Shilha - A Descriptive Grammar With Vocabulary and Texts (Applegate)

SHILHA: A DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR WITH VOCABULARY AND TEXTS
Joseph R. Applegate
A DISSERTATION
in L in g u is tic s
P re sen te d to th e F a c u lty o f th e G raduate School o f th e
U n iv e rsity o f Pennsylvania in P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f th e
Requirements fo r th e degree o f D octor o f Philosophy
19#
£i/V .
S u p e rv iso r 6 f D is s e r ta tio n
Chairman o f Group Committee
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PREFACE
S h ilh a i s one o f th e most w idely d is tr ib u te d o f th e B erber
lan g u ag es. I t i s spoken in southw estern Morocco, and th e d i a l e c t
d e s c rib e d i n t h i s d i s s e r ta tio n i s found i n th e area extending from
.A gadir t o I f n i , and as f a r e a s t as T arouant. Although S h ilh a has
been re p la c e d by A rabic in urban a re a s , i t i s s t i l l th e predom inant
language i n - r u r a l a r e a s . The presence of A rabic has in flu e n c e d th e
d i a l e c t , however, and tr a c e s o f t h i s in flu e n c e are found in th e la r g e
number o f borrowed words th a t occur in th e language. A nother example
o f th e in flu e n c e o f A rabic i s found in th e f a c t th a t two methods o f
counting a re used i n S h ilh a. The f i r s t system , in which n a tiv e
S h ilh a words are u sed , i s found in the speech o f women and occa
s io n a lly in th e speech o f men in r u r a l a r e a s . The second system
which makes use o f A rabic words i s used g e n e ra lly by men in a l l
b u sin e ss tr a n s a c tio n s . T races o f Spanish and French in flu e n c e a re
a ls o d is c e rn ib le in S h ilh a . The names o f the months, fo r example,
a re o b v io u sly words t h a t have been borrowed from S panish.
The a n a ly s is p re se n te d in t h i s d is s e r ta tio n i s based c h ie f ly
on the speech o f Mr. Madani Embarek, a n a tiv e o f I f n i . A d d itio n a l
m a te r ia l was su p p lie d by h is b r o th e r, Mr. Houssein Bouchenne. Sup
plem entary evidence to su p p o rt some o f the conclusions reached in
th e a n a ly s is was provided by co n v ersatio n s o f Mr. Embarek, h is
b ro th e r and t h e i r f rie n d s .
The purpose o f th is grammar i s to provide a g e n e ra l d e s c rip tio n
o f th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e language by examining th e phonology, i . e . ,
-ii-
th e sound-types and t h e i r r e l a t i v e d i s tr ib u t io n , th e morphology,
i . e . , m ajor fo rm -c la ss e s, and th e syntax or r e l a t iv e d i s tr ib u tio n
o f th e s e fo rm -c la ss e s. The d e s c rip tio n i s in ten d ed to serv e a s a
g e n e ra l o u tlin e o f th e s tr u c tu r e r a th e r than as a m inutely d e ta ile d
grammar. A v o cab u lary and sample, te x ts a re in c lu d e d . The t e x ts
have been reco rd ed and d ep o sited w ith th e L in g u is tic s Department
o f th e U n iv e rsity o f P en nsylvania.
T his re se a rc h was fin an ced Uy g ra n ts provided by th e American
Council o f Learned S o c ie tie s as p a r t o f th e ir Program in O rie n ta l
Languages f o r th e p re p a ra tio n o f a textbook to be used in th e teach
in g o f S h ilh a . I am v ery g r a te f u l to th e American Council o f
Learned S o c ie tie s fo r awarding th e fello w sh ip s which enabled me to
complete t h i s work. I a lso w ish to express my g r a titu d e to P ro fe sso r
Z e llig H a rris o f th e U n iv e rsity o f Pennsylvania who su p erv ised th is
re se a rc h and to D r. Henry Hoenigswald and Dr. Leigh L is k e r f o r th e ir
s u g g e stio n s•
INDEX
Adverbs l4jtj 52
A ffix es 30-U3
Apocopation 22
A s p ira tio n i a 8 9 16
A ssim ila tio n 20
Basic stems 30
Broken morphemes 30
C ard in al numbers 29
C onjunctions 52
Consonants:
d e s c rip tio n 1 -6
d is tr i b u t i o n 11-15
Consonantal c lu s te r s lif-15
Consonantal r e le a s e 1 16 -18
D em onstrative pronouns 28
D erived stems 25
^D irect o b je c ts - U8 , 50, 51
D is s im ila tio n 21
Emphatic consonants 7-3
E pen th esis 21
E x p letiv es 53
Feminine nouns ( see Gender)
Form ative a f fix e s 30 , 31 , 33 , 35-37
F u tu re Tense 38
Gender 25, U9-?0
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H a b itu a l te n se 36
Im p erativ e 37, U2-U3
I n d ir e c t o b je c ts U8 , 50, 51
I n f l e c t i o n a l a f f ix e s 30 , 33-35, 37-
In te r r o g a tiv e a f f i x U3
I n te r r o g a tiv e p a r t i c l e s 52-53
I n te r je c tio n s U i, 51-52
Ju n ctu re s 8-9
L o cative a f f ix e s U3
M asculine nouns (se e Gender)
Morphology 2U-U5
Morphophonemics 20-23
N egative a f f i x 39
Norm a f f ix e s 31-33
Noun p h rases U6-U8
Noun stems 25-29

Number U9-50
Numerals 28-29
O rdinals 29
P a r ti c l e s U3-UU, 51-53
P e r fe c t te n se 39
P e rso n a l pronouns 27-28
phonology 1-19
P h rase:
d e f in itio n U6
P lu r a l morpheme 32-3U
P o sse ssiv e morpheme 3>h
-v i-
P re fix e s (se e A ffix es)
P re p o s itio n s 35
P ro g re ssiv e te n se 38
Pronouns 27-28
Pronom inal a f f ix e s :
d i r e c t o b je c ts bZ
i n d i r e c t o b je c ts k2
s u b je c ts Ul
Q u a n tifie rs 28
R ed u p licatio n 21
R e la tiv e pronouns 28
S entence s tr u c tu r e 55-56
S p ectro g rap h ic d a ta 16-19
Stems 2U-25
S tre s s 13
S u b s titu tio n 22-23
S u ffix e s (s e e A ffix es)
Suprasegm ental components 7-8
Syntax U6-56
Tenses 36-39
Tension 8 , 18-19
T exts 57-63
Verb a f f ix e s :
form ative 35-37
i n f l e c ti o n a l 37-U3
modal 37, 39-Ul
nom in alizers 37
pronominal 37, UI-U3
tem poral 37, 38-35
Verb p h rases U7-51

V ocative a f f i x 35, 51
Vowels:
d e s c rip tio n 6-7
d is trib u tio n 10-11
Words:
d e f in itio n ' 2k
form ation )|)|
Word sequence eq u atio n s 5U-55
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
P reface i
Index iv
B ibliography ix
Chapter I Phonology 1
Chapter I I Morphophonemics 20
C hapter I I I Morphology 2U
C hapter IV Syntax u6
C hapter V Texts 57
V ocabulary 61+
-v iii-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B a s s e t, A* wN otes de l i n g a is tiq u e b e rb e re ," H e sp e ris, v o l. 3 , 1
B iarnay, S . "Notes d ’eth nographie e t de lin g u is tiq u e n o r d a fr ic a in e s ,"

P u b lic a tio n s de l 1 I n s t i t u t des Hautes fetudes M arocains, XIV, 192U
3 ru n o t, Louis "N otes le x ic o lo g iq u e s su r l e v o c a b u la ire de Rabat e t

S a le ," P u b lic a tio n s de I 1 I n s t i t u t des Hautes Etudes M arocains, VI
1920
D esta in g , Edmond fetude su r l a T a c h e lb it du Sous, P a r is , 1920
D estain g , Edmond Textes b e rb e re s en p a r le r des Chleuhs du Sous, P a ris

19U0
H a r r is , Z e llig S . Methods in S tr u c tu r a l L in g u is tic s , Chicago, 1951
L a o u st, fertile Cours de Berbere M arocain, P a r is , 1921
L a o u st, fenile fefcude s u r l e D ia le c te B erbere des N tif a , P a r is , 1918
L a o u st, fertile Mots e t Choses B erberes, P a r is , 1920
S a rrio n a n d ia , Pedro Gram atica de l a Lengua R ifen a, T a n g ie rs, 1925
Stumme, Hans D ich tk u n st und G edichte d e r Schluh, L e ip z ig , 1895
Stumme, Hans Handbuch des S ch ilh isc h e n von T azerw alt, L e ip z ig , 1899
Stumme, Hans Marchen d e r Schluh von T azerw alt, L e ip z ig , 1895
-IX -
Chapter I
PHONOLOGY
1 .0 The phonemes to be d isc u sse d in t h i s s e c tio n a re : /t k b d
g f s s z z x g h h t m n l r i a u * : ? /. I n a d d itio n to
th e se phonemes, the symbol <,> i s in clu d ed in t h i s s e c tio n because
o f i t s in flu e n c e on c e r ta in phonological processes*
1*1 Consonants
1*11 / t / in c lu d es the follow ing sound ty p e s : [t*1] r e le a s e d and
s li g h t l y a s p ir a te d occurs in th e environm ents # V, and #.
An example o f t h i s i s found in th e word t^ ib h a e r t *1 'g a rd en * . The
sound [ t ] , re le a s e d but u n a s p ira te d occurs in V V, C V, | C , V C
and C_C, e . g . , a e t b i r 'p ig e o n ', a e t y r d i n 'b a c k ', i t s 's l e e p '. It
should be noted th a t th e consonant in th e l a s t th re e environm ents

2 r
may n o t be a n a s a l. The allophone [ t ] , u n re le a se d , occurs be
fo re n a s a ls : e . g . , n t ? n ti 't h e y '. T h is allophone may a lso occur
as an a lte r n a n t o f [ t ] b efo re o th e r consonants in long sequences o f
ra p id speech, [ t ] , domal or emphatic occurs w ith / * / . When i t
occurs b e fo re -* # , i t i s u n re le a se d . In o th e r environm ents, however,
i t i s r e le a s e d . This i s the only allophone o f / t / th a t may occur in
*The methods used in phonemic a n a ly s is a re th o se d e sc rib e d in

H a r r is , Z .S ., Methods in S tr u c tu r a l L in g u is tic s , pp. 25-125. C ertain
ty p o g ra p h ical conventions a r e fo llo w ed . Phonemes a re p laced between
diagonal l i n e s ; allophones a r e enclosed in b ra c k e ts; a s in g le diagonal
l i n e i s used fo r th e word ' o r ' . T ra n s la tio n s a re enclosed in sin g le
q u o ta tio n m arks, and words in S h ilh a a re u n d e rlin e d .
2
For a d d itio n a l d a ta on consonantal r e le a s e , s e e Appendix to
Chapter I .
- 1-
th e environm ents * or VC*. [ t*1] occurs w ith th e phoneme / : /
in j , _Cs o r _V :. When the sequence i s V/C : # , th e a s p ir a tio n
i s in c re a s e d .^
1 .1 2 / k / in c lu d e s the follow ing sound ty p es: [k*1] r e le a s e d and
s l i g h t l y a s p ir a te d occurs i n i t i a l l y b e fo re / a / and b efo re / # / , e . g . ,
kâenun 'f i r e p l a c e ’ , [k] re le a s e d but u n a s p ira te d , occurs in V__a.
i s s l i g h t l y a s p ir a te d and p a la ta l iz e d . I t occu rs b e fo re / i / ,
e . g . , kîm i ’you’ . [kW] d i f f e r s from th e preceding allophones be
cause o f th e la b i a l i z e d r e le a s e . I t occu rs b e fo re / u / . I t may v ary
f r e e l y , however, w ith [k ] and [ k ] . [k] emphatic occurs w ith / * / •
When i t o ccu rs b e fo re / u / , th e r e may be a la b ia li z e d r e le a s e .
1 .1 3 / b / has few allo p h o n es. In borrowed words i t occurs as a
s u b s t i t u t e f o r ' p ' , e .g . babor from S panish vapor ’s h i p '.
[b ] v o iced , b i l a b i a l , r e le a s e d stop occurs b e fo re vowels and
voiced consonants. Before / f t / i t may occur u n re le a se d , kdub ' l i e s ' .
[b y ] p a r t i a l l y v o ic e le s s occu rs before v o ic e le s s con so n an ts,
e .g ., i d u b y t *1 ' i t m e lte d '. I t a lso occurs i n /s__V/.
[£] occurs in th e same environm ents given f o r th e o th e r f o r t i s
consonants.
l .l U / d / l ik e f'o / has few a llo p h o n es.
[d ] re le a s e d occurs b e fo re vowels and voiced consonants. Be
fo re # i t occurs as a fre e v a r ia n t o f [d"1] . I t should be noted t h a t
i t does not occur before n a s a ls .
A d d itio n a l d a ta i s found in s e c tio n 1.2U and th e Appendix to

C hapter I .
-3-
[d1] u n re le a se d occurs b e fo re n a s a ls and b efo re . In th e
l a t t e r p o s itio n i t may v ary w ith [ d ] •
[$] doma 1 , emphatic occurs w ith /->/ or in V*/ _VC*.
[d] occurs w ith / : / in th e same environm ents given fo r o th e r

fl
f o r t i s consonants*
1 .1 5 / g / does n ot occur f re q u e n tly .
[g] re le a s e d o ccu rs before vow els, consonants or .
[gw] has a s l i g h t l y la b i a liz e d r e le a s e . I t occu rs before / u / ,
b u t i t seems to v a ry f r e e l y w ith [g] 'in t h i s p o s itio n .
[g] The o ccurrence o f t h i s allophone i s lim ite d by th e same
co n d itio n s t h a t lim it th e occurrence o f o th e r f o r t i s consonants.
1 .1 6 /f/ There a re few r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e o ccurrence o f t h i s
phoneme. I t occurs b efo re vowels as w e ll as b efo re v o ic e le s s conso
n a n ts . I t does not occur b efo re v o iced consonants w ith o u t the i n t r o
d u c tio n o f e o r - . In _1V o r rV, i t may occur as f®, o r th e r e may
jb e a tr a n s p o s itio n o f th e vowel so t h a t i - f r a h 'h e enjoyed 1 o fte n
o ccu rs as i - f a r h .
1 .1 7 / s / in c lu d e s the fo llo w in g sound ty p e s :
[s ] occurs w ith / : / as do th e f o r t i s consonants a lre a d y
d e sc rib e d .
[s] l i k e th e sounds [t], [£] and [k] occurs w ith / * / in th e
environm ents d e sc rib e d f o r o th e r emphatic consonants.
[s] In environm ents o th e r th a n those d e sc rib e d above, t h i s
sound i s h e ard . I t should be noted th a t when i t occurs b efo re a
voiced consonant th e re i s u s u a lly th e in tro d u c tio n o f a o r - .
1 .1 8 / ! / seems to occur f r e e ly and w ith few r e s t r i c t i o n s th a t can
be d esc rib e d h e re . I t should be noted t h a t li k e / s / i t occurs b efo re
vo iced consonants w ith th e in tro d u c tio n o f a . A f o r t i s v a r ia n t occurs
i n th e environm ents given f o r o th e r consonants o f t h i s ty p e .
1 .1 9 / * / occurs f r e e ly . A v a r ia n t 3 occurs as an a lte r n a n t.
[ 5 ]* domal, emphatic occurs w ith / * / and in the environm ents
d e sc rib e d fo r th e o th e r emphatic consonants.
[z] occurs w ith / : / .
1.110 A / There a re few r e s t r i c t io n s on the occurrence o f t h i s
phoneme. A v a r ia n t, 3 , occurs i n i t i a l l y and fre q u e n tly i n n _ | .
1.111 / x / v o ic e le s s , p a la to - v e la r s p ir a n t has th e follow ing p o s i
t i o n a l v a r ia n ts .
[x^] w ith s l i g h t l y p a la ta liz e d r e le a s e occurs b efo re / i / .
[xw] occurs before / u / . The l a b i a l re le a s e i s not so c le a r

w w
as in [k ] o r [g ] . Often th e re le a s e i s not d e te c ta b le so t h a t t h i s
sound appears to v a ry f re e ly w ith [ x ].
[x] occurs b efo re consonants (ex cep t voiced sto p s) b efo re
vowels and b efo re # .
[x] occurs w ith / : / .

n
1.112 / g / i s a voiced p a la to - v e la r s p ir a n t. The u su a l symbol fo r
t h i s sound i s ^ .
[g^] s l i g h t l y p a la ta liz e d occurs b efo re / i / .

•w w
[g ] occurs before / u / . As in th e case o f [x ] , th e l a b ia liz e d
r e le a s e may be dropped so th a t th e sound is heard sim ply as [ g ] .
[g] occurs i n environments except th o se d esc rib e d above.
1.113 / h / does n o t occur fre q u e n tly . I t i s found before vow els.
When i t occurs a f t e r # , i t i s preceded by a .
l.llU / h / occurs w ith few r e s t r i c t i o n s . When i t occurs b efo re
consonants, th e re i s a v o c a lic r e le a s e s im ila r to [e] but d if f e r in g
-5-
s li g h t l y because i t i s whispered*
1.1 1 5 / * / a v oiced pharyngeal s p ir a n t a p p a re n tly occurs only when
preceded o r follow ed by a vowel, i . e . , in #_V/ V_V/ C_V/ V_C/V_ # .
The vowel i s u s u a lly / a / .
1 .1 1 6 /m / in c lu d e s th e fo llo w in g sound types:
[m] as a b i l a b i a l n a s a l t h is sound occurs before vovrels o r
before / # / a f t e r a vowel o r in V C (pro v id ed th e consonant th a t f o l
lows i s n o t a s to p .
[m] t h i s i s a s y lla b ic sound and occurs in #_C/ C _ # /.
[m1 ] u n re le a se d occurs b e fo re s to p s .
[m3] occurs a s a v a r ia n t o f [m] in #__C or as a v a r ia n t o f [m ] .
1.117 / n / as a d e n ta l n a s a l occurs in V / V_V/ V__C (ex cep t k o r g)
[ 9 ] s y lla b ic occurs i n #_C / C _ # / C_C: e . g . , n ta 'h e ';
n t n t i 'th e y * .
[n3] w ith a s h o rt v o c a lic r e le a s e occurs as a v a ria n t o f [n]
in #_C, e . g . , n t n t i may o ccu r as n 9 t n t i .
[rj ] occurs b efo re / k / o r / g / : e . g . , i»)kr 'h e a r o s e '.
1.118 / l / occurs when preceded o r follow ed by a vowel.
[1] s y lla b ic occurs in #C or C_ # .
[ I s ] w ith a sh o rt v o c a lic r e le a s e a lte r n a te d w ith [ 1 ] ,
[1] s li g h t l y backed occurs w ith /•*/. I f preceded by a conso
n a n t, i t has th e form 1 .
1.119 / r / in clu d es a v a r ie ty of t r i l l s .
[T2 ] occurs in #_V. A fte r <,> i t i s preceded by a s h o rt
g l o t t a l s to p .
[r-j_] occurs in V V / V C (provided th e consonant i s a sto p )
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-6-
and b e fo re # when th e r e i s no drop in to n e .
[ ju ] occurs b efo re f r i c a t i v e s and n a s a ls . I t a ls o occurs be
fo re # when th e re i s a drop in to n e .
[ r ] s y lla b ic occurs i n # _C /. The s y lla b ic q u a lity o f t h i s
allophone i s due to a which always o ccu rs w ith i t . This e sometimes
seems to be w hispered and may b e overshadowed by th e t r i l l .
[ r 1] a domal t r i l l o ccu rs w ith / * / .
1 .2 Vowels
1 .2 1 / i / in c lu d e s a v a r ie ty o f sound ty p e s .
[ly] o ccurs i n § V o r # -V. I t a ls o occurs in V_V o r C_V.
In some c a s e s th e i n i t i a l component i s sh o rte n e d so t h a t i t appears
to v a ry f r e e l y w ith [ y ] .
[ i ] o ccu rs in # CV/ C _ :/ C_C: / C _ # / #_-C. I t sh o u ld be
n oted t h a t th e fo llo w in g consonant may n o t be / g / , / x / o r / h / .
[iy ] occurs as a v a r ia n t o f [ i ] in #_-C .
[ I] o ccu rs i n C C u n le ss th e second consonant i s / g / , / x / ,
/ h / o r follow ed by / * / • I t a ls o occurs befo re two consonants.
[ I ] occurs w ith / g / , / x / , / h / and in _C*. I t should be noted
t h a t [ I ] and [ I ] may be lowered s li g h t l y so t h a t th e y approach th e
upper mid vow els.
1 .2 2 /a /
[a] occurs b efo re # . A fte r # i t v a r ie s f r e e ly w ith ae_ befo re
co n so n an ts.
[ae] occurs in C C (b u t n ot C C* o r C C :). I t a ls o occurs
in # C as a f r e e v a r ia n t o f [ a ] .
[ae] approaches [a] and occurs befo re i and u .
[ &] o ccu rs in _C: o r _CC.
[ a ] occurs w ith ,/*/•
1*23 M
[uw] occurs in #_V o r #_-V . I t a ls o occurs in V_V o r C_V. The
i n i t i a l component i s sh o rten ed so t h a t th is sound o fte n occurs as w.
[uw] d i f f e r s from th e preceding allophone because the i n i t i a l
component i s n o t sh o rten ed w hile th e f i n a l component i s so t h a t th e
sound may be heard as u in r a p id speech. In slow speech, however,
t h i s i s not th e c a s e , and the two components may be heard. F u rth e r
evidence f o r th e p resen ce o f w i s given by th e f a c t th a t th e a d d itio n
o f an a f f i x beginning w ith a vowel r e s u l t s in a lengthening o f th e w:
e . g . , Lm itru lm itru w a et.
[u] occurs i n # C and C :. I t a lso occurs in C__: o r _C# .
[v] occurs in C C but not in C C*.
[ v v] d i f f e r s from th e preceding sound because i t i s s lig h t ly
lower and approaches 'o ' . I t occurs w ith /•*/.
1 .3 Suprasegm ental Components
1.31 /* / T his elem ent in d ic a te s a back p o s itio n f o r c e r ta in con
so n an ts and a l l vowels (ex cep t a ) . I t d if f e r s from th e phonemes
d e sc rib e d above because i t s domain extends over th e s y lla b le in
which i t o ccu rs. In th e phonemes p re v io u sly d escrib ed , th e s e le c tio n
o f allophones was determ ined by th e phonemes im m ediately b efo re or
a fte r. When / * / o ccu rs, however, not only th e preceding consonant
i s a f fe c te d but a lso th e vowel and th e consonant befo re th a t vow el,
e . g . , adct^l 'f i n g e r 1. In t h i s word, both d_'s are domal w hile th e
vowel between th en i s a back vowel. Because th is i s the g e n e ra l
s tr u c tu r e o f sequences co n tain in g an emphatic consonant, i t may be
s a id t h a t th e r e i s an element which extends over th e th re e phonemes
so t h a t th e p o iq t o f a r t i c u la ti o n i s f u r th e r back. The sequence may
th e n be w ritte n /a d a d * /. The domain o f th e phoneme /*-/ may th en be
d esc rib e d more e x a c tly as CVC . I t should be n o ted th a t n ot a l l con
sonants have s p e c ia l allophones o ccu rrin g w ith t h i s phoneme. Those
t h a t do a r e / t , d , k , s , z , r , 1 / . I t should be noted too t h a t in
many ca se s / * / may be dropped so t h a t many words have two forms
g id ad /g id ad * .
1.32 /:/ T h is elem ent in d ic a te s in c re a se d te n s io n . I t i s l i k e th e
p reced in g phoneme because i t s domain i s CVC . The consonants in t h i s
sequence a re c h a ra c te riz e d by len g th en in g o f th e p erio d between
c lo su re and r e le a s e , in c re a se d a s p ir a tio n and a f o r t i s q u a lity .
The vow els, on the o th e r hand, a re sh o rten ed . In th e case o f ijp and

h
uw, th e f in a l component i s dropped.
l.U Ju n ctu res
1.1+1 /# / This phoneme d i f f e r s from th o se a lre a d y d esc rib e d because
i t is n o t heard as a d i s t i n c t sound b u t r a th e r as an in te r r u p tio n in
th e sequence o f sounds. Because i t determ ines the s e le c tio n o f the
allophones o f th e phonemes around i t , however, i t must be co n sid ered
phonemic. I t i s , p erh ap s, th e most e a s ily recognized ju n c tu re , fo r
i t occurs between words.
In the d e s c rip tio n o f the sound, ty p es included in / i / i t was
s ta te d t h a t b efo re vowels th e form xy was used. The u tte ra n c e
For sp e ctro g ra p h ic d a ta on th is phoneme, see Appendix to

Chapter I .
-9-
lyae s i ;Aksae r-ji 'h e b rought th e bowl' would seem to c o n tr a d ic t t h i s
statement. A lthough ly would s a t i s f y the req u irem en ts fo r in c lu s io n
i n / i / , i o c c u rrin g b efo re a would n o t. A f u r th e r exam ination o f th e
u tte r a n c e , however, d is c lo s e s t h a t i t may be div id ed in to two p a r ts
each o f which s a t i s f i e s th e d e f in itio n o f th e term word. An a d d i
t i o n a l elem ent may th en be in clu d ed i n the u tte ra n c e in d ic a tin g t h a t
each p a r t i s a word. This elem ent i s / § / . The u tte ra n c e i s th e n :
iyae s i #dks«e r i . The environm ents o f iy and i are no lo n g er th e
same. Because th e r e i s no c o n t r a s t , both may be in clu d ed in / i / .
1.U2 /-/ L ik e / # / , th is i s not heard as a sep a ra te sound. It
i s n o t so e a s i ly reco g n ized because i t may n o t be h eard a s an i n t e r
ru p tio n in the flow o f speech. I t must be considered phonemic, how
e v e r, because o f i t s in flu e n c e on th e s e le c tio n o f allophones around
it. I t occurs between stems and a f f i x e s .
In th e u tte ra n c e i f rah 'h e e n jo y e d ', th e i n i t i a l sound seems
to c o n tra d ic t th e c o n d itio n s fo r in c lu s io n in / i / , i . e . , i t occurs be
fo re two consonants and should occur a s I . When the u tte ra n c e i s
examined f u r t h e r , i t becomes ap p aren t t h a t th e re i s an a d d itio n a l
elem ent between i and f r . T his elem ent i s / - / .
1 .? Contours
1 .5 1 /•/ T his i s a co n to u r phoneme extending over th e u tte ra n c e in
which i t o c cu rs. The c h ie f c h a r a c t e r is t i c i s a drop in tone fo r the
l a s t vowel o f th e u tte ra n c e befo re / . / .
1.5 2 /? / This phoneme i s a lso a contour phoneme. I t d if f e r s from
/ . / because th e r e i s a high tone on th e two vowels b efo re / ? / .
1 .6 /,/ T his elem ent narks th e end o f p h ra se s. I t is in clu d ed
h e re because o f i t s im portance i n d esc rib in g c e r ta in morphophonemic
changes which depend upon i t s presence or absence in c e r ta in u t t e r
an ces.^
1 .7 D is tr ib u tio n o f phonemes
The phonemes d e sc rib e d above may be c l a s s i f ie d b r ie f l y as
co n so n an ts, vow els, suprasegm ental components, ju n c tu re s and supra-
segm ental c o n to u rs. In t h i s s e c tio n the d is tr ib u tio n o f th ese pho
nemes r e l a t i v e to each o th e r w ill be d isc u s s e d .
1.7 1 D is tr ib u tio n o f vowels
The phonemes / i / , / a / , and / u / may occur befo re and a f t e r
co n so n an ts. They a ls o occur a f t e r / # / , b efo re / # / , befo re / - / and
a f t e r / - / but n o t in th e sequence / # /__/# / , th a t i s a s in g le vowel
may not c o n s titu te a word.
Sequences o f two d i f f e r e n t vowels occur fre q u e n tly . When
th e f i r s t vowel o f th e sequence i s / a / , th e phonetic form o f the
second vowel i s determ ined by th e phoneme t h a t follow s th e sequence.
I f the fo llo w in g phoneme i s a n o n -sy lla b ic consonant, the two vowels
a re heard as a diphthong: e . g . , a u t i l ‘h a r e 1, a id i 'd o g '. I f the
phoneme t h a t follow s i s a vowel, the sound before i t i s consonantal
w hile the f i r s t vowel o f the sequence i s v o c a lic : e . g . , au i •b rin g 1
[aew iy ], a iu r •moon* [ a e i y v x ] . I t i s c le a r th a t in /a W / th e re i s
a s y lla b ic d iv is io n a f t e r / a / so t h a t th e c e n tr a l vowel i s divided
between th e two s y lla b le s . The same i s t r u e when th e th ir d phoneme
o f th e sequence i s a s y lla b ic consonant.
For a d e ta ile d d e s c rip tio n o f t h is symbol, see Chapter I I ,
-11-
When th e f i r s t vowel o f th e sequence i s / i / o r / u / , th e
p a tte r n i s d i f f e r e n t . In th e se c a s e s , i t i s th e i n i t i a l vowel th a t
lo s e s i t s v o c a lic q u a lity ( o r has th e -vocalic component shortened)
and i s heard as a consonant (jr o r w): e . g . , ia n 'one* [y s e n ],
a g iu l 'donkey' [ a g iy u l] , u a lu 'n o th in g ' [waeluw], i-z u z u a ' i t i s cool*
[izv zw a].
C lu s te rs c o n s is tin g o f two of th e same vowels ( i i , uu) do
n o t occur fre q u e n tly , b u t a few examples can be found: i i h 'y e s '
[ i y l h ] , u u r i 're tu rn * [ u w v r i] . A pparently th e sequence aa does
n o t o ccu r.
I t can be s ta t e d , th en , th a t vowels occur in # - / ■ - # /
# _ C / # _ V / C_C/ CJ / V_C/ V V / C _ # / V _ # / . The on ly ex cep tio n i s
/ a / which may occur in any o f the environm ents l i s t e d above except
b e fo re another / a / .
1.72 D is tr ib u tio n o f consonants
Consonants may occur a f t e r / # / and b efo re / # / but not in
/ § # / , i . e . , a s in g le consonant may n o t c o n s titu te a word. They
may a ls o occur f r e e ly before and a f t e r vow els, so t h a t sequences such
as / # _ V /, /V V /, /VCCV/, / § -V/ and / are p o s s ib le . The c h ie f
q u e stio n to be co n sid ered in t h i s s e c tio n i s t h a t o f consonantal
c lu s te rs . Consonants o cc u rrin g n ex t to each o th e r may be co n sid ered

6
a c lu s te r i f th ey are not se p a ra te d by [a] o r / # / . A t e s t o f
whether two consonants in th e sequence form a c l u s te r i s th e range
of / : / . I f th e sequence is a c l u s t e r , both consonants show in c re a se d
The symbol [a] i s used in t h i s d isc u s s io n o f th e d is tr ib u t io n o f

consonants fo r th e s p e c ia l type o f re le a s e d isc u sse d in th e Appendix
to Chapter I .
te n s io n when / : / occurs a f t e r th e sequence. I f th e sequence i s n o t
a c l u s t e r , o n ly th e second consonant shows in c re a se d te n s io n when / : /
o c c u rs. I t can be s ta te d a t th e beginning t h a t th e r e a re no c lu s te r s
in v o lv in g th e r e p e t i ti o n o f one phoneme, i . e . , sequences such as
/ t t / , /n n / do n o t o ccu r.
The f i r s t group o f co n so n an ts, / t , k , b , d , g / , may be c l a s s i
f i e d as s to p s . Consonants o f t h i s group do not form c lu s te r s w ith
o th e r members o f th e same group. When the sto p s occur i n i t i a l l y be
fo re phonemes o f th e second group, / f , s , s , z , 2 / , th e d i s tr ib u t io n
i s complementary i f the sto p s a re d iv id e d in to two c la s s e s : vo iced
and v o ic e le s s . The v o ic e le s s sto p s may form c l u s te r s w ith / f , s , s /
but not /z , z /. The o p p o site i s tr u e f o r v o iced s to p s : e .g .,
/ t f a h : / 'a p p l e s '; / t s a * / •la u g h 'j / d z i r t / 'i s l a n d 1; /d z n a n t/ 'g a rd e n '
The same i s t r u e when / k , t , b , d / occur i n i t i a l l y before / h , h , */•
/ g / does not occur w ith any o f t h i s group o f phonemes. With / r / , th e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s again complementary; th e v o ic e le s s sto p s do n o t form
c lu s te r s w ith t h i s phoneme w hile th e voiced sto p s do. A ll sto p s occur
i n i t i a l l y w ith /m, n , 1 / as c lu s te r s b u t n o t w ith / x , g/ . These
sto p s occur a s the i n i t i a l members o f f i n a l c l u s t e r s , i . e . , in / C # / ,
o n ly w ith members o f th e second group o f consonants. Here ag ain the
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s complementary. The v o ic e le s s s to p s form c lu s te r s
o n ly w ith / f , s , s / w hile th e voiced consonants form c lu s te r s only
w ith / z , z / .
The p reced in g statem en ts w ith th e follow ing c h a r ts make i t
The two words c ite d h ere give a c le a r example o f th e domain o f

/ : / and /■#■/ in consonantal c l u s t e r s . In th e f i r s t word both / t / and
/ f / show a d d itio n a l te n s io n . In th e second word both / t / and / s /
occur w ith r e t r a c t i o n . In th e word td u : 's h e w e n t', only / d / shows
a d d itio n a l te n s io n because / t / does n o t combine w ith / d / to form a
c lu s te r.
-13-
p o s s ib le to d eterm in e th e occurrence o f [a] i n a sequence. In a
sequence o f two consonants i f th e phonemes do not form a c l u s te r
M occurs w ith them . In a sequence o f th r e e consonants, [a] w i l l
occur between any two members o f th e sequence which do n o t form a
c lu s te r: e . g . , / l f d u r * / ’ b r e a k f a s t1. In t h i s w ord, / l / and / f /
may n o t form a c l u s t e r , so th e f i r s t phoneme occurs w ith [a] and i s
h e ard as [ 1 ] . / f / and / d / may not form a c l u s t e r so t h a t [a] occurs

a
between them. The sequence p h o n e tic a lly would th e n be [ ^ f ^ o r ] .
Because i t i s p o s s ib le t o p r e d ic t th e occurrence o f [a] in a sequence
w ith such r e g u l a r i t y , i t i s not n ecessary to t r e a t i t as a se p a ra te
phoneme.
1 .8 S tre s s
S tre s s i n S h ilh a i s a non-phonemic f e a tu r e . The s tr e s s
p a tte r n s may be summarized b r ie f l y by s ta tin g t h a t prim ary o r heavy
s tr e s s occurs on th e l a s t vowel o f th e stem p rovided th a t th e word
h as no a f f ix e s a f t e r th e stem. I f th e r e i s an a f f i x a f t e r th e stem,
and t h i s a f f i x co n tain s a vowel; th e re i s secondary o r medium s tr e s s
on th e l a s t vowel o f th e stem and th e vowel o f th e a f f i x . A ffixes
occurring b e fo re th e stem and c o n tain in g a vowel, have medium s tr e s s ;
and th e f i n a l vowel of th e stem has heavy s t r e s s . The o th e r vowels
o f th e stem have zero s t r e s s .
With / I , m, n , r / th e [a] may be heard a t th e end o f th e con

sonant so t h a t t h i s word m ight a lso occur as [ i 3f® dor].
I n i t i a l C lu s te rs
SECOND CONSONANT
t k b d g f s s z z x g h h ' m n l r
k - - - - - - -
b - - - - - - -
d - - - - - - - -
g - - - - - -
z - - - - - - - - -
i - - - ...........................................................
x - - -
h
FIRST CONSONANT
The symbol ( - ) in d ic a te s t h a t th e two consonants may occur
a c lu s te r.
-15-
F in a l C lu s te rs
SECOND OONSONANT
t k b d g f s ^ z z x g ^ h * m n l r
t - - -
k - - - -
b - -
d - -
g - “
f . - - -
s - -
S - -
z - - - -
2 - - -
x - - - -
g " " “
h
FIRST CONSONANT
m - - - - - - - - - - - - -
n - - - - - - - - - - - - -
r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
The symbol ( - ) in d ic a te s th a t th e two consonants occur as a
c lu s te r .
-16-
Appendix to Chapter I
The co n so n an tal r e le a s e r e f e r r e d to in S e c tio n 1 .1 is an impor
tant f e a tu re o f th e phonology o f S h ilh a . Although th e p e rc e p tio n o f
th e r e le a s e may be in flu e n c e d by th e environm ent, th e re a re c e r ta in
c h a r a c t e r is t i c s t h a t a re c o n sta n t fo r each consonant. These
c h a r a c t e r is t i c s were made c l e a r e r through th e a n a ly s is o f m a te r ia l
w ith a sound sp ec tro g rap h . The sp ectro g rap h ic d a ta show c le a r ly not
o n ly th e p o s itio n s o f vowel fo rm an ts, b u t a lso the freq u en cies a t
which c o n c e n tra tio n s o f energy occur in consonants.
I n th e u tte ra n c e / i b i t / 'h e cu t i t ' , th e c o n c e n tra tio n s o f
energy a f t e r [ t ] occur a t approxim ately 1825 cy c le s and 2875 cy cles
and l a s t f o r approxim ately 0 .2 second. There i s a lso a concentra
t io n o f energy a t approxim ately 500 cy cles which i s s h o r te r in dura
t io n . The same c o n c e n tra tio n s o f energy a re found a f t e r [ t ] in th e
words / i f a t / 'h e gave i t ' and / b d i x t / ' I s ta r t e d i t ' .
In th e u tte ra n c e / t a g i t / 'h o l e ', th e form ants o f th e vowel
/ a / appear a t 750 cy cles and 1500 c y c le s . These form ants do not ap
p e a r as s t r a i g h t l i n e s , however, a s th ey do fo r an is o la te d / a / but
as curves w ith s ta r t i n g p o in ts a t approxim ately 500 cy cles and 1800
c y c le s . These s t a r t i n g p o in ts co in cid e w ith th e fre q u e n c ie s a t
which c o n c e n tra tio n s o f energy occur a f t e r [ t] in f in a l p o s itio n .
In th e word / t g i t / 'you a r e ' th e c o n c e n tra tio n s o f energy occur a t
approxim ately th e same p o s itio n s fo r both the i n i t i a l and f i n a l [ t ] .
There seems to be g r e a te r a s p ir a tio n a f t e r the f in a l [ t ] , however;
and th e d u ra tio n o f th e low est c o n c e n tra tio n o f energy i s lo n g er in
th e i n i t i a l [ t ] .
-17-
The co n c e n tra tio n s o f energy a t $00 cy cles and 182$ cy cles i f
extended would be heard as a vowel, p o s sib ly [e] o r [ I ] . In f i n a l
p o s itio n the lower formant i s o f such s h o rt d u ratio n t h a t th e vo
c a l i c q u a lity i s l o s t . The same i s t r u e when [ t ] occurs before a
vowel. Wien [ t ] occurs b e fo re [ g ] , however, the low er formant i s
lo n g er th an in th e preceding cases so t h a t th e re seems t o be a vowel
o cc u rrin g between th e two consonants.
An exam ination o f th e spectrogram s of th e u tte ra n c e s / i b i / 'he
c u t ’ and / i b i t / 'h e c u t i t ' shows a s im ila r p a tte r n fo r [ b ]. The
i n i t i a l [ i] has form ants a t 300 cy cles and 22$0 c y c le s , and th e y ap
p e ar as r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t l i n e s . The second [ i ] , however, has a
f i r s t formant appearing as a s l i g h t curve which begins a t approxi
m ately $00 cy c le s and f a l l s to 300 c y c le s . The second form ant be
g in s a t 1600 cy cles and r is e s to 2200 c y c le s. When [b] occurs before
a consonant th e c o n c en tra tio n s o f energy occur a t $00 c y c le s , 1$00
cy c le s and 2200 c y c le s . These c o n cen tratio n s o f energy seem to co
in c id e w ith th e s t a r t i n g p o in ts for the curves which in d ic a te th e
form ants of th e vowels in th e previous u tte ra n c e s . An example o f t h i s
f a c t i s found in the words /i- b d a * / 'h e s t a r t e d ' and / i - b d a t * / 'h e
s ta rte d i t ' . In each o f th e se words th e co n cen tratio n s o f energy
f o r [b] occur a t approxim ately $00 c y c le s , 1$00 cy cles and 2200 c y c le s .
In the w ord/kdig*/ »I s t a r t e d ', th e co n cen tratio n s o f energy are found
a t th e same p o in ts , b u t th e low est i s lo n g er in d u ra tio n th a n in the
p rev io u s words. In th is c a s e , th e r e f o r e , th ere seems to be a vowel
resem bling [a] between [b] and [ d ] .
Although i t has not been p o s sib le to o b ta in spectrogram s o f a l l
com binations o f consonants and vowels and consonants w ith consonants,
-18-
enough have been made t o su p p o rt th e con clu sio n th a t the r e le a s e
o f consonants i s c h a ra c te riz e d by co n c e n tra tio n s o f energy a t d e f i
n i t e freq u en cy le v e ls .
F urtherm ore, when th e consonants occur b efo re
9
o th e r consonants w ith which th ey cannot combine to form c l u s t e r s ,
th e d u ra tio n o f th e low est c o n c e n tra tio n o f energy i s lengthened so
t h a t th e sequence o f two consonants i s h eard as CVC. The v o c a lic
sound v a r ie s , depending upon the consonant. A fte r the d e n ta l conso
n a n ts , i t seems to occur as [ I ] ; a f t e r l a b i a l s , i t occurs as [ e ] j
and a f t e r v e la r s as [ a ] .^ °
W ith th e phonemes / l , m, n , r / th e v o c a lic components seem to
extend through th e e n tir e consonant so th a t th e consonant may be
h eard as a s y lla b ic sound when i t occurs b efo re an o th er consonant
o r a s a sequence o f VC or CV. The s y lla b ic n a tu re o f th e s e conso
n a n ts h as been reco g n ized in o th e r languages. When th e f a c ts p re
se n te d above are co n sid e red , however, i t i s p o ssib le to s t a t e th a t
n o t on ly / l , m, n , r / but a l l consonants in c e r ta in environments
have a s y lla b ic allo p h o n e.
By comparing spectrogram s o f u tte ra n c e s in which / : / occu rred
w ith th o s e in which i t did not o ccu r, i t was p o ssib le to determ ine
more e x a c tly th e in flu e n c e o f th i s phoneme*
In th e word / i b i t / 'h e cut h im ', th e p e rio d between th e c lo su re
and r e le a s e o f [ t ] was approxim ately l / 2 w or 0 .1 second. The dura
ti o n o f th e vowel [ i 2 ^ was approxim ately the same. In the word
9
See S e c tio n 1 .7 2 .
10
This would account f o r the s p e c ia l s e r ie s o f s h o rt and very
s h o rt vowels recognized by some l i n g u i s t s in S h ilh a . Cf. Stumme,
Handbuch des S h ilh isch e n von T azerw alt, p. 8 , and D estain g , frtude
s u r l a t a c h e lh it du Sous, pp. v i e t seq.
-19-
/ i b i t : / ‘he c u t h e r ’ th e p e rio d between th e c lo su re and r e le a s e o f
th e [ t] was ap p ro x im ately 15 / 16 " o r 0 .1 8 7 5 second w hile th e span
o f [ i] was app ro x im ately l/ii" o r 0 .0 5 second. The a s p ir a tio n follow
in g [ t ] was g r e a te r in th e second word than in th e f i r s t w h ile the
span of [ b ] , in c lu d in g th e r e le a s e , was s l i g h t l y lo n g e r in th e second
u tte r a n c e .
I n th e word / i - b d a t * / 'h e s ta r te d him ' th e d u ra tio n o f [a] was
approxim ately 9 / 16 " o r 0.13 2 5 second, and the p e rio d between th e
c lo s u re and r e l e a s e o f [ t ] was 7/16" or 0.1175 second. In / i - b d a t * : /
'h e s t a r t e d h e r ', th e span o f [a] was reduced to 3/ 8 " o r 0 .0 7 5 second,
and th e p erio d between c lo su re and r e le a s e o f [ t ] was in c re a s e d to
13/16" o r 0.1625 second. The a s p ir a tio n a f t e r [ t ] was darker and th e
c o n c e n tra tio n s o f energy more c le a r ly d e fin e d in the second word than
i n th e f i r s t . The span between [b] and [d] remained c o n s ta n t, however.
S im ila r com parisons were made between the words / i f a t / 'h e gave
him 1 and / i f a t : / 'h e gave h e r ', / b d i x t / ' I s ta r t e d him' and / b d i x t : /
' I s ta r t e d h e r ', / b i x t / ' I cu t him' and / b i x t : / ' I cu t h e r '. In each
case th e r e s u l t s were s im ila r . The consonant o ccurring b e fo re / : /
was len g th en ed w hile the vowel was shortened. M oreover, the concen
t r a ti o n s o f energy i n the consonantal r e le a s e were more c le a r ly de
fin e d . I n a d d itio n th e consonant preceding the vowel was lenghthened
s lig h tly . In / b i x t : / a l l th re e consonants were in flu e n c e d . In
/ b d i x t : / o nly [d , x and t ] were in flu e n c e d .
These f a c t s would in d ic a te th a t th e in flu en c e o f / : / extends
over CVC, VC, CV o r CVCC p ro v id in g t h a t th e re i s no s y lla b ic d i
v is io n .
20-
C hapter I I
MORPHOPHONEMICS
2 .0 The morphophonemic changes which occur in S h ilh a may be d i
v ided in to f iv e c la s s e s : a s s im ila tio n , d is s im ila tio n , apocopation,
a d d itio n o r re d u p lic a tio n o f phonemes and s u b s titu tio n . Only th o se
changes which a f f e c t a la rg e number o f morphemes w ill be d iscu ssed
in t h i s s e c tio n . Cases o f unique a l t e r a t io n s , such a s th o se which
occur in t h e p lu r a l morpheme, w i ll be d iscu ssed in the d e s c rip tio n
o f th e s e morphemes in th e s e c tio n on Morphology.
2 .1 A ssim ila tio n in v o lv es the change of one consonant to another
so t h a t i t becomes more s im ila r to another consonant in th e environ
ment.
2.11 CVC¥ > C^Cy11
This change ta k e s p lace in a la rg e number o f morphemes con
s i s t i n g o f a s in g le voiced consonant o r a sequence o f phonemes ending
w ith a voiced consonant. When th e se morphemes occur b e fo re a v o ice
le s s consonant, the voiced consonant i s unvoiced: e . g . , z r ig ' I saw' >
z r i x t ' I saw him*; iumz ’he to o k ’ > ium st ’he took i t ’ .
2 .1 2 ^yC y > ^v^V
This change o ccurs in some morphemes c o n s is tin g o f a s in g le
v o ic e le s s consonant o r ending in a v o ic e le s s consonant when th ey occur
b e fo re a v oiced consonant. In t h i s c a se , th e v o ic e le s s consonant i s
v o iced : e . g . , i s - ( in te r r o g a tiv e p a r tic le ) > i z - d ; _s- (cau sa tiv e )
z - b id ’ cause to sta n d ’ . I t should be noted t h a t t h i s change does
11
The symbol [>] i s used in formulae fo r th e word ’becomes’ .
-21-
not occur w ith a l l morphemes. The s u b je c tiv e pronom inal a f f ix e s ,
fo r exam ple, do not show t h i s a l t e r a t io n .
2.2 D is s im ila tio n r e f e r s to th e p ro cess in which one consonant i s
changed so t h a t i t becomes le s s s im ila r t o a n o th e r consonant in the
environm ent. U nlike a s s im ila tio n which seems to o p e ra te c h ie f ly in
v o icin g o r unvoicing o f con so n an ts, d is s im ila tio n seems to in v o lv e
a change from one p h o n e tic type to a n o th e r, i . e . , stop to s p ir a n t
or f ric a tiv e .
I n the d is c u s s io n o f th e d i s t r i b u tio n o f consonants i t was
s ta te d t h a t two sto p s may not occur to g e th e r. When <t> occurs be
fo re a stem beginning w ith a s to p , i t i s o f te n changed to f s f o r
/z/i e . g . , t-d a frlb 's h e asked f o r ' becomes z -d a » lb . This change i s
n o t a re g u la r onej f o r th e d is s im ila tio n may a lte r n a te f r e e ly w ith
th e in tro d u c tio n o f [ a ] .
2 .3 E p enthesis and r e d u p lic a tio n a r e s im ila r p ro c e ss e s. The f i r s t
in v o lv es th e a d d itio n o f a phoneme in c e r ta in environm ents w h ile th e
second r e f e r s to the r e p e t i t i o n o f a phoneme o r sequence o f phonemes
i n a c e r ta in environm ent.
2.31 The morpheme r a - (fu tu r e ) occu rrin g before a v erb stem has
th e form ra d - . When i t occurs b efore an o th er v e rb a l a f f i x , however,
i t h as th e form r a - : e . g . , r a i a f 'h e w ill g iv e ' ra d afg ' I w i l l g i v e '.
2.32 One c la s s o f verb a f f ix e s , which may be d e sc rib e d s y n ta c tic a lly
as i n d i r e c t o b je c ts , c o n s is t o f a consonant preceded by / a / . When
th e se a f fix e s occur a f t e r a vow el, / i / i s p re fix e d : e . g . , iu fa ia k Ik ta b
'h e gave you the book' u r a k i f i lk ta b 'h e d id not give you th e book'.
2.33 R ed u p licatio n occurs most fre q u e n tly in p r e p o s itio n a l a f f ix e s .
22
I t should be n o ted t h a t t h i s change occurs o nly when th e pronom inal
a f f i x b eg in s w ith a vowel o r a n a s a l. "When th e a f f ix begins w ith a
sto p o r s p ir a n t , th e change does not ta k e p la c e . E .g ., d i - ’with*
d id i ‘w ith me* didng 'w ith u s ’ d ik ’w ith you1.
2.U Apocopation d e s c rib e s th e lo s s o f a phoneme a t the beginning
o r end o f a morpheme. I t seems to occur when th e same phoneme occurs
i n two a d jo in in g morphemes.
2.U1 > VC-jV/ V C ^V > VCjV
T his change i s found in the v e r b a l a f f ix e s a r - (p ro g re ss iv e )
and r a - ( f u t u r e ) . When th e se morphemes occur a f t e r u r - (n e g a tiv e ) the
second consonant i s dropped. E .g ., r a t f r a h t ’you w ill e n jo y ’ u r a t f r a h t
’you w i l l n o t en jo y ’ , a r i t f r a h 'h e i s e n jo y in g ' u r a i t f r a h 'h e is n o t
e n jo y in g '.
This change a ls o o ccu rs when th e morpheme < -t- > occurs w ith
< t-> . Thai one o f th e consonants i s l o s t so t h a t a r ttd u t 's h e i s
g oing' occurs as a r t d u : .
2 .5 S u b s titu tio n
In t h i s c ateg o ry a re th o se changes which involve th e r e
placem ent o f one phoneme by a n o th e r. Changes which in v o lv e th e change
o f a sequence o f phonemes to a n o th er sequence which may have no sim i
l a r i t y to th e f i r s t a r e d isc u sse d in th e d e s c rip tio n o f the in d iv id u a l
morphemes.
One change o f t h i s ty p e i s s u f f i c i e n t ly g e n e ra l to be d i s
cussed in th is s e c tio n . I t i s im p o rtan t because i t fu rn is h e s ad d i
t i o n a l in fo rm atio n about phrase boundaries which w ill be con sid ered
i n Syntax. This change in v o lv es th e change o f a- (n o m in alizer) to
u-. A la r g e number o f noun3: in S h ilh a a re formed by a tta c h in g th is
morpheme to verb stem s. When th e s e nouns occur a f t e r / . / o r <,> i . e . ,
a t th e beginning o f a sen ten ce o r th e beginning o f a p h ra se , th e r e i s
no change i n a-. In o th e r p o s itio n s , however, th e a - changes to u -:
e . g . , afrux i z r i , argaz 't h e boy saw th e man1. The o rd er o f words in
th e u tte ra n c e may be changed so t h a t i t appears as / i - z r i u fru x , a r g a z /.
I t can be seen t h a t th e re i s some connection between / i - z r i / and
/ a f r u x / because th e p resen ce o f i - i s determ ined by a fru x . If .afru x
were rep lac ed by t a f r u x t ' g i r l ' , th e i - would be re p la c e d by t - . This
does not happen when argaz i s rep laced by t a f r u x t, however. The two
words ' .afrux and i - z r i may be s a id to be members o f a p h ra se , When
afrux occurs i n i t i a l l y in t h is p h rase, th e p r e f ix is unchanged.
When i t occurs in n o n - i n i t i a l p o s itio n , however, th e a becomes u - .
Another example o f the e f f e c t o f phrase boundaries i s found in th e
u tte ra n c e s : z r i g , a g iu l ' I saw the donkey' and z r ig Ihus u g iu l ' I
saw th e s ta b le o f th e d o n k ey '. I t should be noted t h a t t h i s change
a ls o occurs a f t e r / - / : e . g . , y a -u g iu l 'one donkey'.
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Chapter I I I
MORPHOLOGY
3.0 Morphemes in S h ilh a may be d iv id e d in to th r e e m ajor c la s s e s :
stem s, a f f ix e s and p a r t i c l e s . T his d iv is io n i s determ ined by t h e i r
d is t r i b u t i o n . Stems may occur as f r e e forms o r w ith a f f i x e s . In
some cases they may c o n s titu te a com plete u tte ra n c e : e . g . , as com
mands, as answ ers to q u e stio n s or a s ex clam atio n s. A ffix es a re bound
forms which can never occur ind ep en d en tly . In many c a s e s , a f f ix e s
c o n s is t o f a s in g le phoneme, and th i s i s one o f the f a c ts t h a t serv es
to d is tin g u is h them from stems and p a r t i c l e s . P a r t i c l e s , lik e stem s,
a re forms which may occur in d ep en d en tly , but th ey are d is tin g u is h e d
from stems by th e f a c t t h a t th e y do n o t occur w ith the a f f ix e s w ith
which stems o ccur.
In t h is s e c t io n , morphemes w il l be d escrib ed , and t h e i r d i s t r i
b u tio n as w ell as the m orphological p ro cesses involved in th e forma
tio n of words w ill be d isc u s s e d . Words in S h ilh a may be d e sc rib e d in
terms o f t h e i r s tr u c tu r e . A word may c o n s is t o f a s in g le morpheme:
e .g ., p a r tic le s . In o th e r c a s e s , a word may c o n s is t o f a stem with
one o r more a f f ix e s . A t h i r d c la s s of words i s formed by th e com
b in a tio n o f a f f ix e s . F in a lly , th e re are compound words which are

12
formed by the com bination o f two words.
3 .1 Stems
These morphemes may be d iv id e d in to two c la s s e s , nouns and
In t h i s s e c tio n , is o la te d morphemes a re enclosed in < > , and

th e ju n c tu re between p r e f ix and stem o r s u ffix and stem i s in d ic a te d
by th e symbol [ - ] . Word boundaries a r e in d ic a te d by a space. The
t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n i s phonemic r a th e r than p h o n etic.
-25-
v e rb s , because o f th e a f f ix e s w ith which th e y o c c u r. W ithin each
c la s s a f u r t h e r d iv is io n i s p o s s ib le j f o r stems may be d e s c rib e d in
term s o f s tr u c tu r e as b a s ic o r d e riv e d . A b a sic stem i s one which
may occur in d ep en d en tly o r w ith a f f i x e s and which has no apparent
connection w ith o th e r stems in th e language. A d e riv e d stem may be
analyzed as a stem , b a s ic o r d e riv e d , w ith a form ative a f fix *
3*11 Noun Stems
Nouns are stem s which occur only w ith th e a ffix e s in sub
c la s s e s 1 and 3. There are some which are b a s ic stem s, but a la r g e
number a r e d e riv e d form s. Many nouns, however, have been borrowed
from o th er lan g u ag es, c h ie f ly A rab ic, and th e s e sh o u ld be co n sid ered
b a sic stem s. A ll stem s c l a s s i f ie d a s nouns w hether basic o r d eriv ed
have a s an im p l i c i t c h a r a c t e r is t i c , gender. This i s shown by th e
f a c t t h a t ev ery noun may be re p la c e d by one o f two words: n ta 'h e 1
o r n t a t ' sh e ' . 13
The l a r g e s t group o f d eriv ed nouns a re th o s e beginning w ith
<a->. I t can be shown t h a t th e s e are forms d e riv e d from verb stem s.
Almost a l l of th e se nouns a re m asculine, and th e y r e f e r to th e p e r-
foim er o f an a c tio n : e . g . , a-mksa: 'sh e p h e rd ' mksa: 'g r a z e '; a - d a l
' m antle * d l ’c o v e r '.
A second group o f d eriv ed nouns in c lu d e s th o se formed from
verb stems by th e a d d itio n o f th e morpheme < l-> . I t should be n o ted
t h a t not a l l nouns beginning w ith / l / are members o f t h i s c la s s ; fo r
many nouns borrowed from A rabic r e t a in th e A rabic a r t i c l e although
i t lo s e s i t s s y n ta c tic fu n c tio n in S hilha and appears m erely as an
A more complete d isc u s s io n o f gender w ill be found in

S ectio n U.2.
-26-
in se p a ra b le p a r t o f th e noun. I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t t h i s f a c t has in
flu e n ce d th e form ation of nouns w ith th e morpheme c i t e d above. Nouns
beginning w ith < l-> a re u s u a lly m asculine and r e f e r to an a c tio n :
e . g . , 1 - f a r h ‘p le a s u r e 1 f a r h / f r a h 'e n jo y '; 1 -hma 'h e a t ' hraa 'b e h o t ';
1-frna: 'p e a c e ' hnu: ' r e s t ' .
A t h i r d group o f nouns i s formed by th e a d d itio n o f <bu-> to
noun stem s, e i t h e r b asic o r d e riv e d . These nouns a re u s u a lly mascu
l i n e and r e f e r to th e owner o f an o b je c t o r th e p o s se s so r o f a
c h a r a c t e r is t i c : e . g . , b u - lu * ta l 'owner o f a h o t e l '; b u -l-h n a: 'one
who i s a t r e s t ' .
A fo u rth group o f nouns has been formed by th e a d d itio n o f
th e morpheme < t t> to noun stem s, e ith e r b asic or d e riv e d . Many
o f th e nouns formed in t h i s way a re fem inine c o u n te rp a rts o f nouns
beginning w ith <a->: e . g . , t-a -m g a r-t 'woman' a-mgar 's h e i k ';
t-a -x d a m -t 'c le a n in g woman' a-xdam 'w o rk e r'. In some cases th e
nouns formed w ith th e a f f i x < t t> may be d im in u tiv e s: e .g .,
t - i g z d i - t 's m a ll lo g ' ig z d i/a g z a i 't r e e tr u n k '.
Another group o f d eriv ed nouns has been formed by th e com
b in a tio n o f <bab> 'ow ner, m a ste r' w ith b a s ic or d eriv ed noun stem s.
These nouns occur as a lte r n a n ts o f those formed w ith th e morpheme
<bu-> i n many c a s e s : e . g . , b a b - l- f a r h 'one who e n jo y s '; b ab -l-h n a:
'one who i s r e s t i n g '; b a b -lu * ta l 'owner o f a h o te l1. They must be
con sid ered compound w ords, however, fo r th e y a re formed by the com
b in a tio n o f two words r a th e r than a stem and an a f f i x .
The nouns d e sc rib e d above may be co n sid ered members o f one
c la s s ; fo r i t i s p o s s ib le to s u b s titu te n ta o r n t a t f o r any of them.
Another f a c t which supports t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s found ir. th e
-27-
s y n ta c tic a n a ly s is , namely t h a t th e y occur w ith verbs to which th e
t h i r d person pronom inal a f f ix e s have been added. In th e fo llo w in g
p o rtio n s o f th e d e s c rip tio n th e symbol (Na) w ill be u s e d -fo r t h i s
c la s s o f nouns.
A second c la s s o f nouns in c lu d e s words which may be describ ed
s y n ta c tic a lly as pronouns. They a re considered members o f a sub
c la s s o f nouns because th ey occur w ith the same a f fix e s w ith which
noun stems occur although th e r e a re c e r ta in s y n ta c tic d iffe re n c e s
which serv e to d is tin g u is h them from members o f th e s u b c la ss Na.
The symbol (Nb) i s used in r e f e r r in g to the members o f t h i s p a r
t i c u l a r su b c la ss.
The f i r s t group o f nouns in th is su b c la ss in c lu d e s th e p e rso n a l
pronouns. The members o f t h i s group a r e : n k i ’ I ’ , k i i fjpou', n ta
•he*. When th e p lu r a l morpheme i s added, th e follow ing
changes occur: n k i > nukni, k i i > k u n i, n ta > n t n i . A ll o f the
forms except n k i may occur w ith th e fem inine morpheme < t t> . When
t h i s morpheme i s added, th e follow ing changes occur: k i i > kim i,
n ta > n t a t , nukni > n u k n ti, kuni > k u n in ti, n t n i > n t n t i . These
words may occur as independent forms in th e same environm ents in
which th e noun stems o f Na occur. The fa c t t h a t d is tin g u is h e s them
from members o f th e p revious su b cla ss i s the change th a t occurs when
any in f l e c ti o n a l a f f i x i s added. Then th e forms occur a s s u ffix e s
r a th e r th an independent words. A fter the p o sse ssiv e morpheme <n->
the follow ing changes occur: nki > - u , k i i > -k , kimi > -km,
n t a / n t a t > - s , n u k n i/n u k n ti > - g , kuni > -u n , k u n in ti > - u n t,
n tn i > - s n , n t n t i > - s n t . With th e exception of the f i r s t , n ki > - u ,
th e se a re th e forms th a t occur w ith th e o th e r i n f le c ti o n a l a f fix e s
as w e ll as w ith <n->. A fte r o th e r i n f l e c ti o n a l a f f i x e s , n k i > - i .
A fte r <n->, th e forms fu n c tio n as p o s se s siv e pronouns: e .g .,
tig m i-n u ’my house*. A fte r o th e r a f f i x e s , th e e n t i r e sequence may
fu n c tio n as a v erb o r , in some c a s e s , a noun: e . g . , d a r - i lk ta b ' I
have a book* ( l i t e r a l l y , ’to me a book’ ) ; i- d a : s - d a r -s n 'h e went to
t h e i r h o u se’ .
The second group o f nouns i n th e su b class Nb in c lu d e s th e de
m o n strativ e and r e l a t i v e pronouns. The dem onstrative i s <gua>.
When the fem inine morpheme i s added, i t becomes < xta> . W ith th e
a d d itio n o f th e p lu r a l morpheme, gua > gui and x ta > x t i . These
forms occur w ith th e lo c a tiv e a f f ix e s to form words t h a t may be
s u b s titu te d f o r members of th e su b c la ss Na: e . g . , gua-d ’t h i s one’ ;
x ta - n ’t h a t one’ . The r e l a t iv e pronoun <Li:> ’who’ i s in c lu d e d in
t h is s u b c la s s , and i t i s im portant to n o te t h a t i t may occur w ith
th e d em onstrative to form a word t h a t fu n c tio n s as an a b s o lu te r e l a
tiv e : e . g . , g u a - l i: ’th e one who’ j x t a - l i - d : ’t h i s one who’ .
The members o f th e t h i r d su b c la ss of nouns (Nc) a re numerals
and q u a n tif ie r s . They may be co n sid e red nouns because th e y occur
w ith the same i n f l e c ti o n a l a f f ix e s w ith which o th e r noun stems occur.
The reason fo r a ssig n in g them to a s p e c ia l su b c la ss i s th e f a c t th a t
th e y may occur as p r e f ix e s . This i s e s p e c ia lly tru e o f <ian> ’one’ j
<sin> ’two’ j <kulu> ’ each, e v e r y '. When <ian> occurs a s a p r e f ix ,
i t has th e form i a - ; and i t may fu n c tio n as an a r t i c l e which i s sim i
l a r to th e E ng lish a r t i c l e ’t h e ’ : e . g . , i- z r a * a g iu l ’he saw a don
k ey ’ or 1he saw th e donkey’ ; i- z r a * i a - u g iu l ’.he saw one donkey’ o r
’he saw one ( d e f i n i t e ) donkey’ . When <kulu> occurs as a p r e f ix , the
f i n a l vowel i s l o s t .
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 29 -
The S h ilh a num erals from one to tw en ty -n in e are used i n r u r a l
a re a s fo r c o u n tin g ye s p e c ia lly by women. In c i t i e s and towns, th e
A rabic num erals from th re e to tw enty-nine a r e used by men in b u s i
ness tr a n s a c tio n s . The num erals from one to te n a re b a s ic stems;
th o se from eleven to tw enty-nine a re compound words fozmed by adding
th e num erals from one to n in e to <mrau> 'te n * to which th e p r e fix
<d-> 'w ith ' has been added: e . g . , ian-d-m rau ‘ eleven*. <tirau> w ith
th e p l u r a l morpheme means 1tw en ty 1, so t h a t th e numbers from tw enty-
one to tw enty-nine a r e formed by adding th e num erals from one to n in e
to th e form m rau-in w ith the p r e f ix <d->: e . g . , sin -d -m rau -in 'tw e n ty -
two*. A fte r tw en ty -n in e , A rabic num erals a r e u sed .
The o r d in a l numbers are formed from th e c a rd in a l numbers, with
th e ex cep tio n o f i a n , by adding th e p r e f ix < uis> . With th e fem inine
morpheme, u i s - > t i s - .
3.12 Verb Stems
Verb stems a re th o se which occur w ith th e a f f ix e s in su b c la sse s
2 and 3 . L ik e nouns, th ey may be d iv id e d s t r u c t u r a l ly in to two
c la s s e s : b asic stems and d e riv e d stem s. Although many b a s ic stems
have been borrowed from A rab ic, th ey u s u a lly conform to the i n f l e c
t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f n a tiv e stem s. I t i s im portant to note th a t de
riv e d v erb stem s are formed from b a s ic v erb stem s. There seem to be
no v erb stems th a t have been d eriv ed from noun s te m s .^
There are th r e e c a te g o rie s o f d eriv ed verb stem s. The most
fre q u e n t in occurrence a r e th o se formed by the a d d itio n o f <s->:
1U
A p o s sib le ex cep tio n to t h i s i s th e verb sau al 's p e a k ' which
may have been deriv ed from th e noun au al 'sp e e c h , t a l k , c o n v e r s a tio n '.
No o th e r cases could be found, however.
e . g . , s - f s i ' s t i l l , s i l e n c e ', f s i 'b e q u i e t '. These stems a re
u s u a lly c a u sa tiv e in meaning. Another c la s s o f derived stems con
s i s t s o f th o se formed by the a d d itio n o f <n->: e .g . ma-kl-* 'm eet'
k l* 'w a it f o r , s e e '. In many c a s e s , th e se stems have a r e c ip ro c a l
o r r e fle x iv e meaning. The t h ir d type o f d eriv ed stems c o n s is ts o f
th o se v erb s formed by th e a d d itio n o f < t-> : e . g . , t - f s r 'b e spread
o u t ', f s r 's p r e a d '. These verbs are u s u a lly p a s siv e .
J u s t as gender i s an in h e re n t c h a r a c te r is tic o f nouns, so te n se
i s an in h e re n t c h a r a c t e r is tic o f v e rb s. A verb stem o ccu rrin g w ithout
a f f i x e s , or w ith the a f f i x <f> must be considered a command r a th e r
th an an i n f i n i t i v e .
3.2 A ffix es
A ffix es have been d efin ed as morphemes which may n o t occur
in d ep en d en tly . They may be c l a s s i f i e d by th e ty p e o f stems w ith
which th e y occur: one c la s s occurs only w ith nouns, a second c la s s
occurs only w ith v erb s and a t h i r d c la s s occurs w ith both nouns
and v erb s. S tr u c tu r a lly , th e y are o f th re e ty p es: p r e fix e s , su f
f ix e s and broken morphemes, i . e . , p r e f ix and s u f f ix a tta c h e d to the
same stem. P h o n o lo g ica lly , th ey may be d is tin g u is h e d from stems
by th e f a c t th a t many o f them c o n s is t o f a s in g le phoneme. I t has
been s ta te d above th a t t h i s i s n ot the case with stem s o r p a r t i c l e s ;
f o r a s in g le phoneme may not occur in th e environment / § __ # / . In
term s o f fu n c tio n they may be c l a s s i f i e d as foim ative o r i n f l e c t i o n a l .
The form ative a f fix e s a re th o se which may be added to stems to fonn
new stems to which th e same in f le c tio n a l a f f ix e s are added th a t are
added to b a s ic stem s. I n f le c tio n a l a ffix e s are those which when
-31-
added to a stem form a word which cannot be s u b s titu te d fo r a b a sic
stem , i . e . , an i n f l e c t i o n a l a f f i x determ ines th e subclass o f a f fix e s
from which subsequent a f f ix e s fo r th e word are chosen. I t i s n eces
s a ry , t h e r e f o r e , t o c o n s id e r n o t on ly which a f f ix e s occur w ith which
stem s, b u t a lso which a f f ix e s occur w ith each o th e r .
3.21 Noun A ffix e s ^-5
<t t> i s a form ative a f f i x which may be added to noun stems
c l a s s i f i e d as m asculine. I t occurs most f re q u e n tly w ith stem s be-
ginning w ith / a / to form a d eriv ed stem which i s th e feminine
c o u n te rp a rt o f th e f i r s t : e . g . , a - s f a r ’t h i e f 1 (m.) t - a - s f a r - t
’t h i e f ’ ( f . ) j a g iu l ’donkey’ (m.) t - a g i u l - t ’donkey’ ( f . ) . I n some
cases th e d eriv ed stem i s a d im in u tiv e: e . g . , a g z if 'palm t r e e ’
t - a g z i f - t ’sm all palm t r e e ’ . With c e r ta in nouns which may be
d e sc rib e d as c o l le c tiv e , t h i s morpheme may be used to form a s in
g u la r: e . g . , lbanan 'banana ( a s a type o f f r u i t ) ’ t- lb a n a n - t 'one
b a n a n a '; r i a l 'd o l l a r s , c u rre n c y ’ t a - r i a l - t ’one d o l la r ’ . I t may
be used also to form nouns d esig n atin g a type of work: e .g .,
an zar ’ c a rp e n te r’ t - a n z a r - t ’ c a rp e n try .
When th is morpheme i s added to a stem beginning w ith a non-
s y lla b ic sonsonant, i t u s u a lly has th e form t a t. When the stem
to which i t i s added ends w ith / d * / , th e r e i s u s u a lly a s s im ila tio n
so t h a t the d eriv ed stem ends w ith / t # / o r / t : / : e . g . , agad ’g o a t’(m.)
^ T h e symbol [A] i s used fo r the morphemes in th is su b c la ss .

16
This means t h a t the morpheme occurs not o n ly w ith stems formed
from verbs by th e a d d itio n o f <a->, but any noun stem c l a s s i f ie d as
m ascu lin e, w hether b asic or d eriv ed .
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t-a g a-t-* 'g o at* ( f . ) ; a - g lid * 'k in g 1 t - a - g l i - t : 'q u e e n '. W ith
 ( p lu r a l) t h i s morpheme i s u s u a lly apocopated so th a t i t has
th e form t _ > T his does not always happen, and th e change u s u a lly
f a i l s to occur when th e d eriv ed stem ends w ith / t * / or / t : / .
T his morpheme a ls o occurs w ith stems c l a s s i f ie d a s p e rso n a l p ro -

17
nouns, and th e changes o cc u rrin g have been d esc rib e d above. With
o th e r noun stem s, i t u s u a lly has the form <j> t . T his i s always th e
case when i t o ccu rs w ith num erals: e . g . , ia n , i a - t 'o n e 'j s d is ,
s d i s - t ’ s i x '.
<bu-> is an o th er form ative p r e f ix occu rrin g w ith noun stem s,
e i t h e r b a sic o r d e riv e d . I t i s used in forming nouns r e f e r r in g to
th e owner o f an o b je c t or th e p o sse sso r o f a q u a lity : e . g . , bu-mhand
'ow ner o f s t i c k e r s , p o rcu p in e1. These d e riv e d stem s are u s u a lly
m ascu lin e. I t should be noted t h a t th ese d eriv ed stems a lte r n a te
f r e e ly w ith th e compound words formed by th e a d d itio n o f <bab> to
noun stem s. 18
 occurs w ith noun stems and i s used to form th e p l u r a l .
W ith nouns beginning w ith / a / , i t u s u a lly has th e form i n w hile
/a / > e . g . , argaz 'man' i- r g a z - n 'm en'; agad 'g o a t' i-g a d -n
'g o a t s '. In some c a s e s , however, th e morpheme has th e form
i- [V>a]^Ct e . g . , agru 'f r o g ' i - g r a 'f r o g s '; a g iu l 'donkey'
i - g i a l 'd o n k e y s'. In th e se c a s e s, the i n i t i a l / a / i s a lso l o s t .
In a few c a s e s, th e form becomes i - an, b u t t h i s i s found only
w ith stems ending w ith a consonant. There are a lso cases in which
17
See S e ctio n 3 .1 1 .
13
See S ectio n 3 .1 1 .
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i n > n: e»g», a-d ag : ’ bush’ a -d a g :-n ’bushes’ ; ad zar ’neig h b o r’
a d z a r-n ’n e ig h b o rs' .
When <1 n> occu rs w ith noun stems containing th e morpheme
<t > (fe m in in e ), i t u s u a lly has th e form i in . The i n i t i a l vowel
o f th e stem becomes j w hile t t becomes t e .g ., t-a fu lu s -t
’hen' t - i - f u l u s - i n 'h e n s '; t-a m d a k u l-t 'f r i e n d ' t-i-m d a k u l-in
'f r i e n d s '; t-a -m g a r-t 'woman' t-i-m g a r-in 'women'. J u s t a s i n some
cases d e sc rib e d in th e preceding s e c tio n , th e change of the l a s t
vowel o f the stem to / a / occurs in nouns fo m ed w ith < t t> when
 i s added: e . g ., t - a - s r g u l - t ' l i d ' t - i - s r g a l ' l i d s ' . In
some cases th e form i s <f> i n , and th e i n i t i a l vowel of th e stem r e
mains unchanged: e .g ., t - a z a n - t ' l i t t l e g i r l ' t- a z a n - in ' l i t t l e
g i r l s '•
Another a lte r n a n t o f t h i s morpheme occurs w ith c e r ta in b asic
stems o f n a tiv e o r ig in . This a lte r n a n t i s id . I t i s th is a l t e r
n a n t which occurs w ith nouns fo m ed by the a d d itio n o f <3ou-> or
<bab> to a stem: e . g . , bu-rnhand 'p o rc u p in e ' id-bu-mhand 'p o rcu
p i n e s '; b a b - l-f a rh 'h e who e n jo y s' id -b a b -l- fa r h 'th o s e who e n jo y ';
x a l i 'u n c le ' i d - x a li 'u n c le s '.
W ith nouns borrowed from languages o th er than A rabic, th e p lu r a l
morpheme u s u a lly has the form a t: e . g . , l i t r u (Sp. l i t r o ) 'l i t e r '
l i t r u - a t ' l i t e r s ' ; simana (Sp. semana) 'week' sim an-at 'w e e k s';
la g a r ( F r. gare) 'r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n ' l a g a r - a t 's t a t i o n s '. Nouns b o r
rowed from A rabic u s u a lly r e ta in the Arabic p lu r a l, o fte n an in te r n a l
phonemic change r a th e r than th e a d d itio n o f a p r e f ix or s u ff ix :
e . g . , lk ta b 'book' lk tu b 'b o o k s’ ; lbab 'd o o r' lb ib a n ’d o o rs’ .
This morpheme a lso occurs w ith pronouns and, the r e s u ltin g forms
-3U-
have been d esc rib e d above.
19 The symbol A2 i s used f o r the p lu r a l
morpheme*
<n->, the p o sse ssiv e morpheme occurs w ith a l l stems c l a s s i f i e d
as nouns. I t must be co n sid ered an in f le c tio n a l morphemej f o r i t
l i m i t s th e s y n ta c tic fu n c tio n of the stem w ith which i t o c c u rs . Be
fo re stems beginning w ith / a / i t u s u a lly has th e form / u / . I f the
i n i t i a l / a / i s th e morpheme <a-> which becomes /u / a f t e r / - / , th e re
i s a s s im ila tio n so t h a t only one [u] i s heard in r a p id speech: e .g * ,
a g iu l u-urgaz > a g iu l u -rg az 'th e m an's donkey'. Before nouns con
ta in in g th e p lu r a l morpheme when the i n i t i a l phoneme i s / i / , th e
p o sse ssiv e morpheme has the form i - as an a lte r n a n t. In r a p id speech
the two vowels are a s sim ila te d so th a t only one i s h eard . Before
stems beginning w ith / l / t h i s morpheme a lte r n a te s w ith <f>. Both
a -fu s n -lb a b and a -fu s lb ab 'th e handle o f th e d o o r’ o ccu r. A fter
th e verb ga 'b e ', the morpheme has th e form u i - : e . g . , a g iu l i- g a
u i-u rg a z -a n 'th e donkey belongs to th a t m an'. When th e f i r s t noun
i s fem in in e, the form t i - i s used: e . g . , t - a g i u l - t t- g a t i - t - a -
m g ar-t-an 't h e donkey belongs to th a t woman'. The symbol A3 i s used
fo r t h i s morpheme.
The a f f ix e s <d-> 'w i t h ', <dar-> ' t o ' , <f-> 'f o r ' , <g-> 'i n '
< i-> ' f o r ' , <s-> 't o ' and < si-> 'w ith , by means o f may be d esc rib e d
as p r e p o s itio n a l a f f ix e s . They occur w ith noun stems e ith e r b asic
o r d e riv e d . The forms given above a re th o se th a t occur w ith a l l
except th e p erso n al pronouns. With th e p erso n al pronouns, f - > f i l - ,
j[ > g i- and i - > a - . Furtherm ore, when d- o r g- occurs w ith nki 'I * ,
19
See S e ctio n 3«11»
-35-
nukni 'w e1, k uni 'y o u ' (m. p i . ) o r k u n in ti 'y o u ' ( f . p i . ) , th e re i s
r e d u p lic a tio n : e . g . , g ig i ’in m e ', didng 'w ith u s ', d id u n t 'w ith
y o ti'. The symbol AU i s u sed f o r th e s e a f f ix e s .
The rem aining p r e p o s itio n a l a f f ix e s <du-> 'u n d e r' < ig i-> 'o n ',
<nga-> 'b e tw e e n ', < ta r f - > 'n e a r ' and < ta t ama> 'b e s id e ' must be
d e sc rib e d a s members o f a s p e c ia l su b c la ss; f o r th e y occur only w ith
stems to which <n-> has been added. The symbol used f o r th e se p r e
f ix e s i s A5 .
An a d d itio n a l a f f i x <ua-> i s in c lu d e d i n th e group o f noun
a ffix e s . This p r e f ix se rv e s to in d ic a te the v o c a tiv e forms and th e
noun to which i t is added may fu n c tio n s y n ta c tic a lly a s a p a r t i c l e .
The a l t e r n a n t a - u s u a lly occurs w ith t i t l e s and proper names.
3.22 Verb A ffix es
The fo rm ativ e a f f i x e s fo r v erb s may occur e i t h e r w ith b a s ic
stem s o r w ith d eriv ed stem s, i . e . , th e y may occur w ith each o th e r .
A given a f f i x does n o t occur more th a n once w ith the same stem ,
however.
<s-> is added to v e rb stems to produce a new stem u s u a lly
c a u s a tiv e in meaning: e . g . , i r d 'be c l e a n '; s - i r d 'w a sh '; lkm
'r e a c h , a r r i v e ' s-lkm 't a k e to a d e s t i n a t i o n '; f s i 'm e lt' ( in t r a n
s i t i v e ) s - f s i 'm e lt' ( t r a n s i t i v e ) . When the morpheme i s added to
a stem in w hich / s / , / z / o r /z / o c c u rs, th e re i s a morphophonemic
change which may be d e sc rib e d a s r e d u p lic a tio n : e . g . , s-ksim >
si-k sim 't a k e i n '; s-n z > z-nz ' s e l l ' ; s - z i > z i - z i 'c u r e '. When
<s> occu rs b efo re v o iced s to p s , th e re i s u s u a lly a s s im ila tio n :
-36-
e . g . , s -b id > z -b id ’ s ta n d ’ ; s-d ru s > z-d ru s ’r e d u c e '. T his change
i s not a r e g u la r one, and th e forms s - and z - may a lte r n a t e w ith
each o th e r .
<m-> i s a ls o a fo rm ativ e a f f i x , b u t i t occurs l e s s fre q u e n tly
than th e preceding one. U su ally the deriv ed stems formed w ith t h i s
a f f i x have a re c ip ro c a l or r e fle x iv e meaning: e . g . , k l» ’se e , w ait
f o r ’ j ma-kl* ’m e e t'. When <m-> occurs b efo re / n / , th e re i s u s u a lly
a s s im ila tio n : e . g . , m-nag > m-ag 'f i g h t w ith each o t h e r '. When
<m-> occurs b e fo re /C * / , i t becomes ma-.
< t-> i s a ls o a fo rm ativ e p r e f ix used t o form d e riv e d stem s.
I t occurs l e s s fre q u e n tly than e i t h e r o f the previous a f f ix e s . The
d eriv ed stem formed w ith t h i s a f f i x i s u s u a lly p assiv e in meaning:
e . g . , f s r 's p re a d o u t’ ; t - f s r 'b e spread o u t '. The f a c t t h a t many
verbs a re both a c tiv e and p a ssiv e i n meaning accounts f o r the low
frequency o f occurrence o f t h is morpheme.
< t-> used in forming h a b itu a l stem s d if f e r s from th e preceding
morpheme in d i s t r i b u t i o n and a lso in i t s a lte r n a n ts . The most
fre q u e n t form i s th e p r e f ix t - added to th e stem: e . g . , bnu' ' b u il d 'j
t-b n u 'keep b u ild in g '. In stems containing two consonants / a / i s
u s u a lly in s e r te d between the consonants: e . g . , sn 'know '; san 'alw ays
know’ . In o th e r c a s e s , when th e stem c o n s is ts o f CVC, / a / may be
added a f t e r the l a s t consonant: mun 'accom pany'; muna 'alw ays ac
company'. In o th e r c a s e s, e s p e c ia lly when th e stem c o n tain s / i / and
more th a n two co n so n an ts, / i / is added: e .g ., s - i r d 'w ash '; s - i r i d
'alw ays w a sh '. F in a lly , th e re are a few verbs in which the morpheme
occurs as re d u p lic a tio n , i . e . , C2VC2 o r VC > C3VC2VC2 : e .g .,
sum 's w e e te n '; sumurn 'keep sw eetening’ .
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These fo u r morphemes d e sc rib e d above a re co n sid ered members
on one s u b c la s s , and in th e summary o f m orphological s tr u c tu r e th e
a b b re v ia tio n B1 w i l l be used fo r t h i s s u b c la s s .
<a-> i s a n o th e r form ative p r e f ix which occurs w ith verb stem s,
e i t h e r b a sic or d e riv e d . D erived stems formed w ith t h i s a f f i x
fu n c tio n a s nouns s y n ta c tic a lly , and, th e r e f o r e , t h i s a f f ix must
be c o n sid e red a member o f a d i f f e r e n t s u b c la s s . As in d ic a te d above,
many nouns in S h ilh a have been formed from verb stems by th e a d d itio n
o f t h i s p r e f ix . A fte r / # / o r <,> th e a f f i x has th e form a - . A fte r
/ - / or when i t occurs in a p h rase in n o n - in i t i a l p o s itio n , i t be
comes u - . This change has in flu e n c e d o th e r nouns beginning w ith / a /
so t h a t even borrowed nouns, which should be co n sid ered b a s ic stems
sin c e they have not been formed from o th e r stems in th e language,
may show t h i s change from / a / to / u / : e . g . , asnus 'donkey' ia -u sn u s
•one donkey' (L a t. a sin u s) .
<L-> i s a member o f the same su b c la ss to which <a-> belongs,
fo r i t i s a form ative p r e fix added to verb stem s, e ith e r b a sic or
d e riv e d , to form a stem which fu n ctio n s s y n ta c tic a lly as a noun.
The use o f t h is a f f i x may be due to A rabic in flu e n c e . U sually nouns
formed w ith t h i s a f f i x r e f e r to an a c tio n , a s ta te o r a c o n d itio n :
e . g . , 1 -fa rli 'p le a s u r e ' (fa rh ’e n jo y ') j 1 -hma 'h e a t' (hma 'b e h o t ') .
Because th ese two morphemes are sim ila r in d i s tr i b u t io n , th ey
may be co n sid ered members o f the same su b c la ss. The a b b re v ia tio n 32
w ill be used f o r t h i s su b c la ss .
The i n f l e c ti o n a l a f fix e s f o r verbs may be d iv id ed in to four
su b c la sse s. The f i r s t th re e a r e tem poral, modal and pronom inal.
In a d d itio n , th e re i s an im p erativ e morpheme which i s e q u iv a le n t in
-38-
d is t r i b u t i o n to th e sum o f th e f i r s t two o f th e se c l a s s e s . The
symbol B3 i s used fo r tem poral a f f ix e s ; BU fo r modal a f f ix e s ; and
B5 f o r pronom inal a f f i x e s . The symbol B6 r e f e r s to th e im p erativ e
morpheme.
The tem poral a f f i x e s may be d iv id e d in to two s u b c la ss e s on th e
b a s is o f s tr u c tu r e . The f i r s t c la s s c o n s is ts o f th o se a f f ix e s which
occur a s p r e f ix e s . In th e second c la s s are th e morphemes which in
volve an in t e r n a l phonemic change.
< ar-> i s a tta c h e d to v e rb stems to form a p ro g re s siv e te n s e :
e . g . , a r - f a l - g ' I am le a v in g ’ ; a r - i - t - f r a h ’he i s e n jo y in g '. I t is
im p o rtan t to n o te t h a t th is a f f i x occurs only with d e riv e d stems
formed w ith th e morpheme <t> 'h a b i t u a l '. The exact te n se o f th e
form i s determ ined by th e c o n te x t: e . g . , argaz i- b d a s - a r - i- t- n i
'th e man s t a r t e d to t a l k '; argaz a r - i - t - n i 'th e man i s sa y in g /
u s u a lly s a y s '. When t h i s morpheme occurs a f t e r an o th er a f f i x ,
th e re i s a morphophonemic change so th a t a r > a : e .g ., u r-a r-fa l-g >
u r - a - f a l - g ' I am n o t le a v in g ' ; i s - a r - i - t - f r a h > i s - a - i - t - f r a h ' i s
he e n jo y in g '.
< ra-> occurs w ith v erb stems to form the f u tu r e te n s e . It
d i f f e r s from the preceding a f f i x because i t may occur e i t h e r w ith
b a s ic stems o r w ith d eriv ed stem s: r a - i- d u : 'h e w ill g o '; r a - i - t - d u :
'h e w i l l be g o in g 1. When th is morpheme occurs im m ediately b efo re
th e stem, i t has th e form ra d - : e . g . , ra d -a u i-g ' I w ill t a k e '.
I f another a f f i x occurs between <ra> and th e stem , the form r a -
i s used: e . g . , r a - k - a u i- g s-lu -* ta l ' I w ill tak e you to th e h o t e l '.
When i t occurs a f t e r <ur-> ’n o t’ , th e r e i s a s s im ila tio n so th a t
ra - > a-: e . g . , u r - r a - i - d u : > u r - a - i- d u : 'h e w ill not g o ' .
- 39 '
 i s th e symbol u sed f o r a t h i r d tem poral a f f i x which d if f e r s
s t r u c t u r a l l y from th e p reced in g a f f ix e s because i t in v o lv es in te r n a l
phonemic changes r a th e r th an th e a d d itio n o f a p r e f ix . I t i s used
to in d ic a te a com pleted a c tio n . There a re s e v e ra l a lte r n a n ts o f
th is morpheme which w i l l be d e s c rib e d below.
W ith th e f i r s t c la s s o f stem s, <&> has th e form i . e.,
th e stem rem ains unchanged and th e pronominal a f f i x e s a re added:
e . g . , b i ’c u t, c r o s s ’ ; b i-g a -g a ra s s-u d a r ' I c ro ssed th e s t r e e t
on f o o t '; agug 'b e f a r aw ay '; i-ag u g 'h e i s f a r away’ .
W ith a second c la s s o f stem s, t h i s morpheme appears as a > u .
The stems in th is c la s s a re u s u a lly m onosyllabic, c o n s is tin g o f
/a C /, /aCC/ or /CaC /: e . g . , amz ’t a k e '; i-umz 'h e to o k ’ .
W ith a t h i r d c la s s o f stem s, occurs as u > i / a . The change
u > i occu rs w ith th e morphemes <g> 'I* and < t t> 'y o u 1, w hile th e
change u > a occurs w ith the o th e r s u b je c tiv e pronominal a f f ix e s :
e . g . , du: 'g o '; d i-g : ’ I w ent’ ; i - d a : ’he went’ .
With a fo u rth c la s s o f stem s, occurs as i > a . This i s
s im ila r to th e a lte r n a n t describ ed above, fo r the change does not
occur with th e morphemes <g> o r <t t> : e . g . , r i 'w a n t'; t - r i - t
'you w an ted '; r a -n 'th e y w a n te d '.
The modal a f f ix e s in clu d e th e n e g a tiv e , in te r r o g a tiv e , sub
ju n c tiv e and c o n d itio n a l a f f ix e s .
<ur-> 'n o t ' i s a n e g a tiv e p r e f ix . I t occurs w ith verb steins
and th e a f f ix e s d e sc rib e d above. When i t occurs writh stem to which
 has been added, c e r ta in changes occur in th e stem. In those
cases in which <?> = a>u, the same change is found when <ur-> is
added. When = / , th e r e i s no change in th e stem a f t e r th e
-liO -
a d d itio n o f <ur->. In o th e r c a s e s, however, <ur-> i s follow ed by
th e change V>i: e . g . , du: 'g o 'j i- d a : ’he w e n t'j u r - i - d i : ’he
d id n ’t g o '•
< is-> i s an in te r r o g a tiv e p r e f ix which occurs b e fo re v erb s and
any o f th e a f f ix e s d e sc rib ed above. I t does not occur w ith any o th e r
in te r r o g a tiv e a f f i x , however. In a d d itio n t o being used to form
q u e s tio n s , i t may a lso be used to ex p re ss doubt or astonishm ent:
e . g . , i s - t - g i - t a -b e ra n i 'a r e you a s tr a n g e r 'j u r - t - s i n - t i s - i - g a
g asat l 1a id ’you d o n 't know ( th a t) today i s a h o lid a y ’ .
Both morphemes < is-> and <ur-> may occur ind ep en d en tly . In t h i s
way th e y a re d i f f e r e n t from th e o th e r v e rb a l a f f ix e s . The indepen
dent form s in both cases axe formed by th e a d d itio n o f / d / . These
forms may be c l a s s i f ie d a s p a r t i c l e s : e . g . , u rd Ik ta b a - i- g a ' i t
i s n o t a b o o k '; iz d k i i a - i- g a - n a -b a ra n i ’are you a s tr a n g e r '.
<ad-> occurs w ith verbs and th e o th e r i n f le c tio n a l a f f ix e s to
form a su b ju n ctiv e o r i n f i n i t i v e . When i t occurs im m ediately b e fo re
any o f th e pronominal a f f i x e s , i t has th e form a - : e .g ., ri-g
ad -kru -g i a t - l b i t ' I want to r e n t a room's i - r a a - i - k r a i a t - l b i t
'h e wants to r e n t a room '. When i t occurs b efo re the morpheme <ur>,
i t serv es to form a n eg ativ e command: e . g . , a d - u r - t- d u - t: 'd o n 't g o '.
The morphemes <ig> ' i f ' , <lig?> 'w h en ', <ma*ala> ' i f ' , <kuana>
'a s soon a s ', <zu> 'e v e r ' and <sul> 'e v e r a g ain ' may be considered
members o f t h i s same s u b c la ss , f o r they occur in the same environ
m ents. The l a s t o f the a f fix e s <sul> occurs only w ith forms con
ta in in g <ra> 'f u t u r e '. A ll of th e se a f fix e s occur as p r e f ix e s , and
although th e re i s a s li g h t pause a f t e r them so th a t in some u t t e r
ances th e y seem to be words r a th e r than p r e f ix e s , i t i s c le a r t h a t
-lil-
th ey must be c l a s s i f i e d a s p r e fix e s because the o b je c tiv e pronom inal
a f f ix e s precede th e stem when th e se forms occur j u s t a s th e y do when
o th e r p re fix e s such as < ra-> and <ur-> occur: e . g . , i-z ra * 'h e saw 1
i- z r a - k * 'h e saw you' l i g - k - i - z r a * 'when he saw y o u '•
The pronom inal a f f ix e s may be d iv id ed in to th re e groups on th e
b a s is o f d is tr ib u tio n a s w ell a s s y n ta c tic fu n c tio n . In th e f i r s t
group, B£a, a re th e s u b je c tiv e a f f i x e s . The second group, E£b, con
s i s t s o f d ir e c t o b je c t a f f i x e s . The t h i r d group, b£c , in c lu d e s th e
i n d i r e c t o b je c t a f f i x e s . The morphemes in clu d ed in each o f th e th r e e
groups a re complementary i n d i s tr ib u t io n to the o th e r members o f t h a t
group, but th e y may occur w ith members o f e ith e r o r both o f th e o th e r
two groups.
The members o f th e f i r s t group a re : <-g> ' I ' , < t t> 'y o u ',
< i-> 'h e ', <n-> 'w e ', < t m> 'y o u ' (m. p i . ) , < t mt> 'you* ( f . p i . ) ,
<-n> 'th e y ' (m .) , <-nt> 't h e y ' ( f . ) . These morphemes a r e a tta c h e d
to verb stem s, e i t h e r b a sic or d e riv e d , w ith any of the a f f i x e s
d escrib ed above. The p o s itio n o f the a f fix e s i s fix e d , b u t the
s e le c tio n o f th e a f f ix depends upon th e o th e r words in th e en v iro n
ment (se e S y n tax ). 3efore v o ic e le s s consonants, <g> > / x / .
The a f f i x ’the one who’ may be co n sid ered a s p e c ia l mem
b er o f th i s c la s s . I t o c c u rs, l i k e th e o th e r s , w ith v e rb stem s
and i t s p o s itio n i s fix e d so th a t i t always occurs n e x t to the stem .
I t s d is t r i b u t i o n i s complementary to th e o th e r members o f th e group,
fo r i t does not occur with any o th e r member o f the s u b c la s s . It
d i f f e r s because i t s s e le c tio n does n o t depend on th e o th e r members
o f th e p h ra se. K oreover, i t s s y n ta c tic fu n ctio n i s d i f f e r e n t , fo r
th e form produced by the a d d itio n o f t h i s morpheme seems to be
-U2-
a d j e c t i v a l r a t h e r th a n v e rb a l. I t should be noted th a t 
may occur a s 4 n. The symbol Bâx i s used fo r t h i s morpheme.
The members o f th e second group, th e d i r e c t o b je c t a f f i x e s , a re :
 'm e’ , <k> ’you' (m. s g . ) , <an> ’you* ( f . s g . ) , <t> 'him *,
< t:> 'h e r 1, <ag> ’u s 1, <kun> ’you’ (m. p i . ) , <kunt> ’you’ ( f . p i . ) ,
<tn> ’them’ (m .) , < tn t> ’them ’( f . ) . They a re complementary in
d is trib u tio n , but th e ir p o s itio n i s not fix e d . Wien they occur w ith
a modal a f f i x o r any tem p oral a f f i x except , they a re p r e f ix e s .
In o th e r c a s e s , th e y a re s u f f ix e s .
The members o f th e t h i r d group, the in d ir e c t o b je c t a f f ix e s ,
are: < ii> ’to me’ , <ak> ’to you’ (m. s g . ) , <am> ’ to you’ ( f . s g . ) ,
<as> ’to h im /h er’ , <ag> ’ to u s ', <aun> 't o you’ (m. p i . ) , <aunt>
't o y o u '( f . p i . ) , <asn> ’to them’ (m .), and <asnt> 't o them' ( f . ) .
A fte r a vow el, a l l o f th e se forms have / i / p r e fix e d . A fte r conso
n a n ts , th ey occur as l i s t e d above. The p o s itio n of th ese a f fix e s
i s determ ined by th e o th e r morphemes in the word, and in t h i s way
th e y resem ble the morphemes o f th e second group. When th ey occur
w ith a modal a f f i x or any tem poral a f f i x except , th ey a re p re
f ix e s . In o th e r c a s e s , th e y a re s u ff ix e s .
<C> i s th e symbol used f o r th e im p era tiv e morpheme. There a re
th re e a lte r n a n ts o f t h i s morpheme: 4 - a t , and 4 -am t. The
f i r s t i s a s in g u la r form , the second i s m asculine p l u r a l, and the
t h i r d i s fem inine p l u r a l . Each o f the p lu r a l forms has an a lte r n a n t,
4 i a t and 4 iam t, w hich occurs a f t e r vowels: e . g . , du: ’go’ ;
d u : - i a t 'g o ' (m. p i . ) ; d u :-iam t 'g o ' ( f . p i . ) .
In d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h i s morpheme i s e q u iv a le n t to the sum o f
B3, BU, and E&a; fo r i t does n o t occur w ith any o f the members o f
-la
th e s e s u b c la s s e s . I t may occur w ith th e members o f Bf>b and B£c,
however.
3*33 The t h i r d c la s s o f a f f ix e s in c lu d e s those morphemes t h a t occur
as p r e fix e s o r s u ffix e s w ith e ith e r noun stems o r verb stem s. It
i s t h i s f a c t which d is tin g u is h e s them from o th e r a f f ix e s whose occur
rence i s lim ite d to stems o f one c la s s o r another*
<d> 'h e r e , t h i s , now' and <n> 't h e r e , t h a t , th e n ' may be con
s id e re d lo c a tiv e s . They occur as s u ffix e s w ith nouns and noun
s u b s t i t u t e s , and in t h i s p o s itio n th ey have th e forms -ad and -an
r e s p e c tiv e ly : e . g . , tig m i-a d 't h i s h o u s e '; i-rg a z -n -a n 'th o s e m en'.
When th e y occur w ith v e rb s, th e y appear a s p re fix e s or s u ffix e s de
pending upon th e o th e r morphemes in th e word. With <ra>, <ar>,
<ad> and <ur> th e y occur as p re fix e s . In o th e r words which do n o t
c o n ta in th e se morphemes, th e y occur a s s u ff ix e s : e . g . , a u i-d 'b r i n g ';
a d -u r-d -a u i ' don' t b r i n g '.
<na-> 'who, w hat, an y th in g ' i s a ls o a member of t h i s c la s s .
When i t occurs b efo re nouns, i t has the form man. Before v e rb s,
th e form ma i s used: e . g . , m a n - tif ii t - r i - t 'what (kind of) meat
do you w a n t'; m a - t - r i - t 'w hat do you w a n t'.
The a f f ix e s in th is c la s s may be found in those words c l a s s i f i e d
as p a r t i c l e s . Almost a l l of the in te r r o g a tiv e words co n tain ma
although a more d e ta ile d a n a ly sis o f th e se words would be n ecessary
to determ ine th e o th er c o n s titu e n ts : e . g . , manik 'how' mani 'w h ere1.
The same i s tr u e w ith many adverbs. These may c o n tain the morpheme
<d> o r <n>: e . g . , g ila d 'now' g ila n 't h e n ' gid 'h e r e ' gina 't h e r e '.
3.U The morphemes c la s s if ie d as p a r tic le s occur independently
-Uli-
w ithout a f f i x e s . I t i s th is f a c t which serv es to d is tin g u is h them
from stem s. I n t e r j e c t i o n s , co n ju n ctio n s and c e r ta in in te r r o g a tiv e
words a r e in clu d ed in th is c la s s . I t i s p o s s ib le th a t some o f the
adverbs have been formed by the com bination o f two a f f ix e s : e .g .,
g id 'h e r e 1 and gina 'th e re * seem to be the r e s u l t s o f adding <g->
•in* to the morphemes <d> and <n>. The word gasa: 'to d a y ' may have
been formed from <g> ' i n ' , a s : 'd a y ' and <d> 't h i s ' f o r an o ld e r
20
form, g a s a d :, i s sometimes s u b s titu te d f o r g a s a :.
The d e s c rip tio n of p a r t ic le s depends on t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n r e
l a t i v e to o th e r words, and th e r e f o r e , i t w i ll be d isc u sse d in th e
s e c tio n on Syntax.
3 .5 Equations fo r th e form ation of words
The d is tr ib u tio n o f morphemes has been included in th e d e s c rip
tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l morphemes. For purposes of a m p l i f i c a t i o n ,
however, a summary i s given below. The equations a re n o t intended
to in d ic a te th e s y n ta c tic fu n c tio n o f the w ords, b u t m erely to in d i
c a te th e morphemic c o n s titu e n ts of th e words. The l e t t e r s in d ic a te
the c la s s e s o f morphemes: N = noun stem , V = verb stem , A = noun
a f f i x , B = verb a f f i x , C - noun and verb a f f i x . The num erals i n d i
c a te th e su b cla sses o f morphemes, and th e s u b s c rip t in d ic a te s th e
c la s s o f word in term s o f morphemic components.
20
See Stumme, H ., Handbuch des S ch ilh isch en von T azerw alt,
p . 121.
Na ♦ U = Nx V + EL “ V1
Na/Nx ♦ A2 = N2 V ♦ 52 = N
Na/N1 /N 2 + A3 = N3 vA x + B3 = v 2
N a /N ^ /N j ♦ Ah - v 2 + bU = v 3
n 3 ♦ a5 = V2A 3 * B5a =
Na ♦ a 6 = P a r ti c l e V2A 3 * S5ax = VUl
Na * C = Na v A 3 * B6 = TUc
Nb * A2 = N2 V, 4 B^b " V
u 5a
Nb ♦ A3 > A = N3 \ * 1 %
Nb ♦ AU = V^/N^ , 5a » B5c -- V6
Nc * Na = N /li V 4 BSb = V
>b 6
Nc 4- Nc, = Nc, V * C=V

U 1
!
- 14.6 -
Chapter IV
SYNTAX
li.O In co n sid erin g th e syntax o f S h ilh a i t i s n ecessary to examine
th e words d e sc rib e d in the prev io u s s e c tio n , n o t as is o la te d u n its
b u t i n term s o f t h e i r d is tr ib u tio n r e l a t iv e to o th e r words in th e
language. The b a sic u n it fo r s y n ta c tic a n a ly s is , th e r e f o r e , i s the
p h ra se. A phrase may be d efin ed as a sequence o f morphemes forming
one or more words which have a c e r ta in interdependence.
U .l Noun P hrases
The b a sic noun phrase c o n s is ts o f a s in g le noun stem. This
stem may be a member o f any o f th e th re e su b cla sses o f nouns. When
one o f the f o r m tiv e a ffix e s i s added to a stem th a t i s a member o f
th e f i r s t s u b c la s s , the word formed may be con sid ered a deriv ed noun
stem , f o r i t may be s u b s titu te d f o r a b a s ic stem: e . g . , i-z ra * a fru x
•he saw th e boy’ ; i- z r a * t - a f r u x - t 'he saw th e g i r l ' . The s y n ta c tic
symbol i s used fo r both b asic and derived noun stem s.
VJhen a noun stem o f th e f i r s t su b cla ss occurs w ith the p o sse ssiv e
morpheme <n->, a word i s formed which may be p laced a f t e r an o th er
noun to c o n s tru c t a sequence which can be s u b s titu te d f o r a b a s ic or
d e riv e d stem: e . g . , a g iu l i-d a : s-suk-> 'th e donkey went to the
m a rk e t'j a g iu l u-urgaz i- d a : s-suk* 'th e man's donkey went to th e

2
m a rk e t'. The symbol N i s used fo r t h i s sequence o f Na<n->Na. When
th e p o sse ssiv e morpheme occurs w ith a p erso n al pronoun, Nb, th e se
quence foimed occurs as an a f f i x r a th e r than as a sep arate word.
This a f f i x can be s u b s titu te d f o r th e sequence <n->Na: e .g .,
a g iu l-n - s i- d a : s-suk* 'h i s donkey went to the m arket’ . Because
- 1*7 -
th e sequences Na<n>Na and Na<n>Nb a re s y n ta c tic a lly e q u iv a le n t,

2
th e same symbol N i s used f o r sequences in which e i t h e r o ccu rs.
When a noun stem o f the f i r s t su b c la ss occurs w ith one o f the
t h i r d su b cla ss of noun a f f ix e s , a p re p o s itio n , th e r e s u ltin g se
quence may be co n sid e red a p h rase which may be s u b s titu te d f o r a
p a r t i c l e b u t n o t fo r a noun stem . This sequence i s re p re se n te d by

3 l o
the symbol U . The sequences N and may be s u b s titu te d fo r the
noun stem i n th e se u tte r a n c e s : e . g . , i- a u i- d r b i t a i- u g iu l ’he
brought g ra ss fo r the donkey’ j i - a u i- d rb i* a i- u g iu l- n - s ’he brought
g ra ss f o r h i s donkey’ .
3
The sequence N may a lso be formed by combining an a f f i x o f
th e fo u rth su b c la ss w ith a noun to which the morpheme <n-> has been
added: e . g . , lk ta b i - l a i g i - n - t b l a ’th e book i s on th e t a b l e ’ i s
s y n ta c tic a lly eq u iv alen t to lk ta b i - l a g -tig m i 't h e book i s in th e
h o u se’ .
The p e rso n a l pronouns may a lso occur w ith members o f the fo u rth
su b c la ss o f noun a f f ix e s .
The r e s u l tin g sequence, however, d if f e r s
3
s y n ta c tic a lly from th e sequence N . This f a c t can be seen im m ediately
in th e u tte ra n c e s i s - t - r i - t a - d i- s n 'do you want to (go) w ith them '
and i s - t - r i - t a - t - s a - t 'do you want to e a t ’ . The sequence d i-s n i n
th e f i r s t u tte ra n c e i s re p la c e d by a sequence d escrib ed s tr u c tu r a lly
as V]^. T h erefo re, the two sequences although s t r u c t u r a l l y d if f e r e n t
must be s y n ta c tic a lly e q u iv a le n t.
H.2 Verb P h rases
The minimal verb sequence o ccu rrin g in u tte ra n c e s i s V^, i . e . ,
a b a s ic or d eriv ed stem w ith a tem poral a f f ix and a s u b je c tiv e p ro
nom inal a f f i x , or a b a sic o r d e riv e d stem w ith the im p era tiv e mor
pheme. These forms serv e as th e n u c le i o f p h ra se s f o r th ic h th e
symbol w ill be u se d . The p resen ce o f th e im p erativ e morpheme
in flu e n c e s th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o th e r words i n th e p h ra se , however,

la
th e r e fo r e th e symbol V w il l be used f o r th o se p h rases n o t con
ta in in g th e im p e ra tiv e , and w i ll be used f o r those in which th e
im p e ra tiv e morpheme o c c u rs. U tte ra n c e s such a s i- z r a * 'h e saw' ;
r a - t - d u - t : ; u r - i - g i 'h e i s n o t' may be co n sid ered examples o f th e

la
f i r s t ty p e o f p h rase (V ) . P h rases such as b i 'c u t ' and d u : - i a t
lo
'g o ' a re examples o f th e ty p e V . Ejy adding a member o f B5>b to
th e sequence v \ a new word i s formed which c o n ta in s a d i r e c t ob-

2
j e c t : e . g . , i- z r a - k * 'h e saw y o u '; b i - t 'c u t i t ' . The symbol V
i s used fo r p h ra se s o f t h i s ty p e . I f a member o f th e su b cla ss BJ>c
i s added t o v \ however, th e sequence c o n tain s an i n d ir e c t in s te a d
o f a d i r e c t o b je c t. The symbol i s used f o r th e se p h ra s e s . When
morphemes from B^b and B$c a re added to v \ the sequence formed con
ta in s b o th th e d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t o b je c t. This type o f p h rase i s
re p re s e n te d by th e symbol V^. I t i s p o s s ib le to d e s c rib e th e syn
t a c t i c r e la tio n s h ip s between nouns and verbs i n term s o f th e s e four
ty p es o f verb p h ra se s .
la
The sequence V i n a d d itio n to the morphemic components o f th e
1 2
word i t s e l f may a ls o c o n ta in a noun o r noun p h rase (N /N ) : e . g . ,
i - z r a * 'he saw '; argaz i-z ra ft 'th e man saw '; a g iu l u-urgaz i- z r a *
't h e m an's donkey sa w '. Such sequences are s y n ta c tic a lly e q u iv a le n t
to V^. The o rd e r o f th e words may be changed so th a t th e noun p hrase
may occur a f t e r the v erb : e . g . , i- z r a * u rg a z . I f the noun which
s e rv e s as th e n u cleu s o f the noun p h rase co n tain s th e fem inine mor-
pheme < t t > , th e r e i s a subsequent change in the morpheme chosen
from Bâ: e . g . , t - a g i u l - t t- z r a » 't h e donkey ( f . ) sa w '. I t is th is
f a c t which makes i t p o s sib le to d iv id e stems c l a s s i f i e d as nouns in to
two c la s s e s which a r e complementary i n d i s t r i b u t i o n , one o f which
occurs o n ly w ith t h e morpheme < i-> 'h e '. The o th e r occu rs only w ith
th e morpheme < t-> 's h e '. I f th e noun serving as th e nucleus o f th e
noun p h rase c o n ta in s th e p lu r a l morpheme , th e r e i s a ls o a
change i n th e pronom inal a f f i x chosen fo r the v erb : e . g ., i-r g a z - n
z ra -n * 't h e men s a w '. I t i s p o s sib le to s t a t e , th e r e f o r e , t h a t th e
morphemes c l a s s i f i e d as nouns c o n ta in two c o n s titu e n ts which are
re p e a te d in th e s u b je c tiv e a f f ix e s in phrases of t h i s ty p e. The
f i r s t c o n s titu e n t [G ], g ender, has two c la s s e s : [G l] m asculine and
[G2] fem inine. The f i r s t has th e form The second has many
a lte r n a n ts o f which th e most common i s the form ative a f f i x < t t> .
Almost a l l nouns w ith i n i t i a l / t / c o n ta in th e component [G2]. W ith
a l l s u b je c tiv e pronom inal a f f ix e s except <g> ' I ' , < t t> 'y o u ' and
<n-> 'w e ', i t o ccu rs a s an a d d itio n o f / t / . With <L-> 'h e ' th is
a d d itio n o f / t / i s coupled w ith th e s u b tra c tio n o f / i / .
The second c o n s titu e n t [Y] number, has two c la s s e s . The f i r s t
[Yl] 's i n g u l a r ' may be co n sid e red ( • The second [Y2] 'p l u r a l ' has
many a l t e r n a n t s , t h e most fre q u e n t o f which i s th e morpheme 
o ccu rrin g w ith nouns. With t h e s u b je c tiv e pronominal a f f ix e s , th e
c h ie f fu n c tio n o f [Y2] seems to b e a change o f p o s itio n of the
a f f i x , i . e . , s u f f ix to p r e f ix o r p r e f ix to s u f f ix , r a t h e r than th e
a d d itio n o f a given phonemic sequence: e . g . , u r - f i - g *1 d i d n 't g iv e '
u r - n - f i 'we d i d n 't g i v e '.

*|^
Each p h rase o f the type V must then c o n ta in two a d d itio n a l
-50-
elem ents [G] and [Y] which extend over the noun and the pronom inal
a ffix . The u tte ra n c e arg az i- z r a » could th en be symbolized s tr u c
t u r a l l y as G1Y1 (NVjP w h ile th e u tte ra n c e t- i- m g a r - in z r a -n t*
would be w r itte n G2Y2(N^V^).

lb
I n p h rases o f th e ty p e V , the o nly noun p h rase which may
occur w ith o u t changing th e s y n ta c tic n a tu re of the sequence i s N^,
i . e . , a noun stem w ith th e v o cativ e a f f i x .

2
Sequences o f th e type V occur i n sim p le st form a s V ^ . The
1 1 2
p h ra se , however, may c o n s is t o f V + N /N : e . g . , i- z r a » argaz
•he saw th e man’ j i- z r a » a g iu l u-u rg az ’he saw th e m an's donkey’ .
Both o f th e s e u tte ra n c e s are s y n ta c tic a lly e q u iv a le n t to th e u t t e r -
ance i - z r a - t » 'h e saw h im '. I t is p o s sib le to change the o rd er o f
th e words so t h a t th e noun p h rase may occur before the v erb . In t h i s
c a s e , th e verb must have th e form Vâ , and the gender and number o f
th e noun which se rv e s as d i r e c t o b je c t a re rep eated in th e o b je c tiv e
a ffix : e . g . , a -g a ra s i - b i - t 'h e cro ssed th e s t r e e t '; t - u d i - t i - b i - t :
'h e c u t th e b u t t e r '. When th e verb co n tain s any a f f i x except 
( p e r f e c t ) , a s u b je c tiv e pronom inal a f f i x o r an a f f i x o f c la s s C, th e
o b je c tiv e pronom inal a f f i x e s must occur before th e stem: e .g .,
u r - t - i - b i 'he d i d n 't c u t i t ' .
Words which may be c l a s s i f ie d s tr u c t u r a lly as V_,_ have been

5b
d efin ed s y n ta c tic a lly as sequences o f s u b je c t, verb and in d ir e c t
o b je c t.
The in d i r e c t o b je c t a f f i x in such a sequence may be r e -
3
p laced by a noun p h ra se , b u t in th is case, th e phrase must be N ,
i . e . , a noun w ith a p r e p o s itio n a l a f f ix : f i- g - a s ' I gave to h im ';

3
f i - g i-u rg a z ' I gave to th e m an'. Since th e phrase N in c lu d e s n o t
only u tte ra n c e s o f th is ty p e , but a l l com binations o f nouns and
-51-
p r e p o s itio n a l a f f i x e s , such sequences as i- d a : s-suk* :'ne went to
th e m arket’ j i - l a i g i - n - t b l a ’ i t ’s on th e t a b l e ’ may be co n sid e red
examples o f tM s ty p e o f p h ra se .
Words re p re s e n te d by th e s tr u c t u r a l symbol may be d efin ed
s y n ta c tic a lly as sequences o f s u b je c t, v e rb , d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t
o b je c ts : e . g . , i - f a - i a s - t ’he gave i t to him’ . A noun p h rase o f

1 2
th e type N o r N may be added to th e sequence to se rv e as s u b je c t
3
or d i r e c t o b je c t, w hile a noun p h rase o f the ty p e N may serve a s
i n d i r e c t o b je c t. The u tte ra n c e could th e n occur as argaz i - f a
a-b u k al* i- u f r u x ’th e man gave th e j a r to th e to y ’ . I t should be
n o ted t h a t in u tte ra n c e s o f t h is ty p e , th e in d ir e c t o b je c t a f f i x
always precedes the d i r e c t o b je c t a f f i x . A fte r modal o r tem poral
p r e f ix e s , b o th o b je c t a f f ix e s occur b e fo re the stem and th e su b jec
ti v e pronom inal a f f i x and a f t e r th e modal o r tem poral a f f i x : e .g .,
u r - a s - t - i - f i ’he d i d n 't g iv e i t to h im '; r a - k - t - i - f a 'h e w ill g iv e
i t to y o u '.
U.3 P a r ti c l e s
The p a r t i c l e s may be d iv id e d in to c la s s e s on th e b a sis o f t h e i r
s y n ta c tic fu n c tio n s . The f i r s t c la s s (P’S in c lu d e s the i n t e r j e c ti o n s .
These forms can b e d is tin g u is h e d from o th e r p a r t i c l e s because u s u a lly
th e y occur as com plete u tte r a n c e s , i . e . , between two p e rio d s o f s ile n c e
o f r e l a t i v e l y long d u ra tio n . Some o f th e more common members o f th is
su b cla ss a re : i i h 'y e s '; uhu 'n o '; ha ’h e r e '. In some u tte ra n c e s
th e y may occur b efo re a noun to which th e v o c a tiv e a f f i x has been
added: e . g . , i a l a a - s i d i ' I hope s o , s i r 1. In th e s e u tte r a n c e s ,
th e f a l li n g to n e which c h a r a c te r iz e s the phoneme / . / is p re se n t
alth o u g h th e pause between th e two words may be sh o rten ed .
The second c la s s o f p a r t i c l e s (P ) in c lu d e s th o se which may
he c l a s s i f i e d s y n ta c tic a lly a s c o n ju n c tio n s. These p a r t i c l e s occur
between p h rases which a re u s u a lly s y n ta c tic a lly e q u iv a le n t: e .g .,
Ib a b u r i - s a f r askun lu k t* t-lk m -a s 't h e ship s a ile d because the tim e
came to h im '. In t h i s u tte r a n c e th e co n ju n ctio n askun serv es to
j o i n th e two v erb p h rases e i t h e r o f which could occur as a com plete
u tte r a n c e . Another example i s found i n th e u tte ra n c e u r - i - l i ruz*
u a i l a t - u d i - t 't h e r e i s n e ith e r r ic e nor b u t t e r '. H ere, the p a r t i c l e
u a i l a jo in s th e two noun p h ra se s . This p a r t i c l e , l i k e th e o th e r mem
b ers o f t h is c l a s s , could n o t jo in a verb ph rase w ith a noun p h rase
or a noun p h rase w ith a verb p h rase.

3
The t h i r d c la s s o f p a r t i c l e s (P ) in clu d es th o se which may be
c l a s s i f i e d as ad v erb s. I t is p o s s ib le th a t some o f th e se have been
formed from o th e r morphemes i n the lan g u ag e, b u t a d d itio n a l h i s t o r i c a l
d a ta would be needed to e s ta b lis h t h i s f a c t. U su a lly th e p a r t i c l e s

3
in t h i s c la s s a re s u b s titu ta b le fo r th e sequence N : e .g .,
u r - i - l i g -tig m i 'h e i s not i n th e h o u se '; u r - i - l i gina 'h e i s n ' t
t h e r e '.
The fo u rth c la s s of p a r t ic le s c o n s is ts o f in te r r o g a tiv e words.
Almost a l l of th e s e seem to have <ma> as a c o n s titu e n t. U sually
th ey occur a t the beginning o f the u tte r a n c e , b u t th ey may also occur
between p h ra se s. In t h i s way, th e y a r e s im ila r to th e p a r t ic le s
c l a s s i f i e d as c o n ju n c tio n s, b u t th e d is tr ib u tio n i s d if f e r e n t; f o r
the in te r r o g a tiv e s may occur between p h rases which a r e n o t sy n ta c
t i c a l l y e q u iv a le n t: e . g . , manig i - l a lk ta b 'where i s th e book'
may occur as lk ta b manig i - l a . In th e second u tte ra n c e the i n t e r
with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-53-
ro g a tiv e occurs between th e two p h ra s e s , b u t the f i r s t is a noun
p h rase w hile the second i s a v erb p h ra s e . A c o n ju n ctio n could not
occur between two such p h ra se s. There a re two r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e
p o s itio n o f in te r r o g a tiv e s : th e y may n o t occur a t th e end o f a
sequence o f p h rase s b e fo re a long s ile n c e t h a t marks th e end o f a
sen te n c e , nor may th e y occur between words which a r e members of one
p h ra se . I t would be im p o ssib le, th e r e f o r e , to re a rra n g e th e words
o f th e u tte ra n c e c ite d above to form the sequence: lk ta b i - l a

2
m anig. I f th e sen ten ce co n tain ed th e p h rase N , th e in te r r o g a tiv e
would n o t occur between the two words form ing t h i s p h ra se : e .g .,
manig i - l a lk ta b n-guma 'w here i s my b r o th e r 's book' would n o t occur
as lk ta b manig n-guma i - l a .
Another c la s s o f p a r t ic le s (P^) in c lu d e s those th a t serv e as
e x p le tiv e s : e . g . , a ia d 't h i s i s ' . The words i n t h i s c l a s s may be

1 2
used w ith noun p h ra se s , N o r N , to form a sequence ■vhich i s
2
eq u iv a le n t to V : e . g . , man lu k t* a ia d 'what time i s t h i s ' ;
lu k t* lm akla a ia d 't h i s i s th e time o f m e a ls '.
iuU Word Sequence Equations
The follow ing eq u atio n s a r e designed t o show the r e la tio n s h ip
between s tr u c tu r a l and s y n ta c tic c la s s e s . The c a p ita l l e t t e r s i n
d ic a te morpheme c la s s e s : N s noun, V = verb stem , A s noun a f f i x ,
B = verb a f f i x , C r noun and verb a f f i x . The num erals and lower
case l e t t e r s in d ic a te su b c la sse s o f morphemes: e . g . , B£a r d i r e c t
o b je c t pronominal a f f i x t h a t occurs w ith v erb s. The s u b s c rip t i n
d ic a te s the c la s s o f word in term s o f morphemic components: e .g .,
= a b asic or d eriv ed noun stem w ith th e p o sse ssiv e a f f i x . The
r a is e d numerals in d ic a te the s y n ta c tic c la s s e s .
Word Sequence Equations
Noun P h rases Verb P h rases
N/N^/Ng = N1 VUa = v la
N ♦ = N1 7 ^ : Vl b
N1 ♦ N j * Jl2 nV h2 + Vl a = Vl a
N1 4 (Nb 4 A3) = N2 V. s v2
5a
Nj^ * N3 nV n2 4 Vl a + NX/N 2 = V 2 a
N ^ ♦ N2 = N 3 N1 /! ! 2 4 NX/ N 2 4 V2 = V2 a
Vl b + NX/N2 = v 2b
N1 * P2 4 N1 = N1
- t t 2
2 2 2 2 v k + Vk = V
N 4 P 4 N =N 4 4
1.2 ^ 2
o 2 3 3 NA +p s v
N 4 P 4 N =N
% i t 3
- P
Na + A6 = »1
NX/N2 4 Vl a 4 N3 = V3
nV n2 + N3 + v^b = V3
Vlb 4 N3 = V3
v 6 = vu
n V n2 + nV n 2 + v 2a 4 N3 =
iA /N 2 4 v l a 4- n V n 2 + n 3 = v 1*
NX/M2 ♦ N3 + V2a + N1/ ^ 2 =
v lb ♦ nV n 2 * N3 -
nV n 2 ♦ N3 + nV n 2 +
U.£ S entence S tru c tu re
The s tr u c tu r e o f sentences in S h ilh a may be c l e a r ly s ta te d i n
term s o f th e word sequence eq u atio n s given in th e preceding sectio n *
Any sequence o f morphemes o ccu rrin g a f t e r a r e l a t i v e l y long p e rio d
o f t o t a l s ile n c e and having th e co n to u r phoneme / . / o r / ? / may be
co n sid ered a complete u tte ra n c e o r se n te n c e .
The s im p le st type o f sentence i s t h a t c o n s is tin g o f a s in g le
word. Some answ ers to q u e stio n s may c o n s is t o f one^word, and some
exclam ations c o n s is t o f one word. Both occur a f t e r a p e rio d o f
s ile n c e and c o n ta in th e contours w hich in d ic a te se n te n c e s. There
f o r e , th e y may be co n sid ered sentences o f t h i s ty p e .
The most common sentence ty p es a re -those co n ta in in g a verb

T 0 ^ )
p h ra se . The verb p h rase may be V , 7 , V o r V . Any sequence o f
morphemes which i s e q u iv a le n t to one of th e se p h rases may be con
s id e re d a sen ten ce; th e r e f o r e , a sequence c o n s is tin g o f a p re p o si
t i o n a l a f f i x w ith a p e rso n a l pronoun and a noun may be co n sid ered
a se n te n ce : e . g . , g i - s i t s 'i n him s le e p '. In th is u tte ra n c e th e
f i r s t ward i s e q u iv a le n t to When th e second word i s added, th e

2
e n tir e sequence i s e q u iv a la rt to V and may be d escrib ed as a sen
te n ce i f i t occurs between two p e rio d s o f s ile n c e .

2
S entences a re a ls o formed by using th e members o f P to con
n e c t verb p h ra se s. I t i s p o s s ib le , th e r e f o r e , to have sequences
-56-
such as V1? 2? 1 : e . g . , i-k sim askun i-hma l h a l 'h e went in b e c a m e
th e weather was h o t1. The lin k in g of aiy sequence o f verb p h rases
w i l l form a sequence which may be considered a sen te n c e . In some
c a s e s , th e lin k in g i s accom plished by mere ju x ta p o s itio n o f the
p h rases r a t h e r than by th e use o f a p a r t i c l e .
Examples o f th e s e v ario u s sentence ty p e s w ill be found in th e
sample te x ts Wiich fo llo w .
V. T exts
The follow ing t e x t s a re given as samples o f th e m a te ria l on
which th e p reced in g a n a ly s is i s based. The tr a n s c r ip tio n i s pho
nem ic; words a r e s e p a ra te d by a space. Hyphens a re used to i n d i
c a te morpheme boundaries w ith in a word. Two tr a n s la tio n s a re given
w ith each t e x t . The f i r s t i s l i t e r a l ; th e second, id io m a tic .
5 .1 u s :n d-bu-mhand
1. i - k a : t i n us'in d-bu-mhand ga-n i-m dukal. 2. ia - u a s : n k r-n .
3. nga-n n - l a s . H. la h -a sn m a t-s ta -n . 5* i- n k r bu-mhand.
6. i- n a : i - u s : n . 7. grua a - n -s g - i a - 1 - t - i b h a r - t . 8. du-n:
s in it-s n . 9» a f i - n t - i b h a r - t s i-ia -u u g a b . 10. la h -a s n manik
a d -sk a r-n ad-ksim -n. 11. ia t - s a t a fi-n ia t-t-n u k * b i-t. 12. ksim -n
g i-s . 13. bda-n a r - s t a - n . lU . u s :n a r - i - s t a a i l i g i - camar a h li g - n - s .
15. l i g - r a - n a d -fu g -n i-f u g bu-mhand. 16. i - k a ^ a u s :n .
17. u r - i - u f i a - i- f u g askun i-b z u g u h lig - n - s . 18. i-n a :-ia s
bu-mhand. 19. ka*ma g in a a rk ig -d -i-u s k a bab n - t - i b h a r - t . 20. i- n g i- k
s i- u k u r a i. 21. a r - i - a l a usn. 22. a r - i - t - d a * l b i-bu-m hand.
23. manik r a - i - s k r bas a - i- f u g . 2I4.. i - n a : - i a s bu-mhand. 25. gun:
f-d h a r-n -k . 26. t a l t i- d a r - n - k s - ig :n a bas lig - d - i- u s k a bab
n - t - i b h a r - t r a - k - d - i - a f g ik in a . 27 . ra -k -i-lu h s-b ra .
1. he-w as-then w olf w ith-porcupine w ere-they f r ie n d s . 2. One-
day ro s e -th e y . 3* d ie d -th e y o f-h u n g er. iu n o th in g -to them w hat-
e a t- th e y . 5« h e-sto o d porcupine. 6. h e -sa id to -w o lf. 7. l e t to -
w e-eat in -o n e -g ard en . 8. w ent-they both-them . 9. found-they
garden w ith -o n e -w all. 10. n o th in g -to them how to -d o -th e y to - e n te r - th e y .
11. one-hour found-they one-hole. 12. e n te re d -th e y i n - i t .
- 58-
13* began-they a r e - e a tin g - th e y . lU . w olf is - h e - e a tin g u n t i l h e -
f i l l e d stom ach-of-him . l£ . w hen-w ant-they to -le a v e -th e y h e - l e f t
p o rc u p in e. 16. h e -sta y e d w o lf. 17. n o t-h e -c o u ld to -h e -le a v e
because h e - is p u ffe d stom ach-of-him . 18. h e - s a id - to him porcupine*
19. s ta y th e r e u n til- h e r e - h e came owner o f-g ard en . 20. h e - k ille d -
you w ith - s tic k . 21. is - h e - c r y in g w o lf. 22. is-h e-b eg g in g to -
p o rc u p in e . 23 . how w ill-h e -d o to to -h e -le a v e . 2h» h e - s a id - to him
p o rcu p in e. 25 . s le e p on-back-of-you. 26. p u t f e e t-o f-y o u to -s k y
to w hen-here-he-cam e owner o f-g ard en w ill-y o u -h e re -h e fin d l i k e t h a t .
27. w ill-y o u -h e -th ro w to - o u ts id e .
Once th e wolf and th e porcupine were f rie n d s . One day th ey g o t
up. They w ere dying o f hunger. They had nothing to e a t. The porcu
p in e g o t up. He s a id to th e w olf, " L e t's go e a t in a g ard en ." The
two o f them w ent. They found a garden w ith a w a ll. They had no way
to g e t i n . (A fte r) one ho u r, th e y found a h o le . They went in through
it. They s t a r t e d to e a t . The fox a te u n t i l he f i l l e d h is stomach*
When th e y wanted to go o u t, th e porcupine l e f t . The w olf stay e d .
He could n o t go o u t because h is stomach was p u ffe d . The porcupine
s a id to him, "S tay th e re u n t i l the owier o f th e garden comes. He w ill
k i l l you w ith a s t i c k ." The w olf s ta r t e d to c r y . He asked th e porcu
p in e what to do to g e t o u t. The porcupine to ld him, "Sleep on your
back. P u t your f e e t in th e a i r so t h a t when th e owner o f th e garden
f in d s you lik e th a t he w ill throw you o u t."
5.2
1. zha i - z r i ia - u a s : f -lm 'a lm - in . 2. a r - t- g a - n z i f t i - l f l a i k .
3. i-s a k # s a ia n g i-s n f-m a-sk ar-n . U. i - n a : i a s a r - n - t- g a z i f t
-59-
i - l f l a i k bas a - t - a z a l - n t ig i-u -am an . £. l i g - i - i u u r i zha s -tig m i
i-d u b z i f t . 6. i - g i - t i - i - d a r - n u -u g iu l. 7. l i g - i - h s u u g iu l
s i-l-h m a i - l u a r . 8. i-b d a * zha a r - i - t - n i : d - ix f - n - s . 9* Im 'alim
i - n a : - i i s a h t.
1. zha h e-p assed one-day o n -en g in eers. 2. a r e -p u ttin g - th e y
t a r to -b o a ts . 3« he-asked one in-them on-w hat-do-they. U. h e - to ld -
hirn a re -w e -p u ttin g t a r to -b o a ts f o r to -ru n -th e y o n -o f-w ater. 5. when-
h e -re tu m e d to -h o u se he-m elted t a r . 6. he-put-him t o - f e e t of-donkey.
7. w h en -h e -felt donkey w ith -h e a t h e -ra n . 8. he-began 5ha is - h e -
saying w ith-m ind-of-him . 9* engineer he-told-m e a l l r i g h t .
One day Zha passed some e n g in e e rs. They were p u ttin g t a r on
b o a ts . He asked one o f them what th e y were doing. He to ld him, ”We
are p u ttin g t a r on th e b o a ts so t h a t th e y w ill run on w a te r .” When
he re tu rn e d home, he m elted some t a r . He p ut i t on the donkey’s f e e t .
When th e donkey f e l t the h e a t, he ra n away. Zha s t a r t e d to say to
h im se lf, ’’The en g in eer to ld me the t r u t h . ”
5.3
1. zha i-z ra * i a t - t k l i t lz im ‘ a t i-m hdar-n g -u g aras. 2. i - t a rd -asn
v v > V
s -tig m i-n -s bas a - d i- s n i - s i r k im in s i. 3. n a :-n -a s i a la * . lu l-ksm
s -t- a -m g a r -t- n - s i - n a : - i a s . $. zuzad: im in s i. 6. h a :ti. 7* dar-ng
in g b u -in . 8. t - n a : - i a s u r - i - l i ruz* u a ila t - u d i - t . 9. i - k t i d zha
u r -d a r -s m a -i-s-n u a . 10. i - a s i ak * sari i-xuan i-ksim s-i-m h d ar-n .
11. i - n a :- i a s n im il maâla d a r - i ruz* t - u d i - t r a -ia u u n - t-d - g i-g
g-nkK-sari-ad. 12. i - f l - t n i- d u : .
1. zha he-saw one-tim e group o f stu d en ts i n - s t r e e t . 2. he-
i n v ite d - to them to -h o u se-of-him f o r to-w ith-them h e-sh are su p p er.
3. s a id - th e y - to him a l l r i g h t , lu h e -e n te re d to -w ife -o f-h im he-
to ld - h e r . 5. p rep are su p p er. 6. se e . ?• to -u s g u e s ts . 8. sh e-
to ld -h im n o t- h e - is r ic e nor b u t t e r . 9* he-remembered zha. n o t-to -h im
w hat-he-cause-cook. 10. he-took bowl h e-(w h o )-is empty h e -e n te re d
to - s tu d e n ts . 11. h e-to ld -th em i f i f only to-me r ic e b a t t e r w ill- f o r
y o u - it- h e r e - p u t- I in -b o w l-th is . 12. h e -le ft-th e m he-w ent.
Once Zha saw a group of stu d e n ts i n the s t r e e t . He in v ite d them
to h is house to share supper w ith them. They s a id , "A ll r ig h t ." He
went in and to ld h i s w ife , "P repare supper. S ee, we have g u e s ts ."
She said to him, "There i s n e ith e r r i c e nor b u t t e r ." Then Zha
remembered th a t he had nothing to cook.
He took an empty bowl in to th e stu d e n ts and s a id to them, " I f
o n ly I had some r ic e o r some b u t t e r , I would p ut i t in th i s bowl fo r
y o u ." Then he l e f t them and went away.
5.U
1. si-b rah im i-m akl* si-muhmad. 2. i - n a - i a s a -sa la m u -'a la i-k u m .
3. i-z a u b -a s si-muhmad u a -'a la i-k u m usalam . 3« i- s a u u l si-b rah im .
li. i - n a : - i a s mani t - k i - t g asa:? 5. i-n g a -ia g um rgi-n-k. 6. i-n a :-ia s
si-muhamad im a -k ii. 7* manik ad-ga-n ta ru a n -n -k d -sa* h t-n -k ?
8. i - n a : - i a s si-b rah im la b a s d a r-n g . 9. m a 'a la i- n g a - ia g lg la
l i : la - n g -lm a 'a s t. 10. si-muhmad i - n a : - i a s m a -ra -ia k -n i-g ? 11. kulu
gaiad l i : i - l a - n sab ab -n-s k it* u -u n zar.
1. Mr.-Brahim he-m et Mr.-Mohammed. 2. h e-to ld -h im o-peace-on-you.
3. he-answered-him Mr.-Mohammed and-on-you peace. 3. h e -ta lk e d
M r.-B rahim . 1;. h e - s a id - to him where y o u -are today? £. h e - k ille d - u s
ab sen ce-o f-y o u . 6. h e-to ld -h im Mr. Mohammed and-you. 7. how a r e -
th ey c h ild re n -o f-y o u w ith -h e a lth -o f-y o u ? 8. h e-to ld -h im M r.-Brahim
n o th in g bad t o - u s . 9. only h e - k ille d - u s p r ic e which i s i n - l i v i n g .
10. Mr.-Mohammed h e -to ld -h im w h a t-w ill-y o u -sa y -I? 11. a l l th is
which i s cause-of-him need o f - r a i n .
Mr. Brahim met Mr. Mohammed. " H e llo ,” he s a id to him.
Mr. Mohammed answ ered, ’’H ello to y o u .”
Mr. Brahim k e p t ta lk in g . "Where were you today?" he s a id . "We
m issed y o u .”
Mr. Mohammed s a id , "And how a r e th in g s w ith you? How i s your
fam ily? How i s your h e a lth ? "
" F in e ," answered Mr. Brahim. "But th e c o s t o f liv in g i s k i l l i n g
u s .”
"What can I say?” s a id Mr. Brahim. "A ll o f t h i s i s caused fcy
th e la c k of r a i n . ”
1. i - z r a * ia - u a s : g-suk* ia - u f u lu s a r - i- n z a sin-d-m rau n - r i a l .
2. i - l a g-unsk u - u tb i r . 3. i- n a : d - ix f - n - s i- g u la suk* i - i - f u l u s - n .
U. sbah r a - d - a u i- g , a fu lu s l i : dar-ng. !?. i - 'a d l - n . 6. sbah-an
i - a u i - d a fu lu s s-su k * . 7. i- n a : i s - r a - t - i - z n z si-tam an i-m kur*-n.
8. i - g i - t g - a d la lt. 9. u r - a s - d - i - a u i blai sin-d-m rau lg u s t i - a r :
u -fk a» * u . 10. i - n a : i-li-m -su k * —i n . 11. sak*sa-g mata gaiad
t-sk a r-m ? 12. idgam z r i - g ia - u f u lu s . 13. i - l a g-unsk u - u tb ir
i- s b g - n . lU. i- n z a s i-s in -d -m ra u n - r i a l . 15. k r a ig a t ia n gigun
i - z a i d g -tam an -n -s. 16. a fu lu s -a d -in u i - t a f la lu u a n ugar n - g u a - li:
idgam. 1 7. i - z ig z s - d a r - s ia-u-m suk*. 18. i-n a :-ia s k i i t- n u f l- t.
19. u r - t - s i n - t u a lu . 20. a fu lu s l i n -sag idgam u r - i - g i a fu lu s
i- s b g - n . 21. i - g a b ab -au rg iu l i : i - t - ‘auud-n a u a l n-binadm.
22. i-z a u b -a s u - s ib - a n ig - a - s a u a l guan guad a r-i-t-x a m : b z a f: .
1. he-saw one-day in-m arket o n e -ro o s te r i s - h e - s e l l i n g tw o-w ith-
te n o f-d o lL a rs . 2. h e - is in - s iz e o f-p ig eo n . 3» h e-said w ith-m ind-
of-him h e - is h igh m arket fo r-c h ic k e n s. lw tomorrow w ill- h e r e - c a r r y - I
r o o s te r which to - u s . 5. h e - is good. 6. tom orrow -that h e - c a rr ie d -
h ere r o o s te r to -m a rk e t. 7. h e -s a id w h e th e r-w ill-h im -h e -c a u se -se ll
w ith p r ic e h e(w h o )-is b ig . 8. he-put-him in -a u c tio n . 9. not-him -
h e re -h e -c a rry only tw o -w ith -ten c e n ts h e-angered poor man. 10. he-
s a id to -m a rk e te rs. 11. a s k -I what t h i s you-do? 12. y e ste rd a y saw-I
o n e -ro o s te r. 13. h e - i s i n - s i z e o f-pigeon h e (w h o )-is-p a in te d . llw he-
s o ld w ith -tw o -w ith -te n o f - d o li a r s . l£ . each one in-you he-advanced
in -p ric e -o f-h im . 16. r o o s te r-th is -o f-m e h e-h as co lo rs m a jo rity o f -
th e one-who y e s te rd a y . 17. he-w alked to-him one-m arketer. 18. h e-
to ld -h im you y o u -are c ra zy . 19. not-you-know n o th in g . 20. ro o s te r
which we-buy y e s te rd a y n o t-h e -is r o o s te r he( w h o )-is-p a in te d . 21. he-
i s owner o f-g ree n who h e - r e c ite s t a l k of-humans. 22. he-answ ered-
him g ra y e d -th a t i f - i s - t a l k th a t one th is one is -h e -th in k in g much.
One day, he saw a r o o s te r fo r s a le in th e market f o r twelve
d o l l a r s . He was th e s iz e o f a pigeon. He s a id to h im se lf, "The
m arket p ric e f o r chickens i s high. Tomorrow I w ill bring th e ro o s te r
we have. He i s a good one.'*
The next day he brought the r o o s te r to th e m arket. He thought
t h a t he would s e l l him i f the p ric e was h ig h . He put him on s a le ,
-63-
b u t he d i d n 't b rin g him tw elve c e n ts . The poor man became angry*
He s a id t o th e m arket p eo p le, "What a re you doing? Y esterday I saw
a r o o s te r th e s iz e o f a p a in te d p ig eo n , and he s o ld fo r tw elve
d o lla rs . Each one of you r a is e d h i s p r ic e . This ro o s te r o f mine
has more c o lo rs th an t h a t one had y e s te rd a y ."
One o f th e m arket people went t o him and s a id , "You a re crazy .
You d o n 't know one th in g . The r o o s te r we were buying y e s te rd a y was
n o t a p a in te d r o o s te r . He was a p a r ro t th a t could re p e a t th e ta lk
o f human b e in g s ."
" I f t h a t one t a l k s , t h i s one th in k s a l o t , " answered the old
man.
-6U -
VI. Vocabulary
T h is s e c tio n co n tain s words used by the inform ant in two o r
more u tte ra n c e s . The c la s s o f each word i s in d ic a te d by th e ab
b re v ia tio n im m ediately follow ing i t . The gender o f nouns i s given
as w e ll as th e p l u r a l form. The p e r f e c t, n egative and h a b itu a l
forms o f verbs a re given when a phonemic change o ccu rs. In some
c a s e s, th e p e r fe c t and negative forms are phonem ically the same
as th e stem, th e r e fo r e , only th e h a b itu a l form, i s given fo r those
v e rb s. When a l l fo u r forms a r e th e same, only the stem i s given.
The fo llow ing a b b re v ia tio n s a re used:
A Noun a f f i x
3 Verb a f f ix
C Noun and Verb a f f ix
N Noun stem
P P a r tic le
V Verb stem
sg . s in g u la r
p_L # p lu r a l
c o ll. c o lle c tiv e
m. m asculine
■C*
J .. fem inine
h. h a b itu a l
n. n eg ativ e
P* p e r fe c t
ir .t r • in t r a n s i t iv e
tr. tra n s itiv e
a- B2 (n o m in alizer)
a- B3 ( a lte r n a n t o f ad-)
abagug N. (m .), ibugag ( p i . ) , a > u w olf
abgar N. (m .), ib g a rn ( p i . ) , a > u c a t t l e merchant
abgaz N. ( m .) , ibgazn ( p i . ) , a > u acro b at
abhat N. (m .), ib h a tn ( p i . ) , a > u in v e s tig a to r
a b id a r N. (n u ), ib id a m ( p i . ) , a> u lame man
a b ira h : N. ( m . ) , i b ir a h :n ( p i . ) , a > u town c r i e r
a b i* a u s a ra i N. ( m . ) , i b i 'a u s a r a in ( p i . )
a > u h u ck ste r
ab k al* N. ( m . ) , ib k a ln ( p i . ) , a > u m erchant, shopkeeper
ablad* N. ( m . ) , ib la d s n ( p i . ) , a > u stone s la b
a b lin k a N. ( m . ) , ib la n k iu in ( p i . ) , a > u snake
abnai N. ( m . ) , ib n a in ( p i . ) , a > u b u ild e r, mason
abran N. ( m . ) , ib ra n ( p i . ) , a > u w ild c a t
a b ra sn i N. ( m .), i b r a n :/ i b r a : n i n ( p i . )
a > u s tr a n g e r , fo re ig n e r
a b r b ri N. ( n u ), ib r a b r in ( p i . ) , a > u Berber
abubu N. (m.) , ibuban ( p i . ) , a > u p en is
abukad* N. ( m . ) , ibukad*n ( p i . ) , a > u b lin d man
abukal* N. ( m . ) , ib u k al*n ( p i . ) , a > u ja r

*
a b u lis N. (m . ) , (S p an ish, p o lic ia ) p o lic e
abxar N. ( m . ) , ifaxam ( p i . ) , a > u burner of in cen se
ad- B3 (modal a f f i x = su b ju n ctiv e
-ad C. th is
adad* N. ( m . ) , idad&n ( p i . ) , a > u fin g e r
-6 6 -
adag N. (m«), adagn ( p i . ) , a > ua bush
adal N. ( m . ) , adaln ( p i . ) , a >u m antle
adan* N. ( m . ) , adan* ( p i . ) , a > ua n ig h t
ad ar N. ( m . ) , id a rn ( p i . ) , a > u fo o t
adbag N. ( m .) , idbagn (p i.), a > u ta n n e r
adgag N. ( m.), idgagn (pi.), a > u goldsm ith, s ilv e rs m ith
a d if N. (m.) , a > ua marrow
a d il* N. (m., p i . ) grapes
ia-u ak a* u -a d il* one grape
a d is N. ( m . ) , id asn ( p i . ) , a >u stomach
ad*n V. ad*n ( p . ) , id*n ( n . ) , td i* n ( h . ) be s ic k , a i l
a d ra r N. ( m .) , id r a m ( p i . ) , a > u mountain
adu* N. ( m . ) , a > u odor, sm ell
adud* N. ( m .) , idu*dan» ( p i . ) , a > u fin g e r
( a lte r n a n t o f adad*)
aduku N. ( m.), idukan (p i.), a > u p a ir o f shoes
ad za r K. (m .), adz a m ( £ 1 .) , a > ua neighbor
afasi N. ( m . ) , a > u r ig h t sid e/h an d
afassi N. (m .), i f a s s i n ( p i . ) , a > u person from Fez
afi V. u fa ( p . ) , u f i ( n . ) , t a f a ( h .) can, find
afka$*cu N. (m .), ifk a » 4an ( p i . ) , a > u poor man
a fla h N. (m .), if la h n ( p i . ) , a > u farmer
a fru x N. (m .), ifr x a n ( p i . ) , a > u boy
afud N. (m .), ifa d n ( p i . ) , a > ua knee
a fu lu s N. (m .) , ifu lu s n ( p i . ) , a > u chicken
afu n as: N. (rr..), ifu n a s :n ( p i . ) , a > u ox
a f u s /a f u s : N. (m .) , if a s n /if a s s n ( p i . ) ,
a > u hand, handle
-67-
ag aiu N. (m . ) , ig u ia ( p i . ) , a > u head
agagn N. (m., p i . ) th u n d er
agarson N. (m . ) , a g a rso n at ( p i . ) w a ite r
agdi* N. (m . ) , igda*/igdan* ( p i . ) , a > u hole
ag i V. u g i ( p . ) , ugi ( n . ) , t a g i ( h . ) r e f u s e , be u n w illin g
a g lid : N. ( m . ) , ig ld a n ( p i . ) , a > u king
agmar: N. ( m . ) , igm ar:n ( p i . ) , a > u horse
agru N. (m.) , ig r a ( p i . ) , a > u frog
agudi N. (m.), ig u d a/ig udan ( p i . ) , a > u p i l e , heap
agudid* N. ( m . ) , igudad* ( p i ) , a > u b ir d

agug V. be f a r away
ag u l V. u g i l ( p . ) , u g i l ( n . ) , ta g u l ( h . ) hang
agum N. (mi, s g . , p i . ) , a > ua f lo u r , meal
aguuad N. (m . ) , iguuad ( p i . ) guide
ag z ar N. ( m . ) , ig z a rn ( p i . ) , a > u b u tch er
agzfif: N. ( m . ) , ig a z a f: ( p i . ) , a > u palm t r e e
ag BE>c to us
agad* N. ( m . ) , igad*n ( p i . ) , a > u goat
aganim N. ( c o l l . ) , a > u cane, re e d (s)
ag aras N. ( m . ) , ig a ra s n ( p i . ) , a > u s tre e t
aggumi N. (m . ) , iggum itn ( p i . ) , a > u h a l l ( in urban a r e a s ) j
s ta b le ( in r u r a l a re a s )
a g iu l N. (m .), i g i a l ( p i . ) , a> u donkey
agrum K. (m. c o l l . ) , a > u bread
a g z a ifu N. (m .), i g z a i f a ( p i . ) , a > u t a l l man
ahanu K. (m .), ih an a ( p i . ) , a> u room
alidad N. (m .), ihdadn ( p i . ) , a > ua blacksm ith
-6 8 -
a h lig N. ( m .) , ih a lg a n ( p i . ) , a > u stomach
ahmal N. ( m .) , ihm aln ( p i . ) , a > u p o r te r
ahzam N. ( m . ) , ihzamn ( p i . ) , a > u b a rb e r
a ia P^ Ohl
a ia d th is is
a ia n P^ th a t i s
a id i N. (m .), id an ( p i . ) , a > ua dog
a iis N. ( m . ) , is a n ( p i . ) , a > u h o rse , s t a l l i o n
a ilig P^ u n til
a iu r N. ( m . ) , a iu rn ( p i . ) , a > ua moon, month
ak BJ>c to you (m. sg .)
aka* N. (m .), ikan* ( p i . ) , a > ua n u t, k e rn e l
akal N. (m .), ik a ln ( p i . ) , a > ua e a r th , ground, s o i l
a k id a r N. ( m .) , ik id a m (p i.), a > u d r a f t h orse
a k ita r N. ( m . ) , i k i t a r n (p i.), a > u h o rse
akm B$c to you ( f . s g .)
ak*ndar N. (m.) a m easure, 3D0 kilogram s
ak r V. uk r ( p . ) , ukr ( n . ) , ta k u r ( h . ) s te a l
a k ra i N. ( m ,) , ik r a in ( p i . ) , a > u r e n te r , la n d lo rd or te n a n t
ak sar N. ( m . ) , a > u a s c e n t, clim b
a k * sa ri N. ( m . ) , ik * s a ra ( p i . ) , a > u bowl, d ish
aksud* N. ( m . ) , iksudn ( p i . ) , a > u s tic k
a k * ta c N. ( m.), ik * ta* n (p i.), a > u p i r a t e , ro b b er ( i n s u l t )
a k u * ri N. (m.), ik u * ran (pi.), a > u f ig
al V. u l ( p . ) , a l ( n . ), t a l (h.) r a is e
alahad P^ t h a t i s enough
alim N. (m. c o l l . ) , a > u hay
-69-
aman N. (m. p i . ) , a > ua w ater
am arikan N. ( m . ) , im arikanin ( p i . ) , a > u American
amdakul N. (m .), imdukal ( p i . ) , a > u ' f rie n d
amduz: N. ( m .) , imduzsn ( p i . ) , a > u dump, ru b b ish heap
amâr N. ( m . ) , imgam ( p i . ) , a > u sheik
amgarbi N. ( m . ) , im garbin ( p i . ) , a > u Moroccan
amhdar N. (m .) , imhdam ( p i . ) , a > u s tu d e n t
amksa N. ( m . ) , imksatm ( p i . ) , a > u shepherd
amssmar N. ( m . ) , ims:mam ( p i . ) , a > u n a il
amsxar N. (m.), im sxarn ( § 1 .) , a > u w a ite r
amxzni N. ( m . ) , imxaznin ( p i . ) , a > u p o lic e
amz V. umz ( p . ) , umz ( n . ) , tamz ( h . ) ta k e , sie z e
andalab N. (m.), in d alab n ( p i . ) , a > u beggar
a n il N. (m. co ll} blueing
anu N. (m .), una ( p i . ) , a > ua w ell
anzar N. (m. c o l l . ) , a > u . r a in
an zar N. ( m.), in z a m (pi.), a > u ca rp e n te r
a r- B3 (p ro g re ssiv e te n s e p re fix )
a r: V. become angry
aram N. (m .), iraman ( p i . ) , a > u camel
arba*a Nc fo u r
a rfa k N. ( m . ) , irfa k n (pi.), a > u caravan
argan N. ( m . ) , argan: ( p i . ) , a > u kind of tr e e
argaz N. (m.), irg a z n (pi.), a > u man, husband
a rk ig - BU u n til
a rtl N. (m .), i r t a l n ( p i . ) 1/2 kilogram
arud V. be clean
aru*mi N. (m.), iru-Kmin ( p i . ) , a > u C h r is tia n , European
-7 0 -
as e£ c to him, to h e r
as V. us ( p . ) , i s ( n . ) , t a s ( h . ) t i e , bind
as: N. ( m . ) , usan: ( p i . ) , a > ua day
asalam u‘alaikum H ello
assard u n N„ ( m .) , is :a r d a n ( p i . ) , a > u mule
a sa ru N. (m.) , is u r a ( p i # ) , a > u d itc h
asfaz N. ( m .) , is f a z n ( p i . ) , a >u baker
asi V. usi ( p .) , usi( n .) , ta s i ( h .) c a rry
a s if N. ( m . ) , is a f n ( p i . ) , a > u r iv e r
asim id* N. (m.) cold
asi*ud«- N. (m.), isi* u d * n ( p i . ) , a > u h u n te r, fisherm an
a s k iu N. ( m . ) , askiuun ( p i . ) , a > u horn of an animal
askrz N. ( m . ) , is k ra z ( p i . ) , a> u plow
aslim N. ( m . ) , islm an ( p i . ) , a >u f is h
asraan N. (m. p i . ) , a > ua lig h tn in g
asn B$c to them (m.)
asnt to them ( f . )
asnus N. (m.), is n a s ( p i . ) , a > u young donkey
asuguas N. ( m . ) , isuguasn ( p i . ) , a > u year
asuk: N. ( m . ) , is u :k a ( p i . ) s t r e e t , road
( se e ta s u k t:)
a sfa r N. (in.), i s f a r n ( p i . ) , a > u th ie f
a s ib N. (m .), isu b an ( p i . ) , a > u he who i s g ray , o ld man
a s if u r N. ( m .) , a s i f u r a t ( p i . ) , a > u chauffeur-
V V v y
ask V. u sk i ( p . ) , u sk i ( n . ) , ta sk ( h . ) come
askun P2 because
a s u a ri N. ( m .) , is u a r i n ( p i . ) , a > u saddle bag
-71-
a ta i: N. (m. c o l l .) te a
a t* b ib N. ( m . ) , it& bibn ( p i . ) , a > u d o cto r
a tb ir N. ( m .) , i t b i m ( p i . ) , a > u pigeon
a tlb a x N. (m.) cook
at*ma N. ( m . ) , it*man ( p i . ) , a > u greedy person
a tu r d i N. (m .) back
aual N. (m.) speech, ta lk
aui V. iw i ( p . ) , iwi ( n . ) , taw i ( h . )
a u id b rin g
au in ta k e
a u til N. ( m . ) , i u t a l ( p i . ) , a > ua h a re , r a b b it
aun BE>c to you (m. p i . )
aunt B£c to you ( f . p i . )
axbaa N. ( m . ) , ixbazn ( p i . ) , a > u baker
axdam N. ( m .) , ixdaitm ( p i . ) , a > u h o te l employee
ax d ar N. ( m . ) , ix d a rn •( p i . ) , a > u green g ro cer
axraz N. ( m . ) , ix ra z n ( p i . ) , a > u shoemaker
azalim N. (m. c o l l .) onion
i a t - t a z a l im t one onion
a z a r: N. (m. c o l l . ) h a ir
az g r N. ( m . ) , a > u b u ll
az ig zau N. (m.) g reen , blue
azl V. u zl ( p . ) , uzl ( n .) , ta z a l ( h . ) run
azliaad N. ( n . ) l e f t sid e
azru N. ( m . ) , iz r a n ( p i . ) , a > u stone
azugag N. (m .), a > u r ed
az u r N. ( m . ) , iz u rn ( p i . ) , a > u ro o f
-72-
az V. u za ( p . ) , u z i ( n . ) , ta z a ( h . ) p e rm it, l e t
a*aba V. p la y a t r i c k , dupe
a*ak* V. remember
a cakaz N. ( m . ) , i*akazn ( p i . ) a > u cane
a* alu s N. (m . ) , i* a la s ( p i . ) , a > u c a lf
a*aram N. ( m . ) , i ‘ aram ( p i . ) , a > u p i l e (used as a measure)
a * a s k ri N. ( m . ) } i ‘ askrim ( p i . ) , a > u s o ld ie r
bab N. (m .) , idbab ( p i . ) m aster, owner
baba N. (m .), idbaba ( p i . ) my f a th e r , my p a re n ts
( t h i s word i s used only w ith th e p o ssessiv e pronouns.)
b ab arg iu N. (m.) , id b ab argiu ( p i . ) p a rro t
b a b lfa rh N. ( m .) , id b a b lfa rh ( p i . ) en jo y er
bablhanum N. ( m . ) , idbablhamum ( p i . ) w o rrie r
bablhana: N. ( m .) , idbablhana: ( p i . ) re s te r
babludu* N. (in.), idbabludu* ( p i . ) b a th e r
bablzuuab N. (m.) , idbablzuuab ( p i . ) answ erer
babur* N. ( m .) , babu-s-rat ( p i . ) ship
babulad* N. (m .) , idbabulad* ( p i . ) stone owner
bag/bg N. ( m . ) , idbag ( p i . ) p a in t
b a in V. tb a in ( h . ) be c le a r , appear
b ak i* : V. crack ( i n t r . )
b alk V. c le a r away, g e t out
bar N. (m .), b a ra t ( p i . ) b a r, cafe
b a rd : V. b ir d : ( p . ) , b ird : ( n . ) ,
tb a r :a d ( h . ) make cool
bar:m V. bar:m ( p . ) , barim: (n.),
tbar:m ( h . ) tu rn around
b as/b a ?as sorrow , tro u b le
la b a s d a r - i I am w e ll
u r la b a s d a r - i I d o n ' t f e e l so good
, V o
b as P in o rd e r to
b a s :r V. give good news
b a ta ta N. (m. sg . and p i . ) p o ta to
3
b a 'a d a P th e n , h e r e a f te r
bdu V. bda ( p . ) , bdi ( n . ) , tb d a ( h . ) b eg in , s t a r t
bdu* V. bda* ( p . ) , b d i* ( n . ) , a ta * : ( h . ) c u t, d iv id e
bdl V. bdl ( p . ) , b d il ( n . ) , tb d a l ( h . ) change
bgaiz N. (m . ) , ib g a iz h ( p i . ) a c ro b a tic s
bhara too much, very

3
b h ara P j u s t now
b h at V. b h at ( p . ) , b h a it ( n . ) ,
tb h a t ( h . ) in v e s tig a te
bi V. c u t, c ro ss
b id :/b id V. b d id /tb d a d ( h . ) stand
b id a* P3 always
b ila g V. b ila g ( p . ) , b i l i g ( n . ) ,
t b i l a g (h .) d e liv e r
b ird V. be cool
b it lz a n N. (m. c o l l . and p i . ) eggplant
bku* V. bka* ( p . ) , bki* ( n . ) , tbka* ( n . ) remain
b la P2 w ith o u t, only
b l:a ti N. slowness
b lu V. b la ( p . ) , b l i ( n . ) , t b l u ( h . ) be old; grow o ld e r ( n . )
bnadm N. (m. c o l l . ) human
-7U-
bnu B. bna ( p . ) , bni ( n . ) , bna: ( h .) b u ild
b ra N• o u tsid e
brahim Abraham
b ri V. ru b , g rin d
brm 7 . brm ( p . ) , brim ( n . ) , tbram ( h . ) r o l l , t u r n , tw is t ( t r . )
b sah tk P^ enjoy i t / y o u ’r e welcome
bu- Al owner o f
bublad* N. (m .) , idbublad* ( p i . ) owner o f stone
bufarfc N. ( m . ) , idbufarht ( p i . ) enjoyer
bufugus N. (m. c o l l . ) d ates
b u iz g a r N. ( m . ) , id b u iz g a r ( p i . ) c a t t l e owner
bukd* V. be b lin d
bulhamum N. ( m . ) , idbulhamum ( p i . ) w o rrie r
b u lh an a: N. ( m . ) , id bulhana ( p i . ) re s te r
buludu* N. (mu), idbuludu* ( p i . ) b a th e r
buluK-tal N. ( m . ) , id b u lu * ta l ( p i . ) h o te l owner
bumhand N. ( m . ) , idbumhand ( p i . ) porcupine
b x ar V. burn in cen se
b z a f: Nc much
b z ig V:. be p u f f e d , w et, angry
b ziz N. (m. c o l l .) fo rc e
bz V. bz ( p . ) , biz ( n . ) , tbz ( h . ) crush

d C (em phatic a f f i x )
(w ith nouns a p r e f ix ; w ith verbs a s u f f i x . )
d- Ail w ith
-d C ( see -ad) h e re , now, t h i s
dabr: V. dabr: ( p . ) , d a b ir: ( n . ) ,

td a b a r: ( h . ) look fo r
dada N. ( m . ) , id a d a ( p i . ) g ran d fa th e r
(may be used o n ly w ith p o sse ssiv e pronoun.)
dag again
dar*lb V. da*lb ( p . ) , d a lib ( n . ) ,
td a * la b ( h . ) ask f o r , beg
da*lm N. ( m . ) , du*lam ( p i . ) u n ju s t person
dayman N ., ida*man ( p i . ) guarantor
da»mant N ., ida*mantn ( p i . ) guarantee
da»mr N. ( m . ) , ida*mrn ( p i . ) b reast
dar Alt to , at
daua V. td au a ( h . ) cure
dbag N. (m. c o l l . ) tanning f l u i d
d :b a r t N. ( f . ) sore
d b liz N. ( m . ) , dbalz ( p i . ) b r a c e le t
dbr V. dbr ( p . ) , d b ir ( n . ) , td b a r ( h . ) in ju r e
d br V. dbr ( p . ) , d b ir ( n . ) , td b a r ( h . ) do something w ithout h elp
dgul N. (m.) badness
dhar V. appear
dhar N. ( m .) , dhur* ( p i . ) back
dhal' V. dhas ( p . ) , d h is ( n . ) , td h a s ( h.) become d izzy , f a i n t , nervous,
frig h te n e d
d h a st N. (m.) sick n e ss
dhb N. (m.) gold
d if* : N. (m.), d * ra f ( p i . ) g u est
dl V. t d l (h.) cover
d la h N. (m .), t id la h in ( f . p i . ) watermelon
dm V. s in k , dive
-76-
d*nu V. d*na ( p . ) , d*ni ( n . ) , td*nu ( h . ) th in k
d*ni V. td * n i ( h . ) be f a t , th ic k , become f a t t e r ( h . )
dr* V. dr* ( p . ) , d ir* ( n . ) , ta r * ( h . ) f a l l , s lip
d r: V. t d r : ( h . ) remain a liv e
drf V. d r f ( p . ) , d r i f ( n . ) , td a r a f ( h . ) be handsome, p o l i t e ,
p r e t t y (o f c h ild re n )
d rst N. ( f . ) , druz ( p i . ) s te p
dru V. d r a ( p . ) , d r i ( n . ) , td ru ( h . ) 1 . be deep, become deeper ( h . )
2. jo in
v v
d r u is N. (m . ) , draus ( p i . ) poor man
drus V. td ru s ( h . ) be l i t t l e , be sm all (q u a n tity )
du kS under
du: V. da: ( p . ) , d i : ( n . ) , td u : ( h . ) go
dua N. drug, m edicine
dub V. tduuab ( h . ) m elt ( t r . and i n t r . )
auhur* N. aftern o o n p ray er
d u n it N• world
du*ru* V. du*ru* ( p . ) , du*ri* ( n . ) ,
tda*ru* ( h .) in ju r e , harm
dux V. tduuax ( h . ) become s ic k , d iz z y
d u z n b ir N. December
d z irt N. ( f . ) , t i d z i r i n ( p i . ) is la n d
dzahad ?. dzahad: ( p . ) , dzahid ( n . ) ,
dzahad: (h .) b e t, c o n tr a d ic t
d*a V. pray f o r
f- aU f o r , on, through
fad N. th irs t
-77-
fa rd V. change
fa rh V. tfa rh (h.) e n jo y , c e le b r a te
fa rk * : V. fu rk * : ( p . ) , fu rik * : ( n . ) ,
tfa ra k * : ( h . ) se p a ra te
f a rta * tu * N i d f a rta * tu * ( p i .) b u tte r f l y
fa rs V. s la s h
fa rz : V. f u rz : ( p . ) , f u r i z : ( n . ) ,
tf a r a z ( h . ) gaze a t
fdah* V. r i d i c u l e , g o ssip about
fg V. fug ( p . ) , f a g ( n . ) , tf a g ( h . ) go out
fhm V. fhm ( p . ) , fharo ( n . ) , tfham ( h . ) u n d erstan d
fi V. f a ( p . ) , f i ( n . ) , t k a ( h . ) give
fis : V. tfs a s (h.) be q u ie t
fil- AU (see f-)
fl V. t f a l ( h . ) le a v e ( t r . )
fla iu N. m int
f lh V. t f l a h ( h . ) grow, succeed (im personal)
fra h V. ( see farh )
frank N. (m.) fra n c
fsi V. u n tie , m e lt, open (a package)
fsr V. f s r ( p . ) , f s i r ( n . ) , t f s a r (h.) spread out
fs ir V. spread out to dry
fsu s V. tfs u s (h.) be l i g h t , s o f t j become
lig h te r, s o fte r (h .)
ftl V. f t l ( p . ) , f t i l (n .), t f t a l (h.) r o ll ( t r . )
fuks* N. (m. sg . and p i .) bug
fuku: V. fuka: ( p . ) , f u k i: ( n . ) ,
tfu k u : ( h .) s e p a ra te , r e le a s e
-7 8 -
fu lk i V. be b e a u tif u l
ga V. ga ( p . ) , g i ( n . ) , ga ( h . ) become, b e , p u t on
gab l V. g abl ( p . ) , g a b il ( n . ) ,
tg a b l ( h . ) watch
gada V. be equal t o , be s tr a i g h t ( in
comparison to )
g a l: V. g u l: ( p . ) , g u l: ( n . ) ,
tg a la : (h») swear
gam: V. gum: ( p . ) , gum* ( n . ) ,
gama: ( h . ) be unable to
gaur V. gauar ( p . ) , g a u ir ( n . ) ,
gauar ( h . ) s it
gdu: V. gda: ( p . ) , g d i: ( n . ) be s im ila r to
g i- AU ( a lte r n a n t o f g-)
g ilb V. g ilb ( p . ) , g lib ( n . ) ,
tg ila b (h.) tu rn around ( t r . , i n t r . )
gli V. le a d
gmr V. gmr ( p . ) , gmir ( n . ) ,
gumur/gumar ( h . ) chase, hunt
gnu V. gna ( p . ) , gni ( n . ) j tgnu ( h . ) mend
gr V. gr ( p . ) , g i r ( n .) > ga r ( h . ) touch
gru V. gra ( p . ) , g r i ( n , ) , tg ru ( h . ) p ick up
g ru : V. g ra: ( p .) , g ri: ( n . ), tg r a ( h . ) be l a s t
gudm: V. gudm: ( p . ) , gudim: ( n . ) ,
tgudam: ( h .) tu rn over ( t r . )
guma N. ( m .) , uaitm atn ( p i . ) my b ro th e r
(may be used only w ith p o sse ssiv e pronouns)
-79-
gun V. gun ( p . ) , gin (n.) > guna ( h . ) sleep
gut V. be abundant, accom plish much
guz V. descend
gzr V. g zar ( p . ) , g z ir ( n . ) , tg z a r ( h . ) butcher
gzul V. be s m a ll, sh o rt
g- Ak in , a t
-g B5a I
gasu: V, gasa: ( p . ) , g a s i: ( n . ) ,
tg a sa : ( h . ) become f a i n t , g et d izzy
gaiad Nb th is which
gaian Nb th a t which
g a ili Nb what, which
gakudan P3 from tim e to tim e
g ars V. gurus ( p . ) , g u ris ( n . ) j
k a rs* ( h . ) s la u g h te r
gasa: P today
gaz V. kaz* ( h . ) bury
gfr V. g f r ( p . ) j g f i r (n .) > t g f a r ( h . ) fo rg iv e
g id P3 h ere
g ik in a P3 in th a t way, so
g ila d P3 now
g ila n P^ then
3
gina P th e re
giud* P3 a t n ig h t
giuran P over th e r e
gml V. gml ( p . ) , gir.il ( n . ) , tgm al ( h . ) be m usty, sm ell mouldy
gmu V. gma ( p . ) , gmi ( n . ) 9 tgmu ( h . ) p a in t, be p a in te d
- 80-
gnu: V. gna: ( p . ) , g n i: ( n . ) , tg?iu: ( h . ) be r i c h , become r ic h e r ( h . )
gr V. g r a ( p . ) , g r i ( n . ) , k*ra ( h . ) re a d , c a l l out
grua N. (nu) cold (d is e a s e )
gruah V. l e t , allow
gua Nb the one
g u a li Nb th e one who
gui Nb th e se
gu la V. be hig h
g u li V. a k * la i (h .) clim b, b o il
g u n i: V. sin g
gunsk Nc as b ig as
gur* V. tk u r* ( h .) be h a rd , g et hard (h.)
gu*ru V. g u * r a ( p . ) , g u ri ( n . ) ,
tg a r a ( h . ) d e c e iv e , ch eat
gus V. be clean
. *
g u st N. August
gusu V. gusa ( p . ) , g u si ( n . ) , tg u sa ( h . ) c h e a t, deceive
gu*zan V. be r i g h t , t e l l th e t r u t h
g z if V. t g z i f ( h . ) be t a l l
ha P1 s e e , lo o k , h ere
had r V. be p re s e n t
hakak N. fo rce
h a li P3 only
han V. b le ss
har V. th a r ( h . ) t i c k le
h a rh a r V. th a rh a r ( h . ) bray
harma N. (m.), idharma ( p i . ) clown
- 81-
h a ti h ere i s
h b il 7. th b il (h .) become s i l l y
hdn V. tahdn ( h . ) be q u ie t
hdu V. hda ( p . ) , hdi ( n . ) , th d a ( h . ) p r e s e n t, give
h ir.d iz 7. c a lc u la te
hmim 7 • worry
hnu: V. hnu: ( p . ) , huni: ( n . ) , th an a: (h .) r e s t
h uul V. be tro u b le d
hzm V. hzm ( p . ) , hzim ( n . ) , thzam ( h . ) invade
h ab arsad N. ( c o l l . ) sp ice
3
hakan* P perhaps
h a iil V. h u la l ( p . ) , h u l i l ( n . ) ,
th a la l (h.) beg, re q u e st
hairs V. h a ir s ( p . ) , h a lis r (n.),
th a la s r ( h . ) saddle
hamam V• bathe
hamu V. hama ( p . ) , hami ( n . ) , thamu ( h . ) p r o te c t
iâna N• d ear
hanur V. hanar ( p . ) , h an ir ( n . ) ,
th an ar ( h . ) p ity
h arar V. h u ru r ( p . ) , h u ru r ( n . ) ,
th a r a r (h.) f r e e , r e le a s e
harg V. harg ( p . ) , h ir g ( n . ) ,
th ra g ( h . ) burn ( t r . and i n t r . )
harima N ., h a rin ( p i . ) dancer
h a rir N. (m.) s il k
harkr 7. th a ra k : (h .) shake, s t i r , move ( t r . , i n t r . )
-8 2 -
harm V. harm ( p . ) , hiim ( n . ) , harm ( h . ) be fo rb id d en
hars" V. h a rs ( p . ) , h i r s ( n . ) , th r a s (h .) be sh a rp , be i n t e l l i g e n t
h a ru : V. h a ra : ( p . ) , h a r i: ( n . ) , be tough, b i t t e r , s tro n g ,
th a ru : (h .) hard to convince,
h ard working
harz V. harz ( p . ) , h irz ( n . ) , th ra z (h .) endure
hbu V. hba ( p . ) , h b i ( n . ) , thaba ( h .) cover
hdad V. forge
h d r V. be low
ndu* V. hda* ( p . ) , hdi* ( n . ) ,
th d a* (h .) h id e
hfu V. h fa ( p . ) , h f i ( n . ) , th fu ( h .) be d u ll; become d u lle r ( h .)
h iu V. liv e
hkm V. hkm ( p . ) , hkim ( n . ) , thkam (h .) judge
h lu : V. h la : ( p . ) , h l i : ( n . ) , b la : ( h .) be p e rm itte d
hma V. hma ( p . ) , hmi ( n . ) , thma ( h .) be h o t
hml V. haml ( p . ) , ham il ( n . ) ,
tham al ( h .) lo a d , c a r r y , endure
has V. h sa ( p . ) , h s i ( n . ) , th sa (h .) feel
hsab N. (m .), lh s a b a t ( p i . ) amount, sum
hsu: V. hsa: ( p . ) , h s i: ( n . ) , th s a : ( h .) memorize

2
h• ta P a lso
i- AU t o , fo r
i- Bâ he
i B^b me
i-n A2 ( p lu r a l a f f ix )
i-n Bâ th e one who
-53-
ia la : h u rry up
ia la * p1 c e r ta i n ly , y e s , a l l r i g h t ,
t h a t ’ s good
-ia m t 36 im p era tiv e ( f . p i . )
ia n Nc (m .) one
ia t Nc ( f . ) one; an y th in g , n o th in g
(w ith n e g a tiv e )
-ia t B6 im p era tiv e (m. p i . )

v v
ib a rz N. (m .), ib a rz n ( p i . ) f e a th e r
ibaun N. (m .) beans
ib lis N. (m.) d e v il
ib ril N. A p ril
ib rir N. February
ib rin N. (m.) m eal, ground corn o r wheat
ibxu*sn N. ( p i . ) in s e c t
id * N. (m .), adan* ( p i . ) n ig h t
idamn N. (m .) blood
idgam P^ y e ste rd a y
id li N. (m.) black
ifis N. (m.) hyena
ifr N. (m .), ifr a u n ( p i . ) le a f
ifr u r a in N. (m.) crumbs
ifr g a n N. w all of th o rn s , hedge
ig i A£ on to p of
ig ig il N. (m .), ig u g al ( p i . ) orphan
ig iz N. (m .), ig iz n ( p i . ) sm all camel
ig lg iz N. (in .), ig lg iz n ( p i . ) b e e tle
-8 k -
ig lin N. w retch
(a p p a re n tly formed from an o b s o le te verb stem .)
ig :n a N. (m .), id g is n a ( p i . ) sky
ig z d i N. (m.) t r e e tru n k
( a l te r n a n t o f ag zd i)
ig d N. (m.) ashes
ig d Bli (a ls o ig ) if
ig il N. (m .), ig a ln ( p i . ) c lo th measure = th e d is ta n c e
from elbow to t i p o f
middle ling er
ig u ra d * N. (m.) shoulders
iin a ir N. January
ila h i P1 God help meI
ilf N. (m .)j i l f a n ( p i . ) hog
ili V. l a ( p . ) , l i ( n .) be (lo c a tio n )
ilis N. ( f . ) , i s t i s ( p i . ) daughter
ilm N. (m .), ilmaun ( p i . ) le a th e r

2
im a- P and
im ig : N. (m .), imign ( p i . ) b a ttle
im ik TJc a little
im il P2 b u t, i f
imimn N. (m .) sweetness
im in si N. (m .), im insauun ( p i . ) supper
im k li N. (m .), im klin ( p i . ) lunch
im la l N. (n . c o l l .) sand
im zdi N. (m .), imzdan ( p i . ) g u e s t, v i s i t o r
in a N. ( f . ) my mother
( t h i s word is used only with p o sse ssiv e pronouns.)
-85-
in i V. na: ( p . ) , n i : ( n . ) , t n i ( h .) say
in g b i N. (m .), ingbaun ( p i . ) guest

1
in s a la : P I hope so
ird V. be clean
irg N. (m .), irg a n ( p i .) n u t s h e ll
is - BU ( in te r r o g a tiv e a f f ix )
ism N. (m .) name
itri N. ( m .) , i t r a n ( p i . ) s ta r
its N. (m.) s le e p , drow siness
iu is N. (m .), ta ru a n s ( p i . ) son
iu is n s u k t: N. (m.) u rc h in , tramp
i u is n x a li N. (m .) cousin
iu liu s a N. J u ly
iu n iu h K. June
ix f N. (m .), ixfauun ( p i . ) head, mind, s e l f (w ith
p o ssessiv e pronoun)
ix s N. (m .) , ix san ( p i . ) bone
iz d ( in te r r o g a tiv e p a r t ic le )
iz i N. (m .), iz an ( p i . ) f ly
iz ik i: N. (m .), izk an : ( p i . ) sparrow
izim r N. (m .) , izam am ( p i . ) ram
iznak* N. (m. p i .) s tr e e t s
iz ri N. (m.) glance
i z 4ad* N. (m.) c lo th in g
k B^b (m. s g .) you
k 7. ka ( p . ) , k i ( n . ) , ka: ( h .) e x is t
ka* b l V. ka*bl ( p . ) , k a * b il (n .)>

tk a b l ( h .) look a t
-8 6 -
ka*du-*: V. ka*da* ( p . ) , ka*di*: ( n . ) ,
tkad#: ( h .) s a ti s f y
k afai N. (m .), k a f a ia t ( p i . ) c a f e , bar
ka»ma/kt a-»ma V. rem ain, s ta y
karr*- V. clo se
kanun N. (m.) f ir e p la c e
k*da‘* V. tk * d a '* ( h .) ro b , s te a l
kdu* V. kda* ( p . ) , k d i* ( n . ) , kda* (h .) s n i f f , sm ell
kdub N. (m.) ly in g
k fu N. (m .), k f in ( p i . ) c o ffin
k id V. kad (p .)> k id ( n . ) , tk a d ( h .) v is it
k ii Nb (m. s g .) you
kim V. tkim ( h .) b e a t, h i t
kim i Nb ( f . sg .) you
kml V. kml ( p . ) , km il ( n . ) , tkm al (h .) f in i s h , end ( t r . and i n t r . )
k l* V. w ait
km B^b ( f . s g .) you
km V. kma ( p . ) , kmi ( n . ) , tkma ( h .) smoke (tobacco)
knu V. bend, stoop
k ra Nc some, any
krad* Nc th r e e
k r a ig a t Nc everyone
krm V. tkrm ( h .) be c o ld , become c o ld e r ( h .)
k ru V. k ra ( p . ) , k r i ( n - ) , tk ru ( h .) r e n t to , r e n t from
krz V. krz ( p . ) , k r iz ( n . ) , tk ra z ( h .) c u l tiv a te
k s /k is V. ksa ( p . ) , k s i/ k i s ( n .) ,
koa: ( h .) take off* p u ll o f f , cu t o f f
-8 7 -
ksa: V. graze
k*sd* V. k*sad* ( p . ) , k*sad* ( n . ) , go tow ard, approach,
tk * sad * ( h .) in ten d
k sha V• be h ard
ksud* V. tk sad * ( h .) fe a r
ksim V. e n te r
k tu d V.. k t i d ( p . ) , k t i d ( n .) remember
kudna BU whenever
ku lu Nc each, a l l
kulma Nb each one
k u ls i Nb e v e ry th in g , a l l
kun V. tkun ( h .) liv e
kuni Nb (m. p i . ) you
k u n in ti Nb ( f . p i . ) you
kur# V. tk u r* ( h .) be h a rd , become hard
k u r a i/a k u ra i N. (m .) s tic k
k u tu : V. comb, groom
kuz* Nc four
la P^ no
la b a s nothing wrong
labuda: P i t i s n ecessary
la g a r N. (m .), la g a r a t ( p i . ) s ta t i o n , depot
la h l N. ( f . ) w ife
lalj P^ th e r e i s
lak * rab a beside
la la s N. ( f . ) m iss, madam
(u sed only w ith f i r s t name.)
la r u b Nc th re e -fo u rth s
la * a fit N. ( f . ) fire
lb a b N. (m .) , lb ib a n ( p i . ) g a te , door
I b a k it N. (m .), l b a k i t a t ( p i . ) package
lb anan N. (m. c o l l .) bananas
Ib g a r N. (m .), l b i g u r i ( p i .) c a ttle
Ib h a r N. (m .), lb h u r* ( p i.) sea
lb h a t N. (m.) in v e s tig a tio n
Ib ig ri N. (n . c o l l . ) beef
Ib it N. ( f . ) , l b i u t ( p i . ) room
I b itlu d u * wash room
lb n i/lib n i N. (rn. sg. and p i . ) b u ild in g
lb rk u k # N. (m. c o l l .) plums
lb s is N. (in..) c e re a l
Ibxur* M. (m.) incense
lb z a r N. (m. c o l l . ) pepper
lazm P i t is n ecessary
Id i V. p u ll
lfa k it N. (m. c o l l . ) f r u i t , nuts
lfa rh N. fm.) p le a su re
lfd u i< ' N. (m.) b re a k fa st
I f i l h• N. (m.)
' # success
Ifla ik K. ( ip. . ) , l f l u k t ( p i . ) boat
lflu s N. (m.) money
lgani-«-/lgaru N. (m. sg . and p i .) c ig a r e tte
lg ira : N. (m.) b a t t l e f ie ld
lguag V. tilg u a g (h .) be s o f t , become s o f te r ( h.
-8 9 -
igudam N. (m.) fro n t
lg u m t N. ( f . ) , Ig u rn a t ( p i . ) s la u g h te r house
Ig a rb N. Morocco
lgnmi N. (m. sg . and p i . ) lamb
lg u a t N. ( f . ) , la g u a t ( p i . ) n o ise
lg u s N. d e c e p tio n , fraud
lh a r N. (m.) tic k li n g
Ih n a: N. (in.) peace, r e s t
Ih ad : N. Sunday
lh a l N. (m .), la h a u a l ( p i.) w eather, atmosphere
lh a lu a N. (m .), lh a lu a t ( p i . ) cake
lhamam N. b ath
lhairdl N. (m .), lhmul ( p i . ) load
lh a n a : IT. (n .) henna
lh a m s/lh a in s N. (m. c o l l . ) chickpeas
lh a rf N. (m .), lh u * ru i> ( p i . ) l e t t e r o f th e alphabet
lh a z t K. ( f . ) , lh u a iz ( p i . ) th in g , c lo th in g ( p i . )
lh azim t N. ( f . ) , lhaztun (m. p i . ) bunch
lh lib N. (m.) milk
lhma N. (m.) heat
lhmuat ( p i .) ex cessiv e heat
lh rir K. (m.) s ilk
lh sk a N. ( f . ) , lh s k a t lamp
lh u s* /lu h u s* K. (m .), id lu h u s* ( p i.) s ta b le
li: Nb who ( r e la tiv e )
lig BU when
liia li N. ( f . ) n ig h ts
-9 0 -
lik s k s u N* kuskus (a food)
lim a r i N. ( f . ) , lim a r a ia t ( p i . ) m irr o r
litru K. (m .) , l i t r u a t ( p i . ) litre
lka*hua N. (m .) c o ffe e , c a f e , b a r , g r a tu ity
lk a l* b N. (m.) h e a rt
lkamun N. (m .), lkam unat ( p i . ) tru c k
Ikard* N. ( m .) measure used f o r g r a in ,
approxim ately one g a llo n
lk a rit N. (m.) paper
lk * b ilt N. (ra. p i . ) p eo p le, t r i b e s
lk * lim N. (m .), lk*lum (£ 1 .) pen
lkm V. tlkm ( h .) a r r i v e , reach
lk r a II. (m.) ren t
Ik tab N. (m .), lk tu b ( p i . ) book
I k ta n K. (m .) c o tto n c lo th
lk u rsi N. (m.) bench, ch air
lku-*uad II. (m.) pander (u sed i n in s u lts )
Im aida N. ( f . ) , Im iadi ( p i . ) ta b l e
Imakla N• m eals, food
lmaxzin N. (m .) government
Iradad N. (m.) ink
Im dint N. ( f . ) c ity
Im itru N. ( m. ) , Im itru a t ( p i . ) meter
lmkib N. (in.) bowl
Ijnnur./limnun II. (m.) melon
Imrkub N. (m .) fa re
Im siiah I!, (m.) clown, m in s tre l
-9 1 -
lnuda N. ( ? .) occasion
Imugib N. Morocco
Imus N. (m.) k n ife
lmcalim N. (m.) engine e r
Is V. I s a ( p . ) , I s i ( n . ) , t l s ( h .) d ress
ltn in N. Monday
l u b ia N. (m. c o l l .) s tr in g beans
lu*du* N. (m.) hot w ater for washing b efo re
p ra y e r, a c t o f washing
befo re p ra y e r
Ihh V. tlu a h ( h .) throw away, la y an egg
lu h r V. throw out
2
lukan P then
lu k id * N. (m.) matches
lu k il N. (m.) law yer
lu k t N. ( f . ) tim e, hour
lu rak * N. (m. p i . ) leav es
lu * ta l N. (m.) h o te l
lu u a li N. (m .), l u l i i a ( p i . ) p ro p h et
lx a m it N. ( f . ) , lx a m iia t ( p i . ) c u r ta in
lx a r N. (m.) m a te r ia l, goods
Ix a tr N. (m.) d e s ire
Ixmis K. Thursday _
lxul#uk# N. (m .) person
Ix u n st N. ( f . ) bag
Izaub N. (m.) answer
lz a r * a F riday
- 92 -
lz d id N. (m .), lzu ad ( p i . ) goodness
lz ib N. (m .), lz iu b ( p i . ) pocket
lzm ca t N. (m. sg . and p i . ) group
lzuuab N. (m .) answer
l ‘ab V. l* ab ( p . ) , l * i b ( n . ) , tl* a b ( h .) p la y (gam es, t r i c k s )
l 'a b r t : N. (m.) a measure f o r g ra in equal
to U Ikard*
l* a id N. (in .), l 'a i a d ( p i . ) h o lid a y
l 'a k l * N. (m .), 1 ‘aukul* ( p i . ) mind
l 'a l u N. (m.) h e ig h t
l*am N. (m .), ‘ am ( p i . ) year
1 ‘ arb a N. Wednesday
1 ‘ ark* K. (m .), l t aruk*s- ( p i . ) v e in , ro o t
l* a s N. (m.) hunger
l* a sk a r N. (m .), l ea s k r ( p i . ) s o ld ie r
1 ‘a u a i s ir N. (m.) h o lid ay season
1 ‘a z ib N. ( m .) , *azub ( p i . ) wonder, m ira c le
ma C what
n o th in g , anything (w ith negative
mag V. f ig h t
maiuh H. Hay
roakar*/magr* V. meet
makl* V. meet
n alh V. tm alh (h .) be s a l t y
man Nb who, what

I;
manaku P~* when
mani where
manik P how
manza P'* where i s , where are
marhba P^ welcome
mars N. March
masasarkan* V. heat
*
m ata: T
P>k which one
m atla V. w a it for a long time
m atin V• d elay , be l a t e , take
long tim e
m atn it K• good th in g s
ma*ala/m *ala Bb if
ma*ana P^ why
macda P^ w ith o u t, except
mbarak P^ happiness
mdi V. reach over
mdl* V. be b u ried
mgi V. tmgi (h .) s p ro u t, p la n t
mgur* V. tmgur* grow b ig g e r
mia Nc idm ia ( p i . ) one hundred
midn N. (m.) p eo p le
mim V. timim ( h .) be sweet
mimsah N. evening
3
mihbad P a fte r
h
minsk P how much
m it Nb whose
mksa: V. tend sh eep , c a t t l e
mkur* V. be la rg e
-9 4 -
Eil V. mal: ( p . ) , m il: ( n . ) , mal ( h .) d i r e c t , co n d u ct, show
m lih t h a t ’s f in e
m lul V. tm lu l ( h .) be w h ite, grow w h iter ( h .)

li
mnau P how many
mrau Nc te n
mriam Miriam
msad V# be very sharp
mskin N. (m*), m sakin (p i* ) poor fe llo w
mta V. d ie
mun V. muna ( h .) accompany
musa: V. musa: ( p . ) , musi: ( n . ) ,
tmusu: ( h .) move, trem ble
mut V. d ie
mzi V. tm zi (h*) be sm all, grow sm aller
n- A3 (p o ss e ss iv e p r e fix )
n- EE>a we
-n 3£a they
-r. C th e r e , t h a t , then
n a fl V. n u f l ( p . ) , n u f il ( n . ) , n u fal (h .) be crazy
a n a fa l N. (m.) madman
namus N. (m. sg . and p i . ) mo sq u ito
na*am P^ yes
ndadana P^ l a s t year
ndu V. nda: ( p . ) , n d i: ( n . ) , tndu (h .) be wet
ngi V. run, wander, ru sh
ng V. nka ( h .) k ill
r.gat A!? between
-95-
n isn V. n isa n (p * ), n is in ( n . ) , be s tr a i g h t , be honest
1 tu is a n ( h .)
nki Nb I
nkr V. stand up
-n t B5a ( f . ) they
n ta Nb he
n ta t Nb she
nua V. be r ip e , cook
nukni Nb we
n u k n ti Nb we ( f . )
nukurt* N• s il v e r
nus Nc o n e -h a lf
nuua V• wish
nuuambir N. November
nz V. nza ( h . ) be for s a le
nzm V. escape
n ‘ a la V. curse
n*ana N. mint
ra - B3 w i l l , s h a ll
rab*a Nc o n e-fo u rth
rar V. r e tu rn ( t r . )
r a s ta r a n t N. (m .), r a s ta r a n ta t ( p i . ) c a fe , b a r
rbh V. rbah ( p . ) , rb ih ( n . ) , trb a h ( h .) g a in , e a rn , succeed
rb*a Nc four
r b i : N• God
r b i ‘a K. (m.) g rass
rdu* V. rda* ( p . ) , rd i* ( n . ) , trdu* ( h .) accept
-96-
rg ig V, trem ble
rgm V. rgam ( p . ) , rgim ( n . ) , trgam (h .) r id ic u le
rg V. rg a ( p . ) , r g i ( n . ) , rk a* : ( h .) become hot
ri V. r a (p .)> r i ( n . ) , t r i (h .) w ish, want
ria l N. (m. c o l l .) money, cu rren cy , d o lla r s
r ilj V. give o f f an odor
rifc: N. (m .), l a r i a h ( p i . ) wind
rifc t N. ( f . ) odor
ris M. (m. p i . ) f e a th e rs
rk s* V. rk a s ( p . ) , r k i s ( n . ) , trk a s * (h .) dance
rmi V. be t i r e d
rtl* N. (m. ) , r t a l * ( p i . ) 1/2 k ilo
ruah V. l e t , p erm it
ruu V. ru a ( p . ) , r u i ( n . ) , tru u a ( h .) be b e a u tif u l
ruz* N. ( m. c o l l . ) r ic e
rz V. arz ( p . ) , i r z ( n . ) , t r z ( h .) break
rza N. ( f . ) , rzu ( p i . ) tu rb a n
rzu V. r z a ( p . ) , r z i ( n . ) , t r z a (h .) hope
r*ad V. t r ‘ ad ( h .) thunder
s- Ai; t o , toward
sa : Nc seven
sa fr V. s a il
s a * fr V. tr a v e l
sa g /sg V. sag ( p . ) , sig ( n . ) , tsa g (h .) buy
sak*sa V. ask
s a * if N. (m.) summer
sa h t r ig h t
-97-
sa^lit N. ( f . ) h e a lth
samh V. fo rg iv e
sa ru a t V• th re s h
sat N. ( f . ) - tim e , hour
saual V. sau u l ( p . ) , sauu.il ( n . ) ,
t s a u a l ( h .) speak
sbah N. (m .) morning
sbah tomorrow
s*bah V. wake up
sb ain V• make c le a r
sbg V. p a in t
s b id /z b id V. make sta n d
sb r V. s b r ( p . ) , s b ir ( n . ) , s :b a r ( h .) move slow ly
s d is Nc s ix
s d ru s /z d ru s V. reduce
sfa r V• be yellow
s fa u V. sfa u ( p . ) , s f a i ( n . ) , ts f a u ( h .) be b r ig h t
s fin z N. (in.) doughnuts
s fis : V. calm, so o th e, q u ie t
sfsi V. m elt ( t r . )
sfud* V• wipe, sweep
s g u d i/z g u d i V. p ile
sh ara N. (m .), s h a r i (p l« ) d e s e rt
sh d ar
•
V. teach
shur* N. b r e a k fa s t b efo re su n ris e
during th e month o f f a s tin g
s i- AU w ith , by means of
-98-
s ib t N. Saturday
s id i ( form al) s i r , m is te r
s i = f a m ilia r form
s ig l V. t s i g i l ( h .) look fo r
simana N. (m .), sim anat ( p i . ) week
sim gi Y• p la n t
simus Nc fiv e
s in Nc two
s in * a t N. ( f . ) occupation, p ro fe ssio n
s ir d V. wash
s ir s V. p lace
s iru r N. (m .) shoeshine
sk r Y. skr ( p . ) , s k ir ( n . ) , sk a r ( h .) do
sksud* V. sksad* (h .) frig h te n
skus Y. tsk u s ( h .) s it
si Y. s la ( p . ) , s l i ( n . ) , s la : ( h .) hear
s l i ‘a t N. ( f . ) merchandise
slkm V. take to a d e s tin a tio n
sm N. (m.) poison
smah N. (m.) ink made from b u rn t wool
smak*l V. look fo r
smid* Y. be cold
smun Y. c o lle c t
sn V. san ( p .) a s i n ( r-*)j san: (h .) know, understand
sn g i V. tu rn on th e w ater
sraf Y. ts r a f (h.) spend
srbh Y. srbah ( p . ) , srb ih ( n . ) ,

sr:b a h (h .) reward
srd u * V• cause to accept
srf N. (m .) change (money)
s rir N. (m.) bed
srzm N. (m .), srazm ( p i . ) window
su V. sua ( p . ) , s u i ( n . ) , sua: (h .) drink
sudu V. suda (p .)> su d i ( n . ) , tsu d a ( h .) rj.de (on a horse)
suf V. blow
s u fs V. sufus ( h .) s p it
suguan V. be black
s u g u li V. b o il ( t r . )
sufcft N. (ra.) m arket
sukuar/ sukuur*- N. (ra.) sugar
s u l- B Jj . never
sus V. susa ( h .) shake ( t r . )
suua V. c o st
s x sa r V. s p o il
s ‘a d l V• make good, r e p a i r
sa V. sa ( p . ) , s i ( n . ) , s t a ( h .) eat
sa la d a N• le ttu c e
s a tr V. be w ise
sa* ar N. (ra.) h a ir
s b ik t N. ( f . ) , s b ik a t ( p i . ) net
sfr V. s f r ( p . ) , s f i r ( n . ) , s f a r ( h .) s te a l
sg l V. s g a l ( h .) work, be busy
sh a r N. (ra.) moon, month
s ib V. age, become gray
s im a n d ifir K. (ra.) t r a in
-1 0 0 -
ska* V. tsk a * ( h .) be h ard , c r u e l, dangerous,
d iffic u lt
skal N. (m .) , s k a ln (p l« ) hobble
skr V. thank
sksm V. ta k e in
s lh a ii N. S’n ilh a
sm*a N. (m.) candle
srk V. srk ( p . ) , s ir k ( n . ) , s i r k : ( h .) sh a re
su l* N. (m .) job
su tam b rir N. September
su u r V* slow
sz u rt K. ( f . ) , s z a r i ( p i . ) tre e
t- B$a. she
t B^b him
t: BJ>b her
ta b ra t N. ( f . ) , t i b r a t i n ( p i . ) l e t t e r , correspondence
ta d w a it N. ( f . ) , ta d u a iin ( p i . ) p o t, in k w ell
ta f V. have
ta fira s t N. ( f . c o l l . ) p ear
ta f u k t N. ( f . ) sun
ta f u lu s t N. ( f . ) , t i f u l u s i n ( p i . ) hen
ta f u n a s t N. ( f . ) , tif u n a s in ( p i . ) cow
ta fru x t ( .? .) , tif r x a n ( p i . ) g irl
tag an a H. ( f •) s le e p
ta g s n t R. ( f . ) , tag a n in ( p i . ) fo re st
ta g d ift N. ( f . ) , t i g d i f i n ( p i.) c a r p e t, mat
ta g a u r t II. ( f . ) , tig d u r in ( p i . ) la rg e earthenw are pot
ta g la it M. ( f . ) , t i g l a i ( p i . ) egg
ta g lit: N. ( f . ) , t i g l a t i n ( p i . ) queen
ta g u n z a u it N. ( f . ) , tig u n zau in ( p i . ) spoon
(from agunza - la d le )
ta g u t N. ( f . ) fog
ta g z if N. ( f . ) , t ig z a f ( p i . ) sm all palm t r e e
ta g a t* /ta g a t: N. ( f . ) , t i g a t n ( p i . ) goat
ta g iu lt N. ( f . ) , t i g i a l ( p i . ) donkey
ta g r u t* N. ( f . ) , tig u ra d * ( p i . ) shoulder
ta h a n u t N. ( f . ) , tih u n a ( p i.) s to re
ta iu g a N. ( f . sg . and p i . ) p a ir
ta itm a tin N. ( f . p i .) s is te rs
tak a* N. ( f . ) powder
ta k a t: N. ( f . ) , ta k a tin ( p i . ) fam ily , f ir e p la c e
ta k fa it N. ( f . ) milk
ta k s i N. (m .), t a k s i a t ( p i . ) ta x i
ta k * s a r t N. ( f . ) , t ik * s a r in ( p i . ) h ill
ta k * ta 4a t N. ( f . ) robbery
ta k u rt* N. ( f . ) noise
ta * lib N. (m.) te a c h e r
ta lu h t N. ( f . ) , ti l u h a ( p i . ) blackboard
ta lu n t N. ( f . ) , t i lu n in ( p i . ) s tr a in e r
tam Nc eig h t
taman N. ( m .) p ric e
ta m a rt N. ( f . ) , tim a rin ( p i . ) beard
ta m a z irt N. ( f . ) , tim iz a r ( p i . ) co u n try sid e
tam dakult N. ( f . ) , tim dukal ( p i .) frien d
tam g art N. ( f . ) , tim g arin ( p i . ) woman, w ife
-1 0 2 -
tam u b il N. ( f . ) , ta m u b ila t ( p i.) bus ( in r u r a l areas)
ta n u t N. ( f . ) , tiu n a ( p i . ) sm all w ell
ta n u tfi N. ( f . ) , t i n u t f a ( p i . ) c i s te m
ta n z a r t N. ( f . ) c a rp e n try
ta rf A5 near
ta ria lt N. ( f . s g .) d o lla r, b i l l
ta rik t N. ( f . ) , t a r i k i n ( p i . ) saddle
ta ru a n s (se e i u i s )
ta s * V. slee p
ta s a r :d u n t N. ( f . ) , tis a r s d a n ( p i . ) mule
ta s k s u t N. ( f . ) , tis k s a n ( p i.) pot
tasm i N. ( f . ) , tasm iu in ( p i . ) needle
ta s ra ft M. ( f . ) , t i s r a f i n ( p i . ) granary
ta s rg u lt N. ( f . ) , t i s r g a l ( p i . ) lid
ta s lh a it S hilha
ta s u k t: N. tis u k a ( p i . ) s tre e t
V v
ta s b n it N. ( f . ) , tis b n a ( p i . ) h andkerchief
ta s k a rt N. ( f . ) , t i s k a r i n ( p i . ) sm all bag
ta tb ir N. ( f . ) , t i b i r i n ( p i.) dove
t a ts a * N. ( f . ) laughing
ta u a ru k t* N. ( f . ) , lu u aru k t* (m. p i .) le a f
tau k a N. ( f . sg . and p i . ) worm
taxdamt N. ( f . ) , taxdirr. ( p i.) clean in g woman
ta x s a it N. ( f . ) , t i x s a i ( p i .) squash
ta z a lit N. ( f . ) , t i z n l a ( p i.) p ray er
ta z a n t N. ( f . ) , ta z a n in ( p i . ) ch ild
ta z la ft M. ( f . ) , t a z l a f i n ( p i . ) bowl
-103-
ta z b a n it N. ( f . ) , ta z b a n in ( p i . ) bowl
ta tfz in N. ( f . ) , t* u a z in ( p i . ) fry in g pan
ta z ir/ta z r N. (m .), t a t a z i r ( p i . ) w ealthy .man, m erchant
ta*am N. (m .), t*am ( p i . ) food, g ra in
ta*ma n e a r, b e s id e
tb la N. ( f . ) , t b l a t ( p i . ) ta b le
tf a h N. ( f . c o l l . ) ap p les
tfa r V. fo llo w , pursue

v
minsk a i i t f a r t - how much do you follow me = what do I owe you
tg a la g a l N. ( f . ) echo, one who t a lk s to o much
tg a u sa : N. ( f . ) , tig a u s ir u in ( p i . ) th in g
t:h a V. push
tib lia rt N. ( f . ) , t ib h a r in ( p i . ) garden
tid i N. ( f . ) , ta d iu in ( p i . ) h e ig h t, h e ig h t of a man (u sed
as a u n it o f measure)
tifa u t N. ( f . ) , t i f a u i n l ig h t
tifii N. ( f . ) neat
tifliu t N. ( f . ) , t i f l i u i n ( p i . ) d o o r, gate
tig m i N. ( f . ) , tigma ( p i . ) house
tig z d it N. ( f . ) , tig z d in ( p i . ) sm all lo g , beam, r a f t e r
tig ri N. ( f . ) reading
tig z i N. ( f . ) le n g th , h e ig h t
tiia ra N. ( f . ) , t i i a r a t ( p i . ) a irp la n e
tiin i N. ( f . c o l l . ) d ates
tiii N. ( f . ) , t a t r ( p i . ) ewe
tin k ilt K. ( f . ) , tim k iltir . ( p i . ) bowl, f i r s t d is h served a t
a meal
-ioU -
tim zg id a N. ( f . ) , tim zg ad iu in ( p i . ) mosque, school
tin g lis t K. ( f . ) E n g lish (language)
tin u it N. ( f . ) cooking
tira N. ( f . ) p r in tin g
tirg i N. ( f « ) , t i r g i u i n ( p i . ) fev er
tirk m in N. ( f . c o l l .) tu rn ip s
tis n t N. ( f . ) s a lt
tis is t N. ( f . ) , t i s i s n ( p i . ) tr a y
tit N. ( f . ) , a ln ( f . p i . ) eye
tiu u ts i N. ( f . ) evening
tiz u a m in N. ( f . ) midday p ray er
tiz u it N. ( f . ) , tiz u a ( p i . ) bee
tiz iu it N. ( f . ) , izauan (m. p i . ) h u rric a n e
tiz lu b a N. ( f . ) robes
tk * b ilt N. ( f . ) , I k * b il ( p i . ) tr ib e
tk lit N. ( f . ) , t i k a l ( p i . ) tim e, occasion
tla ta N. Tuesday
tlb a n a n t N* ( f .) banana
tlz * N. (m.) snow
t-rr. Bâ you (m. p i .)
t-m t Bâ you ( f . p i .)
t*ma K• greed
tmzin N. ( f . ) b a rle y
tn 0?b them (m .)
tn t Bpb them ( f .)
tn a k - b it N. ( f . ) hole
tn iltit I.’. ( f . c o l l .) le n tils
-1 0 ^ -
ts a Nc nine
ts a * V. a tsa * ( h .) laugh
t-t B£a you ( s g .)
tub N. (m.) c lo th
tu b is N. (m .), tu b isa d ( p i . ) bus
tu d i t N. ( f . ) b u tte r
tu r ig z a N. (m.) stro n g man, hero
tusu* V• cough
tu s u t N. ( f . ) cough
tu r* 2 u t* N. ( f . ) odor, ste n c h
tu z u t N. ( f . ) something good
tu*zut-* N. ( f . ) stench
u a- A6 (v o c a tiv e a f f ix )
2
u a la /u a ila P n o r, n e ith e r , and not
2
u a la k in P but
u a lu Nb nothing
1
uaxa P y e s , c e r t a i n l y , a l l r ig h t
udad N. (m .), udadn ( p i . ) an telo p e
udai N. (m.) Jew ish nan
udm N. (in .), udmaun ( p i.) face
uf V. tu f ( h .) blow, breathe
u fa l: N. (m .), u f a l:n ( p i.) rake
ug V. uga (p .)> u g i ( n . ) , tu g a ( h .) shine
ug V. ug ( p . ) , ig ( n . ) , tuga ( h .) wash
ug :d V. tugad: ( h .) be frig h te n e d
ugz V. g e t down, g e t o f f
uhu P~ no
-106-
2
ukan P h a rd ly , only
u k tu b r N. O ctober
2
u la P and
ultm a N. ( f . ) , ta itm a tn ( p i . ) my s i s t e r
(always used w ith p o sse ssiv e pronoun)
u m lil N. (m .) w hiteness
unsad N. (m.) weaving
u r- 3U not
u r ig V. u rag ( p . ) , u r ig ( n . ) ,
tiu rig ( h .) be g reen , be yellow
usman N. (m .) lig h tn in g
usmid* N• cold
u s :n N. (m .), u s a jn in ( p i.) w o lf, ja c k a l
ut V. t k a t ( h .) s trik e , h it
u ta s V. tu ta s ( h .) k neel
u u ri V. r e tu r n ( i n t r . )
uxs N. (m .), uxsn ( p i .) to o th

V V V
uxsn V. uxsan ( p . ) , u x sin ( n . ) ,

v
tu x sn ( h .) be d isa g re e a b le
uzn V. uzn ( p . ) , u z in ( n . ) , tuzan ( h .) weigh
uzr V. s in k , go down
uzad V. u z id ( p . ) j uzid ( n . ) ,
tuzad ( h .) p rep are
xa V. le a v e
x a la s : V. x u lu s: ( p . ) 3 x u lis : (n » ),
tx a la s : (h .) pay fo r
x a la t: V. x u lu t: ( p . ) , x u l i t : ( n . ) ,
t x a l a t : (h .) mix, mingle
-107-
x a li N. (m .), id x a l i ( p i . ) raatern al u n c le
x a lti N. ( f . ) , i d x a l t i ( p i . ) m atern al aunt
xamim V. txamam (h .) co n sid e r
xam sin Nc fifty
x a tr N. (m.) w ish, p le a s u r e , d e s ire
x a :z u N. (m. c o l l . ) c a r r o ts
xdm V. xdam ( p . ) , xdim ( n . ) , txdam ( h .) work
xsr V. x s a r ( p . ) , x s i r ( n . ) , t x s a r ( h .) s p o il, r o t
x s u :/x s u * : V. x sa ( p . ) , x s i ( n . ) ,
tx s a ( h .) be m issin g , be lack in g
x ta Nb ( f . ) th e one
x ta ia n Nb (m.) no one
x ta li: Nb ( f . ) she who
xuu V. xua ( p . ) , x u i ( n . ) , txua ( h .) be empty, d e s e rte d
zdag V. l i v e , r e s id e
zdar V. zd ar ( p . ) , z d i r ( n . ) ,
dzdar ( h . ) be a b le , can
zdu V. zda ( p . ) , z d i ( n . ) , zda: ( h .) g rin d
zg r V. zgar ( p . ) , z g ir ( n . ) , cause to to u ch , p ass by,
dzgar ( h .) walk on
zgur V. zugur ( h .) smear
z ift N. (ra.) t a r , p itc h
zig z V. walk
z ig z iu V. zigzau ( p . ) , s ig z iu ( n . ) ,
zigzau ( h .) be green
3
Z1K P e a rly
z it N. (ra.) o il
-1 0 8 -
z itu n N. ( f . p i . ) o b je c ts
z lg V. z lg ( p . ) , z l i g ( n . ) , d z lig (h .) s li p
z lz lt K. ( f . ) earthquake
zlm V. zlm. ( p . ) , zlim ( n . ) , dzlim ( h . ) p e e l, pare
znz V. znza ( p . ) , z n z i ( n . ) , z in z a (h .) s e ll
zr* V. zra* ( p . ) , z r i ( n .) zra* : ( h .) see
zrb V. z rb ( p . ) , z ir b ( n . ) , dzrab (h .) h u rry , h aste n
zri V. z r a ( p . ) , z r i ( n . ) , z r a i (h .) pass by
z ri: V. z r a : ( p . ) , z r i : ( n . ) , z r a i : (h .) cause to p a s s, p ass -with
zug V. tzu g ( h .) m ilk
zuguig V. zuguag ( p . ) , zuguig ( n . ) ,
tz u ig ( h .) be re d , become re d ( h .)
zugz ?. bring down

2
zund P l i k e , as
zur V• be th ic k
zuur V. zuar ( p . ) , z u ir ( n . ) , zgur (h .) p re c e d e , guide
iz u a rn - th e f i r s t
za V. s tin k
z a rh t N. ( f . ) , z a rh a t ( p i.) in ju ry
V v y
zaru V. zuru ( p . ) , z u r i ( n . ) ,
V
dzura ( h .) p u l l , drag
zaub V. answer
z b id V. dzbaa (h .) p u ll, e x t r a c t
zda N. ( f . ) , id zd a ( p i .) grandmother
zha k* (in.) man’ s name (used in many fo lk
s to r ie s )
zi V. be w e ll, s tro n g , f a t , r ic h
-1 0 9 -
2121 V * TT
V• cure
zlb an a N. (m. c o l l . ) green peas
zma'u V. zma'a ( p . ) , zm a'i ( n . ) , g a th e r, c o l l e c t ,
cEzma* ( h .) congregate
znzm V. znzm ( p . ) , znzim ( n . ) ,

V V (/ h■*i)\
znzain save, rescue
z rh V. zrh ( p . ) , z ir h ( n . ) ,
dzarh (h .) injure
zru V. z ra ( p . ) , z r i ( n . ) , d zra (h .) ta k e p la c e , happen
zu BU never
zua' N. (in.) hunger

v v
zuzaa: V. p rep are
'a b r i weigh
*adl 7 . be good
Vacll: V. t 'a d l : (h .) improve
'a fa k P1 p le a s e
'a f u V. ' a.fa ( p . ) , S f i ( n . ) , t 'a f a (h .)
' alah P‘ why
'a l a s (m .), i 'a l a s ( p i .) ;a lf

v
(a ls o a 'a la s )
'a l u V. 'a l a ( p . ) . ' a l l ( n . ) , t ' a l u (h .) be h ig h , become h ig h er ( h .)
am \t~
i ‘i . \j year
'am i N. (m .), id 'a m i ( p i .) ny u n c le (p a te rn a l)
'amr V. 'am r/'am ar ( p . ) , 'a m ir ( n . ) ,
'amar.: (h .) f i l l , become f u ll
'a m ti N. ( f . ) , i d 'a n t i ( p i . ) my aunt (p a te rn a l)
'amu V. 'a n a ( p . ) , 'ami ( r . ,) , t'am u (h .) be b lin d
-1 1 0 -
*a n *a N . (m .) m int
*ard V. in v ite
* a srin Nc tw enty
* a ta r N. (m .), i 'a t a r n ( p i . ) m edicine man, d ru g g is t
‘auud V. t*auud ( h .) r e p e a t, r e c i t e
*auun V. h elp
*auz V. be crooked
‘azub V. be p le a s a n t, be wonderful
(w ith n e g a tiv e - be unhappy, d istu rb e d )

Shilha - A Descriptive Grammar With Vocabulary and Texts (Applegate)

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SHILHA: A DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR WITH VOCABULARY AND TEXTS

P re sen te d to th e F a c u lty o f th e G raduate School o f th e

U n iv e rsity o f Pennsylvania in P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f th e

Requirements fo r th e degree o f D octor o f Philosophy

Chairman o f Group Committee

S h ilh a i s one o f th e most w idely d is tr ib u te d o f th e B erber

lan g u ag es. I t i s spoken in southw estern Morocco, and th e d i a l e c t

d e s c rib e d i n t h i s d i s s e r ta tio n i s found i n th e area extending from

.A gadir t o I f n i , and as f a r e a s t as T arouant. Although S h ilh a has

been re p la c e d by A rabic in urban a re a s , i t i s s t i l l th e predom inant

language i n - r u r a l a r e a s . The presence of A rabic has in flu e n c e d th e

d i a l e c t , however, and tr a c e s o f t h i s in flu e n c e are found in th e la r g e

number o f borrowed words th a t occur in th e language. A nother example

o f th e in flu e n c e o f A rabic i s found in th e f a c t th a t two methods o f

counting a re used i n S h ilh a. The f i r s t system , in which n a tiv e

s io n a lly in th e speech o f men in r u r a l a r e a s . The second system

which makes use o f A rabic words i s used g e n e ra lly by men in a l l

b u sin e ss tr a n s a c tio n s . T races o f Spanish and French in flu e n c e a re

a ls o d is c e rn ib le in S h ilh a . The names o f the months, fo r example,

a re o b v io u sly words t h a t have been borrowed from S panish.

The a n a ly s is p re se n te d in t h i s d is s e r ta tio n i s based c h ie f ly

on the speech o f Mr. Madani Embarek, a n a tiv e o f I f n i . A d d itio n a l

m a te r ia l was su p p lie d by h is b r o th e r, Mr. Houssein Bouchenne. Sup­

plem entary evidence to su p p o rt some o f the conclusions reached in

th e a n a ly s is was provided by co n v ersatio n s o f Mr. Embarek, h is

The purpose o f th is grammar i s to provide a g e n e ra l d e s c rip tio n

o f th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e language by examining th e phonology, i . e . ,

i . e . , m ajor fo rm -c la ss e s, and th e syntax or r e l a t iv e d i s tr ib u tio n

o f th e s e fo rm -c la ss e s. The d e s c rip tio n i s in ten d ed to serv e a s a

g e n e ra l o u tlin e o f th e s tr u c tu r e r a th e r than as a m inutely d e ta ile d

grammar. A v o cab u lary and sample, te x ts a re in c lu d e d . The t e x ts

have been reco rd ed and d ep o sited w ith th e L in g u is tic s Department

T his re se a rc h was fin an ced Uy g ra n ts provided by th e American

Council o f Learned S o c ie tie s as p a r t o f th e ir Program in O rie n ta l

Languages f o r th e p re p a ra tio n o f a textbook to be used in th e teach­

in g o f S h ilh a . I am v ery g r a te f u l to th e American Council o f

Learned S o c ie tie s fo r awarding th e fello w sh ip s which enabled me to

complete t h i s work. I a lso w ish to express my g r a titu d e to P ro fe sso r

Z e llig H a rris o f th e U n iv e rsity o f Pennsylvania who su p erv ised th is

re se a rc h and to D r. Henry Hoenigswald and Dr. Leigh L is k e r f o r th e ir

A ssim ila tio n 20

Emphatic consonants 7-3

Feminine nouns ( see Gender)

Form ative a f fix e s 30 , 31 , 33 , 35-37

Gender 25, U9-?0

Im p erativ e 37, U2-U3

Noun p h rases U6-U8

Noun stems 25-29

P e rso n a l pronouns 27-28

P o sse ssiv e morpheme 3>h

S p ectro g rap h ic d a ta 16-19

Suprasegm ental components 7-8

Verb p h rases U7-51

Word sequence eq u atio n s 5U-55

B a s s e t, A* wN otes de l i n g a is tiq u e b e rb e re ," H e sp e ris, v o l. 3 , 1

B iarnay, S . "Notes d ’eth nographie e t de lin g u is tiq u e n o r d a fr ic a in e s ,"

3 ru n o t, Louis "N otes le x ic o lo g iq u e s su r l e v o c a b u la ire de Rabat e t

D esta in g , Edmond fetude su r l a T a c h e lb it du Sous, P a r is , 1920

D estain g , Edmond Textes b e rb e re s en p a r le r des Chleuhs du Sous, P a ris

H a r r is , Z e llig S . Methods in S tr u c tu r a l L in g u is tic s , Chicago, 1951

L a o u st, fertile Cours de Berbere M arocain, P a r is , 1921

L a o u st, fenile fefcude s u r l e D ia le c te B erbere des N tif a , P a r is , 1918

L a o u st, fertile Mots e t Choses B erberes, P a r is , 1920

m a te r ia l was su p p lie d by h is b r o th e r, Mr. Houssein Bouchenne. Sup

Languages f o r th e p re p a ra tio n o f a textbook to be used in th e teach

111 / t / in c lu d es the follow ing sound ty p e s : [t1] r e le a s e d and

An example o f t h i s i s found in th e word t^ ib h a e r t 1 'g a rd en . The

e . g . , k^im i ’you’ . [kW] d i f f e r s from th e preceding allophones be

[d ] re le a s e d occurs b e fo re vowels and voiced consonants. Be

[$] doma 1 , emphatic occurs w ith /->/ or in V/ _VC.

phoneme. I t occurs b efo re vowels as w e ll as b efo re v o ic e le s s conso

n a n ts . I t does not occur b efo re v o iced consonants w ith o u t the i n t r o

1.111 / x / v o ic e le s s , p a la to - v e la r s p ir a n t has th e follow ing p o s i