AMT 4102 MIDTERM MODULE 4 Aerodynamic Performance

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Aerodynamic Performance
LEARNING MODULE 04:

Aerodynamic Performance
AMT 4102
Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics
Prepared by:
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no
Overview III
Drag III
Drag Polar III
Equations of Motion I & II
Thrust Required I & II
Power Required I & II
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time
Overview 30 mins
Drag 40 mins
Drag Polar 45 mins
Equations of Motion 25 mins
Thrust Required 60 mins
Power Required 45 mins
Activities
Mastery Check 120 mins
Video Materials
https://youtu.be/CnJ51LTRQ7Q 10 mins
https://youtu.be/ko8btEcPhzg 15 mins
https://youtu.be/-jrgbYL9OTA 5 mins
https://youtu.be/7OU6RvPv97A 10 mins
https://youtu.be/lltu72VLoXY 5 mins
https://youtu.be/UzUqsO9R_M4 5 mins
Google Meet/ / Discord 3 hours
TABLE OF REFERENCES
Reference No.
Roskam, J., & Lan, C. T. (2016). Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance
I
(Revised ed.). DARcorporation.
Anderson, J. (2015). Introduction to Flight (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. II
JAA ATPL Principles of Flight (4th ed.). (2020). Oxford Aviation Academy. III
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure Reference
1.1 – 1.8 JAA ATPL Principles of Flight (4th ed.). (2020). Oxford Aviation Academy.
Fundamentals of Aircraft Design Part 9: The Drag Polar – AeroToolbox.
1.9
Retrieved from https://aerotoolbox.com/drag-polar/
1.10 – 1.14 Anderson, J. (2015). Introduction to Flight (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Range Performance Aeronautical – Code 7700
1.15 – 1.16
Retried from http://code7700.com/aero_range_performance.htm
HONESTY CLAUSE
The students are expected to recognize and uphold the standard of intellectual and
academic integrity with competence as members of the academic community. As a
minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, the Philippine State College of
Aeronautics believes that the students should be truthful and are expected to submit the
product of their own efforts.
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In module we will make the connections between aircraft performance and propulsion
system performance. The airplane is considered a rigid body on which is exerted for
natural forces: lift, drag, thrust and weight. The topics presented in this module focuses
on the movement of airplane as it responded to these forces.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]
Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

CLO 2. Associate the four natural
forces: lift, drag, propulsive thrust, and
weight to aircraft by relating it to its Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
MLO 1. Apply knowledge on
movement and performance. aerodynamics by comparing theory and
CLO 3. Relate the importance of power applications on jet-powered and TLO 1. Solve thrust required &
and weight for airborne and ground propeller-driven airplanes in terms of available, the power required &
vehicles by solving its performance and drag polar, thrust, and power. available, maximum velocity, aircraft
efficiency. ceilings, climbing, and gliding flight on
MLO 2. Develop analytical thinking on flight performance by applying formulas
CLO 6. Show comprehension of airplane performance through the to answer worded problems in a
formulas through the application of application of formulas acquired from specified flight condition.
aerodynamics theories and principles fundamentals to subsonic
on an aircraft. aerodynamics. TLO 2. Utilize knowledge on
aerodynamics by applying theories and
CLO 7. Display analytical skills by formulas on airplane performance.
performing computations on flight
performance problems. TLO 3. Interpret the effects of
increasing altitude in reciprocating and
CLO 12. Display a professional jet-powered aircraft using polar drag
commitment to ethical practice through curves.
the submission of class work,
requirements, and activities.
CLO 13. Display acquired knowledge
and skills by incorporating it into future
avionic maintenance duties.
As an introductory video, kindly watch the videos below about Drag.

1. Parasite Drag (YouTube Link: https://youtu.be/CnJ51LTRQ7Q)
2. Induced Drag (YouTube Link: https://youtu.be/ko8btEcPhzg)
3. Factors Affecting Parasite Drag (YouTube Link: https://youtu.be/-jrgbYL9OTA)
4. Total Drag (YouTube Link: https://youtu.be/7OU6RvPv97A)
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A. OVERVIEW
It introduced the physical phenomenon generating an airplane's lift, drag, and

moments. We emphasized that two sources originate from the aerodynamic forces
and moments practiced on a body passing through a fluid which are the following:
1. Pressure Distribution
2. Shear Stress Diagram
Figure 1.1
Both the distribution of pressure and shear stress acts over the aircraft's body surface.
The physical laws governing such phenomena were examined, with different
applications to aerodynamic flows.
In this module, the airplane is considered a rigid body on which is exerted four natural
forces: lift, drag, propulsive thrust, and weight. A review on Basic Aerodynamics is
discussed on the following chapter to recall necessary concepts and formulas.
A discussion on theory and applications on jet powered and propeller driven airplanes
in terms of its drag polar, thrust and power is presented by applying both conceptual
and theoretical knowledge on basic aerodynamics. Illustrative graphs explaining and
elaborating relations of drag polar curve on performance for reciprocating and jet
powered aircraft is presented on the following chapters.
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THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY
One of the basic laws explaining continuity is "Energy and Mass cannot be created or
destroyed, they can only be transformed from one form to another." Consider
a streamline of air through a tube that has a reduced cross-sectional area in the
middle.
Figure 1.2
The airflow through the tube will be the product of the cross-sectional area (A), airflow
velocity (v) and the air density (ρ). Mass flow will remain constant a constant value at
all points along the tube.
Equation of Continuity: A x v x ρ = Constant
Because air is a compressible fluid, any pressure change in the flow will affect the air
density. However, at low subsonic speeds (< 0.4 M) density changes is insignificant
and can be disregarded.
The equation for continuity can now be simplified to:
A x v = Constant
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
States that “In the steady flow of an ideal fluid the sum of the pressure and kinetic
energy per unit volume remains constant”.
This statement can be expressed as: Pressure + Kinetic energy = Constant
P + 1/2 (ρ v2) = Constant
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Sample Problem
Consider a mass of air with the following details:
Static Pressure = 101,325 Pa
Density = 1.225 kg/m3
Velocity = 52 mps
P + 1/2 (ρ v2) = Constant

(101,325 Pa) + 1/2 (1.225 kg/m3)(52 mps)2 = 102,891 Pa (Constant)
Figure 1.3
The significant point is that:
Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure
Total Pressure can also be referred as Stagnation Pressure or Pitot Pressure
Based on the figure above, it can be seen that flow velocity is dependent on the shape
of the object over which it flows. And, from Bernoulli’s theorem it is evident that an
increase in velocity will cause a decrease in static pressure, and vice versa.
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AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY
An airfoil is a shape capable of producing lift with relatively high efficiency as it passes
through the air. An airfoil can have many cross-sectional shapes. Different aero foils
are used to construct the aircraft wings. The designers choose the shape that has the
best aerodynamic characteristics to suit the purpose, weight and speed of the aircraft.
In order to compare and distinguish different airfoil shapes, an aero foil’s properties
are defined and specific terminology is used:
Chord is a distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along the chord
line;
Chord line is a straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil;
Leading edge is a part of an airfoil (edge) that hits the air particles first;
Lower surface is the surface of an airfoil between the leading and trailing edges, on
the lower surface;
Mean camber line is a line joining the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil,
equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces;
Maximum camber is the maximum distance of the mean camber line from the chord
line;
Maximum thickness is the maximum distance of the lower surface from the upper
surface.
Trailing edge is a part from an airfoil (edge) that hits the air particles last;
Upper surface is the surface of an airfoil between the leading and trailing edges, on
the upper surface;
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B. DRAG
Drag is a force which resists the forward motion of an aircraft. Drag acts parallel to
and in the same direction as the relative airflow (in the opposite direction of the flight
path).
Figure 1.4
Every part of an airplane exposed to the airflow produces different types of resistance
to forward motion which contribute to the Total Drag.
Total Drag is sub-divided into two main types:

1. Parasite Drag
a. Skin Friction Drag
b. Form Drag
c. Interference Drag
2. Induced Drag
PARASITE DRAG
Parasite drag is simply caused by the aircraft's shape, construction-type, and material.
Also, it is independent of lift generation.
Parasite drag is sub-divided into:
a. SKIN FRICTION DRAG
It is the result of the aircraft's surface being rough. Where a smooth skin reduces skin
friction drag, improving performance and fuel efficiency.
b. FORM DRAG
Results from the pressure at the leading edge of a body being greater than the
pressure at the trailing edge.
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c. INTERFERENCE DRAG
Generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe components such as

the wing and the fuselage, the engine pylon and the wing or, in the case of a military
or other special purpose aircraft, between the airframe and attached external stores
such as fuel tanks, weapons or sensor pods.
INDUCED DRAG
It is an undesirable by-product of lift. Wingtip vortices modify upwash and downwash

in the vicinity of the wing which produces a rearward component of the lift vector known
as induced drag.
The lower the IAS (Indicated Air Speed), the higher the angle of attack results to
stronger vortices.
The greater the vortices, the greater the induced drag.
Figure 1.5
a. Wing tip vortices
Are caused by the air beneath the wing, which is at the higher pressure, flowing over
the wingtip and up toward the top of the wing. The end result is a spiral or vortex that
trails behind the wingtip anytime lift is being produced. This vortex is also referred to
as wake turbulence.
b. Induced downwash
The wing tip vortices produce a downwash of air behind the wing which is very strong
near the wing tips and decreases toward the wing root. The effective angle of attack of
the wing is decreased by the flow induced by the downwash, giving an additional,
downstream-facing, component to the aerodynamic force acting over the entire wing.
The downstream component of the force is called induced drag because it faces
downstream and has been "induced" by the action of the tip vortices.
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Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
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INDUCED DRAG COEFFICIENT (CDi)
Di = 1/2 (ρ v2 CDi S)
The equation would seem to imply that induced drag increases with speed, but the
induced coefficient is proportional to CL2 and inversely proportional to wing aspect
ratio. As the speed increases, to maintain a constant lift force CL must be reduced.
Thus, with an increase in speed CDi decreases.
FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED DRAG
1. The size of the Lift Force
Because induced drag is a component of the lift force, the greater the lift, the
greater will be the induced drag. Lift must be equal to weight in level flight so
induced drag depend on the weight of the aircraft. Induced drag will be greater
at higher aircraft weights. For example. Lift is greater than weight during a
steady turn so induced drag will be higher during a steady turn than in straight
and level flight. Therefore, induced drag also increases as Load Factor
increases. Induced drag will increase in proportion to the square of the lift force.
2. The speed of the aircraft
Induced drag decreases with increasing speed, this is because as speed

increases the downwash caused by the tip vortices becomes less significant,
the rearward inclination of the lift is less, and therefore induced drag is less.
3. The aspect ratio of the wing
The tip vortices of a high aspect ratio wing affect a smaller proportion of the
span so the overall change in downwash will be less, giving a smaller rearward
tilt to the lift force. Induce drag therefore decreases as aspect ratio increases
(for a given lift force).
The effect of aspect ratio on lift and drag is shown on the graph below, the basic airfoil
section properties are shown on these plots and these properties would be typical only
of a wing planform of extremely high (infinite) aspect ratio. When a wing of some finite
aspect ratio is constructed of the basic section, the principal differences will be in lift
and drag characteristics – the moment characteristics remain essentially the same.
The effect of increasing aspect ratio on the lift curve is to decrease the wing angle of
attack necessary to produce a given lift coefficient. Higher aspect ratio wings are more
sensitive to changes in angle of attack, but require a smaller angle of attack for
maximum lift.
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Figure 1.8
THE INDUCED DRAG COEFFICIENT
CDi = CL2/ πeAR
The equation would seem to imply that induced drag coefficient is proportional to CL2
and inversely proportional to wing aspect ratio. As speed increases, to maintain a
constant.
The following example illustrates the change in CDi with speed, which lease to change
in Di.
If an aircraft’s speed is increased from 80 knots (41 m/s) to 160 knots (82 m/s), the
dynamic pressure will be four times greater. (Sea level ISA density is used in this
example, but any constant density will give the same result).
Q = 1/2 (ρ v2)
Q = 0.5 (1.225) (41) (41)
Q = 1029.6
Q = 1/2 (ρ v2)
Q = 0.5 (1.225) (82) (82)
Q = 4118.4
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Referring to the lift formula: L= Q S CL
If the dynamic pressure is four times greater because speed is doubled, CL must be
reduced to 3 of its previous value to maintain a constant lift force.
Applying ¼ of the previous CL to the CDi formula:
CDi = CL2/ πeAR
CDi = (1/4)2/ πeAR because pi, e and AR is constant
CDi = 1/16
If 1/16 of the previous CDi is applied to the Induced Drag formula:
Di = (Q x 4) x (1/16)
Di = 1/4
Conclusion: If speed is doubled in level flight: dynamic pressure will be four times
greater; CL must be decreased to ¼ of its previous value, CDi will be 1/16 of its previous
value and Di will be reduced to ¼ of its previous value.
If speed is halved in level flight: dynamic pressure will be ¼ of its previous value, CL
will need to be four times greater, CDI will be 16 times greater, giving four times more
Di.
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C. DRAG POLAR
In this topic, we will no longer be concerned with aerodynamics details; rather, we will
generally assume that aerodynamicists have done their work and provided us with the
pertinent aerodynamic data for a given airplane.
These data are usually packaged in form of a drag polar for the complete airplane,
given as:
𝐂𝐂𝐋𝐋 𝟐𝟐
𝐂𝐂𝐃𝐃 = 𝐂𝐂𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃 +
𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑
Whereas:
CD = Drag coefficient
CL = Total lift coefficient
CDo = Parasite drag/ Profile drag
A graph about drag polar is presented below:
Figure 3.9
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The drag polar is the relationship between the lift on an aircraft and its drag, expressed
in terms of the dependence of the drag coefficient on the lift coefficient. It may be
described by an equation or displayed in a diagram called a polar plot.
The significant aerodynamic properties of aircraft wings are summarized by

two dimensionless quantities, the lift and drag coefficients CL and CD.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Consider a wing of an aircraft flying at level flight and compute for the total drag.
Given:
S = 206 m2 CDo = 0.006
e = 0.95 v = 100 mps
hρ = 3 km L = 750,000 N
AR = 10
Solution:
Step 1: Compute for the density at 3 km.
ρ3km = ρSSLC (T3km/ TSSLC)4.26
ρ3km = 1.225 [(288.16 + (3)(-6.5))/ 288.16]4.26
ρ3km = 0.90886 kg/m3
Step 2: Compute for the coefficient of lift (CL) using the Total Lift formula.
L = ½ ρ v2 S CL Isolate CL on the left side
CL = 2L/ ρ v2 S
Take note that in level flight condition; L = W
CL = 2L/ ρ v2 S
CL = 2(750,000)/ [(0.90886) (100)2 (206)]
CL = 0.8012
Step 3: Compute for the induced drag coefficient.
CDi = CL2/ πeAR
Substitute the value of CL from Step 2
CDi = (0.8012)2/ [π(0.95)(10)]
CDi = 0.0215
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Step 4: Compute for the drag coefficient.
CD = CDo + CDi
CD = (0.006) + (0.0215)
CD = 0.0275
Step 5: Compute for the Total Drag.
DT = ½ ρ v2 S CD
DT = ½ (0.90886) (100)2 (206) (0.0275)
DT = 25,749.90232 N
2. Determine the induced drag of an airplane with a wing span of 30ft and produces
lift of 5000 lbs with a velocity of 215 mph at standard sea level condition. Assume
an elliptical lift distribution.
Step 1: Identify the Given and Required on the worded problem.
Given:
b = 30 ft
L = 5000 lbs
v = 215 mph
e = 1 (since elliptical distribution is considered)
Required:
Di = ?
Step 2: Convert parameters needed, for this question velocity must be converted
from mph to fps.
v = 215 (88/60)
v = 946/3 fps or
v = 315.3333 fps
For easier calculation 88/60 is a constant used for mph to fps. In case
you need to convert from fps to mph, just invert the constant fraction to
60/80.
Step 3: Compute for the Induced Drag.
Di = ½ ρ v2 S CDi
Since CDi = CL2/ πeAR
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Di = ½ ρ v2 S CDi
Di = ½ ρ v2 S [CL2/ πeAR]
From Lift formula: CL = 2L/ ρ v2 S
Di = ½ ρ v2 S [(2L/ ρ v2 S)2/ πeAR]
Also, AR = b2/S
Di = ½ ρ v2 S [(2L/ ρ v2 S)2 ÷ (πe(b2/S))]
Simplify the equation.
Di = 2L2/ π e ρ v2 b2
Di = [2(5000)2] / [π (1) (0.002377) (946/3)2 (30)2]
Di = 74.8184 lbs
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D. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
To study the performance of an airplane, the fundamental equations govern its

translational motion through air must first be established. Consider an airplane in flight,
the flight path (direction of motion of the airplane) is inclined at an angle with respect
to the horizontal.
As a review, there are four physical forces action on the airplane.
1. Lift, which perpendicular to the flight path

2. Drag, which is parallel to the flight path direction
3. Weight, which acts vertically toward the center of the earth (and hence is
inclined at angle with respect to the lift direction
4. Thrust, which is in general inclined at the angle with respect to the flight path
Figure 1.10
The direction of flight shown in the figure is drawn as straight line. This is the image
we see by focusing on the aircraft itself locally. However, if we stand back and take a
broader view of the room the airplane is flying in, the direction of the aircraft is usually
curved. Obviously, this is valid if the airplane is maneuvering; even if the airplane is
flying "straight and level" with respect to the ground, a curved flight path with a
curvature equal to the absolute altitude.
When an object moves along a curved path, the motion is call curvilinear as opposed
to motion along a straight line, which is rectilinear.
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Newton’s second law of motion, which is a physical statement the force is directly
proportional to the mass multiplied by its acceleration.
Try to consider a curvilinear path, at a given point on the path, set up two mutually
perpendicular axis, one along the direction of the flight path and the other normal to
the flight path.
Applying Newton’s law gives: F=mxa
Since: a = d v2 / d t
Given that the velocity is an instantaneous value of the airplane’s velocity.
Now, applying Newton’s law perpendicular to the flight path.
F = m (v2/ r)
By examining the figure above. The parallel forces to the flight path are stated as:
F = T cos αT – D – W sin Ө
The forces perpendicular to the flight path are stated as:
F = L + T sin αT – W cos Ө
However, in this module, we are interested in a specialized application of these

equations, namely, the case where the acceleration is zero. The performance for such
unaccelerated flight condition is called static performance. This may, at first thought,
seem unduly restrictive; however, static performance analysis leas to reasonable
calculations of maximum velocity, maximum rate of climb, maximum range, etc. –
parameters vital interest in airplane design and operation.
Try to consider a vehicle in steady, level flight, the thrust force is equal to the drag
force, and lift is equal to weight. Any thrust available in excess of that required to
overcome the drag can be applied to accelerate the vehicle (increasing kinetic energy)
or to cause the vehicle to climb (increasing potential energy).
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L=W T=D
L/D = W/T
T = W/ (L/D) D = W/ (L/D)
D min = W/ (L/D) max
Let us now apply these results to the static performance analysis of an airplane. The
following topics constitute building blocks for such an analysis, which untimely yield
answers to such questions as how fast, how far, how long, and how high a given
airplane can fly.
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E. THRUST REQUIRED
Consider an airplane in steady, level flight at a given altitude and a given velocity. For
flight at this velocity, the airplane’s power plant (e.g., turbojet engine or reciprocating
engine-propeller combination) must produce a net thrust which is equal to the drag.
The thrust required to obtain a certain steady velocity is easily calculated as follows.
T = D = q∞ S CD
L = W = q∞ S CL
T/ W = CD/ CL
The trust required for an airplane to fly at a given velocity in level unaccelerated flight
is:
TR = W/ (CL/CD) or TR = W/ (L/D)
Thrust required TR for a given airplane at a given altitude varies with velocity V∞. The
thrust-required curve is a plot of this variation and has the general shape illustrated in
Fig. 6.6. To calculate a point on this curve, proceed as follows:
1. Choose a value of V∞.
2. For this V∞, calculate the lift coefficient: CL = W/ (qS)
Figure 1.11
Recall from fluids that drag takes the form shown below, being composed of a part
termed parasitic drag that increases with the square of the flight velocity, and a part
called induced drag, or drag due to lift, that decreases in proportion to the inverse of
the flight velocity.
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Derivation
Step 1: Consider the following formulas
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 2
Since, 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 2
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1
𝐿𝐿 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
1
𝐷𝐷 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
Step 2: Apply the formulas from Step 1 on the drag polar equation
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 This equation can also be written as:
𝐷𝐷𝑇𝑇 = 𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 + 𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖

1 1
Since, 𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 and 𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
1 1
𝐷𝐷𝑇𝑇 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 2
Since, 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1 1 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1
Since, 𝐿𝐿 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
2𝐿𝐿
Isolate the coefficient of lift on one side: 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆
1 1 1 2𝐿𝐿 2
Thus 𝐷𝐷𝑇𝑇 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 2 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 �𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋� �𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆�
Simplify the equation
1 1 2𝐿𝐿2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + �𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋� �𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆�
Since L = W
1 2
1 2𝑊𝑊 2
𝐷𝐷𝑇𝑇 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + � ��
2 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆
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The minimum drag is a condition of interest. We can see that for a given weight, it
occurs at the condition of maximum lift-to-drag ratio
𝑊𝑊
𝐷𝐷𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = �𝐿𝐿�𝐷𝐷�
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
We can find a relationship for the maximum lift-to-drag ratio by setting
𝐶𝐶 2
𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
� 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
�=0
from which we find that
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 min 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 and 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 min 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶 1 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
�𝐷𝐷𝐿𝐿 � = 2
� 𝐶𝐶
𝐷𝐷 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
Sample Problem
Compute for the Thrust Required.
1. Airplane as the CP-1, having the following characteristics:
Given:
v = 200 ft/s
Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Power plant: one-piston engine of 230 hp at sea level
Specific fuel consumption = 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
Parasite drag coefficient CDo = 0.025
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.8
Propeller efficiency = 0.8
Solution:
Step 1: Compute for the value of lift coefficient.

2𝐿𝐿 2𝑊𝑊
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆
or 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆
2(2950)
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = (0.002377) (200)2 (174)
= 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
Step 2: Compute for the aspect ratio.
𝑏𝑏2
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑆𝑆
24 | P a g e
(35.8)2
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
174
Step 3: Compute for the L/D Ratio by computing CD using the drag polar
equation.
𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 2
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
(0.357)2
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 0.025 + = 0.0319
𝜋𝜋(0.8)(7.37)
𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 0.357
𝐷𝐷
= = 0.0319
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
𝑳𝑳
𝑫𝑫
= 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐
Step 4: Finally, compute for the thrust/ drag required.

𝑊𝑊 2950
𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 = �𝐿𝐿�𝐷𝐷�
= 11.2
𝑻𝑻𝑹𝑹 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
2. A Boeing 747 weighs 750,000 lbs. If it is flying at a condition where L/D = 10, what
is the thrust required?
Solution:
𝑊𝑊 750,000
𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 = 𝐿𝐿
� �𝐷𝐷�
= 10
𝑻𝑻𝑹𝑹 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
25 | P a g e
F. POWER REQUIRED FOR LEVEL UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
Power is a precisely defined mechanical term; it is energy per unit time. The power
associated with a moving object can be illustrated by a block moving at constant
velocity V under the influence of the constant force F, as shown.
The block moves from left to right through distance d in a time interval. (We assume
that an opposing equal force, say due to friction keeps the block from accelerating.)
Work is another precisely defined mechanical term; it is force multiplied by the distance
through which the force moves. Moreover, work is energy, having the same units as
energy.
Hence:
P=Fxv
Now we can look at the propulsion system requirements to maintain steady level flight.
Derivation
𝑇𝑇 = 𝐷𝐷 and 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣
1 1 2𝑊𝑊 2
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐷𝐷 𝑣𝑣 Since, 𝐷𝐷𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 2
𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + �𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋� �𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆�
1 1 2𝑊𝑊 2
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = �2 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 + �𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋� �𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑆𝑆� � 𝑣𝑣
Thus, the equation of power required (for steady level flight) is:
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐𝑾𝑾𝟐𝟐
𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = �𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 𝑺𝑺 𝑪𝑪𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 + �𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅� �𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗 𝑺𝑺� �
26 | P a g e
Figure 1.13
In contrast to thrust required, which varies inversely as CL/ CD, power required varies
inversely as CL3/2/ CD. As the airplane velocity increases, PR first decreases, then goes
through a minimum, and finally increases. At the velocity for minimum power required,
the airplane is flying at the angle of attack which corresponds to a maximum CL3/2/ CD.
We demonstrated that minimum TR aerodynamically corresponds to equal zero-lift

and lift-induced drag. An analogous but different relation holds at minimum PR.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐𝑾𝑾𝟐𝟐
𝑷𝑷𝑹𝑹 = � 𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 𝑺𝑺 𝑪𝑪𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 + � ��
𝟐𝟐 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗 𝑺𝑺
Zero lift power Lift induced power
required required
Therefore, as in the earlier case of TR, the power required can be split into the
respective contributions needed to overcome zero-lift drag and drag due to lift.
Hence, the aerodynamic conditions that holds at minimum power required is:
CDo = 1/3 CDi
27 | P a g e
MASTERY CHECK
Write it on a clean paper and answer the problem. Please write your name on the top
left corner and your course, year level, and the section below. Copy the problem first
before you show your solutions. Place the honesty clause and your signature at the
beginning of your work. Use correction tape/fluid for your erasures. Box all your final
answers.
1. Consider a wing of an aircraft flying at level flight and compute for the total drag.
Given:
S = 250 m2 CDo = 0.0076
e = 0.87 v = 100 mps
hρ = 5 km L = 850,000 N
AR = 11.3
2. Determine the induced drag of an airplane flying with a velocity of 360 ft/s at
standard sea level condition. The wing of the airplane has an aspect ratio of 7.3
and area of 194 ft2 that produces lift of 65000 lbs. Assume an elliptical lift
distribution.
3. An airplane weighs 425,000 lbs with a lift-to-drag ratio of 8.7. What is the thrust
required?
4. Assuming level flight condition, compute for the total drag of a light, single-engine
propeller driven aircraft at standard sea level with a velocity of 290 ft/s. The
specifications of the aircraft are the following:
 Wing span = 35.8 ft

 Wing area = 174 ft2
 Normal gross weight = 2,950 lb
 Fuel capacity: 65 gallons of Avgas
 Specific fuel consumption = 0.45 lb/hp-hr
 Parasite drag coefficient CDo = 0.025
 Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.8
5. Consider an aircraft flying at a standard altitude of 5 km, with a velocity of 80 m/s.

It has a rectangular wing with a span of 11 m, area of 16 m2, and Oswald’s
efficiency factor of 0.88. If the weight of the aircraft is 1,100 N and is flying in a
level flight condition, what is the power required? Assume CDO = 0.3.
Note: Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates designated by

the instructor.
28 | P a g e

AMT 4102 MIDTERM MODULE 4 Aerodynamic Performance

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AMT 4102 MIDTERM MODULE 4 Aerodynamic Performance

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE 04:

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

As an introductory video, kindly watch the videos below about Drag.

It introduced the physical phenomenon generating an airplane's lift, drag, and

THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY

Equation of Continuity: A x v x ρ = Constant

The equation for continuity can now be simplified to:

This statement can be expressed as: Pressure + Kinetic energy = Constant

P + 1/2 (ρ v2) = Constant

P + 1/2 (ρ v2) = Constant

The significant point is that:

Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure

Total Pressure can also be referred as Stagnation Pressure or Pitot Pressure

Total Drag is sub-divided into two main types:

Parasite drag is sub-divided into:

a. SKIN FRICTION DRAG

Generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe components such as

It is an undesirable by-product of lift. Wingtip vortices modify upwash and downwash

The greater the vortices, the greater the induced drag.

a. Wing tip vortices

INDUCED DRAG COEFFICIENT (CDi)

FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED DRAG

1. The size of the Lift Force

2. The speed of the aircraft

Induced drag decreases with increasing speed, this is because as speed

3. The aspect ratio of the wing

THE INDUCED DRAG COEFFICIENT

CDi = CL2/ πeAR

Q = 0.5 (1.225) (41) (41)

Q = 0.5 (1.225) (82) (82)

CDi = CL2/ πeAR

CDi = (1/4)2/ πeAR because pi, e and AR is constant

If 1/16 of the previous CDi is applied to the Induced Drag formula:

CL = Total lift coefficient

CDo = Parasite drag/ Profile drag

A graph about drag polar is presented below:

The significant aerodynamic properties of aircraft wings are summarized by

Step 1: Compute for the density at 3 km.

ρ3km = ρSSLC (T3km/ TSSLC)4.26

ρ3km = 1.225 [(288.16 + (3)(-6.5))/ 288.16]4.26

ρ3km = 0.90886 kg/m3

L = ½ ρ v2 S CL Isolate CL on the left side

Take note that in level flight condition; L = W

CL = 2(750,000)/ [(0.90886) (100)2 (206)]

Step 3: Compute for the induced drag coefficient.

CDi = CL2/ πeAR

Substitute the value of CL from Step 2

CDi = (0.8012)2/ [π(0.95)(10)]

DT = ½ (0.90886) (100)2 (206) (0.0275)

Step 1: Identify the Given and Required on the worded problem.

Step 3: Compute for the Induced Drag.

Since CDi = CL2/ πeAR

From Lift formula: CL = 2L/ ρ v2 S

Di = ½ ρ v2 S [(2L/ ρ v2 S)2/ πeAR]

Di = ½ ρ v2 S [(2L/ ρ v2 S)2 ÷ (πe(b2/S))]

Simplify the equation.

Di = [2(5000)2] / [π (1) (0.002377) (946/3)2 (30)2]

To study the performance of an airplane, the fundamental equations govern its

As a review, there are four physical forces action on the airplane.