Air Frame Systems Lession 1 2

Airframe Systems
Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo

1st Lecture
7th Wednesday, August 2019
Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 2

Inaugaration
• Familiarization
• Terms of collaboaration
• Smart Teching, learning & interaction
• Method of evaluation
• Self referancing
• Expected Outcome

Module Overview
• Module Code : AE 1203
• Credits : 3 (GPA)
• Lectures
• Theory : 35
• Continuous Assessments/ Tutorials : 20
• Module Objectives
• To provide a basic understanding about aircraft, its systems and their
functionality.

Learning Outcomes
• Identify the principal airframe units of fixed wing aircraft.
• Describe the primary and secondary flight controls of fixed wing
aircraft.
• Illustrate major components of aircraft basic systems.
• Describe the operation of aircraft basic systems.
• Identify the requirements of fire protection and environmental
control system of fixed wing aircraft.

Module Outline
1. Introduction to Aeroplane Construction
2. Flight Controls
3. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Systems
4. Landing Gear Systems
5. Aircraft Fuel Systems
6. Ice and Rain Protection System
7. Cabin Environmental Control Systems
8. Fire Protection Systems

Lesson 01 - History & Aircraft construction

History & Pioneers
• George Cayley
• Otto Lilienthal
• Wrirght Brothers
• Octave Chanute
• Louis Bleriot

Master of gliding and wing study, Otto
Lilienthal and one of his more than 2,000 glider
flights .
Then Who are,
a. Octave Chanute ?
b. Louis Bleriot ?
George Cayley, the father of aeronautics and

a flying replica of his 1853 glider (bottom).

The Wright Flyer was the first successful powered aircraft. It was made primarily of wood and
fabric.
Introduction
• Major categories of aircraft are airplane, rotorcraft, glider, and lighter-
than-air vehicles.
• The airframe of aircraft include the fuselage, booms, nacelles,

cowlings, fairings, airfoil surfaces, and landing gear.
• Also included are the various accessories and controls that

accompany these structures.

• The rotors of a helicopter are considered part of the airframe since
they are actually rotating wings.
• By contrast, propellers and rotating airfoils of an engine on an

airplane are not considered part of the airframe.

• The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal units:
the fuselage, wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces, and landing
gear.
• Helicopter airframes consist of the fuselage, main rotor and related

gearbox, tail rotor (on helicopters with a single main rotor), and the
landing gear.

Primary components

Major Structural Stresses
• Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist
stress. In designing an aircraft, every square inch of wing and fuselage,
every rib, spar, and even each metal fitting must be considered in
relation to the physical characteristics of the material of which it is
made.
• The determination of such loads is called stress analysis. Therfore it is

important that an AE understand and appreciate the stresses involved
in order to avoid changes in the original design through improper
repairs.

• The term “stress” is often used interchangeably with the word “strain.”
While related, they are not the same thing.
• External loads or forces cause stress. Stress is a material’s internal

resistance, or counterforce, that opposes deformation.
• The degree of deformation of a material is strain. When a material is

subjected to a load or force, that material is deformed, regardless of
how strong the material is or how light the load is.

• There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are subjected:
• Tension
• Compression
• Torsion
• Shear
• Bending

Fixed-Wing Aircraft
• The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. It
provides space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other
equipment.
• In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the powerplant. In

multiengine aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage,
attached to the fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure.

• There are two general types of
fuselage construction: truss and
monocoque.
• A truss is a rigid framework

made up of members, such as
beams, struts, and bars to resist
deformation by applied loads.

The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the
strength of the skin or covering to carry the primary loads.

Semimonocoque Type
• To ove rcom e t h e st re n gt h / we i g ht p ro b l e m o f m o n o co q u e
construction, a modification called semimonocoque construction was
developed.
• It also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used

in the monocoquedesign but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by
longitudinal members called longerons.

• Individually, no one of the above
components is strong enough to
carry the loads imposed during flight
and landing. But, when combined,
those components form a strong,
rigid framework.
• This is accomplished with gussets,
rivets, nuts and bolts, screws, and
even friction stir welding. A gusset is
a type of connection bracket that
adds strength.

Pressurization
• Many aircraft are pressurized. This means that air is pumped into the
cabin after takeoff and a difference in pressure between the air inside
the cabin and the air outside the cabin is established. This differential
is regulated and maintained. Pressurization causes significant stress
on the fuselage structure and adds to the complexity of design.
• In addition to withstanding the difference in pressure between the air

inside and outside the cabin, cycling from unpressurized to
pressurized and back again each flight causes metal fatigue.

Wings
• Wings are a built in many shapes and sizes. Wing design can vary to
provide certain desirable flight characteristics, Control at various
operating speeds, the amount of lift generated, balance, and stability
all change as the shape of the wing is altered.
• The wings of an aircraft can be attached to the fuselage at the top,

mid-fuselage, or at the bottom. They may extend perpendicular to
the horizontal plain of the fuselage or can angle up or down slightly.
This angle is known as the wingdihedral. The dihedral angle affects
the lateral stability ofthe aircraft.

Wing Structure
• The wings of an aircraft are designed to lift it into the air. Their
particular design for any given aircraft depends on a number of
factors, such as size, weight, use of the aircraft, desired speed in flight
and at landing, and desired rate of climb.
• Often wings are of full cantilever design. This means they are built so
that no external bracing is needed. They are supported internally by
structural members assisted by the skin of the aircraft.

• In general, wing construction is based on one of three fundamental
designs:
1. Monospar
2. Multispar
3. Box beam
Modification of these basic designs may be adopted by various

manufacturers.

Wing Spars
• Spars are the principal structural members of the wing. They
correspond to the longerons of the fuselage.
• They run parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, from the fuselage
toward the tip of the wing, and are usually attached to the fuselage
by wing fittings, plain beams, or a truss.

Wing Skin
• Often, the skin on a wing is designed to carry part of the flight and
ground loads in combination with the spars and ribs. This is known as
a stressed-skin design.
• Fuel is often carried inside the wings of a stressed-skin aircraft. This is

known as wet wing design. Alternately, a fuel-carrying bladder or tank
can be fitted inside a wing.

Lecture assignment 1
• Name 150 items of an aircraft on an approprite diagram.

2nd Lecture
21st Wednesday, August 2019

Why engines & fuel storage located on wings ?
• The bending stress acting upon a wing in flight can be alleviated to
some extent by applying downward forces to oppose the upward
force of lift. This can be achieved by wing-mounted engines and by
the weight of fuel in outboard fuel tanks.

Maximum Zero-Fuel Weight
• The maximum zero-fuel weight (MZFW) is defined as the maximum
permissible weight of an aeroplane with no usuable fuel. If an
aeroplane were to be airborne with no fuel in the wings, the upward
bending stress on the wing structure would exceed its design
limiations. Since there will always be fuel in the wings, then these
limiations will not be exceeded.
• In a heavy landing for example, not only is the landing gear likely to
sustain damage but the wing spar attachment points are likely to
sustain damage due to the large forces as the wings move rapidly
downwards.

Stabilisers
• The stabilising surfaces of most
aircraft are located at the tail
and are known as the
empennage.
• Typically they comprise the

horizontal surfaces of stabiliser
(tailplane) and elevator, for
longitudinal stability and control,
and the vertical surfaces of fin
a n d r u d d e r fo r d i r e c t i o n a l
stability and control.

Design Philosophies
• Components of an aircraft structure are known as structural or non-structural.
Structural components transfer loads and forces from one location to another,
or absorb forces. Such components are those already described such as wing
spas, ribs, fuselage, bulkheads etc.
• Nonstructural components do not transfer loads or absorb forces, and include
such items as landing gear doors, cabin doors and nose radar radomes.
• The life of an airframe is limited by fatigue, caused by the load cycles imposed
during take-of, landing and pressurisation. This lift has been calculated over
the years by using different design philosophies, these being safe-life, fail-safe,
and damage-tolerant.

Safe-Life
• This original design philosophy involved testing to failure and to
allocate the structure, a safe life of 25% of the average life when
tested to destructive failure.

Fail-Safe
• In this construction, components were designed to accept the loads
of adjacent components should one of the latter fail. The philosophy
anticipated failure.
• However, precise inspection techniques were not specified, and there

were, for example, no studies of crack growth.
• In addition, testing was done with new components under laboratory

conditions (as was fail-safe) and did not take into consideration the
deterioration caused by such things as climate conditions and aircraft
utilisation.

Damage Tolerant
• This design philosophy accepts that production components will have
minor flaws and anticipates their growth.
• Precise inspection procedures are then laid down in order that these
flaws may be identified before they become critical.
• It is damage-tolerant design which is now used for large transport

aeroplanes.

Lession 02 - Flight Controls
• The function of the primary flying control surfaces is to provide
control about one of the three primary axes of roll, pitch and yaw.
• These are usually the ailerons for control in roll, the elevators for
control in pitch and the rudder for control in yaw.

Ailerons
• The ailerons, for roll control, are mounted on the outboard trailing
edge of the wings and move differentially when deflected, one
hinging upward to decrease lift at that point and the other hinging
downward to increase lift.
• The resulting differential aerodynamic forces produce a rolling

moment about the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

• They are operated in some cases by sideways movement of the pilot’s
control column (or side stick), but more often by rotation of a control
wheel attached to the top of the control column.
• Rotating the control wheel to the right deflects the right aileron up
and the left aileron down, for roll to the right. Rotating the control
wheel to the left has the opposite effect.

Elevators
• The elevators, for pitch control, are hinged to the trailing edge of the
horizontal tail surfaces. When deflected downward the positive
camber of the surface is increased, creating positive lift aft of the
aircraft CG to produce a nose-down pitching moment about the
lateral axis of the aircraft.
• Upward deflection of the elevators produces the opposite effect. They

are operated by fore and aft movement of the pilot’s control column.
Forward movement deflects the elevators down for pitch down; aft
movement deflects the elevators up for pitch up.

Rudders
• The rudder, for directional control, is hinged to the trailing edge of the
vertical stabiliser, or fin. When deflected it produces camber on an
otherwise symmetrical aerofoil, creating lift in a sideways direction.
• Left deflection of the rudder produces sideways lift to the right, aft of
the aircraft CG, creating a yawing moment about the aircraft normal
axis, which yaws the nose to the left.
• Right deflection of the rudder has the opposite effect. The rudder is
operated by the pilot’s rudder foot pedals, attached to the rudder bar.
Pushing the left pedal forward deflects the rudder to the left and vice
versa.

Cockpit

Powered Controls
• The force needed to move the control surfaces of a large aircraft
flying at high speeds makes it virtually impossible for satisfactory
control to be exercised by manual controls.
• It is therefore necessary that the primary control surfaces be power

operated.
• Powered controls may be divided into two categories, power-assisted

controls and fully power operated controls.

Power Assisted Controls
• With power-assisted controls, the force needed for movement of the
control surface is provided partly by the physical force produced by
the pilot and partly by the power system.
• Here then the pilot will have ‘feel’ which is provided by the control
surface loads. Should a fault or power failure occur in the control
system, a disconnect system will be available, and control will
continue to be maintained by manual means alone, although control
loading will be relatively high.

Fully Powered Controls (Fly by wire)
• Where fully power operated controls are installed, power systems are
provided which, while independent of each other, operate in parallel
and provide all the force necessary for operation of control surfaces.
• Movement of the pilot’s controls is transmitted to actuators, which
provide the force necessary to move the control surfaces.

Lecture assignment 2
Write short notes on the follwing. (Use appropriate diagrams when necessery)
1. Aerodynamic Balance of control surfaces.
2. Horn Balance
3. Balance Tab
4. Anti-balance Tab
5. Spring Tab
6. Servo Tab
7. Nose Balance or Inset Hinge

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Airframe Systems

Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 2

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Then Who are,

George Cayley, the father of aeronautics and

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 9

• The airframe of aircraft include the fuselage, booms, nacelles,

• Also included are the various accessories and controls that

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 11

• By contrast, propellers and rotating airfoils of an engine on an

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 12

• Helicopter airframes consist of the fuselage, main rotor and related

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 13

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 14

• The determination of such loads is called stress analysis. Therfore it is

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 15

• External loads or forces cause stress. Stress is a material’s internal

• The degree of deformation of a material is strain. When a material is

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 16

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 17

• In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the powerplant. In

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 19

• A truss is a rigid framework

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 20

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 21

• It also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 22

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 23

• In addition to withstanding the difference in pressure between the air

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 24

• The wings of an aircraft can be attached to the fuselage at the top,

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 25

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 27

Modification of these basic designs may be adopted by various

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 29

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 31

• Fuel is often carried inside the wings of a stressed-skin aircraft. This is

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 33

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 35

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 36

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 37

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• Typically they comprise the

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 39

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 40

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 41

• However, precise inspection techniques were not specified, and there

• In addition, testing was done with new components under laboratory

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 42

• It is damage-tolerant design which is now used for large transport

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 43

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 44

• The resulting differential aerodynamic forces produce a rolling

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 46

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• Upward deflection of the elevators produces the opposite effect. They

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 49

Property of Dr. Thusitha Rodrigo 52