PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT

MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page Allotment

(Minutes)
Introduction 4 30
Load types 6
Wing external loads 8 60
Wing loading 13 30
Fuselage 15 90
Lift 24 15
Drag 25 30
Excrescence 28 15
References 28
Honesty and safety clause 30
Enrichment activity 33 60
Rubrics 34

Quiz 60

Video Materials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xwlRlGO4e68
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WoolUTm7- 81
5g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lrp5kxg4v-w
Total 471 minutes/
8.86 hours

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
Introduction

Before the structure can be designed, we need to determine the loads that will be imposed on

the aircraft. This section deals with the general issue of aircraft loads and how they are predicted

at the early stages of the design process.

Each part of the aircraft is subject to many different loads. In the final design of an aircraft

structure, one might examine tens of thousands of loading conditions of which several hundred

may be critical for some part of the airplane. In addition to the obvious loads such as wing

bending moments due to aerodynamic lift, many other loads must be considered. These include

items such as inertia relief, the weight and inertial forces that tend to reduce wing bending

moments, landing loads and taxi-bump loads, pressurization cycles on the fuselage, local high

pressures on floors due to high-heeled shoes, and many others.

These loads are predicted using Navier-Stokes computations, wind tunnel tests, and other

simulations. Static and dynamic load tests on structural components are carried out to assure

that the predicted strength can be achieved. The definition of strength requirements for

commercial aircraft is specified in FAR Part 25 and this section deals with those requirements

in more detail.

When designing a

vehicle and payload. It needs to be strong and stiff enough to withstand the exceptional

circumstances in which it has to operate. Durability is an important factor. Also, if a part fails,

fuselage, tail and wing, determine its external shape. The loadbearing members of these main

sections, those subjected to major forces, are called the airframe. The airframe is what remains

if all equipment and systems are stripped away.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
Old aircrafts had skin made from impregnated linen that could hardly transmit any force at all.

In most modern aircrafts, the skin plays an important role in carrying loads. Sheet metals can

usually only support tension. But if the sheet is folded, it suddenly does have the ability to carry

compressive loads. Stiffeners are used for that. A section of skin, combined with stiffeners,

called stringers, is termed a thin-walled structure. A very good way of using sheet metal skin

is in a thin-walled cylinder, called a monocoque structure. A cylinder with holes, for doors and

such, is called a semi-monocoque structure. An extruded stiffener is manufactured by squeezing

hot, viscous material through an opening of a certain shape. It can usually be recognized by the

fact that the thickness is not consistent, especially in the corners. This is relatively expensive,

compared to stiffeners made from sheet metal. From sheet metal it is not possible to make

complicated stiffeners. Thin sheet metal can be rolled or drawn. Usually stiffeners are attached

to the skin. In an integral structure, the skin and stiffeners have been manufactured from one

solid block of material. It is also possible to make some kind of a sandwich structure, in which

the skin has a high stiffness due to its special structure.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

LOAD TYPES

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

LOAD CATEGORIES

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

WING EXTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

Wing Contents

Providing lift is the main function of the wings of an aircraft. The wings consist of two essential

parts. The internal wing structure, consisting of spars, ribs and stringers, and the external wing,

which is the skin. Ribs give the shape to the wing section, support the skin (prevent buckling)

and act to prevent the fuel surging around as the aircraft maneuvers. They serve as attachment

points for the control surfaces, flaps, undercarriage and engines. The ribs need to support the

wing-panels, achieve the desired aerodynamic shape and keep it, provide points for conducting

large forces, add strength, prevent buckling, and separate the individual fuel tanks within the

wing. There are many kinds of ribs. Form ribs consist of a sheet of metal, bent into shape. Plate

type ribs consist of sheet-metal, which has upturned edges and weight-saving holes cut out into

it. These ribs are used in conditions of light to medium loading. Truss ribs consist of profiles

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
that are joined together. These ribs may be suitable for a wide range of load-types. Closed ribs

are constructed from profiles and sheet-metal, and are suitable for closing off sections of the

wing. This rib is also suitable for a variety of loading conditions. Forged ribs are manufactured

using heavy press-machinery, and are used for sections where very high loads apply. Milled

ribs are solid structures, manufactured by milling away excess material from a solid block of

metal, and are also used where very high loads apply. The stringers on the skin panels run in

the length of the wing, and so usually need to bridge the ribs. There are several methods for

dealing with this problem. The stringers and ribs can both be uninterrupted.

The stringers now run over the rib, leaving a gap between rib and skin. Rib and skin are

indirectly connected, resulting in a bad shear load transfer between rib and skin. The stringers

can be interrupted at the rib. Interrupting the stringer in this way certainly weakens the structure,

and therefore extra strengthening material, called a doubler, is usually added. Naturally, the

stringers can also interrupt the rib. The stringers now run through holes cut into the rib, which

also causes inevitable weakening of the structure. The ribs also need to be supported, which is

done by the spars. These are simple beams that usually have a cross-section similar to an I-

beam. The spars are the most heavily loaded parts of an aircraft. They carry much more force

at its root, than at the tip. Since wings will bend upwards, spars usually carry shear forces and

bending moments. Aerodynamic forces not only bend the wing, they also twist it. To prevent

this, the introduction of a second spar seems logical. Torsion now induces bending of the two

spars, which is termed differential bending. Modern commercial aircrafts often use two-spar

wings where the spars are joined by a strengthened section of skin, forming the so-called

torsion-box structure. The skin in the torsion-box structure serves both as a spar cap (to resist

bending), as part of the torsion box (to resist torsion) and to transmit aerodynamic forces.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
Wing Functions and Attachments

It is usually hard to attach the wing to the fuselage. There is usually a third piece of wing

contained within the fuselage. The connection of wings and fuselage are always by way of very

strong and heavy bolts. The bolts that are used must be much stronger than necessary, thereby

having sufficient lifetime. Stringers are attached to the wing skin, and run span-wise. Their job

is to stiffen the skin so that it does not buckle when subjected to compression loads caused by

wing bending and twisting, and by loads from the aerodynamic effects of lift and control surface

movement.

In most aircraft, the wing skin performs several tasks. It gives it the aerodynamic shape,

it carries a share of the loads, it helps to carry torsional loads, it acts as fuel tanks and allows

inspection and maintenance. Using the skin to carry part of the loads is called stressed skin.

Almost all aircraft have their wing structure made entirely in metal, or a mixture of metal and

composite. The skin may be fixed to the internal structure by rivets or bonding. The volume

between the spars is often used for storing fuel. An alternative to attaching stringers to the skin

for stiffness, is a machined skin, in which the skin, stringers and spar flanges can be machined

from a single piece of alloy, called a billet. Advantages are that less riveting is required,

resulting in a smoother surface, lighter and stronger structures are possible, construction faults

are less likely, less maintenance is required and easy inspection is possible. However, the costs

are relatively high, and replacing parts is difficult. In commercial aircrafts usually around 25%

age. Usually most or all of the fuel

is stored in the wing, which is divided into several tanks, each one usually having its own

pumps. This allows fuel to be moved between tanks in flight, which changes the trim of the

aircraft to minimize drag. Flaps are fitted at the trailing edges. Light aircraft usually have simple

flaps, or none at all. Larger aircraft have the more complex split flap or Fowler flap. Most large

transport aircraft have double-slotted Fowler flaps. Leading-edge flaps, called slats, may be

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
added to increase lift even further. Flaps and slats increase both lift and drag, both being

advantageous for landings. Spoilers are fitted to the top surface of the wing. When operated,

which is usually at touchdown, spoilers increase drag and reduce lift.

Wing loading

In aerodynamics, wing loading is the total mass of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing.

The stalling speed of an aircraft in straight, level flight is partly determined by its wing loading.

An aircraft with a low wing loading has a larger wing area relative to its mass, as compared to

an aircraft with a high wing loading.

The faster an aircraft flies, the more lift can be produced by each unit of wing area, so a smaller

wing can carry the same mass in level flight. Consequently, faster aircraft generally have higher

wing loadings than slower aircraft. This increased wing loading also increases takeoff and

landing distances. A higher wing loading also decreases maneuverability. The same constraints

apply to winged biological organisms.

Effect on performance

Wing loading is a useful measure of the stalling speed of an aircraft. Wings generate lift owing

to the motion of air around the wing. Larger wings move more air, so an aircraft with a large

wing area relative to its mass (i.e., low wing loading) will have a lower stalling speed.

Therefore, an aircraft with lower wing loading will be able to take off and land at a lower speed

(or be able to take off with a greater load). It will also be able to turn at a greater rate.

Effect on turning performance

To turn, an aircraft must roll in the direction of the turn, increasing the aircraft's bank angle.

Turning flight lowers the wing's lift component against gravity and hence causes a descent. To

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
compensate, the lift force must be increased by increasing the angle of attack by use of up

elevator deflection which increases drag. Turning can be described as 'climbing around a circle'

(wing lift is diverted to turning the aircraft) so the increase in wing angle of attack creates even

more drag. The tighter the turn radius attempted, the more drag induced; this requires that power

(thrust) be added to overcome the drag. The maximum rate of turn possible for a given aircraft

design is limited by its wing size and available engine power: the maximum turn the aircraft

can achieve and hold is its sustained turn performance. As the bank angle increases so does the

g-force applied to the aircraft, this having the effect of increasing the wing loading and also the

stalling speed. This effect is also experienced during level pitching maneuvers.

Effect of development

A further complication with wing loading is that it is difficult to substantially alter the wing

area of an existing aircraft design (although modest improvements are possible). As aircraft are

developed, they are prone to "weight growth" the addition of equipment and features that

substantially increase the operating mass of the aircraft. An aircraft whose wing loading is

moderate in its original design may end up with very high wing loading as new equipment is

added. Although engines can be replaced or upgraded for additional thrust, the effects on

turning and takeoff performance resulting from higher wing loading are not so easily

reconciled.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

The Fuselage
The fuselage should carry the payload, and is the main body to which all parts are connected.

It must be able to resist bending moments (caused by weight and lift from the tail), torsional

loads (caused by fin and rudder) and cabin pressurization. The structural strength and stiffness

of the fuselage must be high enough to withstand these loads At the same time, the structural

weight must be kept to a minimum. In transport aircraft, the majority of the fuselage is

cylindrical or near-cylindrical, with tapered nose and tail sections. The semi-monocoque

construction, which is virtually standard in all modern aircraft, consists of a stressed skin with

added stringers to prevent buckling, attached to hoop shaped frames. The fuselage also has

members perpendicular to the skin, that support it and help keep its shape. These supports are

called frames if they are open or ring-shaped, or bulkheads if they are closed. Disturbances in

the perfect cylindrical shell, such as doors and windows, are called cutouts. They are usually

unsuitable to carry many of the loads that are present on the surrounding structure. The direct

load paths are interrupted and as a result the structure around the cut-out must be reinforced to

maintain the required strength. A typical freighter aircraft will have a much larger door than a

passenger aircraft. It is therefore necessary for them to transmit some of the loads from the

frames and stringers. Where doors are smaller, the surrounding structure is reinforced to

transmit the loads around the door. In aircraft with pressurized fuselages, the fuselage volume

both above and below the floor is pressurized, so no pressurization loads exist on the floor. If

the fuselage is suddenly de-pressurized, the floor will be loaded because of the pressure

difference. The load will persist until the pressure in the plane has equalized, usually via floor-

level side wall vents. Sometimes different parts of the fuselage have different radii. This is

termed a double-bubble fuselage.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
Pressurization can lead to tension or compression of the floor-supports, depending on the

design. Frames give the fuselage its cross-sectional shape and prevent it from buckling, when

it is subjected to bending loads. Stringers give a large increase in the stiffness of the skin under

torsion and bending loads, with minimal increase in weight. Frames and stringers make up the

basic skeleton of the fuselage. Pressure bulkheads close the pressure cabin at both ends of the

fuselage, and thus carry the loads imposed by pressurization. They may take the form of flat

discs or curved bowls. Fatigue is a phenomenon caused by repetitive loads on a structure. It

depends on the magnitude and frequency of these loads in combination with the applied

materials and structural shape. Fatigue-critical areas are at the fuselage upper part and at the

joints of the fuselage frames to the wing spars.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

FUSELAGE EXTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

FUSELAGE INTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

FUSELAGE INTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

FUSELAGE INTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

FUSELAGE INTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

EMPENNAGE EXTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

EMPENNAGE INTERNAL LOADS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

LIFT

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

DRAG

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

CRITICAL AREAS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

EXTRA-CRITICAL

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

EXCRESCENCE
Another source of parasite drag is the excrescence drag. It is the additional drag on the airframe

due to all deviations from smooth, sealed, external surface. It may be controlled by considering

aerodynamic effects during design and repair.

Air leaks, such as through gaps, holes, and seals

Discrete items such as antennas, cameras, drain mast, and lights

Surface mismatches such as steps at doors, excess fillers, control surfaces, and skin

patches

Rough surfaces, such as peeling paint and protruding head fasteners.

Excrescence Drag on Skin Repair

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

REFERENCES
Call number / e-provider Materials (textbooks, references, journals, online)
ISBN 0 340 70588 4 Morris, A. (2001). Aircraft structures for
engineering students Third edition t.h.g. Megson
Arnold, 338 Euston road, London nw1 3bh, UK
1999. 590pp. Illustrated. £35. Isbn 0-340-70588-
4. The Aeronautical Journal, 105(1052)
607. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0001924000012574
ISBN-13: 978-0-75066-7395 Megson, T. (2007). Aircraft structures for
ISBN-10: 0-750-667397 engineering students. Elsevier.
ISBN 962-7128-08-2 Niu, C., & Niu, M. C. (1999). Airframe stress
analysis and sizing. Adaso Adastra Engineering
Center.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

For this exam/quiz/activity, I make the following truthful statement:

I understand that acts of academic dishonesty shall be penalized to the full extent as indicated in the

provision of the PhilSCA Student Manual (page 30,No.6.)

_________________________________
Signature of Student Over Printed Name

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
Safety Guidelines for Activity
ALWAYS read the directions of the assigned Activity completely, before beginning.

This helps you carry out the activity faster as you will understand the purpose of the activity,

and you will be able to recognize possible hazards up front. The following safety standards be

Wear

in your home that is well ventilated, and protected from spills, children and pets. Use a work

area, such as your kitchen, where there is a flat and stable working surface, and access to water

and various supp

Wash your hands before taking a break for a snack or meal. For

extinguisher, water, a first aid kit, and a telephone.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE
SAFETY CLAUSE:

For this activity, I make the following truthful statement:

I understand that precautions shall be taken to ensure my health and safety while performing

the activities during Flexible/Residential Learning. I am aware that I should be familiar with

the safety policies and procedures. I shall ensure that I have my Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE) like gloves, face masks, eye protection to prevent hazards and accidents.

_______________________

Signature over printed name of the student

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

RUBRICS
4- 3 - GOOD 2 - FAIR 1 - POOR 0
EXCELLENT (5 - 7 pts or 75 (3 - 4 pts or (0 - 2 pts
(8 - 10 pts or 85 %) 65 74 %) or 50 64
86 100 %) %)

50%
CONTENT

The presence of INCOMP

ideas developed Substantial, Sufficiently Limited content Superficial LETE
through facts, specific and/ or developed with inadequate and/ or
examples, illustrative content with elaboration or minimal
anecdotes, content adequate explanation. content.
details, demonstrating elaboration or
opinions, strong explanation.
statistics, development and
reasons and/ or sophisticated
explanations. ideas.
40 % FOCUS
INCOMP
The single Sharp, distinct Apparent point No apparent Minimal LETE
controlling point controlling made about a point but evidence
made with an point made single topic with evidence of a of a topic.
awareness of about a sufficient specific topic.
task about a single topic with awareness of
specific evident task.
topic. awareness of
task.
10 %
ORGANIZ
ATION

Functional Confused or INCOMP

The order LETE
developed and Sophisticated arrangement of inconsistent
Minimal
sustained within arrangement of content that arrangement of
sustains a logical content with or control of
and across content with content
paragraphs using evident and/ or order with some without attempts arrangement.
transitional evidence of at transition.
subtle
devices and transitions. transitions.
including
introduction and
conclusion.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AIRCRAFT
MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
Midterm Module 01: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

Create an illustration showing the typical loads and

stresses encounter by external and internal parts of an
aircraft. You can use your own design aircraft in our
previous activity or browse the internet or draw you
aircraft model. INPUT YOUR ESTIMATED LOAD
FACTOR IN YOUR AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES.

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