a : Bicsi Electromagnetic Compatibility Chapter 2 discusses EMC as it applies to ICT structured cabling systems and networks. It includes discussions on EM spectrum, sources of EMI, RFI, factors affecting EMI and its mechanisms, ESD, EFT, filtering and other techniques deployed to mitigate EMI in cabling systemsChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compal Table of Contents Electromagnetic Compatil Introduction . . ity (EMC) Electromagnetic Spectrum ... Overview . Radio Spectrum Groups Need for Compatibility Specific Telecommunications Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Guidelines Responsibility for Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) . . . Electromagnetics ..... Electromagnetic Fields. Desirable and Undesirable Electromagnetic Fields Sources of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) External and Internal Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . . Evidence of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)... « Measuring Electromagnetic Compa‘ Evaluating the Electromagnetic Environment Terminology . . y (EMC) . Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)—A Problem . Factors Affecting Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—The Solution . . . Basic Philosophy of Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Product Immunity... . . Baas Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Mechanisms... Sources of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). . . Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Cabling. Cables as Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Producers . Susceptibility of Cables to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . .. . Electromagnetic Qualification Parameters . Electrostatic Discharge (ESD). .... a Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Related to Telecommunications Cabling. Radiated Immunity . Electrical Fast Transient (EFT). . Transient Voltages and Currents © 2020 srest™ 2 ‘TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compati Unwanted Signals. ‘Types of Unwanted Signals. Common Mode (CM)... Differential Mode (DM) .. . ae Sources of Unwanted Signals .. 0... 00s see eee e eee ee es ° 2-25 Electrical Power Converters. . . 2-25 Logic Circuits... 6. see eee 2-26 Other Internal Unwanted Signal 2-26 Electrical Power Line... +... eo Cabling. oe eee eee eee eee ee Grounding (Earthing) . . . General... ss... 6s Ground Loops. : veces Alternating Current (ac) Power... Unwanted Signal Coupling Mechanism. . Conduits, Cable Trays, and Raceways ... 6.5... Shields 6.0.6 ee eee eee eee Cable Shielding and Shield Effectiveness . : Considerations about Shield Grounding (Earthing) ing Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . Overview... eee ee eevev evens Design of Horizontal Pathways and Spaces. Considerations for Electromagnetic Compati Cabling Systems . . General Guidelines to Promote Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC).......... 2-36 Cable Separation. .... Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Filters . Data Line Filtering—Isolation Transformers . Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) by Filtering Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Bandwidth of Balanced Twisted -Polr Cabling . Balance of Twisted-Pair Cabling... Telecommunications Cabling within Joint-Use Tunnel. . Electrical Power Line Influence . Coupling from Mutual Capacitance and Inductance Reducing Coupling : ee Susceptibility of Circuits and Systems pee Recommended Longitudinal Balance (Immunity) TOMM, 14th edition (© 2020 BrcsT®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Figures Figure 2.1 Electromagnetic spectrum . Goocc 223 Figure 2.2 Dependence of the safe distance to EMI source on its power . 2-10 Figure 2.3 Model T for a short wire channel... .. 2-21 Figure 2.4 Surge test voltage waveform sample. . 2-23 Figure 2.5 CM versus DM... se 6s sees ens = 2:25 Figure 2.6 Ground loops in shielded cabling systems .. 2-28 Figure 2.7 Ground loop because of stray capacitance at high frequencies 2-29 Figure 2.8 Common impedance coupling interference . . 2-30 Figure 2.9 Field-to-cable and ground loop........ 2-31 Figure 2.10 Coupling reduction as function of grounding (earthing) practice - 2-32 Figure 2.11 Higher frequency twist decrease. Bonoo 2-33 Figure 2.12 Typical power line filter . .. 2-39 Figure 2.13 Isolation transformer scheme. . . 2-40 Figure 2.14 Samples of ferrite toroids, beads, and sleeves « 2-41 Figure 2.15 Balance concept . . . . = 2-43 Figure 2.16 EMI susceptibility of circuits and systems connected through unshielded cables . Soebosdo 2-45 Figure 2.17. Ground loop and EME immunity. . 2-47 Tables Table 2.1 Factors that can affect EMI in telecommunications equipment ....... 2-12 Table 2.2 Factors that can affect EMI in sites . 213 Table 2.3. Four levels of immunity oo 2219 Table 2.4 ESD susceptibility ranges... . co ee 220 Table 2.5 Mutual capacitance ranges for telecommunications cables . vee BOL Table 2.6 Minimum separation distances from possible sources of eM exceeding 5 kVA. er re ao) Teble 2.7 Separation requirements between metalic bing and specific EMI sourcesee pe er vo. 238 © 2020 Brcsi> it TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Compatil y (EMC) Introduction EMC is the ability of a device, equipment, or system to operate properly in its intended electromagnetic environment without introducing significant EMI into the environment. EML is the transfer of electromagnetic energy from one device or system to another device or system operating in the same environment that causes interference with the normal operation of devices or systems. ‘The potential for EMI increases when devices or systems share a common electromagnetic environment and their operation’s frequencies overlap. If they operate over a different range of the electromagnetic spectrum, lower levels of EMI between them are expected. ‘The coupling between two circuits or systems can occur because of one or more of the following mechanisms: + Conductive coupling (when a common branch circuit is shared between two devices) + Inductive coupling (by magnetic fields) + Capacitive coupling (by electric fields) + Electromagnetic coupling (by electromagnetic fields and waves) Three essential elements to any EMC problem are: + ‘The source of an EMI or electromagnetic energy transfer between an interfering source and a susceptible device or system. + The susceptible device or system that cannot perform as designed, configured, or programmed because of the EMI event. + A coupling path that promotes the disturbance between the interfering source and the susceptible device or system. Mitigate EMC problems by identifying at least two of these elements and eliminating, or reducing the influence of, the third one. © 2020 Brcs* 2 ‘TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Spectrum Overview EME is radiation composed of oscillating electrical and magnetic fields and propagated through a medium, EMR includes gamma, X-ray, UV, visible (i, light), and IR radiation as well as radar, microwaves and radio waves. All of these are fundamentally similar in that they propagate at the speed of light (300,000 km/s [186,300 mis] in a vacuum). Electromagnetic waves are distinguished by their wavelength, which is expressed in meters, or their frequency, which is expressed in hertz: d=olf Where: f frequency in hertz 2. = wavelength in meters velocity of light in meters per second in a vacuum ‘The entire spectrum is the range of frequencies of EMR from zero to infinity. Radio Spectrum Groups The electromagnetic spectrum was formerly divided into 26 alphabetically designated bands. This usage still prevails to some degree. However, the ITU recognizes 12 bands from 30 Hz t0 30,000 GHz: + BLE, ITU Band 1 =3 Hz.to 30 Hz + SLR, ITU Band 2 = 30 Hz to 300 Hz + VB, ITU Band 3 (ULF) = 300 Hz to 3000 Hz + VLR, ITU Band 4 = 3 kHz to 30 kHz, + LE, ITU Band 5 = 30 kHz to 300 kHz + ME, ITU Band 6 = 300 kHz to 3 MHz + HE, ITU Band 7—e.g,, aviation communications and RFID = 3 MHz to 30 MHz + VHF, ITU Band 8—e.g., FM radio = 30 MHz to 300 MHz, + UHF, ITU Band 9—e.g,, mobile phones and wireless LAN = 300 MHz to 3000 MHz (3 GHz) + SHF, ITU Band 10—e.g,, radar and microwave radio = 3 GHz to 30 GHz + EHF, ITU Band 11—e.g,, radio astronomy and millimeter wave scanner = 30 GHz to 300 GHz + THZ, ITU Band 12—e.g,, medical imaging = 300 GHz to 3000 GHz (3 THz) NOTE: See Figure 2.1 for a representation of the electromagnetic spectrum, DMM, 14th edition 22 (© 2020 BrcsT®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Radio Spectrum Groups, continued Figure 2.1 Electromagnetic spectrum Frequency (hertz) (Miz) (10 He) (100 m2) 3 car) (10 He) (100 Gta) 5 am) (10 1) (100 THe) (1 Pa) (10 Pz) (100 Piz) (eH) (10 eH) 10" 10% 108 1074 ow aM Uttraviolet PEE ERE RET RERE?TE2S Wavelength (rm) Micrometer (or micron), 1 x 19m m = Meter Angstrom, 1x. 107m MeV = Megs (million) electron volts, ‘Amplitude modulation mm = Millimeter, 1x 102m Centimeter, 1 x 102m Mm = Megameter, 1x 10°m Exahertz, 1 x 10" Hz am = Nanometer, 1 x 10*m Frequency modulation PHz = Petahertz, 1 x 10" Hz Terahertz, 1 x 102Hz Ultrahigh ‘frequency Very high frequency Gigahertz, 1 x 10° Hz THe Infrared UNE Kilometer, 1x 102m. VHF Long wavelength For example, visible light represents only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. ‘Toward one end of the spectrum are radio waves with wavelengths approximately one billion times longer than those of visible light. Toward the other end of the spectrum are gamma rays. These have wavelengths approximately one million times smaller than those of visible light. ‘The potential for EMI occurs when devices or systems share a common electromagnetic environment and their frequencies of operation overlap. Ifthe devices or the systems operate over a different range of the electromagnetic spectrum, lower levels of EMI between them are expected. Need for Compatibility Electronic equipment is becoming increasingly more sophisticated, and the required performance levels, operating speeds, and frequencies are rising. These more sophisticated electronic systems use solid-state devices that, by their nature, are more susceptible to EMI. Operating these electronic telecommunications systems requires a less deliberate electrical ‘energy that must only be strong enough to accomplish a change of the charged particle energy level within the electronic device. Unwanted electrical signals (voltage or current) can cause the same effects as this electrical energy. © 2020 arcs 23 TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Need for Compatil ity, continued Because of the material-based construction and small size (volume) of electronic devices, electrical power quality considerations line voltage sags, swells, capacitively or inductively coupled currents) are crucial. High-voltage, low-energy signal bursts can cause some electronic devices (e.g., logic gates) to go into a self-latching mode. Conducted coupling may affect electronic devices primarily through: ‘+ Input signal lines. + Output signal lines. + Utility or premises electrical power distribution. Radiated interference enters electronic devices primarily by means of + Proximity to interfering sources. + Missing or inadequate gaskets/enclosures. + Missing or inadequate bonding and grounding (earthing) system components. + Missing or inadequate device or cable shielding. ‘The ICT distribution designer shall take precautions in the design, procurement, and installation to protect against EMI and ensure EMC. ‘These precautions should involve interaction and interdependence among the following: + ac or de power distribution + Bonding and grounding (earthing) system components + Transient voltage surge protection on ac electrical and ICT signal paths + Cabling + Shielding + Filtering + Interface design Flectrical codes do not generally provide for EMC. For example, telecommunications installations that experience malfunctions and failures could have deficiencies within the ac or dc electrical power and bonding and grounding (earthing) system even though the installation of both is code compliant. Additionally, commercial building bonding and grounding (earthing) standards focus on the infrastructure of a building and often do not cover: + Tolerances related to surge current immunity and component insulation to withstand electromagnetic disturbance and surge voltages and currents. + The specific methods for RFI and EMI mitigation for equipment or systems. TOM, 14th edi 24 (© 2020 Brcsi®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Specific Telecommunications Electromagnetic Compat ity (EMC) Guidelines ‘When designing a telecommunications system, regulations typically relate to an electronic system as a whole and not to any specific component, especially a passive one (e-g., cable). ‘When designing any electronic system, select a cable designed to keep interference at a level below the regulatory limits. The equipment manufacturer should provide a recommendation of cable types for approved regulatory operations. When designing a cabling system for critical environments in terms of EMI, the ICT distribution designer shall follow cable separation guidelines presented in this chapter. Responsibility for Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) An ICT distribution designer is not directly responsible for the EMC of ICT. However, being properly informed and knowledgeable can greatly contribute to the EMC of the installation, In complex situations, consult an EMC specialist. Before beginning EMC steps, verify the requirements given in Chapter 8: Bonding and Grounding (Earthing). © 2020 srcsi* 25 ‘TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compati Electromagnetics Electromagnetic Fields An electromagnetic field is an area of energy that surrounds electrical devices. Itis a combination of an electric field (created by stationary charges) and a magnetic field (created by moving charges [electric currents) ‘The relationship between electromagnetic fields and current-carrying conductors and the resulting effects on communications cable networks and electronic equipment initiated the study of EMC and EMI. Desirable and Undesirable Electromagnetic Fields Electromagnetic fields can be both desirable and undesirable, depending on whether the electromagnetic fields interfere with the operation of the network or electronic devices (cg, the TV broadcast signal is a desirable electromagnetic field for a TV set but may not be for an AM/FM receiver). The electromagnetic fields that have undesirable effects on the device, equipment, or system being considered are referred to as EMI Sources of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) A vatiety of EMI sources may contribute to the electromagnetic environment. Usually, in a given application, only a few EMI sources are significant. A broad classification of sources of EMI is useful, and they can be classified as transient or continuous sources (e.g., low- or high-frequency magnetic or electric fields). They can also be classified as natural sources ining). These also may be intentional or unintentional in nature. External and Internal Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Extemal EMI sources are typically: + Radio transmitters/receivers. + Electrical power lines. + Radar. + Cellular phones. + Engine ignitions. + Lightning. + ESD when responsible for coupling noise into circuits and systems. + Electric motors. + Electronic ballasts Control of external EMI sources is not normally practical, so the ICT distribution designer shall revert to methods that promote system immunity. TOMM, 14th edition 26 ‘© 2020 BIcsI®External an Evidence of Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility id Internal Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), continued Internal EMI sources are typically: + Electrical power supplies. + Electrical power cables. + Rectifiers + Oscillators. + Digital clocks. + Digital signal processors. + CM signaling. + Long-term or short-term variations in ac voltage (e.g., sags, swells, undervoltages). + Unbalance of current between ac circuit conductors. + Power signaling systems. + Power conditioners (¢.g., UPS). Internal EMI sources are usually easier to control since it is possible to reduce the emissions atthe source. Runs of unshielded and untwisted conductors in balanced twisted-pair cables are susceptible to external unwanted signal emissions because they can behave as antennas. ‘A signal in a conductor can be coupled as unwanted signal to adjacent conductors running in close proximity. Telecommunications network cabling also can conduct EMI unwanted signal generated from internal sources and radiate or couple the EMI unwanted signal to other conductors. ‘The amount of radiation or coupling depends on the level of the CM voltage (V,.) at the output of the transmitter. For unshielded balanced twisted-pair circuits, the amount of radiation or coupling also depends on the level of differential-to-CM signal conversion of the cabling. Asymmetrical twisted-pair geometry, unbalanced connector designs, or excessive untwisting at cable terminations causes this conversion. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Some examples of the causes and effects of EMI are: + The visual interruption or distortion of a video signal on a TV when a source of disturbance (eg., vacuum cleaner) shares the TV’s power source. + An audible distortion in signal such as when a radio tuned to an AM frequency is in proximity to a power line or similar interfering sources. + The physical damage or degradation to components of ICT equipment when affected by lightning-induced surges near or within the equipment environment. + The visual distortion of a video display terminal screen when in close proximity to devices that produce strong magnetic field strengths (e.g., fluorescent lighting, transformers, ac power circuits). + The degradation of electronic components that are subjected to repeated ESD, + The manifestation of bit parity errors of loss of signal on voice or data transmission because of interfering sources affecting the paths in which this information is transferred (cg. the proximity of unshielded cables placed near ac power circuits). © 2020 rcs 27 TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) While EMI and RFI are commonly used interchangeably, RFI is a form of EMI. RFI can be defined as the degradation of a desired signal at the receptor end caused by radio frequency disturbance within the radio frequency spectrum which is usually comprised in the frequency range that includes LF, MF, HF, and VHF. Immunity of telephone sets or other equipment to RFI from commercial broadcast stations and other radio services in relation to building cabling may be obtained by the deployment of shielded or screened structured cabling systems in concemed areas. Usually, this is the only reliable and effective technique to mitigate RFI effects on telephone sets and other equipment. Copper conductors or their sheaths may inadvertently act like antennae under certain conditions and pick up interference from radio stations in their proximity, thus coupling undesired signals on telephone sets and other equipment connected to them. Building cabling, practices combined with an effective bonding and grounding (earthing) infrastructure ean affect a given telephone set’s ability to function in the presence of radio signals. DMM, 14th edition 28 © 2020 BrCsI®Measuring Electromagnetic Compati Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility ity (EMC) _ A device’s EMC is not easily determined since its value is relative to the environment in ‘which it will operate. There are no specific techniques or units to measure EMC; however, there is a need for measurable parameters to establish the tests and standards used to ensure that all the elements ofa system are compatible. Measuring and setting limits on emission and immunity (the two components of EMC) obtain the measurable standards. Measuring the electrical and magnetic field strength of the outgoing radiation determine radiated emissions. The unit of measure for the electric field strength is volts per meter, millivolts per meter, or microvolts per meter. The use of each depends on the amplitude of the electric field strengths. ‘The magnetic field unit of measure is amperes per meter. Measurements of conducted interference are normally taken over a frequency spectrum of 100 kHz.to 30 MHz. Measurements of radiated interference are normally taken over a frequency spectrum of 30 MHz:to 5 GHz, Another unit often used to measure narrowband electric field strength is, decibel above a reference level of one microvolt. If the resulting measurements are below specified limits, the device being measured is, electromagnetically compatible relative to emissions and conducted interference. Immunity to radiated emissions is determined by exposing the device being measured to a specified electromagnetic field and monitoring its performance (see Figure 2.2). If there is no undesirable response from the device, it is electromagnetically compatible relative to immunity. Radiated interference limits are set on measurements taken by means of resonant dipoles at a distance (e.g., ~3 m [10 fi] for FCC Class B and =10 m [33 fi] for FCC Class A). (© 2020 sicsr* 2 TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Measuring Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), continued Figure 2.2 Dependence of the safe distance to EMI source on its power Electromagnetic field strength 10,000, |—1 vim |—3 vim ad |—10 vim E 100 g je 1) a 1 ° aa Source output power (W) Calculations in Figure 2.2 are based on the following engineering evaluation formula: 30x W electromagnetic field strength in volts per meter W = source output power in watts d fstance to the source in meters In practical measurements of radiated emissions from equipment, systems, or instruments, the interest is in measuring its electric field strength at a specified distance. A number of approaches can be adopted for doing these measurements. Methods and apparatus for measurements of radiated and conducted interference are: + Open area test site. + Radiated interference measurements: ~ Anechoic chamber. ~ TEM cell ~ Reverberating chamber. Gliz TEM cell + Conducted interference measurements: CM and DM interferences, — Conducted electromagnetic noise on power supply lines. — Conducted EMI from equipment. ‘TOMM, 14th edition 210 ‘© 2020 Brcst®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility 9 the Electromagnetic Environment ‘When sources of EMI are not easily identifiable or when they are known but additional assurance is required, these methods can be recommended to evaluate the potential for an electromagnetic environment in the areas where the telecommunications cabling or equipment is to be installed: + Electric field intensity meter—The acceptance criteria is 3 Vim maximum for general- purpose telecommunications equipment and cabling. If measured field intensities are above 3 Vim, the appropriate type of shielding should be considered + Trial installation of a cabling link—If there isa suspicion that an area has elevated EMI levels, the field testing of the tril link may show if it can work reliably in that electromagnetic environment. The major parameters that will fil field testing in the presence of elevated EMI will be parameters of the crosstalk group (e.g., NEXT, ANEXT). Terminology ‘The terms EMI, EMC, and RFI are often mistakenly used to describe items with different attributes. As a result, communication errors may occur between the ICT distribution designer and the client. It is important to use precise terminology and to clarify with the client that the terms being used are mutually understood. NOTE: Refer to the Glossary for key terms and definitions. © 2020 Bics™ Bit ‘TDMM, 14th editionChapter : Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)—A Problem Factors Affecting Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) ‘Typical circumstances that can affect EMI in telecommunications equipment are shown in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Factors that can affect EMI in telecommunications equipment ‘Telecommunications Equipment Issue EMI Faeto Central or remote processing + Clock signal leakage unit - Circuit noise - Frequency switching Interconnecting cables + Excessive lengths of unshielded cable between rooms of buildings Interconnect interface scheme + Unbalanced signaling + Poor dielectric strength between electronic components ‘Components, + Improper logic family + Unmatched critical pairs + Inherently noisy for the application Altemating current surge + Add-on unit not properly grounded surge protection protection, + Add-on unit not selectively coordinated + Incorrect model and specifications + Improper or conflicting technology + Used where not needed + Improperly cabled or missing Electrical power quality + Vague or missing specifications + SMPS clock signal leakage + Excessive third harmonic distortion for load conditions + SMPS unmatched to electrical power source + Internal supply capacity too low Product compliance + Inadequate or missing specifications + Electrostatic discharge levels too low + Susceptible to pulsed EMI such as arcing, + Susceptible to conducted and radiated EMI Product safety + Product listing (compliance) to wrong standard + Not listed as a system + Violation of listing requirements + Improper use of exemption Installation + Instructions too interpretive + Inadequate instructions + Instructions may cause code violations + Inadequate commissioning instructions + Inconsistencies because of site conditions DMM, 14th edition 242, (© 2020 Brcs™Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Factors Affecting Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), continued Table 2.1, continued Factors that can affect EMI in telecommunications equipment ‘Telecommunications Equipment Issue EMI Factors Seasonal and cycling events + No shutdown or recovery software + Arcing from contactors (e.g, heating) Value-added + No compatibility guidelines Original equipment + Nonstandard interface schemes manufacturer devices + No common grounding (earthing) or embedded electrical power eM SMPs. lectromagnetic interference switched mode power supply ‘Typical circumstances that can affect EMI in sites are shown in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Factors that can affect EMI in sites Site Issue EMI Factors Branch distribution + Overloaded circuits and extension cords and outlets, + Improper surge protection devices + Overcurrent protection device not selectively coordinated + Cyclic loads (¢.g., welder, heater, copier) + Incorrect and insecure connections ‘Commercial and standby ac + Incorrect cabling and connections + Incompatible standby transfer switch + Poor electrical power qui + Non-metallic conduit used for electrical power system raceway Electrical service entrance + Incorrect or missing grounding (carthing) electrode + Connectors are not compliant with national requirements or best practices + Incorrect system grounding (earthing) + Incorrect or missing ac surge protection device EMI emitters + Two-way radios + Broadcasting towers Environmental control + Incorrect or missing temperature control + Incorrect or missing humidity control Feeder distribution + Incorrect cabling and connections + Incorrect or missing grounds + Multiple electrical power system neutral ground Grounding (earthing) electrode + Incorrect or missing electrode system + Not integrated into telecommunications grounds, © 2020 Bicsie 2a TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Factors Affecting Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), continued Table 2.2, continued Factors that can affect EMI in sites Site Issue EMI Factors Lightning protection system + Incorrect or missing at exposed site + Not compliant with industry requirements Load power conditioning + Poor electrical power quality + Not matched to load + Load balancing + Overcurrent protection device not selectively coordinated + Incorrect or missing connections Maintenance * Poor, inadequate, or lack of maintenance Materials + Not listed for the purpose (i.e., not compliant with industry requirements) + Improper conductivity and dielectric strength + No regard to circuit functionality Telephone distribution + Unbalanced cabling + Incorrect or missing primary protectors + Incompatible secondary protectors + Incorrect or missing grounds Telephone entrance + Located remote to electrical entrance + Incorrect or missing grounds and bonds + Incorrect or missing fuse links + Incorrect or missing connections Workmanship + Unqualified installers ac = Alternating current EMI = Electromagnetic interference TOMM, 14th edition 214 © 2020 BICSI®Electromagnetic Compati Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compat lity (EMC)—The Solut Basic P| losophy of Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) EMC aims to ensure that equipment items or systems will not interfere with or prevent each other's correct operation through spurious emission and absorption of EMI. Thus, the focus of EMC can be seen as the control of EMI. A significant part of accomplishing EMC depends on the following considerations: + AIL EMI problems are explainable by the basic laws of physics—the EMI problem is always a circuit, + The real task involves narrowing a spectrum of possible EMI and EMC combinations down toa manageable few: + Even with good design and installation, EMI can occur as an exception to the rule. EMI often involves “hidden” schematics or “stray” paths. + EMI is often easy to remedy once the root cause is identified, + EMI is a by-product of technology advancement. + Accomplishing EMC often involves designing for threats that may or may not materialize. Itis possible for EMC methods to function well in one location and fail in another. EMC involves probability. Each telecommunications system and location is different. Product Immunity Providing an EMC margin for telecommunications products greatly enhances their immunity capability. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Mechanisms EMI problems typically come from: + Conducted and radiated emission sources, including: — Communications ‘Transmitters. Radar. Telemetry. Navigation. ~ Motors, Switches. Electrical power lines. (© 2020 ercsi™ 2s TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Mechanisms, continued + Transfer or propagation sources, including: — Space separation. Shielding Poor filtering, Improper grounding (earthing). Electrical power lines. Input/output cabling. + Receiving or receptor elements, including: Receivers (all types). Sensitive electronic components. Relay equipment. Biological hazards (e.g., human). Sources of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) EMI can be man-made or naturally occurring. "Natural sources of EMI include: + Atmospheric electricity. + Cosmic radiation or geomagnetism disturbances. Man-made sources of EMI include: + Electrical power: ~ Conversion (step up/down). ~ Distribution (i.e, insulators, cabling, transformers, grounding [earthing], ~ Generators. + Communications electronics: Broadcast AM, FM, VHF, or UHF. Communications (non-relay) fax, telegraphy, maritime, telephone, or radio control. Mobile (cellular) telephone communications - PCs. — Navigation (non-radar) aircraft beacons. — Radar search (e.g., detection, traffic control, harbor, weather, police). + Relay communications: — lonospherie scatter. ~ Satellite relay. — Tropospherie scatter. TOMM, 14th edition 216 © 2020 Brcsr®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Sources of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), continued Tools and machines: Telecommunications electronic equipment. Information technology equipment. Industrial machines. Office equipment. Power tools. — Material-moving equipment. Ignition systems: ~ Engines. = Tools. — Vehicles. Industrial and consumer equipment or products (non-motor/engines): — Heaters. — Industrial controls and computers. — Fluorescent lights ~ Medical equipment. ~ Ultrasonic devices, Welders. ~ Dimmers. ~ Electronic ballasts. — Appliances. © 2020 Bics™ 27 TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Cabling Cables as Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Producers Copper cables can conduct unwanted signal or radiate an electromagnetic field when attached to equipment. Attached equipment includes: + Electrical power suppl + Radio and TV receivers, + CRAC units and UPS. + Computing devices (e.g., computers, servers, routers, switches, KVM). + Telecommunications and data equipment. s. ity of Cables to Electromagnet Interference (EMI) The transfer of unwanted signals may occur over one path or several paths. Unwanted signals, ‘may transfer by radiation, conduction, and inductive and capacitive coupling. Some methods used to suppress or prevent unwanted signals are: + Shielding, + Filtering + Bonding and grounding (earthing) of cable shields and equipment. Improper shielding, filtering, and grounding (earthing) can increase EMI susceptibility. Alternately, equipment designed to operate over balanced twisted-pair cabling uses a balanced (e.g., DM) signal at the output of the transmitter. For such systems, itis important to ensure that the cabling elements are well balanced and that the pairs are not excessively untwisted at the point of termination TOMM, 14th edition 218 (© 2020 Brcs®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Qualifica n Parameters Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) ESD is the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged objects caused by contact. It can be a natural phenomenon in which accumulated electric charges are discharged, creating a visible spark. Static electricity is created when two materials of different dielectric constants rub against each other. Charging of a given body may also result from heating or from contact with a charged body. The energy stored is then discharged to another object, which has a lower resistance to the ground, ESD can cause EMI. Effects of ESD can vary from noise and disturbance in devices and systems up to and including electrical shocks to persons. ‘There are three types of ESD: *+ Discharge through a spark in the air + Radiated effects of ESD + Contact discharge Measures should be taken by the ICT distribution designer to provide a bonding and grounding (earthing) point in all equipment locations so that personnel can use an approved method of discharging the build up of static charge both before and during the handling of electronic components. Four levels of immunity are outlined for contact and air discharge. These are shown in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Four levels of immunity ‘Type of Discharge Contact Level Number Voltage (kV) Level Contact 1 2 Contact Contact Contact Air 1 Air Air awl Air 15s Discharges of the magnitude of those in Table 2.3 are capable of inducing high-frequency electric currents into cables in the vicinity. In addition, the current “rings” at a resonant frequency that is low for long cables (e.g., a few MH to tens of MHz). This ringing can affect equipment that otherwise might not be affected by a fast ESD event with a 100 ns duration. © 2020 Brcsr> 219 TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatit Electrostatic ischarge (ESD), continued Cabling systems (e. for rec mproperly grounded screened) in buildings may behave as antennae ig and transmitting radiation from ESD events. As such, they may affect the ability of equipment to withstand ESD. Compliance with this standard to one of its four levels of immunity helps ensure that equipment will meet performance expectations. Table 2.4 shows ESD susceptibility ranges for a number of devices and equipmes imize equipment losses and damages, circuitry has been pro protection schemes. To ted Table 2.4 ESD susceptibility ranges Device Voltage (V) Range Vertical metal oxide semiconductor 30 to 1800 Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor 100 to 200 Gallium arsenide field effect transistor 100 to 300 Erasable programmable read-only memory 100 Surface acoustic wave semiconductor devices 140 to 7000 Junction gate field effect transistor 150 to 500 Operational amplifier 190 to 2500 ‘Complementary metal oxide semiconductor 250 to 3000 Schottky diode 300 to 2500 Resistors 300 to 3000 Bipolar junction transistor 380 to 7000 Silicon controlled rectifier 680 to 1000 Schottky transistor-transistor logic 1000 to 2500 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Related to Telecommunications Cabling Although this is not common in practice, telecommunications cabling can be prone to store some energy and then discharge it as ESD. This may happen because of the mutual capacitance of the cable. A metallic cable or a transmission line can be described in terms of distributed network parameters (e.g., resistance, inductance, capacitance, conductance) per unit length. Generally, the series resistance and inductance per unit length along with the shunt capacitance and conductance per unit length can represent the wireline channel. A model (designated Model 7) for an approximate equivalent circuit for a short length is shown in Figure 2.3. TOMM, 14th edition 2-20 (© 2020 BICSI°Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Related to Telecommunications Cabling, continued Figure 2.3 Model T for a short wire channel Capacitance Conductance Inductance Resistance In order to minimize crosstalk, the mutual capacitance of balanced cables decreases as the cable category increases. The result of this (in terms of ESD) is that the potential energy accumulation is lower for higher cable categories (i.e., a category Se cable is more prone to store energy than a category 6 cable). In other words, the higher the cable category, the lower its ability to store energy. Table 2.5 shows mutual capacitance value ranges for several telecommunications cable categories (for information only). Table 2.5 Mutual capacitance ranges for telecommunications cables Mutual Capacitance TIA Cable Category __ ISO Class/Category Range (pF/m) Category 3 Class C/Category 3 6410 66 Category Se Class DiCategory 5 4410.49 Category 6 Class E/Category 6 44 10.46 Category 6A Class ECategory6, 431045 NA Class F/Category 7 40 10 44 NIA Class F,/Category 7, 401044 Category 8 Class 8.1 12 a Category 8 Class 8.2 12 NOTE: Values shown in this table are for reference only. They may vary depending on ‘manufacturer or dielectric used in the cable construction as well as cable type (eg, plenum, riser). © 2020 eres 22a TDMM, 14th editionChapter Radiated Immunity Equipment should be verified as properly tested or certified for immunity to radiated fields within a wide frequency range (i.e, usually from a few kilohertz to gigahertz frequencies). The standards or practices used to set guidelines should have specific performance parameters of the equipment under test and are monitored for different levels of electromagnetic intensity to verify its performance compliance. Especially at the lower frequencies (up to 300 MHz), the cabling attached to a system could affect its operation during this test. Both shielded and unshielded cabling acts as an effective antenna, and both types of cabling can cause problems during the test if not properly installed. Electrical Fast Transient (EFT) EFT disturbances are created when inductive and capacitive circuits are switched on and off over an operation cycle. When inductive loads (e.g, timers, contactors, motors) are connected. to a power line or disconnected from a power line, a spark occurs between the mechanical contacts of the switches. As a result, an are between these contacts is unstable with a resulting, switching frequency changing during the process. The intermittent are continues as long as the voltage of the switching contacts is above the breakdown threshold of the spark gap. Transient Voltages and Currents ‘Transient disturbances (often referred to as electrical surges) are short duration current, voltage, or power on low-voltage electrical power lines. Transient voltages can be impulsive or oscillatory with durations ranging from the microsecond range to less than one-half cycle of the fundamental power frequency. Transient disturbances can have amplitudes of up to several kiloamperes or kilovolts. These transients generate EMI as well as conducted interference in equipment or systems in close proximity or sharing the same electrical circuit (usually power supply lines). The testing of equipment for immunity to surges (e.g., surges generated by lightning on power, signal) is complicated because of the large number of interfaces that are typical in an electronic system. As a result, surge tests are usually performed in special areas designated for this purpose. Figure 2.4 depicts an example sample of a typical surge test voltage waveform that is commonly employed in surge testing of equipment inputs. DMM, 14th edition 222 (© 2020 Bresi®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Transient Voltages and Currents, continued Figure 2.4 Surge test voltage waveform sample Voltage 1000 500 = 500 ~ 1000 Rise time = 0.5 us |«—— 10 ns Lie = microsecond (us) ° 10 20 30 NOTE: Refer to applicable standards (e.g., IEEE C62.41 Recommended Practice on Surge Voltages in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits and IEC 61000-4-5) for specific surge test procedures. © 2020 Bicsi* 223 ‘TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: ‘lectromagnetic Compatibility Unwanted Signals Types of Unwanted Signals CM and DM are the two types of unwanted signals on cable in an EMI event. CM unwanted signals usually predominate. It happens because of the ground plane, which is shared by source and victim. CM interference because of a radiation source induces a CM voltage, or noise, in the loop formed by the victim circuit and the ground plane. DM unwanted signals are coupled into a pair of conductors (victim circuit) because of radiation from an EMI source. DM noise can also be a result of a coupling between a given conductor and its return path. Twisting the conductors in pairs can minimize DM interference. ‘The ground plane is not involved in this kind of event. To successfully filter both types of unwanted signals, a magnetic scheme is preferred. CM unwanted signal reduction is effective when afflicted lines are coupled together through a ferrite bead. For DM unwanted signal mitigation, individual ferrite beads can be installed on each input lead of the vietim line or output lead of the interfering circuit or line. Common Mode (CM) (CM unwanted signal on cabling can affect equipment in two ways: + Itcan directly affect equipment operation (e.g., locking up @ computer). This occurs because the CM signal gets inside the equipment and causes logical errors. Shielded and unshielded cabling can cause this to happen if both the equipment and cabling are not properly designed and installed + The CM signal can become converted to a DM signal by the cable or equipment. The critical parameter is balance or, alternatively, CM rejection ratio. The better balanced a cuit is, the less conversion from CM to DM occurs CM to DM conversion is an important parameter, and its control helps to mitigate the effects of EMI in a given circuit or system, From the susceptibility standpoint, CM voltage can be converted into DM voltage at the input of the disturbed circuit or system. From the emission point of view, DM voltage transmitted over a given circuit generates CM voltages and currents along the ground loop through a ground path. The problem of CM unwanted signal is real and somewhat elusive. Because it occurs equally and in phase on all signal lines with relationship to the reference ground, it becomes evident within an electronic system only when measured against the reference ground, DMM, 14th edition 224 (© 2020 BrcsT®Differential Figure 2.5 CM versus DM cm pM Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Mode (DM) DM noise affects equipment primarily by corrupting transmitted signals on a balanced circuit. It can be directly coupled into a circuit (e.g, crosstalk) or derived from a CM signal. DM noise also can be a result of coupling between two or more pairs inside a balanced cable, ‘which is an effect referred to as crosstalk. As presented in previous items, twisting the conductors in pairs ean minimize DM interference in these cases. The ground plane is not involved in this kind of event. Figure 2.5 compares CM unwanted signal with DM unwanted signal. Line Neutral Equipment ground Line Neutral Equipment ‘ground ‘Common-mode current Differential-mode current Sources of Unwanted Signals Electrical Power Converters Electrical power converters typically produce both CM and DM unwanted signal. This generally predominates at the harmonics of the switching frequency, but some wide band unwanted signal also is produced. Because electrical power converters often are required within electrical proximity of low signal level circuitry, they can be a major factor in determining the overall dependability of the system involved. © 2020 Bresi=™ 225; TOMM, 14th editionChapter Electromagnetic Compatibility Sources of Unwanted Signals, continued Logic Circuits ‘The logic circuits of telecommunications systems are another source of unwanted signal At the switching of logic levels, the local electrical power source can momentarily short to ground. This introduces unwanted signal directly to both the ground plane and the de power supply, which may affect the entire electrical system. Other Internal Unwanted Signal Internal unwanted signal may be generated from a number of sources that are electrically near the logic circuitry. Examples include adjacent printed circuit boards or local magnetic sources (eg,, transformers, mixers). Semiconductor unwanted signals can propagate to logic lines, to and from digital system clocks, and onto data lines. Electrical Power Line High-frequency unwanted signal may be coupled on the electrical power line without affecting the electrical power circuitry, Radiated unwanted signal may be induced on many components of electronic equipment, especially through unshielded cabling or through an ineffectively grounded metallic enclosure. Cabling The effect of unwanted signal as a result of EMI on telecommunications cabling systems is, the degradation of the transmission channel leading the system to communications errors. The effect ofthis interference may be represented by the BER of the system. BER varies depending on the application implemented in a given cabling system—the higher the transmission rate, the higher the effect of the interference. Cables are generally the longest paths between circuit components and modules. They often provide a loop antenna situation for both radiating and receiving externally generated unwanted signal fields. ‘TDMM, 14th edition 2-26 (© 2020 Brcsr®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Grounding (Earthing) General Proper bonding and grounding (earthing) helps to reduce the effects of EMI. This section contains several important considerations. ‘The bonding and grounding (earthing) of buildings, electrical systems, and cabling infrastructure are as varied and dynamic as the equipment and cabling served within or by them. Important items of consideration when designing a cabling system for EMC are: + Availability of structural steel within the building. + Bonding infrastructure for EFs, ERs, and TRs. + ac grounding (earthing) electrode system design. + ac equipment grounding (earthing) system design. + Use of surge protection. + Use of shielded cable. 1g CM or DM disturbance levels. + Existing or possible sources of EML. + Bxi NOTE: Refer to Chapter 8: Bonding and Grounding (Earthing) for additional resources and guidance related to bonding, grounding (earthing), and transient protection. Ground Loops The term ground loop is often used to describe two parallel paths that have identical conductive terminations to two separate grounding (earthing) references. Often, but not always, the earth is one of the parallel paths between grounding (earthing) references. Ground loops can be a source of EMI in shielded cabling systems where the earth or inadequately bonded grounding (earthing) references cause a CM voltage to develop between the two grounding (earthing) references. This voltage causes CM current to be present on the cable sheaths (see Figure 2.6). In these cases, itis necessary to provide some kind of grounding (earthing) systems discrimination or electrical insulation against the ground loop path. © 2020 B1csi> 227 TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibil Ground Loops, continued Figure 2.6 Ground loops in shielded cabling systems CChassis/cabinet/rack CChassis/cabinet Load Shielding L Ground loop current 7 ‘Telecommunications: ™ = © Ground potential difference (graund loop source) V, = Ground loop voltage Vv, = Voltage source WA = Work area NOT Shield grounded at the TR. At the work area, there is a ground path to shield because of the equipment chassis or cabinet. At low frequencies, up to about 1 MHz, cable shield can be grounded at one cable end and provide effective resistance to the effects of EMI. At higher frequencies, it is recommended to ground the shield at both cable ends. In these cases, it is also mandatory to guarantee minimum potential differences between both ground connections. ‘There are a number of standards for bonding and grounding (earthing) (e.g,, TIA-607, IEC 60364-4-43) and different requirements, but usually that difference should not be higher than 1 Vrms to minimize ground loop effects. TDMM, 14th edition 228 © 2020 ercsr®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Ground Loops, continued Its also important to consider that at higher frequencies, there is a stray capacitive coupling that tends to complete the ground loop when the cable shield is grounded at one cable end only (see Figure 2.7) Figure 2.7, Ground loop because of stray capacitance at high frequencies [No electrical connection between ‘able shield and equipment chassis Load (not grounded) Shiela c Ground loop current as 1 Stray capacitance 4 high frequency) Ground potential difference (ground loop source) Stray capacitance between the cable's shield and the ground plane Ground loop voltage NOTE: Guidelines for bonding and grounding (earthing) are contained in Chapter 8: Bonding and Grounding (Earthing). Alternating Current (ac) Power ‘The grounding (earthing) components that are established for the ac electrical distribution can bbe an additional source of EMI ‘At the service entrance, the GEC grounds the electrical power distribution circuit that serves the ac source for building electrical system and telecommunications. ‘The equipment grounding conductor contained within ae power circuits provides an additional grounding (earthing) reference for the connected telecommunications equipment. © 2020 Brcsr* 229 TMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Alternating Current (ac) Power, continued Because of the finite ground plane conductivity, stray ground current through the common. impedance between two ground points creates coupled interference between two circuits or systems as shown in Figure 2.8. Figure 2.8 ‘Common impedance coupling interference Facility A Facility 8 Signal reference Signal reference plane plane |__| between signal references Stray ground Common impedance current between two points Unwanted Signal Coupling Mechanism Figure 2.9 shows two mechanisms for unwanted signal coupling into the receiver: induced unwanted signal because of external electromagnetic field coupling and conducted unwanted signal because of external ground loops. Both are equally important. The induced CM coupling voltage (V.,) is a function of the electri field strength and the loop area formed by ‘conductor of length that is suspended at an average height above the ground plane. TOMM, 14th edi 2-30 (© 2020 BrcsI®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Unwanted Signal Coupling Mechanism, continued Figure 2.9 Field-to-cable and ground loop V,., Is the induced noise V, Is the conducted noise because of external ground loops. EM = Electromagnetic H= Magnetic field intensity Height Lenath ‘Common-mode voltage Ground loop voltage ‘The magnitude of the volts in decibels relative to 1 V can be calculated using the equation for a circular loop antenna, which is given by: V,,= 2RAEA. This equation is a good approximation for a loop of any shape that satisfies the inequality: 2a <1 Where: x = distance around the loop 2. = wavelength in meters A = area of the loop in square meters E = electric field intensity in volts per meter The equation shows that installing the cable close to the ground plane can have a significant effect in reducing the magnitude of induced CM unwanted signal coupling. Changing the average height from =0.91 m (3 ft) to =101.6 mm (4 in) reduces the unwanted signal coupling bya factor of 10. This is equivalent to reducing the field intensity from 3 V/m to 0.3 Vim if the height was constant. © 2020 Bres> 238 ‘TMM, 14th editionChapter : Electromagnet Compatibility Conduits, Cable Trays, and Raceways Figure 2.10 Metallic conduit, whether used as an ac equipment grounding (earthing) conductor or a cable pathway, is desirable for controlling EMI. Metallic raceways and enclosures should be made electrically continuous to ensure proper grounding (earthing) of all metallic parts and units to ‘minimize the accumulation of voltages. Metallic cable trays, conduits, and raceways can carry some of the ground loop EMI currents (from 50 Hz to tens of megahertz) throughout several interconnected devices or systems. Metallic raceways, generally speaking, may be used in computer rooms, factory machine rooms, and larger sites in which many unshielded cable segments are placed. Metallic raceways can be used to + Reduce CM field to loop EMI pickup as well as emissions at frequencies from 50 Hz up to 100 MHz, + Reduce CM crosstalk by + Create a reference ground plane. iereasing wire to ground capacitances. Metallic cable raceways can be connected directly to the equipment structure or chassis or by means of a jumper. Such practice will contribute to the reduction of susceptibility and problems because of CM voltage in large sites. Figure 2.10 shows this behavior. Coupling reduction as function of grounding (earthing) practice os Reduction factor 70 3000 60 1000 50 300 aa Direct bonding 100 20 30 (6 in) wire 2 10 10 3 2 1 10 kee 100 ke aki 30 kee 100 kHz 1H Figure 2.10 shows the reduction of coupling by perforated steel raceway when grounded directly to the equipment structure (direct bonding curve) and when using an =101.6 mm. (4 in) jumper (connection by =101.6 mm [4 in] jumper wire curve). DMM, 14th edition 232 (© 2020 Brcsi®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Ids Generally, instrumentation shields should only be grounded at one end. For longer runs and inter-facility runs, cable shields are generally grounded at each end. Electromagnetic shielding is a technique employed to reduce or prevent coupling of undesired radiated electromagnetic energy into a given system to enable it to properly operate in its electromagnetic environment. It can also be used to minimize the level of radiation from this given system into its environment. Electromagnetic shielding is effective in several degrees over a large part of the electromagnetic spectrum from low frequency and de to the higher microwave frequencies. Cable Shielding and Shield Effectiveness Cable shielding is an effective EMI mitigation technique. However, itis important to emphasize that there are two different approaches to consider: + Low-frequency noise mitigation + High-frequency noise mitigation At lower frequencies, cable twists absorb the major part of the EMI effects. At higher frequencies, the cable shield absorbs the electromagnetic waves (see Figure 2.11), Figure 2.11 Higher frequency twist decrease fe ee Absorption loss (dB) ‘Twist length (mm [in]) ‘When an electromagnetic wave passes through a medium, its amplitude decreases exponentially. This effect can be represented by a parameter known as absorption loss. It occurs because currents induced in the medium are attenuated with conversion of electromagnetic field energy into thermal energy (heating) of the material. ‘The parameter that best describes the cable shielding response is the shielding effectiveness. Measuring the field inside a cable shielding is not easy or feasible. The voltage measured at either cable end depends on the type of termination and the degree of impedance mismatch at the cable ends, Thus the definition of shielding effectiveness using the ratio of field strength (on both sides of the shield or the ratio of voltage induced without and with shield is not, convenient. © 2020 Brcsr* 233 TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Cable Shielding and Shield Effectiveness, continued Because of this, the measurement of shielding effectiveness in terms of the cable shield transfer impedance is often used. The transfer impedance of a cable shield relates the current that flows on one of the shield surfaces to the current induced on the outer side of a given surface. The current that flows through the shield may result from the externally incident field or ground potential difference between the two ends of the cable. Thus the transfer impedance is a ratio of the voltage induced on the inside surface of the shield to the current flowing on its outside surface, Many of the same considerations that apply to balanced twisted-pair cables concerning ‘unwanted signal coupling apply to screened twisted-pair cables (e.g., F/UTP, U/FTP, SF/UTP, and S/FTP). These classifications are based on the ISO-IEC 11801-1 cabling standard. Additional cable classifications may be found in related technical literature, There are two main differences: + The effectiveness of the cable shield to reduce external unwanted signal, + How the cable shield is terminated at the equipment. ‘The shield effectiveness varies with the: *+ Operating frequency. + Type, thickness, and geometry of the shielding materials. + Type and quality of the shield termi + Method of grounding (earthing) the shield. Any leakage through seams, joints, and holes reduces the effectiveness of a shield. It has been shown that any shield discontinuities (eg. high-impedance connections due to improper terminations) can adversely affect the shielding effectiveness Considerations about Shield Grounding (Earthing) The grounding (earthing) of cable screens affects the EMC eable performance. The termination of shielded/screened cables into connectors requires good connection between the cable screen and the connector metallic body (or gasket). Grounding (earthing) of cable shields shall be made using a 360-degree connection avoiding breaches in the conductor continuity. TOMM, t4th edi 234 (© 2020 Brcsi®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Minimizing Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Overview Do not place telecommunications systems next to equipment that can generate EMI. Keep electrical feeders and branch circuits of interfering equipment separate from telecommunications systems. NOTE: Refer to the cable separation section in this chapter for details. Likely sources of EMI are heavy-duty electromechanical equipment (e.g., copiers, door openers, elevator systems, factory equipment, UPS, CRAC units). Cable separation guidelines of minimizing EMI are available for the ICT distribution designer. Design of Horizontal Pathways and Spaces ‘Treat potential sources of EMI as a primary consideration when selecting types of horizontal cabling and designing the layout of horizontal pathways. ‘Typical sources of EMI include: + Electric motors, transformers, and fluorescent lighting that share distribution space with telecommunications cabling. + Copiers that share work area space with equipment cords and terminals. + Electrical power cables serving such equipment. ‘Avoid EMI by maintaining physical separation between possible sources and the telecommunications cabling. Shielded cable has been the traditional choice for buildings with high levels of ambient EMI (e.g,, industrial facilities with large inductive loads). However, performance-enhanced, balanced twisted-pair cables offer some degree of unwanted signal rejection that makes shielding unnecessary in most commercial environments. Consult with cable suppliers and review installation guidelines to determine the level of unwanted signal rejection offered by various grades of balanced twisted-pair cable. EMI is an important consideration in the design of pathways and spaces. Providing safe separation distance from EMI sources for these elements is mandatory to assure applications performance NOTE: Refer to the cable separation section in this chapter for details Locate telecommunications pathways and spaces away from sources of EMI (e.g, electrical power cabling and transformers, RF sources and transmitters, large motors and generators, induction heaters, are welders, X-ray equipment, copiers). ‘The following precautions should be considered to reduce interference from sources of EMI: + Use grounded metallic pathways to limit inductive unwanted signal coupling between the telecommunications cabling and potential sources of EMI. + Use sheathed cables or other branch circuit cable constructions (e.g., taped, twisted, bundled) that prevent separation of the Tine, neutral, and grounding (earthing) conductors to minimize EMI emission from the electrical power conductors. The use of surge protectors, in branch circuits can limit the propagation of electrical surges and associated interference. (© 2020 Brcsi® 235, ‘TDMM, 14th editionChapter lectromagnetic Compatibility Considerations for Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) in Cabling Systems General Guidelines to Promote Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) General guidelines for increased protection against EMI may involve the follo. + Hi er balanced twisted-pair cable categories result in better noise rejection response. + Multiple conductor cable should consist of twisted conductors. + Multiple conductor cable used for transmission of several individual signals should consist of balanced twisted-pair signal conductors with different twists. + Multiple conductor cables should have an overall shield to further improve EMC. + Terminate unused conductors at both ends or remove them altogether. + Similar-type signals should be run together and not intermixed (e.g., analog voice with analog voice, data with data). + Low-level data transmission lines should not be run parallel to high-level electrical power lines. NOTE: Refer to the Cable Separation section in this chapter for details, + Use localized magnetic barriers when signal lines are found close to switchgear. + Avoid burying cable below and parallel to high-voltage transmission lines or in areas subject to high-ground currents, + Where cables of different signal conditions must cross, crossing should be at a 90 degree angle. + Tray and conduit separation spacing should be considered potential problem areas when designing and maintaining telecommunications cabling systems. + Source suppression should be considered. Dealing with unwanted signal at the source helps climinate major corrective action on cabling systems. + Use metal conduit for electrical-power circuits — Premises cabling feeder and branch circuit conductors serving telecommunications systems should be fully enclosed by metal conduit. ~ Each branch circuit should be in a separate conduit or be implemented with shielded cables. + Use metal conduit for metallic telecommunications circuits in critical areas (ie., use of shielded telecommunications cables in these areas is preferred). Metal conduit is recommended, especially in the vicinity of electrical power conductors. + Signal conductors shall not be installed into conduit containing electrical power conductors. ‘+ Maintain an adequate physical separation between potential EMI sources and susceptible telecommunications equipment NOTE: Refer to the Cable Separation section in this chapter for details, DMM, 14th edition 236 (© 2020 BICSI>General Guidelines to Promote Electromagnetic Compati continued Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility ity (EMC), + Use surge-protection devices to reduce transients that emanate from inductive devices that are being switched off. Locate extemal surge protection devices as close as possible to the source of the transient. + Reduce EMI from fluorescent lamps located inside an enclosure. Consider the following, precautions: — Place a shielding grid over the lamp. = Install shielded cable between the lamp and the electrical power switch. Install a metal-enclosed electrical power switch. Place a filter between the electrical power switch and the electrical power line. Shield the electrical power line cable. Use grounded conduits and enclosures. Continuously grounded metal conduit helps to reduce emission and reception of EMI. + Minimize proximity to radiating antennae and towers. Electric field strength can ‘overwhelm sensitive receivers. + Provide effective bonding between the grounding (earthing) terminals of multiple surge protection devices placed on both the electrical power and signal circuits of the telecommunications unit. + Use optical fiber cables or well-balanced twisted-pair cabling in critical signal circuits. + Always assume that electrical unwanted signal exists in the proximity of telecommunications cables and equipment. Cable Separation For application performance purposes, power cables should be kept physically separated from telecommunications cables. Maintain specified distances from possible sources of EMI exceeding 5 KVA as shown in Table 2.6 and 2.7. For branch circuits of 5 kVA or less, no additional separation should be necessary. High levels of noise on power branch circuits (ie, in the form of surges or other signals with high-frequency content) is an abnormal and unacceptable condition and should be corrected ‘or suppressed using line conditioners or surge protection. In situations where these sources or signals cannot be removed, see ANSU/TIA 569-E Telecommunications Pathway and Spaces, Annex B (informative) Electromagnetic noise reduction guidelines for balanced twisted-pair. NOTE: Optical fiber is immune to the effects of EMI. © 2020 Bresi® 237 TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Cable Separation, continued Table 2.6 Minimum separation distances from possible sources of EMI exceeding 5 kVA Condition Minimum Separation Distance Unshielded power lines or electrical equipment in proximity to open or non-metal pathways. 610 mm (24 in) Unshielded power lines or electrical equipment in proximity to a grounded metal conduit pathway. 305 mm (12 in) Power lines enclosed in a grounded metal conduit (or equivalent shielding) in proximity to a grounded metal conduit pathway. 5:2 mm (6 in) 220 mm (48 in) Electric motors and transformers Table 2.7 Separation requirements between metallic cabling and specific EMI sources, Source of Disturbance Minimum Separation Fluorescent lamps =127 mm (5 in)" ‘Neon lamps =127 mm (5 in) Mercury vapor lamps 7 =127 mm (5 in)? High-intensity discharge lamps 127 mm (5 in)* Are welders 780 mm (31 in)* Frequency induction heating =991 mm (39 in)? Hospital equipment . Radio transmitter . TV transmitter . Radar . The minimum separations may be reduced provided that appropriate cable management systems ‘are used or product suppliers’ guarantees are provided b Where product suppliers’ guarantees do not exist, analysis shall be performed regarding possible disturbances (e.g,, frequency range, harmonics, transients, bursts, transmitted power), TDMM, 14th edition 238 (© 2020 Brcs1®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Filters Figure 2.12 An electrical power line EMI filter is mandatory in all modem electronics (active equipment) for conducted emissions or susceptibility aspects or both. A good filter may be able to help in reducing radiated interference coming in or out through the power line cord. In addition, a power line filter is useful every time a switching power supply is used. A typical EMI filter is. shown in Figure 2.12. ‘Typical power tine filter te Teed © mutual re vase «Cy soo LL eee © mutual Grona rund L ‘Capacitor for mitigation of OM interference ‘Capacitor for mitigation of CM interference ‘= Mutual inductance of the inductors used in the filter Power line filters are usually designed to mitigate EMIs in the line for both CM and DM disturbances as well (Figure 2.12). The inductors (L.,.,,) connected to the phase and neutral leads are identical and constructed around ferrite toroids in such @ way that fields will be cancelled, thus allowing high-level currents without saturation of the inductors. Each inductor will be responsible for CM attenuation. DM interference will not be properly filtered out by this inductor’s array because of inductance unbalance. It is important that the reactance of these inductors be properly designed in order to minimize part of the differential disturbance. ‘The capacitors C,, are responsible for filtering DM interference, while capacitors C,, filter CM interference. © 2020 Brcsr* 239 TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: lectromagnetic Compatibility Data Line Filtering—Isolation Transformers A successful filtering scheme shall provide: + For the maintenance of signal integrity. + Effective attenuation of high-frequency unwanted signals as well as broadband CM ‘unwanted signal. Isolation transformers for data signals are quite stringent as they are wideband devices and shall provide isolation within a wide frequency range. Because of this, these components are high-cost devices and are implemented in the circuit level of data communications electronics (eg,, LAN equipment) ‘The function of these devices is primarily to interrupt the CM ground loop at the receiver or transmitter end, They offer rejection of CM noise while processing the DM signal without distortions or other alterations on the signal processed. ‘The transformer primary-to-secondary capacitance (C,,) tends to close the ground loop across the barrier. This capacitance leads the system to an unbalance, and some of the CM voltage is transferred to the secondary of the transformer as DM noise. This transfer is referred to as mode conversion. Isolation transformers are commonly used for LAN and other digital communication applications. Some of these devices provide impedance matching and a balanced-to- unbalanced conversion. A good project uses one of the windings connected to the transformer center tap properly connected to ground. In this case, the two branches of the CM current are drained to ground thus cancelling the CM noise currents induced into the cable (see Figure 2.13) Figure 2.13 Isolation transformer scheme Source Load cM current CM voltage DM voltage TOMM, 14th edition ‘© 2020 Brcsi®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) by Filtering Ferrite toroids, beads, and sleeves are efficient components to mitigate EMI problems. These components can be made in DM (i.e, each wire individually inserted in the ferrite toroid) or CM type (i.c., one ferrite toroid around the whole bundle of cables). This latter scheme causes negligible disruption of the DM signals in the system. Ferrites can be used when the alternative cable sheath grounding (earthing) is not efficient enough for opening the ground loop because of high-frequency interference (usually > | MHz). Ferrites are also indicated when the cable shield currents need to be reduced without shield interruption. For DM attenuation, ferrites may be installed on each input lead (susceptible unit) or output lead (source of EMI) of the component to be filtered. For CM attenuation, a ferrite may be installed around all wires. To mitigate emission problems, the ferrite shall be installed at the source cable-end. To mitigate susceptibility issues, the ferrite shall be installed at the input to the susceptible unit. When using split-type ferrites, air gaps shall be avoided. Figure 2.14 presents samples of ferrite toroids, beads, and sleeves commonly used for EMC compliance. Figure 2.14 ‘Samples of ferrite toroids, beads, and sleeves Ferrite toroids Sleeves 0 Sel © 2020 Bresi™ Ere ‘TOMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Interference Reduction in Shielded Rooms For many locations, a reduction in the electrical power of the interfering signals by as little as 10 times can make a dramatic difference in the performance of the telecommunications system in the room. These reduction levels ate routinely accomplished by careful applications of shielding materials or by the use of a prefabricated shielded room. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Bandwidth of Balanced Twisted-Pair Cabling Balance of Twisted-Pair Cabl Applications on high-speed LANs are making greater bandwidth demands on balanced twisted-pair cabling systems. Today, Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mb/s) LAN and 10 Gigabit Ethemet (10 Gb/s) LAN applications are commonplace. Cable manufacturers have made gains in the performance of balanced twisted-pair cables. Equipment designers are evaluating more efficient ways of encoding and transmitting information, which enhances the bit-rate capacity of such cables. However, some electromagnetic radiation and susceptibility to EMI continue ‘The concept of balance is illustrated in Figure 2.15. Vi, is the CM unwanted signal voltage induced in each conductor of a twisted-pair. V, is the conducted unwanted signal because of the potential difference of the ground (earth) between the workstation and the electronics (active LAN equipment), For a balanced circuit, the unwanted signal currents flowing in each conductor of a pair are equal in magnitude and flow in the same direction, I. Equal currents flowing in each half of the primary winding of a well-balanced transformer produce equal and opposite voltages at the secondary winding, which results in a net, cancellation of the unwanted signal at the input to the receiver. The CM rejection of the system can be further improved by adding a CM choke in series with the transformer. A minimum CMRR of 40 dB is desirable for high-quality chokes over the operating frequency range of interest. DMM, 14th edition 242 (© 2020 BIcsT™Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Balance of Twisted-Pair Cabling, continued Figure 2.15 Balance concept Nolse current in conductor Nolse current in conductor 2 Signal current (main current lowing in the circuit) Load resistance Source resistance CM voltage Ground loop voltage The concept of balanced twisted-pairs and the calculation of the induced unwanted signal assume a well-balanced cabling link. In practice, cables and connecting hardware exhibit a finite unbalance in capacitance, resistance, and inductance between each conductor and the ‘ground return path, Depending on the degree of unbalance, a part of the CM unwanted signal is converted toa DM unwanted signal that passes directly to the input of the receiver. Longitudinal conversion transfer loss in decibels is a measure of the conversion from CM to DM unwanted signal because of cabling unbalance. © 2020 Brcs1® 243 TDMM, 14th editionChapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Telecommunications Cabling within Joint-Use Tunnel The three major components of the electromagnetically induced interference problem relat to telephone transmission facilities placed in a joint-use utility tunnel with an electrical power system are: + Induced electromagnetic fields from the electrical power system, + Coupling between the electrical power and telecommunications systems. + The susceptibility of the telecommunications system, Electrical Power Line Influence ‘The magnitude of the elect + Current that propagates over the power cable. + Physical configuration of the line. 1 power line influence is determined by the magnitude of the: Voltages induced into the telephone plant can create personnel safety hazards and service problems. The harmonies of power cables produce unwanted signals in circuits and can interfere with normal equipment operation. This is especially true of electronic equipment designed to operate at low signal levels. Methods of minimizing the electrical power system influence include using well-balanced, three-phase systems, and filters to reduce the harmonies. Coupling from Mutual Capacitance and Inductance ‘The coupling from mutual capacitance and mutual inductance between the electrical power and telephone/telecommunications facility is a funetion of the: + Physical separation between the electrical power and telephone/telecommunications facilities. + Length of exposure or cables running parallel throughout their pathways. + Impedance of the retum path for the unbalanced current (e.g. CM retum, ground loop). + Shielding effectiveness of the electrical power and telephone/telecommunications cables. Reducing Coupling Ina tunnel, using shielding on either facility, where appropriate, can reduce coupling, Place telephone cables at maximum separation from electrical power cables. NOTE: Refer to the Cable Separation section in this chapter for details. TDMM, 14th edition 24 (© 2020 BIcsI®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compat Susceptibility of Circuits and Systems Figure 2.16 Circuits and systems are usually connected through cables or cabling systems. These connections will be exposed to external fields and susceptible to them especially when using unshielded cables. Conducted interference will be present as well because of ground loops formed between two or more circuits or systems connected through unshielded or shielded cables. Figure 2.16 shows both effects EMI induced into the circuits or systems because of the cable connection (i.c., the wire channel will work as an antenna, thereby picking up some noise) and conducted interference because of ground loop effects. EMI susceptibility of circuits and systems connected through unshielded cables Chassis 1 Chassis 2 ANS ~ fields z, T 1 able connection z Ground loop NO ‘Stray capacitance between chassis and ground t= Current 1, = Interfering current V; = Ground loop voltage Vi = Voltage on the load V5 = Source voltage Z, = Load impedance Source impedence © 2020 Brcsi™ 245 ‘TDMM, 14th editionChapter : Electromagnetic Compatibility Susceptibility of Circuits and Systems, continued External fields ate responsible for coupling noise into systems when they are connected through cables. If an external field affects the cable connection, the interfering currents will be induced in both conductors of the pair (ic., with similar magnitude in both conductors) as shown in Figure 2.16, The resulting circuit current (1) will flow in the circuit formed by the connection of systems I and 2. The circuitry of both systems has connections to ground through chassis I and 2. A ground loop will be formed between both systems. The effect of the ground loop on the overall system’s EMI will depend on the difference of the ground If for any reason, the connection to ground is lost at one of the cable ends (as shown in Figure 2.16 for chassis 2), a stray capacitance will close the loop affecting the overall system’s EMI response. In this case, although the lack of the ground loop will be beneficial for low-frequency coupled noise, the interference will be more significant than in the previous scenatio as the stray capacitance (C.,) between chassis 2 and the ground plane is not well controlled. In order to obtain a better response in terms of overall system EMI, itis a good practice to use balanced shielded cables properly grounded at both cable ends for connection between two circuits or systems. Safety considerations require that the chassis or metal enclosures for electrical equipment be grounded at each end of the cable. In addition, the cable shield needs to be grounded at both ends so that the shield currents can counteract the effects of electromagnetic unwanted signal induction from an extemal field. Unfortunately, this also creates the possibility of conducted ‘unwanted signal because of ground loop currents. Figure 2.17 shows the influence of the stray capacitance on the EMI system’s performance for the connection presented in Figure 2.15. In this case, the extemal field strength in the environment where the unshielded cable is inserted is 10 V/m. The magnitude of the signal ‘that propagates over the conductor's pair is 3 V peak-to-peak. At low frequencies the lack of the ground loop (solid line) offers a better response in terms of EMI immunity shown in this figure. DMM, 14th edition 246 (© 2020 Brcsi®Chapter 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility Susceptibility of Circuits and Systems, continued In this case, the stray capacitance value is 50 pF. At high frequencies (over 100 MHz), the effect of the ground loop (dashed line) is similar to the effect of the stray capacitance in terms of system immunity to EMI. It is recommended to ground shielded cabling systems at both cable ends because of the instability of the stray capacitance value along a wide frequency range (not shown in Figure 2.17). Figure 2.17 Ground loop and EMI immunity +39 Field eistribution = 10 Vim Ege -20 ESE BEE S35 7 id — — Load chassis connected tothe ground 823 Load chassis connected to ground as through a stray capactance 525 120 Esa 170 10 kee 100 KHz 1 MH 10 MHz 100 MHZ 1 GHz EMI = Electromagnetic interference Two characteristics of the telecommunications circuits that determine susceptibility, or the extent to which the circuit is adversely affected by inductive fields, are the: + Amount or presence of shielding provided by the telecommunications cable sheath or by other grounded conductors. + Balance of the telecommunications circuit ‘The worst offenders in terms of unwanted signals are high-frequency transients generated by starting and stopping machinery (e.g., ait compressors, elevator/lit motors) or from switching electrical power supplies (UPS units). The magnitude of the conducted unwanted signal currents can impair LAN system performance. These types of problems can be difficult to diagnose and costly to fix. ‘Acommon solution to limit conducted unwanted signal currents is to remove grounds at various points, which defeats the purpose of using shielded cable for equipment interconnections. The potential difference between the two grounds shall be no more than 1.0 Vims to avoid problems with conductive ground loops. ‘The rms method calculates the consumption or power output of an electronic/electrical device. RMS power is ultimately the average of an ac waveform, which is the peak voltage multiplied by 0.707. © 2020 Brcsr® 247 TDMM, 14th edition‘lectromagnetic Compatibility Chapter Recommended Longitudinal Balance (Immunity) It is recommended to use an overall longitudinal balance of 60 dB or greater at low frequencies (e.g., voice) and 30 dB to 40 dB or greater at high frequencies (e.g., 1-300 MHz). For a 40 dB immunity, the unbalance of the voltages in each conductor of the cable pair in regards to the ground plane shall be one percent. Although it is quite easy to obtain 40 dB immunity at high frequencies, keeping this immunity level along a wide frequency range is not an easy task. DMM, 14th edition 248 (© 2020 B1cs>