• Introduction To Psychology

“The science of human and animal

behavior; it includes the application of this
science to human problems”
.So the term psychology deals with the science of psychology as well as
application of this science to solve human problems.

• Nature and scope of Psychology

Psychology was related with logic and reasoning in the past and people used to
think that only mentally retarded person can consult psychologist. There was
amisconception in their mind;
“if a person is having some psychological problem then they think that there is an
evil spirit in his mind.”

Old Definition of Psychology

definition of psychology was
“Psychology is the study of mind and consciousness”
But that definition was wrong because this definition
doesn’t contain the account of sub
-consciousness and unconsciousness. Another definition of psychology was:-
“Psychology is the study of behavior and activity”
This definition was also rejected because it was not stressing on the reasons
of behavior.
 • Modern Definition of Psychology

“It is a science of biosocial behavior”

This is a correct definition of psychology because first of all psychology is a
science, like all other sciences.
The term BIO-SOCIAL is combination of BIO and SOCIAL.
Bio:
is the biological setup of a person working of body parts.
Social:
is relating to society and interacting with people.
 • Methods of psychology

• The Introspection Method: intro mean within and spection means

looking. it is the self observation or inner perception. Merits: it is simple
and available. Understanding of covert experiences are possible. Demerits:
Continuous change in mental process cannot be observed. Lack of
reliability and validity.
• The observational Method: it is done by a second person. Collected data is
reported. It may be formal, informal, participant or non-participant
observation. Merits: Used to understand the behaviour of children. It is
economical. Nurse can use it for her patients. Demerits: Consent is not
possible. Data depends on the attitude and experience of the observer.
• The experimental Method: in this method independent variable (stimulus)
are manipulated by the experimenter to determine their effects on the
dependent variable (what is measured). It is the observation under
controlled conditions. Merits: More reliable, definite and precise. Can be
replicated and Less bias. Demerits: Complexity of the behaviour does not
permit perfect control conditions and hence it is difficult. Inclusion of
artificiality; behaviour is natural. Situations may.
• The clinical/Case History Method: it is an in depth study of a person. It
helps to understand cause and source of peoples' fear, anxiety, obsessions
etc. Eg. Case history. Advantages: In depth information. Exploratory
research methods are used. Disadvantages: Cannot generalize the finding.
Time consuming.
• The Survey Method: gathering data using interview, questionnaire from a
selected sample. Merits: Easy to administer. Short time required. Demerits:
Validity of tool. Sample selection criteria Cooperation from public.
• The Genetic/Developmental Method: Study of human behaviour through
the life span. Usually starts at childhood. It is a very rare method. Testing
Method: Use of Psychometric tests.

• Criticism of psychodynamic theory

The psychodynamic approach has given rise to one of the first “talking
cure", psychoanalysis, on which many psychological therapies are now based.
Psychoanalysis is rarely used now in its original form but it is still used in a
shorter version in some cases.
The greatest criticism of the psychodynamic approach is that it is unscientific in
its analysis of human behavior. Many of the concepts central to Freud's theories
are subjective, and as such, difficult to test scientifically.
For example, how is it possible to scientifically study concepts like
the unconscious mind or the tripartite personality? In this respect, it could be
argued that the psychodynamic perspective is unfalsifiable as its theories cannot
be empirically investigated.
The main problem here is that the case studies are based on studying one person
in detail, and with reference to Freud, the individuals in question are most often
middle-aged women from Vienna (i.e., his patients). This makes generalizations
to the wider population (e.g., the whole world) difficult.
Finally, the psychodynamic approach can be criticized for being sexist against
women. For example, Freud believed that females' penis envy made them
inferiour to males.
He also thought that females tended to develop weaker superegos and to be more
prone to anxiety than males.