciculacion
in ways that support comprehension is a skill that for srudenrs from many
language backgrounds will only come slowly. In the meantime, students
need to be encouraged co immerse themselves in rhe target language, ro cake
chances with the language, to enjoy using it, and co persist in spite of che dif-
ficulties chac are a natural part of the language-learning process.
In the ESL context the experience of unintelligibility or incomprehension
looms larger. Perhaps because of a sensitivity to "correctness," or because of
rhe need to communicate successfuily in the target language, rhe ESL
 speaker's self-image and sense of accomplishment is closely bound to under-
standing arid. being undemo·od. The result can · be ·a. high degree of
frustration for the speaker or listener whJ migh~ see each moment of incom-
prehension as a personal fault and respohsioility. .
With increased emphasis on learner-cenrercd, communicative language
teaching and user-initiated language, instan.ces of incomprehensibility may
become more frequent as learners reach beyond their comfortable range of
ability. This underlines the need for teachers to help the learners become
aware of strategies they need to de~ with incomprehensibility, whether in
making themselves understood, or in struggling with what another speaker
has said.
Regarding incomprehensibility, Joan Klyhn ( 1986) observes:
From the first, students in a course should be made aware that every
mess~ge they ·utter needs to be understood by their,interlocutor. The
two parties enter into i . negotiation where A gives B che feedback he
needs to cJean up his message and then the service is ·reverse~. The
instructor can be·an foformant, can suggest ave·nues of study, can run a
Workshop on a strucnire or particular skill that is proving problematic.
A German making a presentation to a couple of Spaniards can get a
great deal more useful feedback from his/her peers than from an
instructor. Many experienced language teachers have developed an
unfortunate facility for understanding garbled sentences and poor pro-
nunciation which may make a student quite incomprehensible to
his/her peers.
Klyhn's comments point to a value in studenr-to-student imeracti.on that
mi.ght ease the teacher's fears about che kind of language models which stu-
dents present to eac.h other. While activities aimed specifically at practising
· aspects of speech production (voiced/voiceless contrasts, an,d so on) would
be initiated primarily by the teacher, chere is a great deal in the exchanges
between students that relates to achieving comprehensibility. As they
respond to cues indicating how well the message is getting-across and adopt
corrective procedures, their absorb elements ofche complex:iry involved in
the transmission of meaning. The teacher m uctures activities and brings in
examples of language which will enhance relevant interaction between stu-
dents, ar).d presents models of'real language'. This can result in interaction
between students where the desire co understand and ro be understood on a
matter of mutual interest or importance establishes ,a natural context
for developing compr·ehension skills.
, I
In addition to the factors mentioned above, there are several reasons for
incomprehensibility which have particular rc:ievance for the ESL l~~rner.
1 The spea,ker or listener is struggling with stress, intonation,.0r sound pat-
terns with which he/she is unfamiliar. . •,· ·1
·2 There may be words or phrases in the utterance that che listener is unfam-
. iliar with. He/she cannot grasp the message withou·t this specific
. understanding..
3 There may be a lack of m~tual social/cultural background. The speaker
makes a reference or assumption fo r which the listener is unprepared. For
instance, a casual assumption on the speakds part chat the.listener knows
chat separatism is a major issue in Canadian society may be behind a com·
ment which leaves the listener lost as co t he speaker's intended meaning.
4 Certain grammatical forms used by the speaker may not conform to che
listener's experience or expectations, resulting in incomprehens ion.
If the generation and exchange of relevant language is seen as central to che
·language development process, and If the · emphasis in the class is on
encouraging meaningful interaction between rhe learners as a basis for lan-
. ; guage development, then incomprehension is a problem in a larger
communicative sense. If incomprehensibility slows or detracts· from lan-
guage development, then students can benefit from being able co use devices
which will help to keep the language learning process interesting and
creative.
The teach~r shoul<l !-'.onsider how corrective procedures relate co principles
of comijiunicacion and their importance for language development. Brown
and Yule (1983) place the process of dealing with incomprehension squarely
in the communicative, student-centred context:
If it is quite unclear what the student ·is saying, the person who should
be asking for clarification is the i.nterlocucor, the listener, nae the
-reacher. In practice sessions (as opposed co an assessment session), the
listener should be permitted, indeed encouraged, to ask questions of
clarification, just as native speakers do in normal life . If the lisrener can
make sense ofwhac the speaker is saying, then the speaker is, on th is oc-
casio~, communicating successfully.
This suggests chat strategies for overcoming incomprehension are simply
another aspect of the coca! commui;iication-language learning process. .
• While the, classroom is the place for students to immerse themselves in
·a semi-centrolled, .communicative environment, they need also to be
prepared to deal with the unavoidable times, both inside and outside the
... das~room, .wh~n they do not understand or are not understood themselves .
It must rher.cfore be a priority co mak~ learners aware of the strategies we use
when faced with incomprehension , either our own or of the person co who m
we. are speaking, so char meaningful use of language can continue wh ile
articulatory and other aspects of the language are developed.
.. J- f ~ • ,. ~ • t • ~
~ ~
....... ! . ": ..· <{ • .. : ,
 The receiver
. .
~ '
The following are some of rhe srraccgies rhc intended receiver can use in a
situation where rhe message is nor clear.
Solicit repetition
Chances are rhar in response ro rhe receiver's 'Would you please say rhar
again?', rhe studenr will "do exactly that, perhaps resulting in no further
undemanding on the part of those involved; On the ocher hand, repericion
is useful in chat repeated exposure to an iniclally confusing utterance often
results in rhe mind gradually sorting ir out into meaningfuJ components.
The student may only repeat the utterance once-continued requests co
repeat mighr drive rhe level of frustration higher-but the receiver repeats it
in his/her mind, relating ir to escablishe4 parcerns and information rhac
mighr trigger recognition of che intended meaning.
T he receiver uses phrases which will invite the speaker co repeat rhe relevant
pare of rhe um rance. The forms rhac rhis function can rake need little elab-
oration here. Ir is imporranc though rhac students be exposed co situations
which indicate shifts in register in relation to concexr. Ir might be appropri-
ate, for instance, co say 'Whac?' to someone you know well and are dealing
with informally, bu r the learner should also know chat 'What?' could also be
considered quire rude in ocher circumstances. 'Excuse me, [ didn't under-
srand whar you said' could be equally inappropriate in certain
circumstances. Learners need exposure to the kinds of phrases which people
use co get information reicerared, wirh guidance in noting rhe 'rone' with
which they are delivered.
A list of familiar phrases such as:
'Sorry, what did you say?'
'Pardon, could you say thac again?'
'Sorry, I don't see what yo u' re gercing ar.'
.. or
'Excuse me, what did you say?'
is lirrle use in icsd f. While such phrases could be introduced in various
ways, they won't have any real meaning.umil learners have a chance co hear
and use chem in suitable and realisric contexts. The range of devices used
co ger speakers ro repeac their message is wide and will require the teacher
ro find extensive samples of relevant language for use in developing chis
awareness.
Reflect back
The receiver·can accempt an exacr reperition of the utterance back to the sen-
der. This signals to che initiator rhat the phrase is being reviewed, char there
may be a problem in understanding and says, in effecr, 'cake another look at
what you just said'. The teacher mighr want to avoid the directness of "I
don't understand" although students can be quice blunr in their own
exchanges among rhemselves (Klyhn 1986).
The repetition allows the sender to review rhe utterance, recognize a prob-
lem, and rephrase it in a manner w)lich might better supporr
comprehension. Having students repeat whac another srudent has said as an
informal exercise will help them to focus on what they do and do nor under-
stand. They will then have ro specify to the speaker which pm of rhe
utterance, ff any, is causing 4ifficulr;y.
Develop sensitivity as a listener
Learners need co develop a listening attitude as well as listening skills. This is
a more nebulous aspect of dealing with inc<;>inprehension, bur rhe ability to
listen, or even co recognize chat chere"is such a skill to devc:lop, can increase
the ability of receivers to appreciate the messages being sent co them. Sru-
denrs need occasions in which they can ·listen to ochers in a relaxed and
sympathetic manner: traits which one hopes rhe teacher exhibits as a marter
of course and encourages in che learners.
Students might be given a topic ro discuss or-a problem co work our, bur be
told nor to respond ro their partner in rhe exchange until he/she gives che
signal co do so.
Develop skills for outside the classroom
We need rokeep in mind that rhe world for language learners does nor begin
and end ac the classroom door. They will have more language needs ourside
rhe classroom than wirhin. Exposure ro modes of speech used ·by native
speakers ralk.ing among themselves is imporranc in reaching chis goal. Ir has
been observed that:
The learner rnighr well have reached a srage where he can carry on a
conversation wirh a narivc s peake~, understanding virtually everyching .
rhar is said ro him. Should a second native speaker appear on che scene,
however, rhe learner is often un~ble ro understand what the two :1re
saying ro each ocher. This is in most cases nor-as some learners
assume_: because rhe ochers are conversing in some kind of 'dialect',
bur because they have reduced the acouscic-phoneric explicirness of rhe
speech signal ro as low a level as possible, consistent with mutual incel-
ligibiliry. (Dirven and Oakeshorr-Taylor 1984)
This reinforces the view that work in the classroom should always have an
orientation ro the lives srudenrs lead outside, and should include good ex-
amples of natural language in a·range of contexts.

Develop ability to recognize cues . If l~rncrs c~n be.enco.uraged to participate in ways they feel comfortable
Learners who have difficulcy interpreting messages should be helped to
become familiar with the many cues which contribute to successful com-
munication. Different activities and exposure to native speaker language
models can draw attention to the role of stress, intonation, juncture, and
articulation in con;municating meaning. At the same time, they can see how
meanings can be influenced by varying contexts: physical, linguistic,
psychological, or visual. Facial expression, for example, or 'tone of voice'
a
couJd convey tO Jistenerthat 'this mC$Sage is not to be taken seriously', thus
possibly saving the listener some embarrassment.
Predictive skills
Listeners as well as speakers need to be shown how guessing plays a role in
undemanding. Prediction is as cencraho spoken contexts as it is in reading.
As in reading, incorrect predictions are a normal part of the process of sort-
ing out meaning. Having learners listen to sentences in which certain words
are deliberately spoken softly, deleted, or even mispronounced will show
learners that it is not necessary to 'hear' every .word in order to achieve suc-
cessful communication. They will benefit from becoming aware that they
can often determine meaning even though they may not understand some of
the words or phrases used by the speaker.
The sender
As they work their way towards increased Auency in the la~guage, there are a
number of strategies ESL learners can employ to make their m.essage under-
stood by the receivers. Such strategies assume that gcrcing the message across
is the main priority.
Littlewood (1984) notes several strategies which learners have been known
to use in the face of, or in anticipation of, difficulty in communication.
Avoid communicating
This strategy probably has little appeal to the ESL reacher, regardless of the ·
approach to language teaching being used. In an academic concexc, in partic- •
ular, and given what we know about the relationship between language and
learning, persistent refusal to attempt communication will probably impede
language development. This strategy is worth some actenrion, however,
since difficulty in getting a message across or in understanding other
people's messages often leads a learner to avoid taking risks with the lan-
guage. Teachers must also distinguish between a legitimate 'silent' period as •
a normal part of language learning, and a more extreme avoidance of com- .
municativc situations on the part of the learner.
'
. JIf
. .
· with, 'and ar~ able ro communicate successfully, the resulting confidence will
lea4 them to be more advenrurous in their use oflanguage.
Adjust the message .
In this case, the learner, realizing that there is a problem even while the
exchange is still taking place, can modify the manner in which rhe message is
being sent! This might result in a scaling down or simplification of the in-
tended message, or breaking it into sm~ler compo'nenrs, with the eventual
result of the intended understanding being achieved.
To develop their awareness of this technique, students can be give~ a variety
of different utterances and be asked to r~ph rase them. Similarly, a speaker
might be stopped from dme co time·and asked to supply alternative forms of
expreS.sion for words or phrases which have been used. ·
Paraphrase
The learner can be shown how alternative words or phrases can be used ro
help the receiver get a.reasonable interpretadon. Licdewood (1984) cites ex-
amples of'a learner who did not recall the word for a "car seac belt" [buc]
avoided the need for it by saying ''I'd better tie myself in". A learner who
~o.~l1d !1ot recall the word "kettle" spoke of "the thing thac you boil wate r
. Jn .
This technique is familiar to native speakers who, unable to recall a partic-
ular word or phrase at the moment will say 'You know, char rhing you . . .;•in
· o.rder to continue th7 established direction of the exchange wi thout gecring
side-tracked by details such as exact phrasing. This strategy is not a sub-
stitute for working on problematic areas of pronunciation, but can help
·'students extricate themselves from situations of confusion and m isundt~r­
sranding.
Approximation
Closely related to rhe above strategy i~ simply reaching for a word or phrase
which best approximates the word the speaker may nor be able to pronounce
" properly or.cannot remember.
Cre~ting ~e~v words, or everi using nacive language words, are ocher mace-
gies speakers have used co get rhe point across. ~tudems caf.l be given cloie
pas~ages and ~kect to supply ~everal possible words or phrases in rhe blanks.
In addition ro rh'e.se1ocher srracegies serve che learner well:
Rephrasing
Native speakers frequently rephrase their message, perhaps in anticipation
of a possible misunderstanding, or in response to a flicker ofincomprehen·
 1lu11 011 the face of rhe receiver. ESL learners should be aware of this srr:mgy,
Crcquendy used ro present a message in rwo forms: the firsr ofren rriore com- .
plex: rhan che second. Using phrases such as:
'In ocher words .. .'
'Whar I mean is .. .'
'That is, . , .'
.'
rhe speaker offers rwo versions of the message, rhe second posHbly a more
explicit version of the first, thus increasing the chances of understanding on
che pan of rhe listener. This is of paniculac incmsc co the ESL learner
because in common daily discourse, che receiver of che message often res·
ponds with his or her own version of che message: 'You're saying that .. .'or
'You mean that .. .'. This response can reinforce the confidence of the sen-
der if it confirms the message has been received, or point out a problem if the ·
interpretation is not what was intended. The listener's response might alsci
present a more accurate cargec-language version of che message rhan was
originally senr. .,

Response cues
The ESL bmer muse be familiar with the feedback cues, chose nods, grunts,
'uhuh's', and facial expressions which say ro the sender 'I understand what
you 're saying, please continue.' Likewise, scnsitiviry to che absence of ihcsc
cues can help rhe speaker co see if che message is getting across. Checking
feedbal;k with such plirascs as 'You sec?' or 'Do you sec what I'm getting ac?'
or 'Do you understand whac I'm saying?' offers an opportunity for the
listener to indicate that he or she is getting lose in the exchange. This
is a chance fo r che speaker co confirm char che intended meaning is being
received. ·
" The learner also needs co know chat virtually any physical context elements:
gestures, facial expressions, drawings, and so on, are legitimate aspects of the
effqrr co gee the point across.

Conclusion
In sum, the learner should become comfortable wich·the nocion that incom-
prehensibility in whatever form or concext is a legitimate and expected parr
of the communication process. Encouragement co understand whar lies ·.
behind these misunderstandings, and what strategics might be ~mployed co
ensure continued communication while'specific aspects of articulation are
developed, serves rhe learner well on the long road to fluency.

.. I'

: ·. ./
. --,,,.
GLOSSARY

affricate: Complex consonant sound composed of a stop followed immedi-

acely by a fricative, e.g. che initial consonant sound of'chug', made up of
/t/and !JI.
alveolar: Describes sounds where che tongue either touches or.approaches
the alveolar ridgt in their production, e.g. /t/, Id/, Ill, In /.
alveolar ridge: Roof of mouth just behind upper ceech (see Figure 2, l, page
12). Also called tooth ridge.
alveopalatal: Describes sounds made wich che blade of che tongue
approaching the hardpalate just behind the alveolar ridge, e.g. I JI and / 3/.
artimlation, manner of: The way in .which the airmeam is obstructed or
alccred in rhe production of speech sounds.
artimlation, place ofi The location of the obmuccion of the airstream,
especially in the arciculation of consonants.
articulators: Movable parts of the mouth used in the production of speech
sounds: the .bocrom lip, the bottom teeth, the tongue, and the jaw.
aspiration: Burseof air which accompanies the voiceless stop consonants (!pl,
It /, and /k/) in certain positions in English, e.g. word-initial.
. '

backward buildup: A technique for improving fluency, intonation, linking, ,

and mest. It involves saying aloud the final words of a senrence and then
adding the preceding words, one at a time, unril the whole sentence is said.
bilabial: Describes sounds where both lips are involved in production, e.g.
/p/, !bl, and / m/. ·
conronant: Sound which involves a narrowing in che mouch, causing some
obmucrion of the airstream. Sec also vowel.
contonam cluster:, Two or more adjacent consonants together, occurring at
the beginning (initial consonan cclusters) or end (final consonant cluscers) of
a syllable.
content words: Words which express independent meaning, usually smssed
in a senrcnce. See also fun'ction words.
contractions: Shortened form of auxiliary verbs where the initial consonant,
and sometimes the vowel, are lost, e.g. 'I'll', 'I've'.
contra1tive: Describes sounds which create ~ difference in meaning if sub-
stituted for one another. In English, /p/ and lb/ arc contrastive, as evidenced
by the minimal pair 'pit' and 'bit'.
diphthongs: Complex vowel sounds composed of a vowel followed by a
semi-vowel, e.g. /awl, lay/, and loyl.
flap: A positional variant of I ti in American pronunciation which occurs be-·
·tween vowels where the first vowel is stressed. The tongue couches the tooth
ridge and is quickly,pulled back, so that a sound similar co a ¥d i is produced,
e.g. in 'butter'. l
fricative: Consonant sound which involves a partial obstruction of the air-
smam. The aniculator approaches another part of the mouth but does n0t.
touch it. Fricatives can therefore be prolonged, e.g. Isl.
fanction words: Words which have little or no meaning in themselves, but
which express grammatical relationships. Usually umtressed in a sentence.
See also content words. · non-contrastive: Describes sounds in a given language which do not create a
glottal stop: Sound which involves blockage of air at the glottis, e.g. the initial
and medial sound in American 'uh-oh'.
glottalized: Refers co the pronunciation of a sound with an accompanying
glottal stop. In 'English, some /t/s, particularly word-final /tis, may be
glotcalized.
glottis: Opening berween the vocal cords. See Figure 2. 1, page 12.
hard palate: Part of roof of mourh just behind the tooth ridge. See Figure
2.1. ' .
homophones: Words that sound the same but have different meanings, e.g.
'fir' and 'fur'.
information focus: Parr of sentence to which the speaker is drawing atten•
tion. Usually indicated rhrough the use of stronger smss.
imerdental: Describes sounds where che tip of the tongue obs eructs the air- ·
stream by being placed between the teeth, or behind the upper teeth, e.g. /8/
and/o/. · vowels.
intonation pattern or contour: Parcern of rise and fall of the pitch of a
sentence.
intonation, rising: Intonation pattern characteristic of yes-no questions in
English. The pitch of the voice rises at che major sentence stress, and comi-
nues to rise.
intonation, rising-falling: The most common intonation pattern in English,
characteristic of simple declarative sentences, commartds, and questions that '
begin with a wh-word. The pitch rises cowards the end of the sentence, then
,.
falls.
~. labiodental: De~cribes sounds where the obstruction to che airstream is
made by the'top teeth.to'uching the .lower lip, ·e.g. /f l and / v /. ·
lateral consonants: III sound as made by some English speakers, with air
passing out ~f die mouth over the sides of the tongue. ·
lax: See vowels.
linking: The blending together of words within the same phrase or
sentence, so that there is a smooth "transition from one word to the next. The
final sound of one word may seem to become part of che following word.
liquid: Consonant where the air passes through th~ mouth in a somewhat
fluid manner, e.g. /r/ and / I/.
minimal pairs: Pairs of words that differ in only one sound, the sound
occuring in the same position in each member of the pair, e.g. 'pit' vs. 'bit'.
nasal: Sounds made.with the air passing through the nose, e.g. /ml and /n/.
difference in meaning when substituted for one another, and whose pro-
nunciation is predictable depending on position in a word. In English,
aspirated and non-aspirated /p/ are non-comrascive, as in 'spic'.
off-glides: Semi-voweh where there is movement .of the tongue during
t. pronunciation.
palatalir,ation: A sound change such as happens in English when an alveolar
' · sound becomes alveopalatal under the influence of a following palatal
.\ sound such as /y/. For example, in 'did you?' rhe second /d/ and /y I become
/d3/, to produce 'didja?'.
phonetics: The study of speech sounds.
phonology: The study of how sounds pattern in a particular language.
positional variation:. Variation in pronunciation dependent on word pos-
ition. See non-contrastive.
lrl-coloring: Way in which the consonant Ir/ ~ffecrs the pronunciation of
rmofiex consonant:· Sound (e.g. English /r/) made with the tip of the tongue
slightly curled back in the mouth.
schwa: Mid central vowel sound generally used in unstressed syllables. Tran-
scribed as I':!/.
ugmmtal: Describes aspects of speech concerned with individual sounds.
See also suprasegmental.
semi-vowels: Sounds made with a relatively wide opening in che mouth, and
little rurbulance in the airstream, e.g./wl and /y/.
 "'"" ~.. ,.,,,,,,,,
I '/! 1 v11 1Mfltllll Cn111r>11unt sound which involves a complete blockage of th~
FURTHER READING
I '''"°''•,,,./pl ~11cl /b/. .
I• ·•1 l'1uphu1ls on a parricular syllablt or word. In English, rhis involves
111il•lllf<11m11r/rlo11ger, louder, and higher in pitch. ·
t·r•1 1/1111tl: Describes languages in which rhythm is dependent upon the
111111ilm of stressed syllables within a spoken unit, e.g. English. See also The following is an annotated bibliography of books char may be of interest
11•/l.1ble-timed. to pronunciation teachers. Certain books are useful as in-class texts while

mm, major: The strongest level of mess in a word or sentence. See also
uress, minorand unstress. · In using these pronunciation texts, teachers must be aware rhac many texts
mm, minor: A level of stress which is not as strong as the major mm in a
word or sentence. See also ttress, major and unstress.
supraugmmtal: Describes aspects of speech above the level of the individual
sound: rhythm, stress, and intonation. See also s~gmtntal.
syllable: Unit into which a word in divided, usually consisting of a vowel
with consonant(s) before and/or after it.
syllable-timed: Describes languages in which rhythm is dependent upon rhe
number of syllables within a spoken unit, e.g. French. See also strest-timed.
syllable, clmd· A syJJable which ends with a consonant.
syllable, open: A syllable which ends with a vowel
others are berrer suited as reference works for the teacher.
reflect rhe pronunciation of ocher dialects of English. Some of rhe books arc
based on the pronunciation of British English while ochers are based on
American or Canadian English. The speaker of' American or Canadian
English musr be aware of books char focus on British pronunciation as rhe
vowel system of British English is markedly different. As there is very lirrlc
variability in the consonants of British and American English, exercises
involving consonants do nor generally have co be adjusted to accommodate
American English pronunciation.
Textbooks
Baker, A. 198 1. Ship or Sheep? An Intermediate Pronunciation Co.urse.

.. tmSI': See vowels.

tooth ridgr: See alveolar ridge. ,·
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The book is divided into forty-nine secrions, each of which focuses on a dif- '
ferent sound or sound contrast of English. Srudencs see a picture of how the
unstrm: Lack of Jtrmon a word or syllable.
sound is made and then practise rhe sound in selected words, senrences, and
velat: Describes sounds involving rhe back of the tongue and the soft pa/are. dialogues.
or velum, e.g. lk/, lg/, and /IJ/. - Teacher's and student's books.
velum: Back part of the roof of the mouth. Also called soft palate. - Cassette available.
- British English.
voiced: Describes sounds made with the vocal cords vibrating, e.g. lz l.
Baker, A. 1982a.· Tree or Thrcd An Elementary Prommcirttion Co11r1e.
voicelm: Sounds made without vibration of rhe vocal cords, ·e.g. Isl.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
L'o111el: Sound produced by <1;ir passing unobstructed through the mouth. This book is organized in rhe same way as Ship or Sheep? buc is designed fo r
Sec nlso pages 28-35 for a description of vowel-types. · elementary smdents rather than incerrnediace ones.
- Teacher's and student's books.
- Cassette available.
. .. - British English .
Baker, A. 1982b. lntrod11cing English Pron11nciation: A Teacher's Gu ide to
.
I.
'Tm or Three?' and 'Ship, or Sh~ep?'. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
• •. t ' ..:'

This book is the teacher's manual accompanying both of Ann Baker's text-
books described above. Ir co mains a useful introduction, covering. topics
such as the selection of appropriate material and the linking of pronunci-
ation to other course work. Baker also provides reaching suggestions for each
lesson of the texts. Of pa.rticular interest to the pronunciation teacher is a list
of pronunciation difficulti~s specific to rwenty-nine language groups.
Bowen, J.D, 1975. P~tterns ofEnglirh Pronunciation. Rowley, Mass.: New-
bury House.
This book is diffic"ult for both teachers and students because of the sheer
number of pronunciation points covered. Bowen provides comprehensive
and imaginative examples of various stress and intonation patterns, as well as
·standard vowel and consonant contras.ts. This book is probably best used as
a resource book for teachers rather than as an in-class text.
- American English.
Gilbert, J.B. 1984. Clear Spmh: Pronunciation and Listening Comprehension
in American English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Clear Speech is a text which combines pronunciation exercises with listening
exercises. The book emphasizes suprasegmental aspects of pronunciation
such as rhythm, focus, linking, and vowel reduction. There is also a small
section on common segmental problems. Gilbert's book is innovative in its
focus on suprasegmenrals and its inclusion oflistening activities in che pro-
nunciation classroom.
-- Teacher's and scudem's books available.
- Cassecce available.
- American English.
Morley, J. 1982. Improving Spoken English: An Intensive Personalized
Program in Perception, Pronunciation, Practice in Context. Ann Arbor,
Mich.: Universicy of Michigan Press.
This book is divided into rwo sections. The .first section deals wi th
connected speech: contractions, reduced vowels, linking, ere. The second
secrion provides exercises in the production of English vowels. The appen-
dix to chis book contains many imeresting teaching techniques including
Rhymalogues and Proverbs.
- Cassette available.
- American English.
Mortimer, C. 198 5. Elemenrs ofPronunciation: intensive Practice for inter-
mediate and More Advanced Students. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
This book is a collection of five previously published booklets: Weak
Forms, Clusters, Link-up, Contractions, and Stress Time. The book
,
emphasiz~s asp~~s of.~~glish pro~unciacion relevar;r to connected speech.
These are practised using short dialogues. The teacher may want to alter
so~e of these dialogues as the humor is often specific tO British cultur~.
- Cassette available.
- British English.
Nilsen, D. L. F. and A. P. Nilsen. 1971. Pronunciation Cmtrasts in English.
New York: Regents.
Essentially, this book is a list of minimal pairs which contrast difficulr sound
distinctions' of English. In addition, a small number of minimal pair sen-
tences are provided for each sound co~trast. The format m~es the boo.k
suited ro teachers as a reference from which they can draw exercises for speci-
fic problems of scudencs. Teachers find this book useful because the
language groups which encounter difficulty.with each sound contrast are
identified.
- American English.
Ponsonby, M. 1982. How Now, Brown Cow?A Course in the Pronunciation
ofEnglish. Oxford: Pergamon Press. .
This book is divided into 58 sections, each of which deals with a particular
aspect of English pronunciation. For e~ample, section 1 deals with /~ /, .
sectiop. 7 with syllable stress, section .32 with weak forms, etc. Often, the d1a·
logues in which these aspects of pronunciation arc practiced are unnatural.
However, they can be useful for more mechanical practice.
- Cassette available.
·- British English.
Prator, C.H. and B. w.' Robinett. 1985. Manual ofAmerican English Pro-
nunciation (Fourch edition). New York: Holt, Rineharc, and Winston.
This book is perhaps the most readily available of all pronunciation texts. le
conrains exercises which provide practice in arciculacion of individual, seg·
mencs stress intonation, and rhythm. In addition, there is a section on the
relati;nship between spelling and propunciation. The detailed description.
of the English sound system contained within chis book makes it a useful
resource for boch teachers and students. The explanations are only approp ri-
ate for advanced students; however, the exercises can be used wich both
inrer~~diare 'and advanced classes. ·
- Cassette available. .
- American Eriglish . .·
Woods, H. Contact Canada. Ottawa: Public Service Commission of
Canada.
Contact Canada is an excellent series of booklets designed originally for
 I
1~ i d il11KEnglLsh co adult francophones. However, most of che exercises con- • 1
Morley, J. (ed.). 1987, C1117ent.Pmpecrivet on Pron11nciation. Washi ngr~:m
1J11wd within chese books deal with common pronunciacion problems and DC: TESOL. . .
, .111 thus be used in multilingual classrooms. Tides in the series include: This . is 'a colleqion .~f arti~les . by leading practitioners in che ESL field .
So1111d Production: h. (1976); Rhythm and Vnsirm. (1979); Sound Pro- Several of the articles provide detail~d lesso1,1 plans which allow the reacher .
d1wion: th. (1976); Syllable Stress and Unsnw. (1979); Intonation. (1977); to imegrace pronunciation inco a communicarivc class room. This book is
Vowel Dimenrions. (1983). strongly reco mmended.
- Canadian English. - American English.
Swan, M. and B. Smith (eds.) 1987. Leamer English: A Teacher's Guide to
fnterfmnce and Other Problems. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press.
Reference books This book describes the interlanguages of ESL learners from cwency differ-
Kenworthy, J. 1987. Tta(hing Englith Pronunciation. London: Langman . . ent language backgrounds. Each chapter includes information on the
This book is for teachers of pronunciation rather than sru~eilts. '.fhc book is phonology, orthography, grammar, and vocabulary of the language in ques-
divided into two sections: Part l deals with issues related to. pronunciation tion. Ir is an excellent resource for teachers bur assumes some knowledge of
teaching and Pare 2 describes the specific pronunciacion problems encoun- linguistics.
rered by learners from nine different language groups. The book has many - British English.
useful suggestions for increasing students' awaren.ess of pronunciatioh. - Cassette available.
Killam, C. E. and B. Watson. 1983. Thirteen Language Groupt: Practical Wong, R. 1987. Teaching Pronunciation.· Focus on English Rhythm and In·,
Application of Contrattive Analysis for Teachers ofEnglish as a Second Lan· tonation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
.. guage. Vancouver: Vancouver Community College.
This book provides a comparison between English 'and thirteen ocher
This book includes many useful suggestions for the teaching of stress,
rhythm, and intonation using a learner-centred approach.
languages with respect co phonology and grammar. le also provides some in- - American English.
teresting culcural comparisons. All excellent resource for teachers. There is a
good reference list and glossary of technical terms.
- Canadian English.
Ladefoged, P. 1982. A Course in Phonetics. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
This book is not a pronunciation rex:cbook but rather a text for an inrroduc·
tory course in phonetics. Teachers may be interested in the detailed
descriptio n of articulatory phonetics provided in chis book. Ir is a very read-
able, scholarly introduction co a field of scudy crucial to pronunciation
teachers. ·
- American English.
MacC:u:thy, P. 1978. The Teaching of Pronunciation. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.
This is a book designed fo r teachers of pronunciation rather than students.
MacCarchy discusses pedagogical issues relevant to the pronunciation
teacher and describes aspects of the English sound system Y.1hich are of con-
cern in the teaching of pronunciation. ' .. . ..
- British English. - .. . '

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acton, W . 1984. 'Teaching Intonation.' Paper presented at the 18th
A.J:inual TESOL Convention, Houscon, Texas.
Allen, W. and S. Waugl1. 1986. 'Dealing with Accuracy in Communicative
Langua'gc Teaching.' 1ESL Canadajouma4 Special issue 1.
Anderson, V. 1977. Training the Speaking Voice. New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
Bal{er, A. 1981. Ship or Sheep?An Intermediate Pronunciation Course. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baker, A. 19 82. Tree or Three? An Elementary Pronunciation Course. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge Universicy Press.
Baker, A. 1982. Introducing English Pronunciation: A Teacher's Guide to
'Tree or Three?' and 'Ship or Sheep?'Cambridge: Cambridge U niversicy Press.
Benson, J. D., W. S. Greaves, and D. J. Mendelsohn. 1988. 'The cemrality
of inronacion in English: an experimental validation of some aspects of
M.A. K. Halliday's theory of intonation in a Canadian context' in R. Faw-
cett and D. Young (eds.): New Developments in Syrtemic Linguistics. London:
Pinter Press.
Bowen, ].D. 1975. Patterns ofEnglish Pronunciation. Rowley, Mass.: New-
bury House.
- " - Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language: An Approach
; Based on the Analysis ofConversational English. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versiry Press.
Catford, J. C. 1985. 'Phonetics and the teaching of pronunciation.' Paper
presented at the 19th Annual TESOL Convention, New Yo rk..
Celce-Murcia, M. 1987. 'Teaching pronunciation as communication' in J.
Morley (ed.) 1987.
Crystal, D. 1980. A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. London:
Andre Deutsch.
Dirven, R. and J. Oakeshott#Taylor. 1984. 'Listening Comprehension:
Part I.' Language Teaching 17/4:326-43.
Dirven,R. andJ. bakeshott-Taylor. 1985: 'Listening co mprehension: Pare
II.' Language Teaching 18/1 :2-20.
Doughill, J. 1987. Drama Activities fo~ Language Learners. Essenrial
LanguageTeaching Series. London: Macmillan.
Esarey, G. 1977. Pronunciation Exercisesfor Advanced Learners ofEnglish as a
Second Language. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Finger, J. 1985. 'Teaching pronunciation with the vowel colour chart.'
TESL Canada journal 2:43-50.
Gilbert, J. B. 1984. Clear Speech: Pr011unciation ~nd Listening Comprehen-
sion in American English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gimson, A. C. 1980. An introduction to the Pronrtnci11tio11 of E11glish.
London: Edward Arnold.
Grasham, J. A. and G. R. Gooder. 1960. bnprovingyourSpeech. New Yo rk:
Harcourt, Brace, and World.
Hecht, E. and J. Ryan. 1984. Survival Pronunciation. San Francisco, Calif.:
Alemany Press.
Holden, S. 1981. Drama and Language Teaching. London: Longman.
Kenworthy, J. 1987. Teaching English Pronunciation. London: Longman.
Killam, C. E. and B. Watson. 1983. Th frteen Language Groups: Practical
Application of Contrastive Analysis for Teachers of English as a Second lan-
guage. Vancouver: Vancouver Community College.
Klyhn, J. 1986. 'Internacional English: Communication is che name of the
game.' TESOL Newsletter 2012: 1-6
Knowles, P. and R. Sasaki. 1980. Story Squares: Fluency in English as a
Second Language. Cambridge, Mass. : Winthrop.
____., Ladefoged, P. 1982. A Course in Phonetics. New York: Harcourt, Brace,
/Jovanovich. . ·
Ling, D. 1976. Speech and the Hearing Impaired Child: Theory and hactice.
Washington, DC: Alexander Graham Bell Institute for the Deaf.
Livingston, C. 1982. Role Play in Language Learning. London: Longman.
Littlewood, W . 1984. Foreign and Second Language Leaming: Language
Acquis,ition and its Implications for the Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
MacCarthy, P. 1978. The Teaching of Pronunciation. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.
 Maley, A. and A. Duff. 1982. Drama Techniques in Languag! Leaming. Wong, R. 1987. Teaching Prommciation: Focus 011 English Rhythm mul
Second edicion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Intonation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pren rice Hall Regen cs.
Morley, J, 1979. Improving Spoken English: An Intensive Personalized Pro- Woods, H. 1976a. Soimd Pro(lucrion: h. Ottawa: Public Service Com·
gmm in Perception, Pronunciation, Practice in Context. Ann Arbor, Mich.: mission.
University of Michigan Press. Woods, H. 1976b. Sound Prod11etion: th. Ottawa: Public Service Com·
Morley, J. (ed.). 1987. Current Perspectives on Pr'Jnunciation. Washington mission.
DC: TESOL. Woods, H.1977. lntonation. Ottawa: Public Service Commission.
Monimer, C. 1985. Elements ofPronunciation: Intensive PraNice for Inter· Woods, H. 1979a. Rhythm/ and Umtrm. Ottawa: Public Service Com·
mediau and More Advant'ed St11dent.1. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. mission.
Wo:ds, H. l 979b. Syllabi~ Strm and Umtress. Ottawa: Public Service
Nilsen, D. L. F. and A. P. Nilsen. 1971. Pronunciation Contrasts in Engliih:
Commission. ,
New York: Regenrs.
Woods, H. 1983. Vowel Dimensions. Ottawa: Public Se~le Commiss.~on.
Ponsonby, M. 1982. How Now, Brown Cow? A Course in the Pronunciation
ofEnglish. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Prator, C. and E. Robinett. L985. Manual ofAmerican English Pronuncia·
tion. Fourth edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
-.
Rica.rd, E. 1986. 'Beyond fossilization: A course in strategies and techniques
in pronunciation for advanced adulc learners.' TESL Canadafoitrna4 Spe·
cial issue 1.
Robinett, B. 1978. Ttaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Minneapolis, Minn.: UniversiryofMinnesora Press.
Sanderson, P. 1965. Pronundation of Consonant Clwters. Oxford: Perga-
mon Press.
Selinkcr, Land S. Gass. 1984. Workbook in Second Language Acq11isition.
Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Skinner,E. and T. Monich. 1980. GoodSpuchfortheAmericanActor. New
York: Drama Book Specialists.
Smith, S. 1984. The Theatre Ans and the Teaching ofSecond Languages. New
Yo rk: Addison·Wesley.
Stern, S. 1980. 'Drama in second language learning from a psycholinguistic
pcrspeccive.' Language Leaming 30: 77-100.
Swan, M. and B. Smith. (eds.) 1987. Leamer Englith: A Teacher's G11ide to
ln rerfirence and Other Problems. Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press.
Ur, P. 1984. Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge
> University Press.

:>Ur, P. 1989. Grammar Practice Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni·

versicy Press.
.·
 Pronunciation Pedagogy: ·
Historical Development and
Traditional Classroom Practice
Michael Carey

________ ______
michae l@srsuna.shlrc.mq.edu.au
___ ___
.. __ . . ...
, ~ - - ~ · ..........
·, _, ·--~ - --- --~~-,.. ............_...... ... ,

1. Pronunciation and the Development of .

Language Acquisition
The teaching of pronunciation has been at-odds with the teaching of
grammar and vocabulary ever since it was first studied
systematically shortly befor'1 the beginning of the twentieth century
(see Kelly, 1969). In the time that has passed since the acceptance
of pronunciation as a contributing factor to language acquisition, it
has come in and out of fashion as various progressive movements
in language acquisition have prevailed.

Te:achers of pronunciation have adopted two general approaches

(Celce-Murcia et al. 1996, p.2):

_An Intuitive ..imitative approach. This approach assumes that a

student's ability to listen to and imitate the rhythms .and sounds of
the target language will lead to the development of an acceptable
threshold of pronunciation without the intervention of any explicit
·information : The invention of the (recently much maligned)
language lab and the audio-lingual method contributed to the
support of this approach in the 60's, 70's and right up into the SO's.
Indeed, many contemporary second language practitioners still hold
to this view but research is needed to ascertain if their beliefs have
any foundation.

An analytic-linguistic approach. This approach recognises the

importance of an explicit intervention of pronunciation pedagogy in
language acquisition. Developments in the fields of phonetics and
phonology from the latter half of the century are drawn upon and
. often "watered down" for use in the language classroom .
Pedagogical aids such as the phonemic chart, .articulatory
descriptions, explanations of the form and function of prosody and
practical exercises such as minimal pair drills and rhythmic chants
form the basis of an explicit program of accent modification .

1
 ;
Korean language learners are usually not exposed to a n explicit
method of pronunciation instruction until they venture fro m high
school into a TESOL classroom and have exposure t o a native
speaking teacher who is skilled in pronunciatio n pedagogy. Even
now t he majority of t hese students still lea rn English without
a~ally speaking it. In their pre-adolescent and adolescent years
when exposure to a native model would most benefit their
acquisit ion of pro nunciation, Korean students learn by Grammar
Translation and reading-based approaches. These m ethods of
language instruction will not be t r eated in t he following discussion
of the historica l development of language acquisit io n models
because they are not concerned w ith oral communication of the
target language and are therefore not·concemed w ith
· pronunciation.

:LL The Direct Method

This method of language instruction, which gained acceptance in

the late 1800's, was formed from· observations of children attaining
their.first language. Students would imitate a .model of the target
language that was spoken by the teacher (and later by recordings)
and attempt to approximate the model through constant repetition.
Later models that were built on this approach include Asher's
(1977) Total Physical Response and Krashen and Terrell's (1983)
Natural Approach. The methodology of these models consists of
intensive listening comprehension, which persist for an extended
period before any speaking is allowed. Proponents of these
naturalistic methods maintain that: ·
. .
"the initial focus on listening without pressure to speak gives the
learners the opportunity to internalise the target sound system.
When learners do speak later on, their pronunciation is supposedly
· quite good despite never having received explicit pronunciation
instruction{Celce- Murcia et al. 1996)." · ·

In the 1890's the developers of the International Phonetic Alphabet

(IPA), Henry Sweet, Wilhelm Vietor and Paul Passy, led a movement
in language teaching tt~at was generally known as the Reform
Movement. These phoneticians did much to influence the teaching
of pronunciation with their contribution to the development of a
system for describing and analysing the sound systems of
languages and by advocating the following guidelines (Celce-Murcia
et al. 1996, p.3):

2
 • The spoken form of a language is primary and should be
taught first
• The findings of phonetics should be applied to language
teaching .
• Teachers must have solid training in phonetics
:- Lea rners should be given phonetic training to establish good
speech habits ·

The contribution of the latter analytic linguistic approach to

pronunciation pedagogy led to the next noticeable movement in the
1940's and 1950's. In the United States Audiolinguism and in
Britain the Oral approach were two m ethodologi~ that were built
upon' the explicit instruction of phonological aspects of language.
These two
methods emulated the Direct Method by.relying on a
recording or the teacher to model the target language followed by
· . the students' repetition of that language. However, the teacher also
' drew from their lsnowledge of phonetics and for the first time used
simplified charts of the IPA and of articulatory models in the
classroom. Also in.troduced was.the practice of using minimal pairs
for listening practise and oral production. This. technique was based
. on the concept Qf the phoneme as a minimally distinctive sound
. (Bloomfield 1933) and was ·used, and indeed overused by Baker
(1?77.). in her very popular:- course book on contrastive s~gmental
·· in~ruqi9n_ Ship or Sheep?

The 1960's was the decade which.was to have a profound

destabilising effect on the teaching of pronunciation. An influential
new movement, Transformational-generative grammar, (Chomsky
1965) as?erted.~hat language was essentially rule-governed
...behaviour .and no~ tiabitua.lly learnt. This view, which found ·
,~idespread acceptance in English language teaching circles, de-
emphasised the role of pronunciation in language acquisition
pedagogy in favour of gra_mmar and vocabulary becau~e:
• •1.- ··

"it s advocates i:irgued, (1) native-like pronunciation was an

unrealistic objective and could not be achieved (Scovel 1969); and
(2) time would be better spent on teaching more learnable items,
such as grammatical structures and words (Celce-Murcia .et al.
1996) ...

3
 :
1.5. The Silent !;"'.:_a y

In the early 1970's pronunciation returned to favour with the

development of the Silent Way (Gattegno 1972, 1976). In this
methodology (which is still in practice in the U.S.A) segmentals as
well as suprasegmentals are highlighted from the very beginning of
instruction. As the name suggests, teacher talk in this method is
kept to a minimum. Instead of complicated articulatory and
phonetic explanations the teacher indicates through gestures what
the students should do. Teachers hold up fingers to indicate the
number of syllables in a word, tap out rhythmic patterns and model
the place and _m anner of articulation with their own lips and throat
or with a hand puppet of the tongue and oral cavity. Also central to
the Silent Way are visual teaching aids that have been found useful
in demonstrating some of the more abst:fact principals of
pronunciation to second language learners:

• The siJund-colour chart. Each phoneme on a phonemic chart

is assigned a colour and is referred to by colour for ease of
reference.
• Fidel wall charts. A colour categorisation system which
segments the letter to sound rules into phonetic bundles: For
every letter or group of letters, which represent a phoneme in
English, ·a colour is designated. · -
• Cuisenaire rods. Also used to teach children basic numeracy, .
these coloured pieces of wood of differing lengths have · ·
various uses in the pronunciation classroom. Rods can be
used to build and visually demonstrate intonation patterns,
vowel duration and lexical stress.

.
The current dominant methodology, which persists today with
-
criticism from some· quarters, sprung into prominence in the 1980's.
The Communicative approach holds that oral communication is the
primary use of language and therefore should be central to the
mode of instruction. Although pronunciation is not an explicit
feature in this mode of instruction, the importance of pronunciation
has been·highlighted by it. By focusing more on active
commupication in the classroom, it has been recognised (Hinofotis
& Bailey 1980) that pronunciation competence below a certain
threshold renders even the most grammatically and lex ically
advanced student unintelligible.

This renewed focus on pronunciation has raised many new problems

for the teacher working within the Communicative Approach. One
problem is that the artificial and contrived teacher centred nature of

ftL., -L
11 I
.
previous pronunciation instruction techniques does not allow for a
comfortable fit with the discourse-based Com.municati.v e Approach
( see Brumfit and Johnson 1979). As a result of teacher training
methods centred around the Communicative Approach and the
rigidly adhered-to Presentation, Practise, Production (PPP) model of
instruction, a generation of teachers impartial to, and inadequately
trained in the instruction of pronunciation has been produced. (More
will be said of this situation in the ensuing section).

In an attempt to keep pronunciation communicative, materials

writers have developed materials that focus on suprasegmenta l
aspects of pronunciation. Generally, integration of pronunciation
was only treated with token significance by material developers in
the 1980's and was more or less pushed to the outer to be taught in
isolation .by practitioners still interested enough In its worth and
knowledgeable in its form and function.

2. Attitudes of teachers and students

Many English pronunciation instructors have felt frustrated by ·their

inability to assess segmental production and give accurate feedback
to students because of the black box model of articulatory/acoustic
production. Many learners are unable to produce segmentals
acceptably or with-any permanency after exposure to traditional
methods of minimal pair drills, simplified articulatory explanations
and aural discrimination exercises. Instead, learners tend to revert
ta--theit Js.ssilised production of L2 segmentals once the model,
·which "t1as been extensively drilled by their teacher, begins to slip
from their memory. ·' ·

Teachers who have experienced this dissatisfaction associated with

teaching ·segmentals tend to e!Tibrace negative assumptions
r eg-arding this aspect of pronunciation . A popular assumption which
teachers may cail upon to defend their avoidance of teaching
segmentals and which has been given credence by some current
pronunciation course books is: deviate suprasegmental a.s pects are
more of a·hindrance tO'clear communication than deviate
segmentals (Gilbert 1993). One writer (Helgesen 1996[internet])
aligns himself with this popular notion by stating "No one, anywhere
has ever walked into a restaurant, mispro nounced /r/ and gotten a
bowl of lice."

Although redundancy in language is a well known factor (Gimson,

1980) and intelligibility will be assisted by an immediate linguistic
and situational context in actual communicative situations, it is the

5
 frequency and type of error which can possiblv.. obscure meaning, no
matter what assistance the message is given by context. In a study
. of natural continuous Japanese L2 speech Baldwin (1989} m akes
the following observation concerning the seriousness of segmenta l
errors:

Deviations such as "I sink zat people are bery kind" can stiff be
easily understood, however a construction (with a high frequency
combination of errors) such as ·1 sink dzo disizbutuza" cannot. No
listener understood what he was saying, even with other contextual
c ues present. {The latter speaker's) observation of Sydney being a
"bad town though" contains at least 7 substitutions, uttered in a
·continuous stream of rapid speech.

A swing of preference amongst teachers towards instruction in

aspects of prosody over phonemic production in the classroom has
been greatly influenced by pronunciation course books such as
Speaking Clearly (Gilbert & Rogerson, 1993) and In tempo
(Zawadzki, 1994) which address suprasegment al aspects
exclusively. Defeated by the lack of pedagogy t hat yields any
identifiable results in the area of segmentals, teachers may have
chosen to adopt the popular assumption and turned their attention
to suprasegmentals.

A Survey of Attitudes and Teaching Practices Related to

Pronunciation Teaching (Brown 1992) revealed that tf"le mqjOrity of
. teachers involved in the study believe TESOL training does not
.a dequately cover the area of pronunciation teaching. Teachers feel
overwhelmed by the complexities of pronunciation, not kna.wing
~hat to teach, when or how, and general.ly lack knowledge ab.out
the phonological systems of other languages.

While the. majority of teachers stated they feel the most

"comfortable" with their knowledge and skills relating to the
phonetic (segmental) system of English, they would like more
knowledge about, and skills relating to the teaching of ·
suprasegmental features of pronunciation. These findings beg the
questi9n: if t~ey feel they have been poorly trained in the area of
phone~ics and phonology and its application to second language
acquisition, how can they possibly feel "comfortable" with any
aspect of pronunciation pedagogy?

From this conundrum has arisen a tendency for teachers to polarise

and prioritise top down and bottom up approaches to the teaching
of pronunciation. This_occurrence is in deference to the fact that
segmental and suprasegmental aspects overlap and contribute to
each other in several important ways. The elements of
pronunciation combine to form a dynamic system that cannot be

6
 :
isolated one from the other. For instance, vowel duration and
production of the reduced form schwa /a/, contributes to the stress
of Syllables in words and to.the prominence of semantically loaded
words in sentences. As Taylor (1996) has written:

nthere is a close connection between word stress and the

pronunciation of vowels and the ability to predict and recognise
word stress patterns can help learners to pronounce vowels
correctly. Conversely, a knowledge of the correct pronunciation
of the vowels in a word will give the learners a clear indication
of its stress pattern."

The use of traditional approaches and pronunciation resources

which segmentalise and polarise aspects of pron.unciation,
contribute to the complexity which teachers claim ·to see in
pronunciation teaching. So how should teachers structure their
lessons? A current belief (Brazil, 1994) is that pronunciation should
. be integrated into the general language lesson instead of being
taught as a separate subject. While this view has value it also raises
many questions for the phonologically naive teacher: what should
be integrated, how and when?

:.2. \fJhkh English?

Regarding .his maiden visit to Australia at the close of 1996,

Ameri«;:an President Bill Clinton was reported to have said that he
had difficulty understanding Prime Minister John Howard because of
his accent: . .
' .....
One po5slble cause of this lack of comprehension between two
native speakers-of the same ianguage is that the cultural exchange
between Australia and America has not reached a level whereby
Australian ·English is identifiable to Americans en masse. In Britain
·the cultural exchange has been more complete, our Australian
adors ·and entertainers mix freely within their society and
Australian exports containing our language enjoy enormous ·
suc<::ess. In America on the other hand, Australian actors have been
required to undergo accent training to adopt an American accent
when they appear in American films and Australian blockbusters
have often· been dubbed with American speakers prior to release.
The cause of this confusion could also be attributed to the
similarities in pronunciation shared by General Australian English
and ttie English found in the vicinity of London, recently named
Estuary E1_1glish, which are not shared by General American English.

In terins of population of native English speakers the United States

of America dominates over the other nations. The other major

7
populations of native speakers follow in the order of canada, Britain
and then Australasia. Group Canada together with the U.S.A and
ca ll it Northern America and t he dominance of American-accented
English is overwhelming.

So often the question arises in pronunciation pedagogy circles:

which English do we teach? If the dominant model were to qualify
the pronunciation of choice should clearly be North Ameritan. If an
historical angle were to be t aken some variety of British English
should be chosen. For the last century Received Pronunciation (RP)
which is only spoken by approximately 3% of the British w ell-to-do
population (according to Crystal 1988) was preferred. These notions
which are based on the idea that there is, or should be a Standard
English do not match the reality of language acquisition. English. is
taught on every continent on the globe by every conceivable variety
of native and non-native speakers possible. Yet as long as t he
question of dialect superiority is still ra ised the debate will continue
to influence the attitudes of English language teachers and students
alike. ._,,_. - -
.---

In Australia, though the mode of English instruction seeks to be

Australian in form and cont ent, the teachers the·mselves are often
from diverse linguistic backgrounds. Many of them are travellers or
temporary residents and to model any other accent other than their
own would be absurd. So the notion that foreign language students
arriving in Australia will acquire aspects of native Australian-
accented English is not a reality. This is .also the case for the other
national centres for English language instruction around the globe.
English is no longer owned by the English or by any one particular
dominant group and. therefore to search for a standard modet built
upon one dialect for pronunciation instruction is not re~listic.

In~tead( intelligibility of speech should b~ the modus operandi when

considering what should be taught. Any .native speaker of English
may teach suprasegmental aspects of pronunciation, irrespective of
their nationality.or the country in which they are teaching. The
choice of a model for segmentals however is not so straightforward.
The best solution to this dilemma would seem to be to reserve
instruction of segmentals to a native speaker of.the variety of
English in the_country of instruction. That is, a native Australian
should teach segmental aspects of pronunciation in Australia , a
native northern American speaker should model segmentals in their
homeland and-so on. This may appear to be a solution ex cept that
the previous section outlining the inseparable nature of segmental
and suprasegmental aspects of pronunciation negates this option,
as does t he Communicative Approach to language teaching which
seeks to teach through discourse and not through ex plicit ana lysis.

8
 :
__ The dialect superiority m isperception also contrib.utes to the
reticence of som e language teachers to tackle pronunciation
teaching for fear of being accused of being an inferior model. If the
bulk responsibility for pronunciation instruction were to be taken
away f rom teachers and given to an audio-visual tool such as a
com put er which could consistently model and far more accurately
analyse speech and also g ive diagnostic feedbac.k to the student,
m any teachers would have no cause to object.

3. Traditiona l pedagogy
In tradit ional pedagogy, pronunciation has been viewed as the sum
of t hree components. The components are sounds, stress and
rhythm, and intonation. Perhaps it is due to the complexity of these
components, that traditionally in the classroom these components
have been explicated separately. As has already been mentioned,
many teachers tend to regard these components with varying
degrees of importance and may choose to focus on one of them in
preference to the others. The teacher's degree of phonological·
knowledge may also inform the selection. Critical observations on
the limitations of teachers and their methods have their place but
for the purpose of this ·discussion a ·more positive pragmatic view
will be taken in an attempt to unearth those aspects of traditional
practice whjch .have mer\~. This section will summarise some of the
novel ideas that have been used in the classroom.

The most <;:ofJ1mon method of modification at the phonemic or

sounds level i$ based on ~inimal pair drills. This method assumes
th'af the speaker cannot perceptively or productively distinguish
: : . ":linimally distinctive sounds such as the vowels in ship and sheep
because these distinctions do not occur in their Ll-. Traditionally,
. minimal pairs, or minima_lly distinctive sets of more than two sounds
in the target langu?ge are randomly modelled by the teacher'from a
list and the students guess which sound· in the pair or group has
been produced·. This is an effective exercise for elicitation of the
student's perceptual problem areas and for awareness building of
the sound contrasts in English. However, problems are encountered
in giving feedback·to the students on therr production errors,
· particularly with problem vowel sounds. The traditional practice of
production uses articulatory diagrams to explain the position of the
articulators, followed by a drlll of the contrast. In a classroom
situation teachers don't have sUffroent time to focus on students .
individua lly, nor to analyse the phonetic/phonemic transfer effect...,......,~
.• -.-l'i-
occurring bet ween t he Ll and the L2 or any of the intra-personal
sources of error which could possibly occur. This difficulty can be
partly overcome by focussing on students individually outside the

9
dassroorn in a one-on-one dmrc.. 11'.is however iS not an option for
most lang uage schools.

The author has observed the operation of one such clinic run by
speech pathologists for Japanese learners of English at Cumberland
College, Sydney University, Lidcombe. An effective technique they
have developed is as follows. The speech pathologist models a
target sound within a carrier word. Then the student is asked to
produce it two or three times, depending on how many attempts it
takes to produce an improved production of the sound. Then t he
student is asked which sound they think was better, the first, the
second or the third? Surprisingly, using this method, the student
can often perceive or feel which utterance was closer to the model.
By asking the student to reflect on what they feel is a fair
production of the model, t he doser attempt is thereby reinforced in
a way which can not be attained ifthe teacher was just to comment
good or better or try again. It would seem from this example that
gaining an intuitive awareness of the accuracy of one's production
skills of the sounds in a second language is a significant step
towards improved production.

The minimal distinctions between monophthongal vowels in AE may

be; mainly durational as in the contrasts /i/ versus /I/ and /a:/
versus I A/, or it may be due to other acoustic cues expr~ssed by
varying articulatory motions and realised as formant frequency
differences. In diphthongs the salient cues are the production gf the
.first element, the length of the glide and the direction of the glide.
This however also varies considerably between native.speakers. For
cons~nants the salient acoustic cues are related _to the manner of
articulation and place of constriction. These qualities ..which separate
these 12 sounds are interesting in their own right, but what is the
significance of these distinctions to the second language learner7'- -
Perhaps it is pertinent to ask, what is the point of.drilling
contrasting L2 sounds? Contrasting L2 sounds with durational
difference may be valid for listening practice. However, why
compare the student's production of two L2 vowel targets such as
/u:/ and /u/ when the student probably can't come close to
producing either accurately. In this case neither can be relied upon
as a point of reference for the other. An alternative to the minimal
pair drill practice is offered below. Firstly, the fundamental ·
inadequacies of minimal pair drills will be outlined. The practice of
minimal pair drills presupposes the following:

a) The L2 speaker can already approximate acceptable acoustic

cues for both target phonemes but confuses them; b) Drilling one
minimal pair in relation to another will modify the acoustic cues
towards more native- like speech;

IO
c) The L2 listener has the ability to perceive production of English
sounds in the same way the U listener does.

These presuppositions are flawed for the following reasons:

a) In many instances the learner will not yet be able to produce

acceptable acoustic cues for the target phonemes in question, so
any drilling to reinforce the contra~t between the minimal pairs is
putting the cart before the horse; ·

b) If the L2 speaker can not as yet produce acceptable acoustic

cues for the sounds in question they have a spurious point of
reference on which to contrast the production of the two sounds;

c) The L2 listener does not have the ability to perceive speech in

the same way the native English speaker does. The L2 listener is
constantly influenced by the inventory of acoustic cues from their
Ll. For this reason the L2 speaker should not be expected to·gauge
the accuracy of their own production, especially before their
production of L2 sounds has reached an acceptable proximity to the
target.

The more· innovative classroom approaches to pronunciation

modification have evolved from the pedagogical goal of the leamer-
centred classroom, which has replaced former didactic approaches
to teaching. In the learner-centred classroom activities related to
the correction of pronunciation errors are designed to meet the
student's differing learning styles, namely auditory, v isual, tactile
and kinaesthetic learning. Conformity to the learner-centred model
does not necessarily make the method an effective tool for
modification of pronunciation, but it is likely to make the lesson
more palatable for the student. The following are examples of what
are now being referred to as low tech practices, in light of the
evolving high-tech computer-based approaches.

ll
 :
3.1. Traditional practices
Sounds

Rubber bands have been employed to both demonst rate and ra ise
individual student awareness of length cont rasts between vowels.
For example, using a rubber ba nd to model /i:/, t tie st udents place
the rubber band around both thumbs and stret ch it t o its limit. To
model /1/ students pull the rubber band slightly apart: The teacher
can also point out the co-articulatory effect on vowels between
voiced and voiceless consonants. The students can then identify
long and short variance by listening to an utterance and modelling
the length contrasts with their rubber bands.

The phonemic chart can be used effectively in class to learn new

vocabulary by pointing at the sounds in the chart to elicit a word.
This can only be done after the students.have had lengthy exposure
to the symbols. One way, which I have developed myself, for
students to learn the symbols quickly is as follows. Cut up at least
two copies of the chart with extra schwa symbols and give the
pieces to pairs of students to arrange into word~hart should
have· commonly occurring exam pie words under each symbol.
Monitor the students, .explain any errors they make and point out
patterns such as consonant clusters and the use of schwa . Elicit
· from the students the prominent syllable in each word . .

A common drill used to practise minimal pairs which this author

takes issue with is tongue twisters. Tongue twisters are
pedagogically unsound because t!"ley drill sequences of discourse
with frequencies of phonemes that do not occur in natural speech.
Besides this the difficulty of the exercise ·is de-motivating. It is even
too difficult for a native speaker to say red lorry, yellow Jorry ad
infinitum at a rapid pace.

Rhymes or jazz chants may be used to practise difficult sounds in a

more enjoyable way than by using isolated words or contrived
dialogues with an unnatural repetition of phonemes. Jazz chants are
usually used to practise rhythm and stress in functions and common
expressions such as the one below for giving directions. They can
also be i.Jsed with an integrated focus on problem sounds such as
/3:/.

Walk three blocks and turn right,

Turn right,
Turn right,
Walk three blocks and turn left,
Turn left,

12
Tum left,
Walk stra ight on and tum right, (etc.)

T he heavy rhyming pattern in Billy Field's song Bad Habits is also

appropriate: .

When you get the urge,

And you have to splurge, (etc.)

Songs may also .be used to drill sequences of phonemes that conflict
with the phonotactic constraints of the LL For example epenthesis,
or elision of consonant finals may be worked on with songs such as
the following which practises consonant finals ltl /ml Inf /di and
/s/:
Silen.t night. holy nigh!:. All is calm. All is brigh!:.
Round young virgin, mother and chil.Q.
Holy infant. so tender and milQ,
Sleep in heavenly pea~ sleep in heavenly peace ...

A rubber band can be used again to model the prominent syllable(s)

in a word or utterance. It can be stretched out during the stressed
syllable and left short during other syllables. The point of the
exercise is to help certain students avoid transferring their syllable
timed language to their production of English.

Clapping, tapping or playing simple rhythm instruments can be an

enjoyable way .to demonstrate and practise the prominence of
content words in.- discour-Se or in rhymes. Using natural discourse
focuses attention on the often slightly irregular stress patterns that
occur in real discourse. Rhymes can be used as an initial
demonstration of prominence but should be followed up by real
discourse, as their regular meter is in fact a contrivance.

) ;:'n:z. chants. { See the pr-e\fious se ction).

Magnets can be used as a physical metaphor to demonstrate
linking. A lot of preparation is required for this activity which could
be demonstrated in other ways. Magnets can be glued inside audio-
tape cases or anything similar and then words are glued to the
cases so that the +/- poles attract or repel the appropriate linking
vowels or consonants. The students may believe that if their

13
teacher has gone to this much trouble to reinforce linking it must be
important for t hem to leani to do it.

Intonation
When intonation 'has been dealt with at all in traditional
pronunciation practice it has usually been represented by an
attitudina l approach. Therefore the traditional techniques used to
teach intonation have been informed by an approach which has
since been debunked. A _summary of the methods used Is therefore
not relevant. A typical tool used however is a kazoo, which the
teacher uses to hum an ~tterance and thereby exemplify the tune.
Such a trite demonstration undermines the complexity of intonation
and does nothing to improve the student's production. The author's
preference for'a pedagogical model for intonation is the model
developed by Brazil (1994).

References
Asher, J.J. (1977) Leaming another language through actions: The
complete teachers' guide book.

Baker, A. (1977) Ship or Sheep? C.U.P.

Baldwin, J.P. (1988) Intelligibility and the Interlanguage Phonology

of Japanese English. Unpublished BA (Hons) Dissertation, Macquarie
University.

Brazil, D. (1994) Pronunciation for Advanced learners, (r~a~her's

and student's books) C.U.P.
·- .
Brumfit,C.J., & Johnson, K. (Eds.).(1979) The communicative
approach to language teach~ng. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
. .
Carey, M. (2002) An Ll-specific CALL pedagogy for the instruction
of pronunciation with Korean learners of English, Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Macquarie University.

Celce-Murcia, Marianne; Brinton, Donna.M; Goodwin, Janet. M;

(1996). Teaching Pronunciation-A reference for teachers of English
to speakers ofother languages. C.U.P.

Crystal, D . (1988) The English Language Today. Penguin.

Gilbert, J.B. & Rogerson, P. (1993) Speaking Clearly: Pronunciation

and listening Comprehension. Student's book. New York. CUP.

14
Gimson, AC & Cruttenden, A. (1994) Gimson's Pronunciation of
English. London: Edward Arnold. :

Hinofotis, F., & Bailey,K.M. (1980). Ameriean undergraduates'

reactions to the communication skills of foreign teaching assistants.
In J .C. Fisher, M.A. Clarl<e, & J. Schacter (Eds.}, in TESOL • 80
(pp.120-135). Alexandria, VA: T-ESOL

Kelly, LG. (1969) 25 centuries of language teaching, Rowley, MA:

Newbury House. ·

Krashen, S.D. & Terrell, T.D. (19S3)'. Theo-87#;)Jl:al approach. . ~. -

Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.

Taylor, David S. (1996) Demystifying Word Stress. English today

48, vol 12, no 4. p.46. C.U.P.

Zawadzki, H. In Tempo (1994) NCELTR, Macquarie University,

Australia.

,• .

. .

15
Classi cal Phonology: Saussure and
Trubetzk o y
Ro b ert Ma nnell

Ferd i nand d e Saussure (1916)

Form and Sub s tance .
Basic elements of Saussure's t h eory
Form: an abstract formal set of relations
• Substance: sounds or written symbols
.• Word: the union of signified and signifier

Meaningless elements
Phonetic segments (speech sounds) are elements that have no
meaning in themselves. They have, however, non-semantic and
non-grammatical rules of combination etc.

Meaningful combinations
Meaningless elements (phonetic segments) can combine to form
meaningful entities. ie. words, which are combinations of phonetic
segments (or.of phonemes) are meaningful.

Arbitrary relationship between the

Meaningless and the Mea ningful
The relationships between the meaningless elements (phonetic
segments) and meaningful combinations of those elements (words)
a re arbitrary.

Summary of Asp·e cts of Saussure's Theor y

1. Sounds are meaningless.

2. Within a language individual sounds or combinations of

sounds have meaning.
eg. /d:Jg/ in Australian English has a meaning.
In another language this combination of sounds may have no

2
 ;
mean.Ing, or if it does have a meaning then it will almost
certainly have a different meaning to its meaning in English.
eg. / a e/ is an example of a single phoneme in English which
has a meaning (actually more than one meaning, "I", "eye"
and "aye").

3. Each lang uage has an inventory of sounds. These sounds are

selected from the range of possible sounds that humans can
produce. Each language has its own inventory which is
different from the inventories of most other languages.

4. Each language has its own set of distinct rules for the
combination of sounds, or phonotactic ..ules. These rules
vary greatly from language to language. .
eg. fina l stop and fricative sounds must be voiceless in
German but can be voiced or voiceless in English.
eg. [IJ ] can occur initially and finally· in some languages, but
in English can only occur syllable finally.

Some questions relating to Saussure's.Theory

1. What are the BASIC UNITS of phonology?
sounds or something larger (eg. syllable) or smaller (eg.
phonetic feature)

· 2 . What are the PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISATION controlling the

units?

3. How much abstraction is required for adequate description?

4. Should phonological theory be "psychologically real"?

- Bibliography
1. de Saussure, F. 1916, Cours de linguistique generale (publie
par C.Bally et A.Sechehaye, avec la collaboration de
A.Riedlinger) Paris:Payot. Revised edn 1972, Ferd;nand de
Sa-ussure: Cours de lingu;stique generale (edition critique
preparee par T. de Mauro) Paris: Payot. English translation
with introduction and notes by W.Baskin 1959, Course in
General Linguistics New York: The Philosophical Library.
Reprinted 1966, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Not e : This refe rence is for your info rmation . It is not required
r ead i ng .

3
 Trubetzkoy (1939}
Prague School of Linguistic s
Multilateral oppositions
A group of> 2 sounds which share common features
eg. labial obstruents == /p,b,f,v/

Bilateral oppositions
A pair sounds that share a set of features which no other sound
shares fully
eg . voiceless labial obstruents = = /p,f/

Proportional relationship
The relationship between two sounds is the same as the relationship
between one or more other pairs of sounds
eg. /p/ is to /b/ as / t/ is to Id/ or /k/ is to /g/, that is the
difference between each pair is related to one feature, voicing.
Therefore the proportions p:~ = t:d = k:g

Isolated relationship
No other segment pairs stand in the same relation as a parti~ular
member pair of an opposition. eg. /1/ and /r/ in English ·

Privative Oppositions
One member of a pair of sounds possesses a mark, or feature,
which the other lacks. Such features are also known as binary
features which .a sound either pos~esses or lacks.

eg. Voicing is s·u ch a feature. A sound is voiced or NOT voiced. The

sound which possesses that feature is said .to be marked (eg
[+voice]) whilst the sound lacking the feature is unmarked (eg.
[-voice]).

eg. vowel height is privative in some lang.uages where there are

on ly high and low vowels. The vowels may be said to have or lack
the feature [high] (ie. [+high] vs [-high]). Alternatively, they may
be said to have or lack the feature [low] (ie. [+low] vs [-low]) . This

4
is true for Turkish vowels where, (or example, /u/ and /o/ can be
sa id to be [+high] and [-high] respectively. ··

Graduai Oppositions
Where the members of a class of sounds possess different degrees
or gradations of a feature or property.

eg. there are three short front unrounded vowels in English which
are distinguished by their height, /1, e, re/. In this system /I/ and
/el, for example, can be said to be in gradual opposition.

Equipollent Oppositions
The relationship between two members of an opposition are
considered to be logically equivalent. That is the difference between
them is not due to either a privative or a gradual opposition.

eg. Consonant place of articulation can be seen in this sense.

Changes in place involve not just degree of fronting but also involve
other articulator changes.

eg . [bilabial] involves tWo lips, [labiodental] involves the bottom lip

and the top teeth, [dental] involves the tongue tip and the teeth,
[alveolar] involve$ the tongue tip ant the alveolar ridge, [velar]
involves the tongue body and the soft palate.

Constant Oppositions
When two members of an opposition can occur in all positions they
are said to be in constant opposition.

eg. English: /m/ and /n/ can occur in all of the same positions

/snV .. ./ and /smV .. ./ "snow"' and "'smoke"

/nV .. ./ and /mV.. ./ "night" and "might"
/ .. .Vn/ and / ... Vm/ "hone" and "home"
etc. ..

5
 :
Neutralisabie Oppositions
When two members of an opposition are in opposition in some
positions but only one can occur in one or more other positions.

eg. English:-

1. Inf and /rj/ are in opposition at the end of a syllable, but not __
at the beginning of a syllable.
/sm/ and /SifJ/ are possible, but only /n/ can occur initially.
2. /p/ and /b/ can occur in almost alf of the same portions but
are neutralised at the beg inning of a syllable following /s/.
eg . /spm/ but not /sbm/. Note, however, that the allophone
of /p/ used here is usually identical to the allophone of lb/ in
a word such as /bm/.

Bibiiography
1. Trubetzkoy, N.S. 1939. Grundziige der Phonologie. Travaux
du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 7, Reprinted 1958,
Gottingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht. Translated into French by
J.Cantineua 1949 as Prindpes de phonologie, Paris: Librairie
Klinksieck. Transl~ted into English by C.A.M.Baltaxe 1969 as
Principles of Phonology, ·aerkeley: University of california
Press.
Note: This reference is for your information. It is not required
reading.

6
Distinctive Features: Jakobson et al
Robert M~nnell

..------------- -.
·--~...-~------·-·~·---~--- ------~·.-;-.-------------------

Jakobson's Early Work on Distinctive

Features
Distinctive feature theory was first formalised by Roman Jakobson
in (1941) and remains one of the most significant contributions to
phonology. There have been numerous refinements to Jakobson's
(1941) set of features since that date, and these refinements will be
dealt with in another topic.

Briefly, Jacobson's original formulation of distinctive feature theory

was based on the following ideas: :_

1. All features are privative or binary

This means that a phoneme either has the feature eg.
[+VOICE] or doesn't have the feature eg. [-VOICE] .
2. There is a difference between PHONETIC and PHONOLOGICAL
FEATURES
a. Distinctive Features are Phonological Features
b. Phonetics Features are surface realisations of underlying
Phonological Features
c. A phonqlogical feature may be realised by more than
one phonetic feature
eg. [flat] is realised by labialisation, velarisation and
pha ryngea lisation

3. A small set of features is able to differentiate between the

phonemes of any single language

4. Distinctive features may t?e defined in terms of articulatory or

acoustic features
a. eg. [grave] is an acoustic feature (concentration of low
frequency energy)
,
. b. eg. [acute] is an acoustic feature (concentration of high
frequency energy)
c. eg. [high] is (superficially) an articulatory feature
relat ed to tongue height, but it can also be readily
defined in acoustic terms.

7
 .
5. Jakobson's features are primarily based on acoustic
descriptions

Jakobson, Fant and Halle (1952)

Jakobson and Halle (1956)
13 Distinctive Features
This table shows an early set of distinctive features proposed by
Jacobson and his colleagues. (Note : Do not use this set of features
in any assessment tasks for this course. This table is provided as
historical background only)

:I ·-~-'-[---
· -_ ·-. ----[-.'---··--- -·---~·-!
1vocalic .. --~-f~<?ic~.~-·---'---·-·J~.-~e:~e~~-=~~~~~~~~~!
~!Consonantal :iNasal !Grave ~
. ---~-·---"-·i-:····--'-7··~---·--~-- ~-'--:...- ----···---··---'--···!
·~·--"-·-·-·· -··-·
jCompact 1Contrnuant !Flat · i
,..-'-----
· ------~-- ..;.,- . .;,.-- . . ~ ____:.::.._.-- ~----· -· - -·-- ------~ -:·-- i
jDiffuse !Strident !Sharp I
r.:;:--- ·--·---- - - ----.. r·-------··---- - ···----;--- -·'··--· -·--··--····--·· -····- l i
11ense 1 ~
.!_.:__;____~-.:.~..._ _;,.;.,__ .....,.:..;. _________.;._ •. :... ••• • -.:... - ...... . -· ---··-·--~ ~ -----i·- · -"···--·····---- ·--···· .. --··--- --·..--...~

Bibliography
. 1. Jakobson, R. 1939. "Observations sur le classement
phonologique des des consonnes", Proceedings if the Third
International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (Ghent) 31 - 41.
Reprinted in Jakobson 1962: 272-9.
2. Jakobson, R. 1949. "On the identification of phonemic
entities". Travaux du Cerde Unguistique de Copenhague 5:
205- 213. Reprinted in Jakobson 1962: 418-425.
3. Jakobson, R. 1962. Selected Writings. The Hague: Mouton.
4. Jakobson, R., Fant, C.G.M. and Halle, M. 1952. Preliminaries
to speech analysis: the distinctive features and their
correlates.. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press. (MIT Acoustics
. Laboratory Technical Report 13.)
5. Jakobson, R. and Halle, M. 1956. Fundamentals of Language.
The Hague: Mouton.

Note: These referencesar if'for your information. They are not

necessarily required reading.

I) G5