Professional Documents
Culture Documents
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in
and
International
NPTEL
Aerospace
Engineering
Standard
3. Drag polar.
Various types of drags.
Methods of estimating drag polar.
Pre-requisites:
The student is expected to
have undergone courses on:
1. Vectors.
3. Aerodynamics
4. Aircraft engines.
Additional Reading:
1. Miele, A. "Flight
mechanics Vol I"
Addison Wesley
(1962).
2. Hale, F.J., "Introduction to
aircraft performance,
selection and design",
John Wiley (1984).
3. Anderson, Jr. J.D
"Introduction to flight"
Fifth edition, McGrawHill,
(2005).
4. Roskam, J. "Methods for
Topics
No.of
Hours
Chapter 1 : Introduction
10
11
12
Total
40
References:
1. Houghton and Carruthers, "Aerodynamics for
engineering students", Edward Arnold (1982).
2. McCormick B.W, "Aerodynamics, aeronautics and flight
mechanics", John Wiley (1995).
3. Anderson, Jr. J.D "Aircraft performance and design"
McGraw Hill International edition (1999).
4. Eshelby , M.E."Aircraft performancetheory and practice" ,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,U.K., (2001).
5. Pamadi, B., "Performance, stability, dynamics and control
of an airplane", AIAA (2004).
6. Phillips, W.F. "Mechanics of flight" 2nd Edition, John Wiley
(2010).
A joint venture by IISc and IITs, funded by MHRD, Govt of India
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Chapter 1
Introduction
(Lectures 1, 2 and 3)
Keywords: Definition and importance of flight dynamics; forces acting on an
airplane; degrees of freedom for a rigid airplane; subdivisions of flight dynamics;
simplified treatment of performance analysis; course outline.
Topics
1.1 Opening remarks
1.1.1 Definition and importance of the subject
1.1.2 Recapitulation of the names of the major components of the airplane
1.1.3 Approach in flight dynamics
1.1.4 Forces acting on an airplane in flight
1.1.5 Body axes system for an airplane
1.1.6 Special features of flight dynamics
1.2 A note on gravitational force
1.2.1 Flat earth and spherical earth models
1.3 Frames of reference
1.3.1 Frame of reference attached to earth
1.4 Equilibrium of airplane
1.5 Number of equations of motion for airplane in flight
1.5.1 Degrees of freedom
1.5.2 Degrees of freedom for a rigid airplane
1.6 Subdivisions of flight dynamics
1.6.1 Performance analysis
1.6.2 Stability and control analysis
1.7 Additional definitions
1.7.1 Attitude of the airplane
1.7.2 Flight path
1.7.3 Angle of attack and side slip
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Chapter 1
Lecture 1
Introduction 1
Topics
1.1 Opening remarks
1.1.1 Definition and importance of the subject
1.1.2 Recapitulation of the names of the major components of the airplane
1.1.3 Approach in flight dynamics
1.1.4 Forces acting on an airplane in flight
1.1.5 Body axes system for an airplane
1.1.6 Special features of flight dynamics
1.2 A note on gravitational force
1.2.1 Flat earth and spherical earth models
1.3 Frames of reference
1.3.1 Frame of reference attached to earth
1.1 Opening remarks
At the beginning of the study of any subject, it is helpful to know its definition,
scope and special features. It is also useful to know the benefits of the study of
the subject, background expected, approach, which also indicates the limitations,
and the way the subject is being developed. In this chapter these aspects are
dealt with.
1.1.1 Definition and importance of the subject
The normal operation of a civil transport airplane involves take-off, climb to
cruise altitude, cruising, descent, loiter and landing (Fig.1.1). In
addition,
the
airplane may also carry out glide (which is descent with power off), turning
motion in horizontal and vertical planes and other motions involving
accelerations.
Flight dynamics-I
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(1.1)
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Fig.1.4b The forces and moments acting on an airplane and the components of
linear and angular velocities with reference to the body axes system
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Figure 1.4b also shows the forces and moments acting on the airplane
and the components of linear and angular velocities. The quantity V is the
velocity vector. The quantities X, Y, Z are the components of the resultant
aerodynamic force, along OXb, OYb and OZb axes respectively. L, M, N are the
rolling moment, pitching moment and yawing moment respectively about OXb,
OYb and OZb axes; the rolling moment is denoted by L to distinguish it from lift
(L). u,v,w are respectively the components, along OXb, OYb and OZb, of the
velocity vector (V). The angular velocity components are indicated by p, q, and r.
1.1.6 Special features of Flight Dynamics
The features that make flight dynamics a separate subject are:
i)During its motion an airplane in flight, can move along three axes and can
rotate about three axes. This is more complicated than the motions of machinery
and mechanisms which are restrained by kinematic constraints, or those of land
based or water based vehicles which are confined to move on a surface.
ii)The special nature of the forces, like aerodynamic forces, acting on the
airplane(Fig.1.3). The magnitude and direction of these forces change with the
orientation of the airplane, relative to its flight path.
iii)The system of aerodynamic controls used in flight (aileron, elevator, rudder).
1.2 A note on gravitational force
In the case of an airplane, the gravitational force is mainly due to the
attraction of the earth. The magnitude of the gravitational force is the weight of
the airplane (in Newtons).
W = mg; where W is the gravitational force, m is the mass of the airplane and g
is the acceleration due to gravity.
The line of action of the gravitational force is along the line joining the
centre of gravity (c.g.) of the airplane and the center of the earth. It is directed
towards the center of earth.
The magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity (g) decreases with
increase in altitude (h). It can be calculated based on its value at sea level (go),
and using the following formula.
(g / g0) = [R / (R + h)]2
(1.2)
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
13
Flight dynamics-I
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14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
15
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Chapter 1
Lecture 2
Introduction 2
Topics
1.4 Equilibrium of airplane
1.5 Number of equations of motion for airplane in flight
1.5.1 Degrees of freedom
1.5.2 Degrees of freedom for a rigid airplane
1.6 Subdivisions of flight dynamics
1.6.1 Performance analysis
1.6.2 Stability and control analysis
1.7 Additional definitions
1.7.1 Attitude of the airplane
1.7.2 Flight path
1.7.3 Angle of attack and side slip
and
those
between
unbalanced
moments
and
angular
Flight dynamics-I
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Flight dynamics-I
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Remarks:
i) The derivation of the equations of motions in a general case with six degrees of
freedom (see chapter 7 of Flight dynamics-II or Ref.1.4 chapter 10, pt.3 or
Ref.1.5, chapter 10) is rather involved and would be out of place here.
ii) Here, various cases are considered separately and the equations of motion
are written down in each case.
1.6 Subdivisions of flight dynamics
The subject of flight dynamics is generally divided into two main branches viz.
(i) Performance analysis and (ii) Stability and control
1.6.1 Performance Analysis
In performance analysis, only the equilibrium of forces is generally
considered. It is assumed that by proper deflections of the controls, the moments
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
can be made zero and that the changes in aerodynamic forces due to deflection
of controls are small. The motions considered in performance analysis are steady
and accelerations, when involved, do not change rapidly with time.
The following motions are considered in performance analysis
- Unaccelerated flights,
Steady level flight
Climb, glide and descent
- Accelerated flights,
Accelerated level flight and climb
Loop, turn, and other motions along curved paths which are
called manoeuvres
Take-off and landing.
1.6.2 Stability and control analyses
Roughly speaking, the stability analysis is concerned with the motion of
the airplane, from the equilibrium position, following a disturbance. Stability
analysis tells us whether an airplane, after being disturbed, will return to its
original flight path or not.
Control analysis deals with the forces that the deflection of the controls
must produce to bring to zero the three moments (rolling, pitching and yawing)
and achieve a desired flight condition. It also deals with design of control
surfaces and the forces on control wheel/stick /pedals. Stability and control are
linked together and are generally studied under a common heading.
Flight dynamics - I deals with performance analysis. By carrying out this
analysis one can obtain various performance characteristics such as maximum
level speed, minimum level speed, rate of climb, angle of climb, distance covered
with a given amount of fuel called Range, time elapsed during flight called
Endurance, minimum radius of turn, maximum rate of turn, take-off distance,
landing distance etc. The effect of flight conditions namely the weight, altitude
and flight velocity of the airplane can also be examined. This study would also
help in solving design problems of deciding the power required, thrust required,
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
fuel required etc. for given design specifications like maximum speed, maximum
rate of climb, range, endurance etc.
Remark:
Alternatively, the performance analysis can be considered as the analysis
of the motion of flight vehicle considered as a point mass, moving under the
influence of applied forces (aerodynamic, propulsive and gravitational forces).
The stability analysis similarly can be considered as motion of a vehicle of finite
size, under the influence of applied forces and moments.
1.7 Additional definitions
1.7.1 Attitude
As mentioned in section 1.5.2 the instantaneous position of the airplane,
with respect to the earth fixed axes system (EXeYeZe), is given by the
coordinates of the c.g. at that instant of time. The attitude of the airplane is
described by the angular orientation of the OXbYbZb system with respect to
OXeYeZe system or the Euler angles. Reference 1.4, chapter 10 may be referred
to for details. Let us consider simpler cases. When an airplane climbs along a
straight line its attitude is given by the angle between the axis OXb and the
horizontal (Fig.1.11a). When an airplane executes a turn, the projection of OXb
axis, in the horizontal plane, makes an angle with reference to a fixed
horizontal axis (Fig.1.11b). When an airplane is banked the axis OYb makes an
angle with respect to the horizontal (Fig.1.11c) and the axis OZb makes an
angle with respect to the vertical.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
= tan-1
w
= sin-1
u
w
|V|2 -v 2
= sin-1
w
u2 +w 2
Remarks:
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
ii) By definition, the drag (D) is parallel to the relative wind direction. The lift force
lies in the plane of symmetry of the airplane and is perpendicular to the direction
of flight velocity.
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Chapter 1
Lecture 3
Introduction 3
Topics
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
(1.3)
T sin + L W = 0
(1.4)
Apart from these equations, equilibrium demands that the moment about
the y-axis to be zero, i.e.,
Mcg = 0
Unless the moment condition is satisfied, the airplane will begin to rotate
about the c.g.
Let us now examine how the moment is balanced in an airplane. The
contributions to Mcg come from all the components of the airplane. As regards the
wing, the point where the resultant vector of the lift and drag intersects the plane
of symmetry is known as the centre of pressure. This resultant force produces a
moment about the c.g. However, the location of the center of pressure depends
on the lift coefficient and hence the moment contribution of wing changes with
the angle of attack as the lift coefficient depends on the angle of attack. For
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
convenience, the lift and the drag are transferred to the aerodynamic center
along with a moment (Mac). Recall, that moment coefficient about the a.c. (Cmac)
is, by definition, constant with change in angle of attack.
Similarly, the moment contributions of the fuselage and the horizontal tail
change with the angle of attack. The engine thrust also produces a moment
about the c.g. which depends on the thrust required.
Hence, the sum of the moments about the c.g. contributed by the wing,
fuselage, horizontal tail and engine changes with the angle of attack. By
appropriate choice of the horizontal tail setting (i.e. incidence of horizontal tail
with respect to fuselage central line), one may be able to make the sum of these
moments to be zero in a certain flight condition, which is generally the cruise
flight condition. Under other flight conditions, generation of corrective
aerodynamic moment is facilitated by suitable deflection of elevator (See
Fig.1.2a, b and c for location of elevator). By deflecting the elevator, the lift on the
horizontal tail surface can be varied and the moment produced by the horizontal
tail balances the moments produced by all other components.
The above points are illustrated with the help of an example.
Example 1.1
A jet aircraft weighing 60,000 N has its line of thrust 0.15 m below the line
of drag. When flying at a certain speed, the thrust required is 6000 N and the
center of pressure of the wing lift is 0.45 m aft of the airplane c.g. What is the lift
on the wing and the load on the tail plane whose center of pressure is 7.5 m
behind the c.g.? Assume unaccelerated level flight and the angle of attack to be
small during the flight.
Solution:
The various forces and dimensions are presented in Fig.1.13. The lift on
the wing is LW and the lift on the tail is LT. Since the angle of attack () is small, it
may be considered that cos = 1 and sin = 0. Thus, the force equilibrium (Eqs.
1.3 and 1.4), yields :
TD=0
LW + LT W = 0
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
(1.6)
analysis. The density of air () depends on the flight altitude. Further the Mach
number depends on the speed of sound, which in turn depends on the ambient
air temperature. Thus, performance analysis requires the knowledge of the
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Chapter 1
References
1.1 Miele, A. Flight mechanics Vol I Addison Wesley (1962).
1.2 Shames, I.H. and Krishna Mohana Rao, G. Engineering mechanics statics
and dynamics, 4th Edition, Dorling Kindersley (India), licensees of Pearson
Education (2006).
1.3 Goldstein H. Classical mechanics Second edition Addison Wesley (1980).
1.4 Davies, M. (Editor) The standard handbook for aeronautical and
astronautical engineers McGraw Hill (2003).
1.5 Perkins, C.D. and Hage, R. E. Airplance performance, stability and
control John Wiley (1963).
1.6
Dommasch,
D.O.
Sherby,
S.S.
and
Connolly,
T.F.
Airplane
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
1.15 Jackson, P. (Editor) Janes all the worlds aircraft Published annually
by Janes information group Ltd., Surrey, U.K..
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-1
Chapter 1
Exercises
1. Sketch the three views of an airplane and show its axes systems.
2. Define, with neat sketches, the following terms.
(a) flight path
(b) flight velocity
(c) body axes system
(d) angle of attack
(e) angle of slide slip and
(f) bank angle.
3.Janes All the World Aircraft (Ref.1.15) is a book published annually and
contains details of airplanes currently in production in various countries. Refer to
this book and study the three view drawings, geometrical details and
performance parameters of different types of airplanes.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Chapter 2
Earths atmosphere (Lectures 4 and 5)
Keywords: Earths atmosphere; International standard atmosphere;
geopotential altitude; stability of atmosphere.
Topics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Earths atmosphere
2.2.1 The troposphere
2.2.2 The stratosphere
2.2.3 The mesosphere
2.2.4 The ionosphere or thermosphere
2.2.5 The exosphere
2.3 International standard atmosphere (ISA)
2.3.1 Need for ISA and agency prescribing it.
2.3.2 Features of ISA
2.4 Variations of properties with altitude in ISA
2.4.1 Variations of pressure and density with altitude
2.4.2 Variations with altitude of pressure ratio, density ratio speed of
sound, coefficient of viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
2.5
Geopotential altitude
2.6
General remarks
2.6.1 Atmospheric properties in cases other than ISA
2.6.2 Stability of atmosphere
References
Exercises
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Chapter 2
Lecture 4
Earths atmosphere 1
Topics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Earths atmosphere
2.2.1 The troposphere
2.2.2 The stratosphere
2.2.3 The mesosphere
2.2.4 The ionosphere or thermosphere
2.2.5 The exosphere
2.3 International standard atmosphere (ISA)
2.3.1 Need for ISA and agency prescribing it.
2.3.2 Features of ISA
2.1 Introduction
Airplanes fly in the earths atmosphere and therefore, it is necessary to
know the properties of this atmosphere.
This chapter, deals with the average characteristics of the earths
atmosphere in various regions and the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
which is used for calculation of airplane performance.
2.2 Earths atmosphere
The earths atmosphere is a gaseous blanket around the earth which is
divided into the five regions based on certain intrinsic features (see Fig.2.1).
These five regions are: (i) Troposphere, (ii) Stratosphere, (iii) Mesosphere,
(iv) Ionosphere or Thermosphere and (v) Exosphere. There is no sharp
distinction between these regions and each region gradually merges with the
neighbouring regions.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
pressure and density of air are very low, but the air still retains its composition as
at sea level. The highest point of the mesosphere is called the mesopause.
2.2.4 The ionosphere or thermosphere
This region extends from the mesopause to about 1000 km. It is
characterized by the presence of ions and free electrons. The temperature
increases to about 00C at 110 km, to about 10000C at 150 km and peak of about
17800C at 700 km (Ref.2.1). Some electrical phenomena like the aurora borealis
occur in this region.
2.2.5 The exosphere
This is the outer fringe of the earths atmosphere. Very few molecules are
found in this region. The region gradually merges into the interplanetary space.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Remark:
The actual performance of an airplane is measured in flight tests under
prevailing conditions of temperature, pressure and density. Methods are
available to deduce, from the flight test data, the performance of the airplane
under ISA conditions. When this procedure is applied to various airplanes and
performance presented under ISA conditions, then comparison among different
airplanes is possible.
2.3.2 Features of ISA
The main features of the ISA are the standard sea level values and the
variation of temperature with altitude. The air is assumed as dry perfect gas.
The standard sea level conditions are as follows:
Temperature (T0) = 288.15 K = 150C
Pressure (p0) = 101325 N/m2 = 760 mm of Hg
Rate of change of temperature:
= - 6.5 K/km upto 11 km
= 0 K/km from 11 to 20 km
= 1 K/km from 20 to 32 km
The region of ISA from 0 to 11 km is referred to as troposphere. That
between 11 to 20 km is the lower stratosphere and between 20 to 32 km is the
middle stratosphere (Ref.1.11, chapter 2).
Note: Using the values of T0 and p0 , and the equation of state, p = RT, gives the
sea level density (0) as 1.225 kg/m3.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Chapter 2
Lecture 5
Earths atmosphere 2
Topics
2.4 Variations of properties with altitude in ISA
2.4.1 Variations of pressure and density with altitude
2.4.2 Variations with altitude of pressure ratio, density ratio speed of
sound, coefficient of viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
2.5
Geopotential altitude
2.6
General remarks
2.6.1 Atmospheric properties in cases other than ISA
2.6.2 Stability of atmosphere
(2.1)
(2.2)
Remark:
The hydrostatic equation can be easily derived by considering the balance of
forces on a small fluid element.
Consider a cylindrical fluid element of area A and height h as shown in Fig.2.2.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
(2.3)
(2.4)
where T0 is the sea level temperature, T is the temperature at the altitude h and
is the temperature lapse rate in the troposphere.
Substituting from Eq.(2.4) in Eq.(2.3) gives:
(dp /p) = - gdh /R (T0 h)
(2.5)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
(2.6)
(2.7)
Thus, both the pressure and density variations are obtained once the
temperature variation is known.
As per the ISA, R = 287.05287 m2sec-2 K and g = 9.80665 m/s2.
Using these and = 0.0065 K/m in the troposphere yields (g/R) as 5.25588.
Thus, in the troposphere, the pressure and density variations are :
(p/p0) = (T/T0)5.25588
(2.8)
(/0) = (T/T0)4.25588
(2.9)
(2.10)
where p11, 11 and T11 are the pressure, density and temperature respectively at
11 km altitude.
In the middle stratosphere (20 to 32 km altitude), it can be shown that (note in
this case = -0.001 K / m):
(p / p20) = (T / T20)- 34.1632
(2.11)
(2.12)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
where p20, 20 and T20 are pressure, density and temperature respectively at
20 km altitude.
Thus, the pressure and density variations have been worked out in the
troposphere and the stratosphere of ISA. Table 2.1 presents these values.
Remark:
Using Eqs.(2.1) and (2.2) the variations of pressure and density can be worked
out for other variations of temperature with height (see exercise 2.1).
2.4.2. Variations with altitude of pressure ratio, density ratio, speed of
sound, coefficient of viscosity and kinematic viscosity
The ratio (p/p0) is called pressure ratio and is denoted by . Its value in ISA can
be obtained by using Eqs.(2.8),(2.10) and (2.11). Table 2.1 includes these
values.
The ratio ( / 0) is called density ratio and is denoted by . Its values in ISA can
be obtained using Eqs.(2.9),(2.10) and (2.12). Table 2.1 includes these values.
The speed of sound in air, denoted by a, depends only on the temperature and
is given by:
a = ( RT)0.5
(2.13)
where is the ratio of specific heats; for air = 1.4. The values of a in ISA can
be obtained by using appropriate values of temperature. Table 2.1 includes these
values.
The kinematic viscosity ( ) is given by:
T 3/2
] , where T is in Kelvin and is in kg m-1 s-1
T+110.4
(2.14)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Solution:
It may be noted that the three altitudes specified in this example, viz.
8 km, 16 km and 24 km, lie in troposphere, lower stratosphere and middle
stratosphere regions of ISA respectively.
(a) h = 8 km
Let the quantities at 8 km altitude be denoted by the suffix 8.
In troposphere: T = T0 - h
where, T0 = 288.15 K, = 0.0065 K / m
Or
35599.5
= 0.52516 kg/m3
287.05287236.15
8 = 8 /0 = 0.52516/1.225 = 0.42870
a8 = ( RT8)0.5 = 1.4287.05287236.15
0.5
= 308.06 m/s
From Eq.(2.14):
T81.5
236.151.5
-6
8 = 1.45810-6
=
1.45810
= 1.526810-5 kg m-1 s-1
236.15 +110.4
T8 +110.4
(i) The values calculated above and those in Table 2.1 may differ from each
other in the last significant digit. This is due to the round-off errors in the
calculations.
(ii) Consider an airplane flying at 8 km altitude at a flight speed of 220 m/s.
The Mach number of this flight would be: 220/308.06 = 0.714
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
(iii) Further if the reference chord of the wing (cref) of this airplane be 3.9 m,
the Reynolds number in this flight, based on cref, would be:
Re =
V c ref
2203.9
= 29.51106
-5
2.907210
5.25588
= 22632 N/m2
(b) h = 16 km
In lower stratosphere Eq.(2.10) gives :
p
=
= exp -g h -11000 /RT11
p11 11
Consequently,
p16 16
=
= exp -9.80665 16000 -11000 / 287.05287216.65 = 0.45455
p11 11
Or p16 = 226320.45455 = 10287 N/m2
16 = 0.363920.45455 = 0.16541 kg/m3
16 = 10287 /101325 = 0.10153
16 = 0.16541/1.225 = 0.13503
a16 = 1.4287.05287216.65
0.5
= 295.07m/s
216.651.5
-5
-1 -1
16 = 1.45810-6
= 1.421610 kg m s
216.65+110.4
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
p20
= exp -9.80665 20000 -11000 / 287.05287216.65 = 0.24191
p11
Or p20 = 22632 0.24191 = 5474.9 N/m2
(c) h = 24 km
T24 = 216.65 +0.001 24000 - 20000 = 220.65K
From Eq.(2.11):
p24
-34.1632
= T24 /T20
p20
Or p24 = 5474.9 220.65/216.65
-34.1632
= 2930.5N/m2
24 = 0.04627/1.225 = 0.03777
a24 = 1.4287.05287220.65
0.5
= 297.78 m/s
220.651.5
-5
-1 -1
24 = 1.45810-6
= 1.443510 kg m s
220.65+110.4
16
24
T (K)
236.15
216.65
220.65
p (N/m2)
35599.5
10287.0
2930.5
= p/p0
0.35134
0.10153
0.02892
kg/m3
0.52516
0.16541
0.04627
= /0
0.42870
0.13503
0.03777
a (m/s)
308.06
295.07
297.78
kg m-1 s-1
1.5268 x 10-5
1.4216 x 10-5
1.4435 x 10-5
m2 /s
2.9072 x 10-5
8.594 x 10-5
3.12 x 10-4
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
R
)
R+h
G
where R is the radius of earth and hG is the geometric altitude above earths
surface.
Thus, the values of p and obtained by assuming g = g
are at an
altitude slightly different from the geometrical altitude (hG). This altitude is called
geopotential altitude, which for convenience is denoted by h. Following Ref.1,
the geopotential altitude can be defined as the height above earths surface in
units, proportional to the potential energy of unit mass (geopotential), relative to
sea level. It can be shown that the geopotential altitude (h) is given, in terms of
geometric altitude (hG), by the following relation. Reference 1.13, chapter 3 may
be referred to for derivation.
hG =
R
h
R-h
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Note:
(a) The local temperature varies with latitude but the sea level pressure (p0)
depends on the weight of air above and is taken same at all the places i.e.
101325 N/m2. Knowing p0 and T0, and the temperature lapse rates, the pressure,
temperature and density in tropospheres of arctic minimum and tropical
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
maximum can be obtained using Eqs. (2.4), (2.6) and (2.7). (see also exercise
2.1).
(b) Some airlines/ air forces may prescribe intermediate values of sea level
temperature e.g. ISA +150C or ISA +200C. The variations of pressure,
temperature and density with altitude in these cases can also be worked out from
the aforesaid equations.
2.6.2 Stability of atmosphere
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
speed
Altit- Tempeude
(m)
0
rature Pressure
(K)
(N/m2)
of
Kinematic
Density
sound
viscosity
(p/po)
(kg/m3)
(/o)
(m/s)
(m2/s)
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
15
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
31400 228.05
31600 228.25
31800 228.45
32000 228.65
Note: Following values / expressions have been used while preparing ISA table.
R=287.05287m2sec -2 K
g= 9.80665m/s2
T 3/2
]
T+110.4
16
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
17
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Chapter 2
Reference
2.1 Gunston, B, The Cambridge aerospace dictionary Cambridge University
Press (2004).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Chapter 2
Exercises
2.1 On a certain day the pressure at sea level is 758 mm of mercury
(101059 N / m2) and the temperature is 25oC. The temperature is found to fall
linearly with height to -55oC at 12km and after that it remains constant upto
20 km. Calculate the pressure, density and kinematic viscosity at 8km and 16km
altitude.
(Hint : When the temperature variation is linear, Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7) can be used
to obtain the pressure and density at a chosen altitude by using appropriate
values of p0, T0, 0 and . As regards the constant temperature region, an
equation similar to Eq (2.10) can be used; note that, in this exercise, the
tropopause is at 12 km altitude)
[Answers:
p8 = 36,812 N/m2, 8 = 0.5238 kg/m3, 8 = 3.002 x 10-5 m2/sec,
p 16 = 10897 N/m2, 16 = 0.1740 kg/m3,16 = 8.218 x 10-5 m2/sec]
Remark : Due to round off errors in calculations, the student may get the
numerical values which are slightly different from those given as answers. Values
within 0.5% of those given as answers can be regarded as correct.
2.2 If the altimeter in an airplane reads 5000m, on the day described in exercise
2.1, what is the altitude of airplane above mean sea level? What would be the
indicated altitude after landing on aerodrome at sea level?
(Hint: An altimeter is an instrument which senses the ambient pressure and
indicates height in ISA corresponding to that pressure. It does not read the
correct altitude when the atmospheric conditions differ from ISA.
To solve this exercise, obtain the pressure corresponding to 5000 m altitude in
ISA. Then find the altitude corresponding to this pressure in the atmospheric
conditions prevailing as in exercise 2.1. As regards the second part of this
exercise, the pressure at the sea level on that day is 101059 N/m2.
When the
airplane lands at sea level, the altimeter would indicate altitude, in ISA,
corresponding to this pressure. In actual practice, the air traffic control would
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
inform the pilot about the local ambient pressure and the pilot would adjust zero
reading of his altimeter.)
[Answers: 5152 m, 22.3 m].
2.4 During a flight test for climb performance, the following readings were
observed at two altitudes:
Record Number
1,300
16
2
1,600
14
The altimeter is calibrated according to ISA. Obtain the true difference of height
between the two indicated altitudes.
(Hint: Note that the ambient temperatures are different from those in ISA at 1300
and 1600 m altitudes. Hence the actual altitudes are different from the indicated
altitudes. To get the difference between these two altitudes (h), obtain
pressures at 1300 and 1600 m heights in ISA. Let the difference in pressures be
p. Calculate density at the two altitudes using corresponding pressures and
temperature. Take average of the two densities (avg). Using Eq. (2.2) :
h -p / {avg x g} )
[Answer: 311 m]
Remark:
The difference between the actual altitudes (311 m) and the indicated
altitudes (300 m) is small. Since altimeters of all the airplanes are calibrated
using ISA, the difference between indicated altitudes and actual altitudes of two
airplanes will be small. To take care of any uncertainty, the flight paths of two
airplanes are separated by several hundred meters. However, with the
availability of Global Positioning System (GPS) the separation between two
airplanes can be reduced.
2.5 A light airplane is flying at a speed of 220 kmph at an altitude of 3.2 km.
Assuming ISA conditions and the mean chord of the wing to be 1.5 m, obtain the
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Reynolds number, based on wing mean chord, and the Mach number in this
flight.
[Answers: Re = 4.83 x 106, M = 0.186]
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Atmospheric properties in ISA
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
speed
Altit- Tempeude
(m)
0
rature Pressure
(K)
(N/m2)
of
Kinematic
Density
sound
viscosity
(p/po)
(kg/m3)
(/o)
(m/s)
(m2/s)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
31400 228.05
31600 228.25
31800 228.45
32000 228.65
Note: Following values / expressions have been used while preparing ISA table.
R=287.05287m2sec -2 K
g= 9.80665m/s2
T 3/2
]
T+110.4
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Drag polar
(Lectures 6 to 12)
Keywords: Various types of drags; streamlined body and bluff body; boundary
layers; airfoil characteristics and designations; drags of airplane components;
drag polars at subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic speeds; high lift
devices
Topics
3.1. Introduction- Need and definition of drag polar
3.1.1 Contributions to airplane drag
3.1.2 Interference drag
3.1.3 Contributions to airplane lift
3.1.4 Contributions to airplane pitching moment
3.1.5 Drag coefficient, lift coefficient and pitching moment coefficient of the
airplane
3.1.6 Categorization of airplane components
3.2 Estimation of drag polar at low subsonic speeds
3.2.1 Angle of attack of airplane, wing incidence and tail incidence
3.2.2 Skin friction drag, pressure drag and profile drag of an airfoil
3.2.3 Summary of lift coefficient, drag coefficient, pitching moment
coefficient, centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre of an airfoil
3.2.4 Examples of pressure coefficient distributions
3.2.5 Introduction to boundary layer theory
3.2.6 Boundary layer over a flat plate height of boundary layer,
displacement thickness and skin friction drag
3.2.7 Boundary layer separation, adverse pressure gradient and
favourable pressure gradient
3.2.8 Boundary layer transition
3.2.9 Turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Lecture 6
Drag polar 1
Topics
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
number (Ref.1.4 section 10.14); see sections 3.3.3 to 3.3.5 for details of critical
Mach number. For airplanes flying at transonic and supersonic speeds, the drag
polar depends on Mach number. Hence, the usual practice is to obtain the drag
polar of subsonic airplanes at a suitable flight speed (generally the cruising
speed) and for a high speed airplane, the drag polars are obtained at suitable
values of Mach numbers spread over the range of operating Mach numbers.
In this chapter the estimation of the drag polar at subsonic, transonic and
supersonic speeds is discussed. The topic of drag polar at hypersonic speed is
also touched up on.
3.1.1 Contributions to airplane drag
The usual method to estimate the drag of an airplane is to add the drags
of the major components of the airplane and then apply correction for the
interference effects.
The major components of the airplane which contribute to drag are wing,
fuselage, horizontal tail, vertical tail, nacelle(s) and landing gear.
Thus,
D = Dwing + Dfuse + Dht + Dvt + Dnac + Dlg + Detc + Dint
(3.1)
where Dwing, Dfuse, Dht, Dvt , Dnac and D lg denote drag due to wing, fuselage,
horizontal tail, vertical tail , nacelle(s) and landing gear respectively.
Detc includes the drag of items like external fuel tanks, bombs, struts etc.
Dint is the drag due to interference which is described in the next section.
3.1.2 Intereference drag
While presenting the data on the drag of wing or fuselage or any other
component of the airplane, the data generally refers to the drag of that
component when it is alone in the airstream and free from the influence of any
other component. Whereas, in an airplane, the wing, the fuselage and the tails
are present in close proximity of each other and the flow past one component is
influenced by the others. As a result, the drag of the airplane as a combination of
different components is different from the sum of the drags of individual
components. To appreciate this, let us consider the case examined in Ref.3.1.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Cd =
D
1 V 2
cb
1.16
1.4
1.8
2.0
2.6
(Cd)combination
0.1727
0.1194
0.0824
0.0761
0.0627
0.0527
0.0494
Cdint
0.2233
0.070
0.033
0.0267
0.0133
0.0033
0.0
Table 3.1 Interference drag coefficient for different spacings between two airfoils
Note:
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(b) Configuration with airfoils placed side by side as seen in plan view
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Remarks:
(i)The drag coefficient of the individual airfoil in this example is large as the airfoil
is thick and Reynolds number is rather low. Airfoils used on airplanes would have
thickness ratio (t/c) of 12 to 18% and the values of Cd, for Reynolds number of
6 x 106, would be around 0.006.
(ii) Ways to reduce interference drag
A large number of studies have been carried out on interference drag and
it is found that Dint can be brought down to 5 to 10% of the sum of the drags of all
components, by giving proper fillets at the junctions of wing and fuselage and
tails and fuselage ( Fig.3.2 ).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(3.2)
For airplanes with wings having aspect ratio greater than six, the lift due to the
wing-fuselage combination is roughly equal to the lift produced by the gross wing
area. The gross wing area (S) is the planform area of the wing, extended into the
fuselage, up to the plane of the symmetry.
3.1.4 Contributions to airplane pitching moment
The pitching moment of the airplane is taken about its center of gravity
and denoted by Mcg.
Main contributions to Mcg are from wing, fuselage, nacelle(s) and
horizontal tail i.e.
Mcg = Mwing + Mfuselage + Mnac + Mht
(3.3)
3.1.5 Drag coefficient, lift coefficient and pitching moment coefficient of the
airplane
D
1 V 2
; CL =
L
1 V 2
; Cmcg =
Mcg
1 V 2
Sc
(3.4)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
1 2
1
1
1
VSCDwing + V2SfuseCDfuse + V2Snac CDnac + V2Sht CDht
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
+ V2Svt CDvt + V2SlgCDlg + V2Setc CDetc +Dint
2
2
2
D=
(3.5)
It may be recalled that Setc and CDetc refer to areas and drag coefficients of other
items like external fuel tanks, bombs, struts etc..
Or CD =
D
1 V 2S
= CDwing + CDfuse
Slg
Sfuse
S
S
S
S
+ CDht ht + CDvt vt + CDnac nac + CDlg
+ CDetc etc + CDint (3.6)
S
S
S
S
S
S
The data on drag, lift and pitching moment, compiled from various sources, is
available in references 1.9, 1.10, 1.12 and 3.3 to 3.9.
During the discussion in the previous section it was mentioned that (a) for
wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail, the planform area is taken as the reference
area, (b) for fuselage, the wetted area or the frontal area is taken as the
reference area. The reason for these specifications lies in the fact that in
aerodynamics the airplane components are categorised as (a) wing type
surfaces, (b) bodies and (c) others. This categorisation, described below, is
based on common geometrical features of certain airplane components.
Figure 3.3 shows the geometric parameters of a wing. It is observed that the
span (b) of the wing is much larger than the chord (c) of the wing section (or the
airfoil) and in turn the chord is much larger than the thickness (t) of the airfoil. For
wings of subsonic airplanes the ratio (b/c) is between 5 to 12 and the ratio (t/c)
for the commonly used profiles is 0.10 to 0.18 or t/c 0.1 and c/b 0.1 . This
separation of sizes ( or scales in more technical terms) enables the simplification
that the flow past a wing can be analysed as a study of flow past an airfoil and
then applying correction for the effect of finite wing span. It may be recalled that
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(i)When the aspect ratio is less than about 5, which is characteristic of wings of
high speed airplanes, the flow past the wing has to be treated as threedimensional.
(ii) Horizontal tail, vertical tail and streamlined struts, seen on some low speed
airplanes, come under the category of wing type surfaces.
Figure 3.4a shows the fuselage of a jet airplane. Here the length (lf) is much
larger than the height (h) and width (w), but h and w are generally not very
different in their dimensions. Hence, the flow past a fuselage cannot be
considered as two-dimensional. However, for jet airplanes, lf/h is around 6 to 10
and the analysis of flow past fuselage can be simplified by assuming the fuselage
to be a slender/streamlined body.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(i) As regards the analysis of flow is concerned, the fuselage, nacelle, external
fuel tanks, bombs, and antenna masts have common geometric features and are
categorised as bodies.
(ii) Components of airplane like landing gear, which do not fall under the above
two categories, are designated as others.
3.2. Estimation of drag polar at low subsonic speeds
The
definition of the angle of attack of the airplane and brief descriptions of the drag
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
coefficients of the airplane components are presented before discussing the drag
polar.
3.2.1 Angles of attack of the airplane, wing incidence and tail incidence
The angles iw and it are measured clockwise from FRL. The angle iw is
positive but the angle it is generally negative.
14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
3.2.2 Skin friction drag, pressure drag and, profile drag of an airfoil
The drag coefficient of a wing consist of the (i) the profile drag due to
airfoil (Cd) and (ii) the induced drag due to the finite aspect ratio of the wing (CDi).
The symbols Cd and Cl with lower case suffices refer to the drag coefficient and
lift coefficient of the airfoil. The profile drag of the airfoil consists of the skin
friction drag and the pressure drag. It may be added that an element on the
surface of an airfoil, kept in a flow, experiences shear stress tangential to the
surface and pressure (p) normal to it (Fig.3.6). The shear stress multiplied by the
area of the element gives the tangential force. The component of this tangential
force in the free stream direction when integrated over the profile gives the skin
friction drag. Similarly, the pressure distribution results in normal force on the
element whose component in the free stream direction, integrated over the profile
15
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Lecture 7
Drag polar 2
Topics
3.2.3 Summary of lift coefficient, drag coefficient, pitching moment
coefficient, centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre of an airfoil
3.2.4 Examples of pressure coefficient distributions
3.2.5 Introduction to boundary layer theory
3.2.6 Boundary layer over a flat plate height of boundary layer,
displacement thickness and skin friction drag
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
L = Ncos - C sin
(3.7)
D = Nsin+Ccos
(3.8)
Figure 3.8 shows elements of length and dsu and dsl at points Pu and Pl
on the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil respectively. The cartesian
coordinates of points Pu and Pl are (xu,yu) and ( x l , y l ) respectively. Whereas su
and sl are respectively the distances along the airfoil surface, of the points Pu
and Pl measured from the stagnation point (Fig.3.8).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(3.9)
(3.10)
Note that the suffix u denotes quantities at point Pu and the positive direction of
the angle u is as shown in Fig.3.8 .
Expressions similar to Eqs.(3.9) and (3.10) can be written down for the
contributions to N and C from element at point Pl .
Integrating over the entire airfoil yields :
N=-
upper surface
C=
upper surface
p cos
l
- l sinl dsl
(3.11)
lower surface
p sin +
l
cosl dsl
(3.12)
lower surface
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Mle =
upper surface
lower surface
(3.13)
Note: Once N and C are known, the lift per unit span (L) and drag per unit
span (D) of the airfoil can be obtained using Eqs.(3.7) and (3.8).
It is convenient to work in terms of lift coefficient ( Cl ) and drag coefficient
(Cd). The definitions of these may be recalled as :
Cl =
and
Cd =
(3.14)
1 2
V c
2
D
(3.15)
1 2
V c
2
ds = 0
(3.16)
p -p
1 2
V
2
1 2
V
2
(3.17)
(3.18)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Normal forcecoefficient :
Cn =
1 2
V c
2
C
Chordwiseor axial forcecoefficient: Cc =
1 2
V c
2
Mle
Pitchingmoment coefficient:
Cmle =
1
V2 c 2
(3.19)
c
1
Cc = c fu +c fl dx +
Cpu dy - lowersurface
Cpl dy
c 0
upper surface
(3.20)
Following section 10.2 of Ref.1.4, the expressions for Cn, Cc and Cmle can be
rewritten as:
Cn =
c
c
dy
1
dy u
C
C
dx
+
+c f l l dx
pl pu
c fu
c 0
dx
dx
0
Cc =
dy u
dy
1
- Cpl l dx +
Cpu
c 0
dx
dx
Cmle
c
0
fu
- c f l dx
c
c
dy
dy
1
c
dy
1
+ 2 Cpu u +c fu
c
dx
0
dy l
+c fl y l dx
y u dx + - Cpl
dx
(3.21)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Remarks:
(i) From Cn and Cc the lift coefficient ( Cl ) and drag coefficient (Cd) are obtained
as :
Cl = Cn cos - Cc sin
(3.22 )
Cd = Cn sin + Cc cos
(3.23)
(ii) Centre of pressure : The point on the airfoil chord through which the
resultant aerodynamic force passes is the centre of pressure. The aerodynamic
moment about this point is zero. It may be noted that the location of centre of
pressure depends on the angle of attack or the lift coefficient.
(iii) Aerodynamic centre: As the location of the centre of pressure depends on
lift coefficient ( Cl ) the pitching moment coefficient about leading edge (Cmle) also
changes with Cl . However, it is found that there is a point on the airfoil chord
about which the pitching moment coefficient is independent of the lift coefficient.
This point is called Aerodynamic centre. For incompressible flow this point is
close to the quarter chord point of the airfoil.
(iv) If the distributions of Cp and cf are obtained by analytical or computational
methods, then the pressure drag coefficient (Cdp) and the skin friction drag
coefficient(Cdf) can be evaluated.
In experimental work the pressure distribution on an airfoil at different angles of
attack can be easily measured. However, measurement of shear stress on
an airfoil surface is difficult.The profile drag coefficient (Cd) of airfoil, which is the
sum of pressure drag coefficient and skin friction drag coefficient, is measured in
experiments by Wake survey technique which is described in Chapter 9, section
f of Ref.3.10. In this technique, the momentum loss due to the presence of the
airfoil is calculated and equated to the drag (refer section 7.5.1 of Ref.3.11 for
derivation).
3.2.4 Examples of pressure coefficient distributions
Though the expression for lift coefficient ( Cl ) involves both the pressure
coefficient (Cp) and the skin friction drag coefficient (cf), the contribution of the
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
former i.e. Cp is predominant to decide Cl . On the other hand, the pressure drag
coefficient (Cdp) is determined by the distribution of Cp and the skin friction drag
coefficient (Cdf) is decided by the distribution of shear stress .
In this subsection the distributions of CP in typical cases and their implications for
Cl and Cdp are discussed.
The distribution of the pressure coefficient is generally plotted on the outer side
of the surface of the body (Fig.3.9a). The length of the arrow indicates the
magnitude of Cp. As regards the sign convention, an arrow pointing towards the
surface indicates that Cp is positive or local pressure is more than the free stream
pressure p . An arrow pointing away from the surface indicates that Cp is
negative i.e. the local pressure is lower than p .
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
fluid flow case, shown in Fig.3.9b, it is seen that the flow separates from the body
(see description on boundary layer separation in section 3.2.7) and the pressure
coefficient behind the cylinder is negative and nearly constant. However, the
distribution is still symmetric about horizontal axis. Thus in this case Cl = 0 but
Cdp > 0 .
The distributions of Cp over symmetrical and unsymmetrical foils at Cl = 0
and Cl > 0 are shown in Figs.3.10 a to d. Note also the locations of centre
pressure and the production of pitching moment for the unsymmetrical airfoil.
Flow visualization pictures at three angles of attack( ) are shown in Figs.3.36 a,
b and c. An attached flow is seen at low angle of attack. Some separated flow is
seen at moderate angle of attack and large separated flow region is seen near
close to the stalling angle ( stall ). It may be pointed out that theoretical calculation
of skin friction drag using boundary layer theory can be done, when flow is
attached. This topic is discussed in the next subsection.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
large or comparable to other stresses like pressure. Outside the boundary layer
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
the gradient U / y is very small and viscous stress can be ignored and flow
treated as inviscid. It may be recalled from text books on fluid mechanics, that in
an inviscid flow the Bernoullis equation is valid.
Features of the boundary layer over the surface of a streamlined body are shown
in Fig.3.11a. On the surface of a bluff body the boundary layer develops upto a
certain extent and then separates (Fig.3.11b). The definitions of the streamlined
body and bluff body are presented at the end of this subsection.
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
of the laminar and turbulent boundary layers on a flat plate are briefly described.
While discussing separation, the boundary layer over a curved surface is
considered.
3.2.6 Laminar boundary layer over flat plate height of boundary layer,
displacement thickness and skin friction drag
The equations of motion governing the flow of a viscous fluid are called
Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations. For derivation of these equations refer to
chapter 15 of Ref.3.12. Taking into account the thinness of the boundary layer,
Prandtl simplified the N-S equations in 1904. These equations are called
Boundary layer equations (Chapter 16 of Ref.3.12). Solution of these equations,
for laminar boundary layer over a flat plate with uniform external stream, was
obtained by Blasius in 1908. Subsequently many others obtained the solution.
The numerical solution by Howarth, presented in Ref.3.10, chapter 7, is given in
Table 3.2. In this table U is the local velocity, Ue is the external velocity (which in
this particular case is V ), and is the non-dimensional distance from the wall
defined as :
=y
Ue
x
(3.24)
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
It is seen from table 3.2 that the external velocity (Ue) is attained very
gradually. Hence the height at which U/Ue equals 0.99 is taken as the height of
the boundary layer and denoted by 0.99 . From table 3.2, U/Ue 0.99 is attained
at = 5 . Noting the definition of in Eq.(3.24) gives :
5 = 0.99
Or
0.99
=
x
Ue
x
Ux
5
5
=
; Rx = e
Ue x
Rx
(3.25)
14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
15
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
U
1 = 1- dy
Ue
0
(3.26)
wall
u
; wall = ;Note: wall is a function of 'x'.
1 2
y y =0
Ue
2
(3.27)
If the length of the plate is L, then the skin friction drag per unit span of the
plate (Df) is :
L
Df = wall dx
0
Df
1 2
VL
2
(3.28)
From the boundary layer profile (table 3.2) it can be shown that for a flat
plate of length, L, the expressions for 1 and Cdf are:
1 1.721
=
L
RL
(3.29)
16
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Cdf =
VL
1.328
; RL =
RL
(3.30)
Remark :
Consider a flat plate of length 500 mm kept in an air stream of velocity 15 m/s.
Obtain (a) the boundary layer thickness 0.99 and the displacement thickness
1 at the end of the plate (b) the skin drag coefficient. Assume
= 1510-6 m2 /s
0.515
= 5105
-6
1510
5
510
= 7.0710-3
1 1.721
1.721
=
=
= 2.43410-3
5
L
RL
510
Or 1 = 2.43410-5 0.5 = 1.21710-3 m = 1.217 mm
From Eq.(3.30):
Cdf =
1.328
1.328
=
= 0.00188
RL
5105
Remark:
0.99 / L
17
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Lecture 8
Drag polar 3
Topics
3.2.7 Boundary layer separation, adverse pressure gradient and
favourable pressure gradient
3.2.8 Boundary layer transition
3.2.9 Turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate
3.2.10 General remarks on boundary layers
3.2.7 Boundary layer separation, adverse pressure gradient and favourable
pressure gradient
When the flow takes place around airfoils and curved surfaces, the velocity
outside the boundary layer is not constant. From Bernoullis equation it can be
deduced that when the velocity decreases the pressure increases and viceversa. When the velocity is decreasing i.e. dp/dx is positive, the pressure
gradient is called Adverse pressure gradient. When dp/dx is negative it is called
Favourable pressure gradient.
Figure 3.14 shows the development of a boundary layer in an external stream
with adverse pressure gradient (dp/dx > 0). Such a flow may occur on the upper
surface of an airfoil beyond the point of maximum thickness. Since the static
pressure at a station remains almost constant across the boundary layer, the
pressure inside the boundary layer at stations separated by distance x also
increases in the downstream direction.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Fig.3.14 Flow in boundary layer before and after point of separation (not to
scale)
Figure 3.14 also shows a small element ABCD in the boundary layer. The
pressure on the face AD is p whereas that on the face BC is p + dp/dx x .
Since dp/dx is positive in this case, the net effect causes a deceleration of the
flow, in addition to that due to viscosity. The effect is more pronounced near the
surface and the velocity profile changes as shown in Fig.3.14. Finally at point S
the slope of the velocity profile at the wall, U / y wall , becomes zero. Besides
the change in shape, the boundary layer also thickens rapidly in the presence of
adverse pressure gradient. Downstream of the point S, there is a reversal of the
flow direction in the region adjacent to the wall. A line can be drawn (indicated as
dotted line in Fig.3.14) in such a way that the mass flow above this line is the
same as that ahead of point S. Below the dotted line, there is a region of
recirculating flow and the value of the stream function for the dotted line is
zero. However, ahead of the point S, the = 0 line is the surface of the body.
Thus, after the point S, it is observed that between the main flow (i.e. region
above = 0 line) and the body surface lies a region of recirculating flow. When
this happens the flow is said to be Separated and S is referred to as the Point
of separation. Due to separation, the pressure recovery, which would have taken
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
place in an unseparated flow, does not take place and the pressure drag of the
body increases.
Remarks:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
2. After Rcrit is exceeded, some disturbances grow. These are called Tollmien
Schlichting (T-S) waves.
3. The T-S waves lead to three-dimensional unstable waves and formation of
isolated large scale vortical structures called turbulent spots.
4. The turbulent spots grow and coalesce to form fully turbulent flow.
Remarks:
(i) As Rcrit is exceeded only some disturbances grow and hence in flows with very
low free stream turbulence level, Rcrit as high as 2.8 x 106 has been observed in
experiments. It may be recalled from fluid mechanics that the flow in pipe can
become turbulent when Reynolds number, based on pipe diameter (Red),
exceeds 2000. But laminar flow has been observed, in very smooth pipes, even
at Red = 40,000.
(ii) Transition process takes place over a length called transition length.
Reference 3.11, chapter 15 gives some guidelines for estimating this length.
Surface roughness reduces this length.
(iii) In flows with external pressure gradient, the transition is hastened by adverse
pressure gradient. It is generally assumed that transition does not take place in
favourable pressure gradient.
3.2.9 Turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate
When the flow is turbulent, one of its dominant features is that the velocity at
a point is a random function of time(Fig.3.15). When a quantity varies in a
random manner, one cannot say as to what the value would be at a chosen time,
though the values may lie within certain limits. In such a situation, the flow
features are described in terms of statistical averages. For example, the average
U of a fluctuating quantity U is given by :
T +T
1 0
U T0 =
Udt
2T T0-T
(3.31)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
urms
1
2T
= u'2 =
dt
(3.32)
-T
T
r.m.s. value of u is
u'2
Another feature of turbulent flows is that even if the mean flow is only in one
direction, the fluctuations are in all three directions i.e. the instantaneous velocity
vector ( V ) at a point would be
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
the kinetic energy of the mean motion which gets converted into the random
fluctuations is finally dissipated into heat and as such losses are higher when the
flow is turbulent.
Characteristics of turbulent boundary layer:
(3.33)
Though the velocity gradient U / y near the wall is much higher for
turbulent boundary layer than for the laminar case, the gradient is lower away
from the wall and 0.99 is much higher for a turbulent boundary layer. Reference
3.13, chapter 6, gives the following expression for 0.99 .
0.99 turb
x
0.16
R1/7
x
(3.34)
Skin friction:
The value of U / y wall is higher for turbulent boundary layer than for
laminar boundary layer (Fig.3.12). Hence, the skin friction drag for turbulent
boundary layer is much higher than that for a laminar boundary layer. Reference
3.13, chapter 6 gives the following expression for Cdf .
Cdf =
0.031
R1/7
L
(3.35)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Remarks:
(i) In Eqs.(3.34) and (3.35) it is assumed that the boundary layer is turbulent
from the leading edge. Corrections to these expressions can be applied by
taking the start of the transition region as the origin of the turbulent boundary
layer. However, at the values of RL obtained in actual airplanes the error in Cdf,
by ignoring the laminar region is small.
(ii) In certain references following expressions are found for 0.99 and Cdf.
1
0.99 / x = 0.37 / R x5
However, Ref.3.13 chapter 6 shows that Eqs. (3.34) and (3.35) are more
accurate.
(iii) For the 1/7th power law profile of the turbulent boundary layer (Eq.3.33),
it can be shown using Eqs.(3.26) and (3.33) that :
1 =
(3.36)
Example 3.2
(ii)
Assume that the boundary layer is turbulent from landing edge of plate.
Solution:
(i)
Laminar flow
0.99
5
5
=
=
= 0.005 or 0.99 = 2.5 mm
L
RL
106
1 1.721 1.721
=
=
= 0.001721 or 1 = 0.86 mm
L
RL
106
Cdf =
(ii)
1.328 1.328
=
= 0.001328
RL
106
Turbulent flow
0.99 0.16
= 1/7 = 0.02223 or 0.99 = 11.12 mm
L
RL
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
1
= 1.39 mm
8
Cdf =
0.031 0.031
=
= 0.00431
7
R1/7
106
L
Remark :
The comparison of the above results points out that the values of 0.99 and 1 are
larger when the boundary layer is turbulent than when it is laminar. The value of
Cdf in the former case is nearly three times of that in the later case.
3.2.10 General remarks on boundary layers
In this subsection the following four topics are briefly touched upon.
(i) Calculation of boundary layer, (ii) Separation of turbulent boundary layer,
(iii) Laminar flow airfoil and (iv) Effect of roughness on transition and skin friction
To calculate the boundary layer over an airfoil the first step is to obtain the
velocity distribution using potential flow theory. It may be recalled from
aerodynamics, that in potential flow analysis the velocity on the surface of the
body is not zero. It is assumed that this velocity distribution, given by potential
flow, would roughly be the distribution of velocity outside the boundary layer (Ue).
From this velocity distribution and using Bernoullis equation, the first estimate of
dp/dx is obtained. Based on this data the growth of laminar boundary layer and
the location of transition point are determined. After the transition, the growth of
turbulent boundary layer is calculated. After obtaining the boundary layers the
displacement thickness 1 is added to the airfoil shape and calculations are
repeated till the displacement thickness assumed at the beginning of an iteration
is almost same as that obtained after calculation of the boundary layer.
Subsequently, the skin friction drag can be calculated. Section 18.4 of Ref.3.11
may be consulted for details. Presently, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is
used for these calculations.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
A turbulent boundary layer may also separate from the surface when it is
subjected to adverse pressure gradient. However, due to turbulent mixing the
value of U / y w for separation to take place is much higher than that in the
case of laminar boundary layer. Hence, a turbulent boundary layer has a higher
resistance to separation. This behaviour is used in bluff bodies to delay the
separation and reduce their pressure drag. For example, in the case of a circular
cylinder the laminar boundary layer separates at around 800 leaving a large
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
its shape is designed in such a way that the transition to turbulence is delayed
and the flow remains laminar over a longer portion of the airfoil.
These airfoils are called Laminar flow or low drag airfoils. Presently, efforts are
in progress to delay the transition by boundary layer control (see remark in
section 3.7.2).
It was mentioned that the critical Reynolds number (Rcrit) depends on factors like
pressure gradient, Mach number, surface curvature and heat transfer. However,
the onset of transition may be delayed when disturbance like free stream
turbulence is low. However, if the surface is rough, this delay may not be
observed when roughness exceeds a certain value (see chapter 15 of Ref.3.11)
(v) Effect of roughness on skin friction in turbulent boundary layer
Equation (3.35) indicates that Cdf is proportional to RL-1/ 7 i.e. Cdf decreases with
RL. However, when the surface is rough it is observed that the decrease in Cdf
stops after a certain Reynolds number(Fig.3.17). This Reynolds number is called
Cut-off Reynolds number and is denoted by (Re)cut-off.
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
case of an airfoil.
k = height of roughness referred to as equivalent sand roughness.
Following Ref.3.6, chapter 3, typical values of k are given in table 3.3.
Type of surface
4.06 x 10-6
Smooth paint
6.35 x 10-6
1.02 x 10-5
3.048 x 10-5
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Lecture 9
Drag polar 4
Topics
3.2.11 Presentation of aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
3.2.12 Geometric characteristics of airfoils
3.2.13 Airfoil nomenclature\designation
3.2.14 Induced drag of wing
3.2.15 Drag coefficient of fuselage
3.2.16 Drag coefficients of other components
3.2.17 Parabolic drag polar, parasite drag, induced drag and Oswald
efficiency factor
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
impending loss of lift. Airfoils with thickness ratio between 6 10% generally
display abrupt stall while those with t/c more than 14% display a gradual stall. It
may be added that the stall patterns on the wing and on the airfoil are directly
related only for high aspect ratio (A > 6) unswept wings. For low aspect ratio
highly swept wings three-dimensional effects may dominate.
3.2.12 Geometrical characteristics of airfoils
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
xu = x - y t sin
yu = y c + y t cos
3.37
xl = x + y t sin
yl = y c - y t cos
where yc and yt are the ordinates, at location x, of the camber line and the
thickness distribution respectively; tan is the slope of the camber line at
location x (see also Fig.3.19d).
d) The leading edge radius is also prescribed for the aerofoil. The center of the
leading edge radius is located along the tangent to the mean line at the
leading edge (Fig.3.19c).
e) Depending on the thickness distribution, the trailing edge angle may be zero
or have a finite value. In some cases, thickness may be non-zero at the
trailing edge.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Centre for Aviation and Space Flight) were pioneers in airfoil design. Clark Y
airfoil shown in Fig.3.20a is an example of a 12% thick airfoil with almost flat
bottom surface which has been used on propeller blades.
Taking advantage of the developments in airfoil theory and boundary
layer theory, NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) of USA
systematically designed and tested a large number of airfoils in 1930s. These
are designated as NACA airfoils. In 1958 NACA was superseded by NASA
(National Aeronautic and Space Administration). This organization has
developed airfoils for special purposes. These are designated as NASA airfoils.
Though the large airplane companies like Boeing and Airbus, design their own
airfoils the NACA and NASA airfoils are generally employed by others. A brief
description of their nomenclature is presented below. The description of NACA
airfoils is based on chapter 6 of Ref.3.14.
NACA four-digit series airfoils
t
0.2969 x - 0.1260 x - 0.3516 x 2 +0.2843 x 3 - 0.1015 x 4
20
(3.38)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
c) NACA 23012 Airfoil with high Clmax , used on low speed airplanes
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
The camber line for the four-digit series airfoils consists of two parabolic arcs
tangent at the point of maximum ordinate. The expressions for camber(yc) are :
3.39
yc =
During certain tests it was observed that Cl max of the airfoil could be
increased by shifting forward the location of the maximum camber. This finding
led to development of five-digit series airfoils. The new camber lines for the fivedigit series airfoils are designated by three digits. The same thickness distribution
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
was retained as that for NACA four-digit series airfoils. The camber line shape is
given as :
1
6
(3.40)
1
3
= k1 m 1- x ; m< x <1
yc =
The value of m decides the location of the maximum camber and that of k1 the
design lift coefficient( Cl i or Cl opt ). A combination of m = 0.2025 and k1 = 15.957
gives Cl i = 0.3 and maximum camber at 15% of chord. This meanline is
designated as NACA 230. The first digit 2 indicates that Cl i = 0.3 and the
subsequent two digits (30) indicate that the maximum camber occurs at 15% of
chord.
A typical five-digit cambered airfoil is NACA 23012. Its shape is shown in
Fig.3.20c. The digits signify :
First digit(2) indicates that Cl i = 0.3.
Second & third digits (30) indicate that maximum camber occurs at 15% of chord.
Last two digits (12) indicate that the maximum thickness ratio is 12%.
Remarks:
(i)
Refer Appendices II, III and IV of Ref.3.14 for camber line shape,
ordinates and aerodynamic characteristics of five-digit series airfoils.
(ii)
Modified four and five digit series airfoils were obtained when leading
edge radius and position of maximum thickness were altered. For
details Ref.3.14, chapter 6 may be consulted.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Taking advantage of these developments, new series of airfoils called low drag
airfoils or laminar flow airfoils were designed. These airfoils are designated as
1-series, 2-series,.,7-series. Among these the six series airfoils are
commonly used airfoils. Refer Ref.3.14, chapter 6 for more details.
When the airfoil surface is smooth. These airfoils have a Cdmin which is lower
than that for four-and five-digit series airfoils of the same thickness ratio. Further,
the minimum drag coefficient extends over a range of lift coefficient. This extent
is called drag bucket (see Fig.3.18b).
The thickness distributions for these airfoils are obtained by calculations which
give a desired pressure distribution. Analytical expressions for these distributions
are not available. Appendix I of Ref.3.14 gives symmetrical thickness
distributions for t/c between 6 to 21%.
The camber lines are designated as : a = 0, 0.1, 0.2 ., 0.9 and 1.0. For
example, the camber line shape with a = 0.4 gives a uniform pressure distribution
from x/c = 0 to 0.4 and then linearly decreasing to zero at x/c = 1.0. If the camber
line designation is not mentioned, a equal to unity is implied.
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
The digit 2 after the dash indicates that Cl opt is 0.2. Thus in this case, drag
bucket extends for Cl = 0.0 to 0.4.
The last two digits 15 indicate that the thickness ratio is 15%.
Since the value of a is not explicitly mentioned, the camber line shape
corresponds to a = 1.0.
Remarks:
(i)
camber
distribution,
ordinates
and
aerodynamic
The lift coefficient at the centre of the drag bucket ( Cl opt ) depends on
the camber. The extent of drag bucket depends on the thickness ratio
and the Reynolds number. The value given in the designation of the
airfoil is at Re = 9 x 106. The extent is about 0.1 for t/c of 12%, 0.2
for t/c of 15% and 0.3 for t/c of 18%. When the extent of the drag
bucket is less than 0.1 , the subscript in the designation of the airfoil
is omitted, e.g. NACA 66-210
NASA airfoils
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(i)Besides NACA & NASA airfoils, some researchers have designed airfoils for
specialized applications like (a) low Reynolds number airfoils for micro air
vehicles, (b) wind mills, (c) hydrofoils etc. These include those by Lissaman,
Liebeck,
Eppler
and
Drela.
Reference
3.9,
chapter
4,
and
internet
In the beginning of section 3.2.2 it was mentioned that the drag of the
wing consists of (i) the profile drag coefficient due to airfoil (Cd) and (ii) the
induced drag coefficient (CDi) due to finite aspect ratio of the wing. Subsections
3.2.3 to 3.2.13 covered various aspects of profile drag. In this subsection the
induced drag of the wing is briefly discussed.
For details regarding the production of induced drag and derivation of the
expression for the induced drag coefficient, the books on aerodynamics can be
consulted e.g. Ref.3.12, chapter 5. Following is a brief description of the induced
drag.
Consider a wing kept at a positive angle of attack in an air stream. In this
configuration, the wing produces a positive lift. At the wing root, the average
pressure on the upper surface is lower than the free stream pressure p and
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
the average pressure on the lower surface is higher than p . Since the span of
the wing is finite it has the wing tips and at these tips there cannot be a pressure
discontinuity or the pressure at the wing tips would be the same on the upper
side and the lower side. The pressure at the wing tips is expected to be mean of
the pressures on the upper and lower sides at the root section. Because of the
difference of pressures between the root and the tip, the pressure on the upper
surface of the wing increases from root to the tip in the spanwise direction.
Similarly, the pressure on the lower surface of the wing, decreases from the root
to the tip in the spanwise direction. These pressure gradients on the upper and
lower surfaces would lead to cross flows on these surfaces. Thus, at a given
spanwise station, the airstreams from the upper and lower surfaces would meet,
at the trailing edge, at an angle. This would cause shedding of vortices from the
trailing edge. Viewed from the rear, the vortices would appear rotating clockwise
from the left wing and anticlockwise from the right wing. These vortices soon roll
up to form two large vortices springing from positions near the wing tips. As a
consequence of these vortices the air stream in the vicinity and behind the wing
acquires a downward velocity component called induced downwash.
This downwash tilts the aerodynamic force rearwards resulting in a component in
the free stream direction called induced drag. The induced drag coefficient (CDi)
is given as :
CL2 1+
CL2
CDi
=
A
Ae wing
(3.41)
Where A is the wing aspect ratio (A = b2/S) and is a factor which depends on
wing aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweep and Mach number. The quantity ewing is
called Oswald efficiency factor for wing.
It may be added that a wing with elliptic chord distribution has the minimum
induced drag i.e. = 0 in Eq.(3.41).
Reference 3.6 section 3.3, gives the following expression for ewing which is
based on Ref.3.5 section 4.1.5.2.
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
e wing =
1.1 CLW /A
C
R LW + 1-R
A
(3.42)
where,
CLW =
2 A
tan 2 1
2 2
A
2
2+
1+
2
2
+4
(3.43)
= ratio of the slope of lift curve of the airfoil used on wing divided by 2 .
It is generally taken as unity.
Remarks:
(i)Example 3.3 illustrates the estimation of ewing for an unswept wing. Section 2.5
of Appendix B illustrates the steps for estimating ewing of a jet airplane.
(ii) When a flap is deflected, there will be increments in lift coefficient and also in
profile drag coefficient and induced drag coefficient. Refer section 2.9 of
Appendix A.
(iii) The drags of horizontal and vertical tails, can be estimated by following a
procedure similar to that for the wing. However, contributions to induced drag
from the tail surfaces are generally neglected.
3.2.15 Drag coefficient of fuselage
The drag coefficient of a fuselage (CDf) consists of (a)the drag of the fuselage at
zero angle of attack (CDo)f plus (b) the drag due to angle of attack. Following
14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
CDf = CDof 1+K
15
(3.44)
For a streamlined body (CDo)f is mainly skin friction drag and depends on
(i) Reynolds number, based on length of fuselage ( lf ), (ii) surface roughness
and (iii) fineness ratio (Af). The fineness ratio is defined as:
Af = lf /de
(3.44a)
1
to
in drag of fuselage, due to angle of attack, by adding a term
efuselage
.
e wing
Remark:
The drag coefficients of other bodies like engine nacelle, external fuel tanks and
bombs suspended from the wing, can also be estimated in a manner similar to
that of fuselage.
15
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
The drag coefficients of other components like landing gear are based on
areas specific to those components. They should be obtained from the sources
of drag data mentioned earlier. The change in drag of these components, with
1
angle of attack, is included by adding a term
e
other
1
1
+
) i.e.
to (
efuselage
e wing
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
e e wing e fuselage eother
1
Reference 3.6, section 3.2 recommends
e
other
(3.44b)
as 0.05.
3.2.17 Parabolic drag polar, parasite drag, induced drag and Oswald
efficiency factor
It was mentioned earlier that the drag polar can be obtained by adding the
drag coefficients of individual components at corresponding angles of attack.
This procedure needs a large amount of detailed data about the airplane
geometry and drag coefficients. A typical drag polar obtained by such a
procedure or by experiments on a model of the airplane has the shape as shown
in Fig.3.21a. When this curve is replotted as CD vs CL2 (Fig.3.21b), it is found
that over a wide range of CL2 the curve is a straight line and one could write:
CD = CD0 + KCL2
(3.45)
CD0 is the intercept of this straight line and is called zero lift drag coefficient or
parasite drag coefficient (Fig.3.21b).
16
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
The term KCL2 is called induced drag coefficient or more appropriately lift
dependent drag coefficient. K is written as:
K=
1
Ae
(3.46)
17
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
i) A parabolic expression like Eq.(3.45) fits the drag polar because the major
contributions to the lift dependent drag are from the wing and the fuselage and
these contributions are proportional to the square of the angle of attack or CL.
ii) Rough estimate of CDo :
Based on the description in Ref.1.9, chapter 4 and Ref.3.7, chapter 14, the
parasite drag (Dparasite or D0) of an airplane can be approximately estimated as the
sum of the minimum drags of various components of the airplane plus the
correction for the effect of interference.
Modifying Eq.(3.1), the parasite drag can be expressed as:
Dparasite = D0 = (Dmin)wing + (Dmin)fuse + (Dmin)ht + (Dmin)vt + (Dmin)nac + (Dmin)lg +
(Dmin)etc + Dint
(3.46a)
1 2
1
1
VS CDmin wing + V2Sfuse CDmin fuse + V2Snac CDmin nac +
2
2
2
1 2
1
VSht CDmin ht + V2Svt CDmin vt +
2
2
1 2
1
VSlg CDmin lg + V2Setc CDmin etc +Dint
(3.46b)
2
2
Dividing Eq.(3.46b) by
1 2
VS yields:
2
18
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
S
S
S
+ CDmin fuse fuse + CDmin nac nac +
S
S
S
S
S
S
CDmin ht ht + CDmin vt vt + CDmin lg lg +
S
S
S
S
CDmin etc etc +CDint
S
(3.46c )
CD0 = CD S + CDint
S
(3.46d)
19
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Lecture 10
Drag polar 5
Topics
3.2.18 Parasite drag area and equivalent skin friction coefficient
3.2.19 A note on estimation of minimum drag coefficients of wings and
bodies
3.2.20 Typical values of CDO, A, e and subsonic drag polar
3.2.21 Winglets and their effect on induced drag
3.3 Drag polar at high subsonic, transonic and supersonic speeds
3.3.1 Some aspects of supersonic flow - shock wave, expansion fan
and bow shock
3.3.2 Drag at supersonic speeds
3.3.3 Transonic flow regime - critical Mach number and drag
divergence Mach number of airfoils, wings and fuselage
S
S
Cfe = CDo x
and CDO = Cf e wet
S
S wet
(3.47)
Reference 3.9, Chapter 12 gives values of Cfe for different types of airplanes.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Example 3. 3
119.5 2.566
= 21 106
-6
14.6 10
It is assumed that NACA 23012 airfoil is used on the wing. From Ref.3.14,
Appendix IV, the minimum drag coefficient, (Cd)min, of this airfoil at Re = 9 x 106 is
0.006. However, the value of drag coefficient is required at Re = 21 106 .
-
Assuming the flow to be turbulent (Cd)min can be taken proportional to Re7 (Eq.
3.35). Thus, Cdmin at Re w = 21 x 106 would roughly be equal to:
0.006 21106
1
7
/ 9 106
1
7
= 0.0053
As regards the fuselage and nacelle, the frontal areas are specified. Hence, they
are treated as a bluff bodies. The value of (CDmin)fuselage can be taken as 0.08
(Ref.3.4). The nacelle generally has a lower fineness ratio and (CDmin)nac can be
taken as 0.10.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
As regards the horizontal and vertical tails, the Reynolds number based on their
average chords (Retail) can be calculated if the areas and spans of these were
given. The following is suggested to obtain a rough estimate of Retail.
Sht Svt 18.6/2 9.3 m2 . Then
c tail
c wing
and
Stail
S wing
c
Retail
tail
Re w
c wing
9.3
= 0.426
51.22
S (m2)
CD
CDS (m2)
Wing
51.22
0.0053
0.271
Fuselage
3.72
0.080
0.298
Nacelles
3.25
0.1
0.325
0.006
0.112
Total
1.006
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
e Wing =
CLW =
1.1 CLW /A
C
R LW + 1-R
A
2 A
tan2 1
A 2 2
2
2
1+
2
2
+4
Here
A = 7.8, M = V/a = 119.5/340 = 0.351
Hence, = 1-M2 = 1- 0.3512 = 0.936
For the purpose of calculating ewing, the taper ratio ( ), the quarter chord
sweep ( 1 ) and the quantity , are taken as 0.4, 0 and 1 respectively.
4
Consequently, LE = 3.14o
2 7.8
Hence, CL =
2+
7.8 0.936
+4
1
= 5.121 rad -1
From Ref.3.14, chapter 6, the leading edge radius, as a fraction of chord, for
NACA 23012 airfoil is :
1.109 t2 = 1.019 x 0.122 = 0.016
Rle = 0.016 x c = 0.016 x 2.566 = 0.041 m
Reynolds number, based leading edge radius ( ReLER ), is :
ReLER =
0.041119.5
= 3.35105
-6
1410
= 57.16 x 105
Further,
A
7.80.4
=
= 3.13
cos LE
0.998
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
A
), Fig 3.14 of Ref.3.6, gives R = 0.95.
cos LE
Hence,
1.1 5.121/7.8
= 0.925
0.95 5.121 / 7.8 + 0.05
e wing =
To obtain efuselage , it is assumed that the fuselage has a round cross section.
1
/ S
/S = 0.75 when A = 7.8.
In this case, Fig.2.5 of Ref 3.6 gives:
efuselage fuselage
Consequently,
1
= 0.753.72/51.22 = 0.054
efuselage
1
eothers
Thus,
Or
Hence,
1
1
=
= 0.0484
Ae 7.8 0.844
i)
Remark (ii) of section 3.2.17 mentions that the parasite drag coefficient of
an airplane (CD0) is given by :
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
CD0 = CD S + CDint
S
c e Vcr
cr
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Swet and correction for airfoil shape. When the shape of the airfoil changes along
the wingspan, a representative section is taken for estimation of Swet.
Similar procedure can be used to estimate the minimum drag coefficients of the
horizontal tail and vertical tail.
As regards estimation of the minimum drag coefficient of fuselage, the reference
length is taken as the length of fuselage ( lf ) and the roughness factor is taken as
( lf /k). Correction is applied for fineness ratio ( lf /de) of the fuselage. Where de is
the equivalent diameter of the fuselage (see section 3.2.15). The wetted area in
this case is the wetted area of the fuselage.
Finally, correction is applied for wing-body interference effect (see Appendices A
& B for details).
Similar procedure can be used to estimate the minimum drag coefficients of
bodies like nacelle, external fuel tanks, bombs etc.
3.2.20 Typical values of CDO, A, e and subsonic drag polar.
CD0
Low speed
0.025 to
(M <0.3)
0.04
Medium speed
0.02 to
(M around 0.5)
0.024
High subsonic
0.014 to
(M around 0.8,
0.017
6 to 8
Typical polar
0.75 to
0.025 + 0.06CL2
0.85
0.75 to
10 to 12
0.85
0.65 to
6 to 9
0.75
0.022 + 0.04CL2
0.016 +0.045CL2
Swept wing)
Table 3.4 Typical values of CD0, A, e and subsonic drag polar
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Remarks:
(i) Table 3.4 shows that CD0 for low speed airplanes is higher than other
airplanes. This is because these airplanes have exposed landing gear, bluff
fuselage (see Fig.1.2a) and struts when a high wing configuration is used. The
CD0 for high subsonic airplanes is low due to smooth surfaces, thin wings and
slender fuselage. It may be added that during the design process, the values of
airfoil thickness ratio, aspect ratio and angle of sweep for the wing are obtained
from considerations of optimum performance.
(ii) The low speed airplanes have a value of K (=1/ Ae ) higher than the other
airplanes. One of the reasons for this is that these airplanes have only a
moderate aspect ratio (6 to 8) so that the wing-span is not large and the hangerspace needed for parking the plane is not excessive.
(iii) See section 2 of Appendix A for estimation of the drag polar of a subsonic
airplane in cruise and take-off conditions.
3.2.21 Winglets and their effect on induced drag
Consider a wing, with the following features. Area (S) = 111.63 m2,
Aspect ratio (A) = 9.3, span (b) = 32.22 m, root chord (cr) = 5.59 m,
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
1
CL2 = 0.0159+0.04244 CL2
9.30.8064
ct
1.34
= 32.22+
= 32.89 m
2
2
b2e 32.892
=
= 9.691
S 111.63
1
CL2 = 0.0159+0.0407CL2
9.6910.8064
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
3.3.1 Some aspects of supersonic flow shock wave, expansion fan and
bow shock
When the free stream Mach number roughly exceeds a value of 0.3, the
changes in the fluid density, within the flow field, become significant and the flow
needs to be treated as compressible. In a compressible flow, the changes of
temperature in the flow field may be large and hence the speed of sound
(a = RT ) may vary from point to point. When the free stream Mach number
exceeds unity, the flow is called supersonic. When a supersonic flow
decelerates, shock waves occur. The pressure, temperature, density and Mach
number change discontinuously across the shock. The shocks may be normal or
oblique. The Mach number behind a normal shock is subsonic; behind an oblique
shock it may be subsonic or supersonic. When supersonic flow encounters a
concave corner, as shown in Fig.3.22a, the flow changes the direction across a
shock. When such a flow encounters a convex corner, as shown in Fig.3.22b, the
flow expands across a series of Mach waves called expansion fan. A typical flow
past a diamond airfoil at supersonic Mach number is shown in Fig.3.23. If the
free stream Mach number is low supersonic (i.e. only slightly higher than unity)
and the angle , as shown in Fig.3.23, is high then instead of the attached shock
waves at the leading edge, a bow shock wave may occur ahead of the airfoil. A
blunt-nosed airfoil can be thought of an airfoil with large value of at the leading
edge and will have a bow shock at the leading edge as shown in Fig.3.24.
Behind a bow shock there is a region of subsonic flow (Fig.3.24).
10
Flight dynamics-I
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(a)
(b)
Fig.3.22 Supersonic flow at corners
(a) Concave corner (b) Convex corner
11
Flight dynamics-I
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12
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(b) = 2o
Fig.3.25 Pressure distributions over a diamond airfoil (a) = 0o (b) = 2o
13
Flight dynamics-I
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Y-axes. Thus in this case, Cl > 0 and Cdw > 0. It may be added that a leading
edge total angle of 10 would give a thickness ratio of 8.75%, which is rather high.
Supersonic airfoils would have (t/c) between 3 to 5%.
At supersonic speed the skin friction drag is only a small fraction of the wave
drag. The wave drag of a symmetrical airfoil (Cdw) can be expressed as (Ref.1.9,
chapter 5):
CdW =
4
2
M -1
[2 +(t/c)2 ]
(3.48)
A transonic flow occurs when the free stream Mach number is around one.
The changes in the flow and hence in the drag occurring in this range of Mach
numbers can be better understood from the following statements.
I) In the subsonic flow past an airfoil the flow velocity is zero at the stagnation
point. Subsequently, the flow accelerates, it reaches a maximum value (Vmax) and
later attains the free stream velocity (V). The ratio (Vmax /V) is greater than
unity and depends on (a) the shape of airfoil (b) the thickness ratio (t/c) and
14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
( c ) the angle of attack (). As (Vmax / V ) is greater than unity, the ratio of the
maximum Mach number on the airfoil ( M max) and free stream Mach number
(M) would also be more than unity. However, (Mmax/ M) would not be equal to
(Vmax /V) as the speed of sound varies from point to point in the flow.
II) Critical Mach number: As M increases, Mmax also increases. The free stream
Mach number for which the maximum Mach number on the airfoil equals unity is
called the critical Mach number (Mcrit).
III) The changes in flow patterns when the free stream Mach number changes
from subcritical (i.e. M Mcrit ) to supersonic (M > 1) are highlighted below .
(A) When M is less than or equal to Mcrit then the flow is subsonic everywhere
i.e. in the free stream, on the airfoil and behind it (Fig.3.26a).
(B) When M exceeds Mcrit, a region of supersonic flow occurs which is
terminated by a shock wave. The changes in flow pattern are shown in
Figs.3.26b and c.
(C) As free stream Mach number increases further the region of supersonic flow
enlarges and this region occurs on both the upper and lower surfaces of the
airfoil (Figs.3.26c, d & e).
(D) At a free stream Mach number slightly higher than unity, a bow shock is seen
near the leading edge of the airfoil (Fig.3.26f).
(E) At a still higher Mach numbers, the bow shock approaches the leading edge
and if the leading edge is sharp, then the shock waves attach to the leading edge
as shown in Fig.3.23.
15
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Fig.3.26 (b) M only slightly higher than Mcrit ; shock waves are not discernible
Fig.3.26 (c) M greater than Mcrit ; shock wave seen on the upper surface
Fig.3.26 (d) M greater than Mcrit ; shock waves seen on both the upper and
lower surfaces
16
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Fig.3.26 (e) M greater than Mcrit; shock waves seen on both the upper
and lower surfaces at the trailing edge
Fig.3.26 (f) M greater than unity; bow shock wave seen ahead of the airfoil;
shock waves also seen at the trailing edge on both upper and lower surfaces
Fig.3.26 Flow past airfoil in transonic range at =20
(Adapted from Ref.3.16, chapter 9 with permission from author). The angle of
attack () being 20 is mentioned in Ref.3.17 chapter 4.
When M is less than Mcrit the flow every where i.e. in the free stream,
and on the body and behind it, is subsonic. It is seen that when Mcrit < M < 1,
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
17
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
the free stream Mach number is subsonic but there are regions of supersonic
flow on the airfoil (Figs.3.26c, d & e). Further, when M is slightly more than
unity i.e. free stream is supersonic; there is bow shock ahead of the airfoil
resulting in subsonic flow near the leading edge (Fig.3.24). When the shock
waves are attached to the leading edge (Fig.3.23) the flow is supersonic everywhere i.e. in the free stream and on the airfoil and behind it.
Based on the above features, the flow can be classified into three regimes.
(a) Sub-critical regime - when the Mach number is subsonic in the free stream
as well as on the body (M < Mcrit).
(b) Transonic regime - when the regions of both subsonic and supersonic flow
are seen within the flow field.
(c) Supersonic regime - when the Mach number in the free stream as well as
on the body is supersonic.
The extent of the transonic regime is commonly stated as between 0.8 to
1.2. However, the actual extent of this regime is between Mcrit and the Mach
number at which the flow becomes supersonic everywhere. The extent depends
on the shape of the airfoil and the angle of attack. In the transonic regime the lift
coefficient and drag coefficient undergo rapid changes with Mach number
(Figs.3.27a, b and c). It may be recalled that Cd and Cl refer to the drag
coefficient and lift coefficient of an airfoil respectively.
18
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19
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Figure 3.27a shows the variation of the lift coefficient ( Cl ) with Mach number at a
constant value of angle of attack. It is seen that at sub critical Mach numbers, Cl
increases with Mach number. This is due to the effect of compressibility on
pressure distribution. However, as the critical Mach number is exceeded the
formation of shocks changes the pressure distributions on the upper and lower
surfaces of the airfoil and the lift coefficient decreases (points C & D in
Fig.3.27a). This phenomenon of decrease in lift due to formation of shocks is
called Shock stall. For a chosen angle of attack the drag coefficient begins to
increase near Mcrit and reaches a peak around M = 1 (Fig.3.27b).
(V) Drag divergence Mach number (MD)
The critical Mach number (Mcrit) of an airfoil has been defined in statement (II) of
this subsection. It is the free stream Mach number (M) for which the maximum
Mach number on the airfoil equals one. The critical Mach number is a theoretical
concept. It is not possible to observe this (Mcrit) in experiments as the changes in
flow, when M just exceeds Mcrit, are very gradual. Hence, a Mach number
called Drag divergence Mach number (MD) is used in experimental work. The
basis is as follows.
When the change in Cd with Mach number is studied experimentally, the effects
of changes in flow, due to the appearance of shock waves, are noticed in the
form of a gradual increase in the drag coefficient. The Mach number at which the
increase in the drag coefficient is 0.002 over the value of Cd at sub-critical Mach
numbers is called Drag divergence Mach number and is denoted by MD.
Figure 3.27c shows a typical variation of Cd with M and also indicates MD.
The following may be added. (a) For a chosen angle of attack the value of Cd
remains almost constant when the Mach number is sub-critical. (b) The drag
divergence Mach number of an airfoil depends on its shape, thickness ratio and
the angle of attack. (c) The increase in the drag coefficient in the transonic region
20
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
For airplanes flying at high subsonic speeds the lift coefficient under
cruising condition (CLcr) is around 0.5. At this value of lift coefficient, the older
NACA airfoils have drag divergence Mach number (MD) of around 0.68 for a
thickness ratio (t/c) of around 15%.
With the advancements in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) it was
possible, in 1970s to compute transonic flow past airfoils. This enabled design of
improved airfoils, called supercritical airfoils, which have MD around 0.75 for t/c of
15% (Ref.3.18 part II, chapter 6). For comparison, the shapes of older airfoil
(NACA 662 215) and a supercritical airfoil are shown in Fig.3.20d and f. Note
21
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
the flat upper surface of the supercritical airfoil (refer Ref. 1.9 chapter 3 for
additional information).
(VI) Drag divergence Mach number of a wing
It can be imagined that the flow past a fuselage will also show that the
maximum velocity (Vmax) on the fuselage is higher than V. Consequently, the
22
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
fuselage will also have critical Mach number (Mcritf ) and drag divergence Mach
number. These Mach numbers depend on the fineness ratio of the fuselage. For
the slender fuselage, typical of high subsonic jet airplanes, Mcritf could be around
0.9. When Mcritf is exceeded the drag of the fuselage will be a function of Mach
number in addition to the angle of attack.
23
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Lecture 11
Drag polar 6
Topics
3.3.4 Parabolic drag polar at high speeds
3.3.5 Guidelines for variations of CDo and K for subsonic jet transport
airplanes
3.3.6 Variations of CDo and K for a fighter airplane
3.3.7 Area ruling
3.4 Drag polar at hypersonic speeds
3.5 Lift to drag ratio
3.6 Other types of drags
3.6.1 Cooling drag
3.6.2 Base drag
3.6.3 External stores drag
3.6.4 Leakage drag
3.6.5 Trim drag
(3.49)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
3.3.5 Guidelines for variations of CDo and K for subsonic jet transport
airplanes
Subsonic jet airplanes are generally designed in a manner that there is no
significant wave drag up to the cruise Mach number (Mcruise). Further, the drag
polar of the airplane for Mach numbers upto Mcruise can be estimated, using the
methods for subsonic airplanes. Section 2 of Appendix B illustrates the
procedure for estimation of such a polar. However, to calculate the maximum
speed in level flight (Vmax) or the maximum Mach number Mmax, guidelines are
needed for the increase in CD0 and K beyond Mcruise. Such guidelines are
obtained in this subsection by using the data on drag polars of B727-100 airplane
at Mach numbers between 0.7 to 0.88.
Reference 3.18 part VI, chapter 5, gives drag polars of B727-100 at M = 0.7,
0.76, 0.82, 0.84, 0.86 and 0.88. Values of CD and CL corresponding to various
Mach numbers were recorded and are shown in Fig.3.29 by symbols. Following
the parabolic approximation, these polars were fitted with Eq.(3.49) and CD0 and
K were obtained using least square technique. The fitted polars are shown as
curves in Fig.3.29. The values of CD0 and K are given in Table 3.5 and presented
in Figs.3.30 a & b.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
CD0
0.7
0.01631
0.04969
0.76
0.01634
0.05257
0.82
0.01668
0.06101
0.84
0.01695
0.06807
0.86
0.01733
0.08183
0.88
0.01792
0.103
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(3.50)
(3.51)
(3.50 a)
(3.51 a)
where CDOcr and Kcr are the values of CD0 and K at cruise Mach number for the
airplane whose Vmax or Mmax is required to be calculated. It may be pointed out
that the value of 0.01634 in Eq.(3.50) has been replaced by CDOcr in Eq.(3.50a).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
This has been done to permit the use of Eq.(3.50a) for different types of
airplanes which may have their own values of CDOcr (see section 4.2 of Appendix
B). For the same reason the value of 0.05257 in Eq.(3.51) has been replaced by
Kcr in Eq.(3.51a).
Section 4.2 of Appendix B illustrates the application of the guidelines given in this
subsection.
3.3.6 Variations of CD0 and K for a fighter airplane
Reference 1.10, chapter 2 has given drag polars of F-15 fighter airplane at
M = 0.8, 0.95, 1.2, 1.4 and 2.2.These are shown in Fig.3.31. These drag polars
were also fitted with Eq.(3.49) and CD0 and K were calculated. The variations of
CD0 and K are shown in Figs.3.32a & b. It is interesting to note that CD0 has a
peak and then decreases, whereas K increases monotonically with Mach
number. It may be recalled that the Mach number, at which CD0 has the peak
value, depends mainly on the sweep of the wing.
Fig.3.31 Drag polars at different Mach numbers for F15 (Reproduced from
Ref.1.10, chapter 2 with permission from McGraw-Hill book company)
Please note: The origins for polars corresponding to different Mach numbers are
shifted.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Fig.3.32a Typical variations of CD0 with Mach number for a fighter airplane
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
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CDWave = 0.0035
0.008
0.0045
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(3.52)
Note that the exponent of the CL term is 1.5 and not 2.0.
3.5 Lift to drag ratio
The ratio CL/ CD is called lift to drag ratio. It is an indicator of the aerodynamic
efficiency of the design of the airplane. For a parabolic drag polar CL/ CD can be
worked out as follows.
CD= CD0 +KCL2
Hence, CD / CL = (CD0 / CL) +KCL
(3.53)
(3.54)
1
2 CD0 K
(3.55)
(3.56)
Note:
To show that CLmd corresponds to minimum of (CD / CL), take the second
derivative of the right hand side of Eq.(3.53) and verify that it is greater than zero.
10
Flight dynamics-I
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11
Flight dynamics-I
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It may be added that a canard surface is located ahead of the wing and the lift on
it, to make Mcg equal to zero, is in upward direction. Consequently, the lift
produced by the wing is less than the weight of the airplane. SAAB Viggen
shown in Fig.3.35, is an example of an airplane with canard. Reference1.15 and
internet (www.google.com) may be consulted for details of this airplane.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Lecture 12
Drag polar 7
Topics
3.7 High lift devices
3.7.1 Need for increasing maximum lift coefficient (CLmax)
3.7.2 Factors limiting maximum lift coefficient
3.7.3 Ways to increase maximum lift coefficient viz. increase in camber,
boundary layer control and increase in area
3.7.4 Guidelines for values of maximum lift coefficients of wings with
various high lift devices
1
L= V 2SCL
2
(3.57)
In order that an airplane is airborne, the lift produced by the airplane must be
atleast equal to the weight of the airplane i.e.
L=W=
Or
V=
1
V 2 S CL
2
2W
SCL
(3.58)
(3.59)
However, CL has a maximum value, called CLmax , and a speed called Stalling
speed (Vs) is defined as :
Vs =
2W
SCLmax
(3.59a)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
The speed at which the airplane takes-off ( VT0 ) is actually higher than the
stalling speed.
2
It is easy to imagine that the take-off distance would be proportional VT0
and in
turn to VS2 . From Eq.(3.59a) it is observed that to reduce the take-off distance (a)
the wing loading (W/S) should be low or (b) the CLmax should be high. Generally,
the wing loading of the airplane is decided by considerations like minimum fuel
consumed during cruise. Hence, it is desirable that CLmax should be as high as
possible to reduce the take-off and landing distances. The devices to increase
the CLmax are called high lift devices.
3.7.2 Factors limiting maximum lift coefficient
Consider an airfoil at low angle of attack (). Figure 3.36a shows a flow
visualization picture of the flow field. Boundary layers are seen on the upper and
lower surfaces. As the pressure gradients on the upper and lower surfaces of the
airfoil are low at the angle of attack under consideration, the boundary layers on
these surfaces are attached. The lift coefficient is nearly zero. Now consider the
same airfoil at slightly higher angle of attack (Fig.3.36b). The velocity on the
upper surface is higher than that on the lower surface and consequently the
pressure is lower on the upper surface as compared to that on the lower surface.
The airfoil develops higher lift coefficient as compared to that in Fig.3.36a.
However the pressure gradient is also higher on the upper surface and the
boundary layer separates ahead of the trailing edge (Fig.3.36b). As the angle of
attack approaches about 15o the separation point approaches the leading edge
of the airfoil (Fig.3.36c). Subsequently, the lift coefficient begins to decrease
(Fig.3.36d) and the airfoil is said to be stalled. The value of for which Cl equals
Clmax is called stalling angle (stall). Based on the above observations, the stalling
should be delayed to increase Clmax .
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Fig.3.36a Flow past an airfoil at low angle of attack. Note: The flow is from left to
right (Adapted from Ref.3.20, chapter 6 with permission of editor)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Fig.3.36c Flow past an airfoil at angle of attack near stall. Note: The flow is from
left to right (Adapted from Ref.3.12, chapter 6 with permission of editor)
Remark:
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
method, fluid is blown tangential to the surface and the low energy fluid in the
boundary layer is energized (Fig.3.37b). Blowing and suction require supply of
energy and are referred to as active methods of control. The energizing of the
boundary layer can be achieved in a passive manner by a leading edge slot
(Fig.3.37c) and a slotted flap which are described in section 3.7.3. Reference
3.11, chapter 11 may be referred for other methods of boundary layer control and
for further details.
a. Suction
b. Blowing
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Chapter-3
Beside the boundary layer control, there are two other ways to increase
the maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil ( Cl max ) viz. increase of camber and
increase of wing area. These methods are briefly described below.
I) Increase in maximum lift coefficient due to change of camber
It may be recalled that when camber of an airfoil increases, the zero lift
angle ( 0l ) decreases and the Cl vs curve shifts to the left (Fig.3.38). It is
observed that stall does not decrease significantly due to the increase of
camber and a higher Cl max is realized (Fig.3.38). However, the camber of the
airfoil used on the wing is chosen from the consideration that the minimum drag
coefficient occurs near the lift coefficient corresponding to the lift coefficient
during cruise. One of the ways to achieve a temporary increase in the camber
during take-off and landing is to use flaps. Some configurations of flaps are
shown in Fig.3.39. In a plain flap the rear portion of the airfoil is hinged and is
deflected when Cl max is required to be increased (Fig.3.39a). In a split flap only
the lower half of the airfoil is moved down (Fig.3.39b). To observe the change in
camber brought about by a flap deflection, draw a line in-between the upper and
lower surfaces of the airfoil with flap deflected. This line is approximately the
camber line of the flapped airfoil. The line joining the ends of the camber line is
the new chord line. The difference between the ordinates of the camber line and
the chord line is a measure of the camber.
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Equation (3.57) shows that the lift can be increased when the wing area
(S) is increased. An increase in wing area can be achieved if the flap, in addition
to being deflected, also moves outwards and effectively increases the wing area.
This is achieved in a Fowler flap (Fig.3.39f). Thus a Fowler flap incorporates
three methods to increase Clmax viz. change of camber, boundary layer control
and increase of wing area. It may be added that while defining the Clmax , in case
of Fowler flap, the reference area is the original area of the wing and not that of
the extended wing.
A zap flap is a split flap where the lower portion also moves outwards as
the flap is deflected.
IV) Leading edge devices
High lift devices are also used near the leading edge of the wing. A slot
near the leading edge (Fig.3.39g) also permits passive way of energizing the
boundary layer. However, a permanent slot, in addition to increasing the lift, also
increases the drag and consequently has adverse effects during cruise. Hence, a
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Chapter-3
deployable leading edge device called Slat as shown in Fig.3.39h is used. When
a slat is deployed it produces a slot and increases Clmax by delaying separation.
On high subsonic speed airplanes, both leading edge and trailing edge
devices are used to increase Clmax (Fig.1.2c).
Remarks:
i)
References 1.9, 1.10, 1.12 and 3.9 may be referred for other types of high
lift devices like Kruger flap, leading edge extension, blown flap etc.
ii)
3.7.4 Guide lines for values of maximum lift coefficients of wings with
various high lift devices
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
would have CLmax of 2.5 x cos 30o or 2.17. With addition of leading edge slat, this
can go upto 2.43.
Type of flap
No flap
1.5
Plain flap
1.8
2.2
2.7
3.0
3.1
3.4
Fowler flap
2.5
2.8
Table 3.6 Guidelines for CLmax of subsonic airplanes with unswept wings of
moderate aspect ratio
Figure 3.41 shows CLmax for some passenger airplanes. The solid lines
correspond to the cosine relation given above.
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Remarks:
i) The value of CLmax shown in Table 3.6 can be used in landing configuration.
The flap setting during take-off is lower than that while landing. The maximum lift
coefficient during take-off can be taken approximately as 80% of that during
landing.
ii) The values given in Table 3.6 should not be used for supersonic airplanes
which have low aspect ratio wings and airfoil sections of small thickness ratio.
Reference 3.5, section 4.1.3.4 may be referred to for estimating CLmax in these
cases.
iii) As the Mach number (M) increases beyond 0.5, the Clmax of the airfoil section
decreases due to the phenomena of shock stall (see item IV in section 3.3.3).
Hence CLmax of the wing also decreases for M > 0.5. The following relationship
between CLmax at M between 0.5 to 0.9, in terms of CLmax at M = 0.5, can be
derived based on the plots of CLmax vs M in Ref.3.23, chapter 9, and Ref.3.9
chapter 12.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
(CLmax )M
= - 0.418M + 1.209 , 0.5 M 0.9
(CLmax )M=0.5
For example at M = 0.9, CLmax would be about 0.833 of CLmax at M = 0.5.
Note: The maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) in transonic Mach number range is not
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
References
3.1 Biermann, D. and Herrnitein Jr., W.H.The interference between struts in
various combinations NACA TR 468, (1934). Note: This report can be
downloaded from the site NASA Technical Report Server(NTRS).
3.2 Apelt, C.J. and West, G.S. The effects of wake splitter plates on bluff body
flow in the range of 104 < Re < 5 x 104 part-2 J.Fluid Mech. Vol.71, pp 145-160,
(1975).
3.3. Hoerner, S.F. Fluid dynamic drag Published by author (1965).
3.4. Royal Aeronautical Society data sheets Now known as Engineering
Sciences Data Unit (ESDU).
3.5. Hoak, D.E. et al. USAF stability and control DATCOM, Air Force Wright
Aeronautical Laboratories Technical Report 83-3048, October 1960. (Revised
April 1978). Note: USAF Digital DATCOM can be accessed from net.
3.6 Roskam, J. Methods for estimating drag polars of subsonic airplanes
Roskam aviation and engineering (1973).
3.7. Wood K.D. Aerospace vehicle design Vol.I Johnson Publishing Co.,
Boulder, Colarado (1966).
3.8. Torenbeek, E. Synthesis of subsonic airplane design Delft University Press
(1982).
3.9. Raymer D.P.Aircraft design: A conceptual approach AIAA Educational
Series, Fourth Edition (2006).
3.10 Schlichting,H. Boundary layer theory McGraw-Hill (1968).
3.11 Schlichting, H. and Gersten , K. Boundary layer theory 8th Edition,
Spinger-Verlag, (2000).
3.12 Anderson,Jr. J.D. Fundamentals of aerodynamics McGraw-Hill,
International Edition (1988).
3.13 White,F.M. Viscous fluid flow 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill (1991).
3.14 Abbott, I.H and Von Doenhoff, A.E. Theory of wing sections Dover (1959).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
Chapter 3
Exercises
3.1 Following data relate to a light airplane.
W =11000 N
2
CD0 1/n
n
} , CDmd =
C
K(n-1)
n-1 D0
(CL/CD) max =
1
(n-1)/n
D0
n
(n-1)1/n C
n-1
K1/n
3.3 Based on data in Ref.1.1, chapter 6, the drag polar of a hypersonic glider is
given in the table below.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-3
CL
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
CD
0.028
0.0364
0.05
0.07
0.0907
Fit Eq.(3.52) to this data and obtain CD0 and K. Also obtain CLmd, CDmd and
(CL/CD)max. The expressions mentioned in exercise 3.2 can be used.
[Answers: CD0 = 0.0283, K = 0.703, CD = 0.0283+0.0703 CL3/2
CLmd = 0.1865, CDmd = 0.0849, (CL/CD)max = 2.197].
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Chapter 4
Engine characteristics
(Lectures 13 to 16)
Keywords: Engines for airplane applications; piston engine; propeller
characteristics; turbo-prop, turbofan and turbojet engines; choice of engine for
different applications.
Topics
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Engines considered for airplane applications
4.2 Piston engine-propeller combination
4.2.1 Operating principle of a piston engine
4.2.2 Effect of flight speed on the output of a piston engine
4.2.3 Effect of altitude on the output of a piston engine
4.2.4 Specific fuel consumption (SFC)
4.2.5 The propeller
4.2.6 Propeller efficiency
4.2.7 Momentum theory of propeller
4.2.8 Parameters for describing propeller performance and typical
propeller characteristics
4.2.9 Selection of propeller diameter for chosen application
4.2.10 Procedure for obtaining propeller efficiency for given h,V, BHP
and N
4.2.11 Variations of THP and BSFC with flight velocity and altitude
4.2.12 Loss of propeller efficiency at high speeds
4.3 Gas turbine engines
4.3.1 Propulsive efficiency
4.3.2 Why turboprop, turbo fan and turbojet engines?
4.3.3 Characteristics of a typical turboprop engine
4.3.4 Characteristics of a typical turbofan engine
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
4.5
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Chapter 4
Lecture 13
Engine characteristics 1
Topics
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Engines considered for airplane applications
4.2 Piston engine-propeller combination
4.2.1 Operating principle of a piston engine
4.2.2 Effect of flight speed on the output of a piston engine
4.2.3 Effect of altitude on the output of a piston engine
4.2.4 Specific fuel consumption (SFC)
4.2.5 The propeller
4.2.6 Propeller efficiency
4.2.7 Momentum theory of propeller
4.1. Introduction
To evaluate the performance of an airplane we need to know the
atmospheric characteristics, the drag polar and the engine characteristics like
variations of thrust (or power) output and specific fuel consumption with flight
speed and altitude. In this chapter the engine characteristics are briefly reviewed.
4.1.1 Engines considered for airplane applications
Following power plants are considered for airplane applications.
(a) Piston engine-propeller combination.
(b) Gas turbine engines - turboprop, turbofan and turbojet.
(c) Ramjets.
(d) Rockets.
(e) Combination power plants like ramrocket and turboramjet.
At present, piston engine-propeller combination and gas turbine engines are the
power plants used on airplanes. Ramjets offer simplicity of construction and have
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
been proposed for hypersonic airplanes. However, a ramjet cannot produce any
thrust when flight speed is zero. Hence, it is proposed to use a rocket or turbojet
engine to bring it (ramjet) to a flight speed corresponding to Mach number (M) of
2 or 3 and then the ramjet engine would take over. Consequently, the
combination power plants viz. ramrocket or turboramjet have been proposed.
Rockets have sometimes been used on airplanes as boosters to increase
the thrust for a short duration e.g. during take-off.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
the air-fuel ratio has a definite value (around 15, the stoichiometric ratio). (c) As
the flight altitude increases, the density of air decreases.
Thus, for a given engine r.p.m. and air-fuel ratio, the mass of air and
consequently, that of the fuel taken in decreases as the altitude increases. Since,
the power output of the engine depends on the mass of the fuel taken in, it
(power output) decreases with altitude. The change in power output (P) with
altitude is roughly given as (Ref.3.7,Appendix 1 A-5 and Ref.4.3, chapter 14):
(P / P0) =1.13 0.13
(4.1)
where P0 is the power output at sea level under ISA conditions and is the
density ratio.
Remark:
(i) Reference 3.15, chapter 3, gives the following alternate relationship for
decrease of power output with altitude :
(P / P0) = 1.1
(4.1a)
(ii) Figure 4.2 shows the performance for a typical piston engine. To prepare
such a performance chart, the engine manufacturer carries out certain tests, on
each new engine. During these tests the engine is run at a chosen RPM and
different loads are applied. The throttle setting is adjusted to get steady
conditions. The quantities like (a) engine RPM(N), (b) torque developed, (c)
manifold air pressure(MAP) and (d) the fuel consumed in a specific interval of
time, are measured.These tests are conducted at different RPMs. From these
test data the power output and the fuel flow rate per hour are calculated. The
data are also corrected for any difference between the ambient conditions during
the test, and the sea level standard conditions. The left side of Fig.4.2 presents
the sea level performance of a Lycoming engine. The upper part of the figure
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
It may be added that the units used in Fig.4.2, which is reproduced from
manufacturers catalogue, are in FPS system. However, SI units are used in this
and the subsequent chapters.
4.2.4 Specific fuel consumption (SFC)
In engine performance charts, the fuel consumption is presented as fuel
flow rate per hour. However, in engineering practice the fuel consumption is
expressed as specific fuel consumption (SFC). It is defined as :
SFC =
(4.1b)
Remarks :
(i) The output of a piston engine or turboprop engine is available as power at the
engine shaft. It is called BHP and measured in HP when FPS system is used. In
SI units the output is measured in kW. On the other hand, the output of a
turbofan or a turbojet engine is available as thrust, which is measured in lb in
FPS system and in Newton in SI units.
The specific fuel consumption of a jet engine is defined as:
SFC =
(4.1c)
BSFC =
(4.1d)
(4.1e)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Example 4.1
Obtain the power output and BSFC for the Lycoming engine when
operating at sea level at an RPM(N) of 2400 and MAP of 24 of mercury (Hg).
Solution :
From plots in the left side of Fig.4.2, for N = 2400 and MAP = 24 of Hg
the power output is 136 HP and the fuel flow rate is 10.7 US gallons/hr.
Taking 1 US gallon = 3.78 litre and density of petrol as 0.76 kg/m3 gives:
1 gallon per hour of petrol = 3.78 x 0.76 kg/hr
= 3.78 x 0.76 x 9.81 N/hr
= 28.18 N/hr of petrol
Hence, the fuel flow rate in the case under study is :
10.7 x 28.18 = 301.5 N/hr.
Noting that 1 lb/hr = 4.45 N/hr, The fuel flow rate in this case is 67.75 lbs/hr.
Further, 1 HP is 0.7457 kW. Hence, power output of 136 HP equals 101.4 kW.
Hence, BSFC in SI units is: 301.5/101.4 = 2.973 N/kW-hr
In FPS units it is: 67.75/136 = 0.498 lb/HP-hr
Answers:
For the given engine, the power output, fuel flow rate and BSFC at N = 2400 and
MAP = 24 of Hg under sea level standard conditions are :
(i)Power output = 101.4 kW = 136 HP, (ii) Fuel flow rate = 10.7 US gallons/hr
or 301.5 N/hr or 67.75 lb/hr of petrol (iii) BSFC = 2.973 N/kW-hr = 0.498 lb/HP-hr
Example 4.2
Obtain the power output and BSFC for the Lycoming engine when
operating at 8000 altitude, RPM (N) of 2200 and MAP of 20 of Hg.
Solution :
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
(ii)Transfer this point to the right hand side of Fig.4.2 at sea level which is
indicated by point C. The right side of the diagram is also called altitude
performance.
(iii)Locate a point on the altitude curve corresponding to N = 2200 and MAP of
20 of Hg. This point is indicated by A.
(iv)Join points C and A by a dotted line. The value at 8000 on this line (the point
D) is the output at h = 8000 corresponding to N = 2200 and MAP = 20 of Hg.
It is seen that the value is 107 HP.
(v)To get the fuel flow rate, mark a point F on the sea level performance at 107
HP and N = 2200. The MAP at this point is observed to be 21.2 of Hg. The fuel
flow rate corresponding to N = 2200 and MAP of 21.2 of Hg, from the lower part
of figure in the left side is 8.25 gallons per hour. This point is indicated by G
Hence, at h = 8000 , N = 2200 and MAP of 20 . The output is 107 HP (79.79
kW) and the fuel flow rate is 8.25 gallons / hr (232.5 N/hr or 52.2 lbs/hr of petrol).
Consequently, BSFC =
232.5
= 2.914 N/kW-hr
79.79
52.2
= 0.488 lb/ HP-hr
107
Answers :
The output of the engine is converted into thrust by the propeller. A typical
engine with a two bladed propeller is shown in Fig.4.3. Depending on the engine
power and the operating conditions, the propeller may have two to four blades.
Special propellers with five or six blades have also been used in practice when
required.
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
different pitch angles (). The pitch of the blade is generally the pitch of the blade
element at r/R = 0.75, where R is the radius of the blade.
For other definitions of pitch Ref.2.1 and chapter 6 of Ref.1.9, be
consulted. For details of the geometry of propellers refer chapter 6 of Ref.1.9,
chapter 16 of Ref.3.7 and Ref.4.1.
4.2.6 Propeller efficiency
( 4.2 )
Note: T is in Newton, V is in m/s and THP and BHP are measured in kW.
As the name suggests, this theory is based on the idealization that the
thrust produced by the propeller is the result of the increase in momentum
imparted to the airstream passing through the propeller. It is assumed that the
propeller can be thought of as an actuator disc. This disc is an idealised device
which produces a sudden pressure rise in a stream of air passing through it. This
pressure rise integrated over the disc gives the thrust developed by the propeller.
Figure 4.4 shows the actuator disc and the flow through it. It is assumed that : (i)
the flow is incompressible and inviscid, (ii) the increase in pressure is constant
over the disc (iii) there is no discontinuity in flow velocity across the disc (iv) in
the flow behind the disc, called slipstream, there is no swirl.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
In Fig.4.4 the actuator disc is located at plane AA. Far upstream, the velocity is
V and the pressure p is the atmospheric pressure. The velocity V equals the
forward speed of the airplane on which the propeller is mounted. A stream tube
enclosing the disc is also shown in Fig.4.4. As the stream approaches the front
face of the disc the fluid velocity reaches a value V1 at the disc. As the flow is
assumed to be inviscid and incompressible, Bernoullis equation is valid till the
front face of the disc and the pressure decreases, to a value p1. At the disc,
energy is added in the form of increase in pressure by an amount p while the
velocity remains the same as V1 through the disc (Fig.4.4a). After the disc the
pressure gradually returns to the atmospheric value of p . Bernoullis equation is
again valid behind the disc and the fluid velocity increases to a value Vj. The
changes in pressure and velocity are shown in Fig.4.4a.
Applying Bernoullis equation ahead and behind the disc gives :
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
1
1
V2 = p 1 + V12
2
2
(4.3)
1
1
Total head behind the disc = H1 = p1 + p + V12 = p + Vj2
2
2
(4.4)
1
1
1
Consequently, p = H1 - H = p Vj2 p V2 = Vj2 - V2
2
2
2
(4.5)
Since p is the change in pressure over the disc, the thrust acting on the disc is:
T = A p= A
2 2
Vj - V
2
d2 ;
(4.6)
d = diameter of the propeller
Alternatively, the thrust produced can also be obtained as the rate of change of
momentum of the stream i.e.
Vj - V
T=m
(4.7)
(4.8)
Hence, T = A V1 Vj - V
(4.9)
2 2
Vj - V
2
Vj + V
2
(4.10)
Thus, the momentum theory shows that the velocity at the disc (V1) is the
average of Vj & V . In other words, half of the increase in velocity takes place
ahead of the disc and the remaining half behind it.
The efficiency of the actuator disc can be obtained by considering the ratio of
power output to the power input.
Vj V V
The power output = work done = T V = m
(4.11)
The power input is the energy imparted to the fluid stream. This is the energy of
the stream far behind the disc minus the energy of the stream far ahead of the
disc. i.e.
14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Power input =
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
1 2 1 2
m Vj - m V
2
2
(4.12)
p =
Vj V
2
power output mV
2 V
=
=
=
m 2
V
energy input
V Vj
Vj V2
1 j
2
V
(4.13)
Remarks:
(i)Equation (4.13) gives the propeller efficiency under ideal conditions and
represents an upper limit on efficiency obtainable. In practical situations, the
efficiency would be lower due to losses associated with (a) profile drag of blades,
(b) swirl in slip stream and (c) the pressure at the blade tips being the same
ahead and behind the disc.
(ii)For production of thrust, Vj must be greater than V . But for high propeller
efficiency Vj must be only slightly higher than V . Hence to get adequate amount
of thrust with high propeller efficiency a large mass of air should be given a small
velocity increment.
(iii)Propeller theories like blade element theory, and vortex theory take into
account effects of drag of blades, finite span of blade etc. For details of these
theories refer to chapter 6 of Ref.1.9.
Example 4.3
Vj - V
Consequently, Thrust = T = m
15
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
V + V
= d2 j
m
4 2
Hence,
Vj +55.56
Or
Or
Vj = 66.45 m/s
2
2
=
= 0.9107 = 91.07 %
Vj
66.45
1+
1+
55.56
V
Answers :
Velocity of slip stream far behind propeller = 66.45 m/s = 239.22 kmph
Ideal propeller efficiency = 91.07 %
16
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Chapter 4
Lecture 14
Engine characteristics 2
Topics
4.2.8 Parameters for describing propeller performance and typical
propeller characteristics
4.2.9 Selection of propeller diameter for chosen application
(4.14)
(4.15)
(4.16)
(4.17)
(4.18)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Torque coefficient: CQ =
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Q
n2d5
(4.19)
(4.20)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Fig.4.5b Power coefficient ( CP ) vs advance ratio (J) with pitch angle () and
thrust coefficient (CT) as parameters.
Figure 4.5c presents the variations of CS vs J and CS vs p with as parameter.
This figure is designated as Design chart and is used for selection of the
diameter of the propeller. A brief explanatory note on this topic is as follows.
Using defintions of J and CP , the parameter Cs , defined below, is obtained. It is
observed that this parameter does not involve the diameter (d) of the propeller.
Cs =
J
= V ( / Pn2 )1/5
CP
1/5
(4.21)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
CP
From Fig.4.5b
Cs
From Eq.(4.21)
From Fig.4.5a
0.04
0.2
0.04
0.381
0.43
0.4
0.037
0.773
0.69
0.6
0.025
1.255
0.805
0.8
0.005
3.685
0.35
From the value of J, the propeller diameter is obtained as d = V/(nJ) ; note that
the values of V and n are already known. Subsection 4.2.9 gives additional
details and example 4.4 illustrates the procedure to select the propeller diameter.
Figure 4.5d presents the variation of thrust coefficient (CT) vs J with as
parameter. It is observed that when J is zero, CT is not zero as the propeller
produces thrust, even when V is zero. The curves in Fig.4.5d are useful to
estimate the thrust developed by the propeller especially during the take-off flight.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Fig.4.5d Thrust coefficient (CT) vs advance ratio (J) with pitch angle as
parameter.
Fig.4.5 Typical characteristics of a two bladed propeller
(Adapted from Ref. 4.1)
Remark :
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
CL = W/ 0.5 Vc2 S . Obtain the corresponding CD from the drag polar of the
airplane.
(c) Obtain THP required during the flight using : THP = 0.5 VC3 SCD /1000
(d) Assume p = 0.8 .
(e) Obtain BHP = THP/0.8. Then RPM (N) which will give this power output at the
chosen hc with low BSFC is known from the engine curves e.g. Fig.4.2.
Calculate n = N/60.
1/5
(g) From the design chart like Fig.4.5c, obtain the value of J on the dotted line,
corresponding to the value of CS in step (f). Also obtain the value of from the
same curve. Obtain the value of p from the upper part of the design chart.
(h) Since V, n and J are known, obtain propeller diameter (d) using : d = V/n J
(i) If the value of p obtained in step (g) is significantly different from the value of
0.8 assumed in step (d), then iterate by using the value of p obtained in step (g).
Finally round-off the propeller diameter to nearby standard value.
Remark :
The choice of the parameters of the propeller like, diameter, pitch, blade
size are also influenced by factors like noise level of the propeller, ground
clearance, and natural frequency of the blade. Refer chapter 6 of Ref.1.9.
Example 4.4
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Solution :
10673.28
1
1.225 592 14.864
2
= 0.3368
1
2 5
/ pn
1/5
= 1.38
The airplane has a two bladed propeller of standard design and hence Fig.4.5c is
applicable. From this figure, corresponding to CS of 1.38, the dotted line gives
d=
V
59
=
= 1.91 m
nJ 41.670.74
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Since, the value of p obtained is somewhat different from the value of 0.8
assumed earlier, the steps are repeated with p = 0.83.
BHPr = 81.26/0.83 = 97.90 kW = 97900 W
CS = 59 (1.225/97960 x 41.472)1/5 = 1.390
From Fig.4.5c corresponding to CS of 1.39, the dotted line gives:
J = 0.75 and = 20o and p = 0.83.
Consequently, the second estimate of propeller diameter is :
d=
59
= 1.89 m
41.670.75
Since the latest value of p is same as the value with which the steps were
repeated, the propeller diameter is taken as 1.89 m.
Remark:
The value of the propeller diameter obtained above is very close to the value of
1.88 m in the actual airplane.
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Chapter 4
Lecture 15
Engine characteristics 3
Topics
4.2.10 Procedure for obtaining propeller efficiency for given h,V, BHP
and N
4.2.11 Variations of THP and BSFC with flight velocity and altitude
4.2.12 Loss of propeller efficiency at high speeds
4.3 Gas turbine engines
4.3.1 Propulsive efficiency
4.3.2 Why turboprop, turbo fan and turbojet engines?
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
In this type of propeller the pitch of the propeller is changed during the flight
so that the maximum value of p is obtained in various phases of flight. The steps
are as follows.
(a) Obtain the ambient density for the chosen altitude.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
The steps, to obtain the THP at different flight speeds, are as follows.
1. Obtain from propeller charts, CT and CP corresponding to J0 and 0 .
These values are denoted by CTO and CPO.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
(4.22)
(4.23)
5. The assumption of constant torque (Q0) gives that N and P are related.
Note: Q0 = P0 / 2 n0
This yields:
N
=
N0
CPO
CP
(4.24)
J N
J0 N0
(4.25)
CP0 CT
C
= K0 T
CT0 CP
CP
(4.26)
V = V0
and
T = T0
Obtain the thrust and the thrust horse power at sea level for V upto 60 m/s
for the propeller engine combination of example 4.4
Solution:
V0
59
=
= 0.753
n0 d 41.671.88
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
T0 =
97.910000.83
= 1377.24N
59
K = T0
CPO
0.041
= 1377.24
= 1227.54
CTO
0.046
J/J0
CT
CP
$
CT
CP
CP0/CP
N/N0
(N)
p
**
THP
BHP
$$
0.104
0.066
1.576
0.621
0.788
1927
1971
0.1
0.133
0.104
0.065
1.589
0.629
0.793
6.21
1951
1983
0.17
12.15
71.23
0.2
0.266
0.104
0.065
1.606
0.636
0.792
12.49
1971
1993
0.33
24.61
74.60
0.3
0.398
0.102
0.062
1.631
0.657
0.811
19.05
2002
2027
0.49
38.14
77.83
0.4
0.531
0.093
0.060
1.545
0.683
0.827
25.91
1897
2067
0.62
49.15
79.28
0.5
0.664
0.082
0.058
1.420
0.712
0.844
33.05
1743
2109
0.70
57.61
82.29
0.6
0.797
0.070
0.059
1.306
0.765
0.875
41.12
1603
2187
0.77
65.91
85.60
0.7
0.930
0.055
0.046
1.185
0.884
0.900
51.55
1455
2350
0.81
75.00
92.60
0.8
1.062
0.040
0.036
1.099
1.126
1.061
66.50
1349
2653
0.83
89.71
108.1
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Fig.E 4.5 Variations of thrust (T) and thrust horse power (THP) with velocity(V)
(a) T vs V (b) THP vs V
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Answers :
6.21
12.49
19.05
25.91
33.05
41.12
51.55
66.50
T (N)
1927
1951
1971
2002
1897
1743
1603
1455
1349
THP(kW) 0
12.15
24.61
38.14
49.15
57.61
65.91
75.00
89.71
BHP(kW) -
71.23
74.10
77.83
79.28
82.29
85.60
92.60
108.1
N (RPM)
1983
1993
2027
2067
2109
2187
2350
2653
1971
4.2.11 Variations of THP and BSFC with flight velocity and altitude
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
As noted earlier, the propeller blade is like a rotating wing with forward
motion. The resultant velocity at the propeller tip (VRtip) would be the highest. It is
equal to:
VRtip = { V 2 + (2 n R)2}1/2, where R is the radius of the propeller.
When the Mach number corresponding to VRtip exceeds the critical Mach number
for the airfoil used on the propeller, the drag coefficient of the airfoil would
increase and the lift coefficient would decrease (see subsection 3.3.3).
Consequently, the efficiency of the propeller would decrease. This loss of
efficiency can be delayed to higher flight Mach numbers by use of advanced
propellers. These propellers have swept blades and are being used on turboprop
airplanes up to flight Mach number of 0.7. Figure 4.7a shows one such propeller
placed in a wind tunnel and Fig.4.7b shows another propeller mounted on
ATR 72 airplane.
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
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Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of useful work done by the air stream and
the energy supplied to it.
In a gas turbine engine, the velocity of the air stream ( V ) is augmented
to Vj,the velocity of the jet stream, thereby imparting kinetic energy at the rate of :
/2) [ Vj 2 - V 2]
(m
(4.27)
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
(4.28)
(4.29)
The overall efficiency of a gas turbine engine is the product of items like
cycle efficiency, combustion efficiency, mechanical efficiency and propulsive
efficiency. The cycle efficiency depends on the engine cycle and in turn on the
maximum temperature / pressure in the engine. The combustion efficiency and
mechanical efficiency are generally of the order of 95%. Thus propulsive
efficiency finally decides the overall efficiency of a gas turbine engine as a
propulsive system.
Remark:
The action of a propeller is also similar to that of a jet engine i.e. it also enhances
velocity of the free stream from V to Vj, In this case, Vj is the velocity of the
stream far behind the propeller(see subsection 4.2.7). Hence, the propulsive
efficiency of a propeller which was called ideal efficiency of propeller, is also
given by Eq.(4.29), which is same as given by Eq.(4.13).
The variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed provides the reason for
use of turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines in airplanes operating at different
range of flight speeds.Consider the variation of propulsive efficiency with flight
speed. For this purpose, a subsonic jet engine with convergent nozzle is
considered. In this case, the Mach number at the exit, would be unity and the
temperature of the exhaust gases would be around 600 K. Under these
conditions, Vj, the velocity of jet exhaust would be around 500 m/s. Using
Eq.(4.29), the values of propulsive efficiency obtained at different flight speeds
( V ) are given in the Table 4.2.
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
V (m/s) 100
125
166.7
250
333.3
400
Vj / V
1.5
1.25
33.3
40.0
50.0
66.7
80.0
88.9
Table 4.2 Variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed for Vj = 500 m/s
Remarks:
i) Turboprop engine
It is seen from Table 4.2 that p will be low if a pure jet engine is used at
low speeds. An analysis of Eqs.(4.28 and 4.29) points out that for having
adequate thrust and high propulsive efficiency at low flight speeds, a small
increment in velocity should be given to a large mass of air. This is effectively
done by a propeller. Thus for airplanes with flight Mach number less than about
0.5, a turbo-prop engine is used (Fig.4.9). In this case, the turbine drives the
compressor and also the propeller through a gearbox (Fig.4.9). The gear box is
needed because the turbine r.p.m. would be around 15000-20000 whereas, the
propeller rotates at about 3000 r.p.m.
For practical reasons, the expansion of the gases coming out of the combustion
chamber is not allowed to take place completely in the turbine and a part of the
expansion is carried out in the nozzle. Hence, in a turboprop engine, about 80 to
90% of the total output is produced through the propeller and the rest 20 to 10%
as output from the jet coming out of the nozzle.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
As the flight Mach number increases beyond 0.7, the propeller efficiency
decreases rapidly due to the formation of shock waves at the tip of the propeller
blade. Hence, for airplanes flying near Mach number of unity, a turbo-fan engine
is used (Fig.4.10).In this engine a major portion of the power output (about 60%)
is obtained as jet thrust and the rest as thrust from the fan. A fan has a smaller
diameter as compared to the propeller and it is generally placed inside a duct. A
ducted fan has a higher propulsive efficiency than a propeller.
It is observed in Fig.4.10 that all the air taken in by the fan does not go
through the turbine. Incidentally the part of the engine consisting of the
compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and nozzle is called Gas generator.
The ratio of the mass of the air that passes through the fan to the mass of air that
passes through the gas generator is called Bypass ratio.
Early turbofan engines had bypass ratio of 1:1. At present, it is around 6.5:1 and
is likely to increase in future.
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
14
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Chapter 4
Lecture 16
Engine characteristics 4
Topics
4.3.3 Characteristics of a typical turboprop engine
4.3.4 Characteristics of a typical turbofan engine
4.3.5 Characteristics of a typical turbojet engines
4.4
4.5
(4.30)
where SHP = shaft horse power available at propeller shaft in kW,p = propeller
efficiency and Tj = jet thrust
The total output of a turbo-prop engine, also called Equivalent shaft horse
power (ESHP), is defined as :
ESHP = SHP + {Tj V / (0.8x1000) }
(4.31)
Note : (i) For the purpose of defining ESHP, the value of is taken as 0.8 in
Eq.(4.31). The ESHP and SHP are in kW.
(ii) Equation (4.31) would not be able to account for the contribution, to ESHP, of
the thrust produced when the flight velocity (V) is zero or the static condition. For
this case and when V < 100 knots (or 185 kmph), the convention is to define
ESHP as follows (Ref.4.3, chapter 14).
ESHP = SHP + (Tj / 14.92)
(4.31a)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
For example a turboprop engine developing SHP of 746 kW and jet thrust of
503 N, under sea level static condition, would have :
ESHP = 746 + (503/14.92) = 780 kW.
Characteristics of a typical turbo-prop engine are shown in Fig.4.11. It is
observed that the power output increases with flight speed. This increase is due
= A i Vi ; Ai and Vi
to two factors viz. (a) the mass flow through the engine ( m
being the area of intake, and the velocity at the intake) increases with flight
speed and (b) the pressure rise due to the deceleration of the flow in the inlet
diffuser also increases with flight Mach number.
Figure 4.11 also shows the influence of ambient temperature on power output. It
is observed that there is a significant fall in ESHP as the ambient temperature
rises.
From the curves regarding fuel flow rate in Fig.4.11, the BSFC can be obtained
at various speeds and altitudes as:
BSFC = (Fuel flow/hr) / ESHP
Remark:
Reference 3.9 Appendix E.3 gives performance curves for a large turboprop
engine with sea level static power of 6500 HP. It may be noted that the Sea level
static power is the engine output at sea level at zero velocity. Reference 1.9,
chapter 6 gives characteristics of an engine of around 1700 HP.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Remark:
Chapter 9 of Ref.3.22 gives the performance, in terms of non-dimensional
parameters, for engines with bypass ratios of 3, 6.5, 8 and 13. The curves are
also presented for take-off rating, climb rating and cruise rating. It may be added
that the Take-off rating is the engine output which can be availed for about 5
min. The engine can be run at Climb rating for about half an hour and at Cruise
rating for long periods.
Fig.4.12 Characteristics of Pratt and Whitney PW4056 turbofan engine maximum cruise thrust
(With permission from Pratt and Whitney, East Hartford)
4.3.5 Characterisitcs of typical turbojet engine
The characteristics of a supersonic turbojet engine are shown in Figs.4.13a to d.
It is observed that at subsonic speeds the thrust is fairly constant, but it increases
considerably at supersonic speeds. This rise is due to increased ram pressure
in the intake, as a result of the deceleration of the supersonic flow. The Mach
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
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Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
number at which the peak value of thrust occurs depends on the design of the
engine.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
However, the specific fuel consumption also goes up considerably and the
afterburner operation is resorted to only for a short duration like during take-off or
transonic acceleration.
4.4 Deducing output and SFC of engines where these characteristics are
not available directly
The detailed information about engine performance (i.e. variations with
altitude and flight velocity of the thrust (or power) and TSFC (or BSFC) is
generally available only in a limited number of cases. To get the performance of
an engine with other rating, scaling of the available data is carried out. For this
purpose, the values of thrust(or power) of the engine, whose characteristics are
known, are multiplied by a suitable factor which will bring the output of the
existing engine equal to the output of the desired engine. It is assumed that the
SFC values will be the same for the two engines. This kind of scaling is generally
applicable for outputs within 25% of the output of the known engine (Ref.4.5,
chapter 8).
4.5 A note on choice of engines for different range of flight speeds
The topic of choice of engine for different types of airplanes is generally covered
in airplane design. Here some salient points are mentioned to conclude the
discussion on engines.
The following five criteria are used to select a power plant for a specific
application.
1.Overall efficiency 0 : This quantity is the product of (a) thermodynamic
on the thermodynamic cycle on which the engine operates. The details regarding
estimation of t are available in books on thermodynamics. However, it is of the
order of 40 to 50%. The combustion efficiency and mechanical efficiency would
be around 95%. The propulsive efficiency of the propeller and gas turbine
engines have been described in subsections 4.2.7, 4.2.8 and 4.3.2. It has been
pointed out there that p depends on flight speed or Mach number.
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
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Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
M 1.6 to about 3.5 and ramjets later upto M 8 . It may be recapitulated that a
ramjet engine requires another powerplant to bring it to Mach number of about
1.5.
2. Variation of thrust (or power) with flight speed and altitude:
The shaft horse powers of piston engine and turboprop engine do not change
significantly with flight speed. Consequently, the thrust outputs of these engines
decrease significantly with flight speed or Mach number. The output of a turbofan
engine decreases with Mach number, especially at low altitudes (Fig.4.12). The
thrust of a jet engine is fairly constant at subsonic speeds but increases
considerably at supersonic speeds (Fig.4.13 c & d). As regards the effect of flight
altitude Eq.(4.1a) shows that for a piston engine P / Psl = 1.1 where is the
density ratio and the suffix sl denotes a quantity at sea level.
For a turbo-prop engine (from Ref 1.10 chapter 3), P/Psl 0.7 . From
Ref.3.15, chapter 3, (T/Tsl) for turbofan and turbojet engines is also roughly
proportional to 0.7
3. Weight of the engine:
The weight of the engine contributes to the gross weight of the airplane and
hence it should be as low as possible.This quantity is indicated by the ratio Wpp/T
or Wpp/BHP, where WPP is the weight of the power plant. This ratio depends on
the type of engine and the engine rating; it (ratio) decreases as the rating
increases. Based on data in Ref.1.15, it can be mentioned that the weight per
unit BHP for a piston engine is around 9N/kW for an engine with a rating of
around 150 kW and about 6N/kW for a rating of around 500 kW. For a turboprop
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
engine WPP/ESHP is around 2.9 N/kW for rating of 500 kW, 2.3 N/kW for a rating
of 2500 kW and 1.4 N/kW for a rating of 7500 kW. For a turbofan engines the
ratio WPP/T could be around 0.25 N/N for a rating of around 100 kN and about
0.15 N/N for a rating of about 250 kN.
4. Frontal area:
The frontal area of an engine contributes to the parasite drag of the airplane.
Hence, a lower frontal area is a desirable feature of the engine. For a given
output the piston engine-propeller combination generally has the highest frontal
area. Turboprop, turbofan and turbojet follow in the decreasing order of the
frontal area.
5.Other considerations :
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Type of engine
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Application airplanes
in the following
categories
Piston engine-propeller
combination
Turboprop
transport/cargo, aerial
advanced propeller
executive transport.
Medium and long range
Turbofan
transports, cargo,
maritime patrol, executive
transport, jet trainer.
Trainers, supersonic
Turbojet
M from 1 to 3
transport, fighter,
interceptor, bomber.
Intended for hypersonic
Ramjet
M from 2 to 8
transport.
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Chapter 4
References
4.1 Hartman, E.P. and Biermann, D. The Aerodynamic characteristics of fullscale propellers having 2, 3, and 4 blades of clark Y and R.A.F. 6 airfoil sections
NACA TR 640, Nov.1937. This report can be downloaded from the site NASA
Technical Report Server (NTRS).
4.2 Generalized method for propeller performance estimation Hamilton
Standard Division, Hamilton Standard Publication PDB6101A, United Aircraft
Corp., 1963.
4.3 Nicholai, L.M. and Carichner, G.E Fundamentals of aircraft and airship
design Vol I Aircraft design AIAA educational series (2010).
4.4 Mikkelson D.C. and Mitchell G.A. High speed turboprop for executive aircraft
potential and recent test results NASA TM 31482, Jan 1980. This report can
be downloaded from the site NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS).
4.5 Jenkinson L.R., Marchman III J.F. Aircraft design projects ButterworthHeinemann (2003).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter IV
Prof. E.G.Tulapurkara
Chapter 4
Exercises
4.1) What are the different types of engines used on airplanes? State the
speed/Mach number range in which they are used.
4.2) Sketch a typical BHP vrs altitude curve for a piston engine. Why does the
power output of a piston engine decrease rapidly with altitude? Supercharger is
needed to delay this loss of power to higher altitudes. Look for information on
supercharger from books (e.g. Ref.1.9) and internet (www.google.com).
4.3) What are the essential differences between turboprop, turbofan and turbojet
engines? Derive an expression for the propulsive efficiency and justify the range
of flight Mach numbers in which these engines are used.
4.4) A propeller of 2 m diameter is mounted on an airplane flying at a speed of
216 kmph. If the velocity of air far behind the propeller be 81 m/s, calculate the
propulsive efficiency and the thrust developed by the propeller.
[Answers: p = 85.1%, T = 5695 N]
4.5) Neatly sketch the following:
(a) variation of propeller efficiency vs flight velocity with propeller pitch angle as
parameter.
(b) Variation of thrust vs. Mach number with altitude as parameter for a
turbofan engine.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Chapter 5
Lecture 19
Performance analysis I Steady level flight 3
Topics
5.8 Influence of level flight analysis on airplane design
5.9 Steady level flight performance with a given engine
5.10 Steady level flight performance with a given engine and parabolic
polar
5.10.1 Airplane with jet engine
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
speed airplanes also have high wing loading (W/S) to reduce the wing area.
Table 3.4 may be referred to for typical values of CDO , A and e of different types
of airplanes. The reciprocal of (CD / CL) is (CL / CD). It is called lift-drag ratio
(L / D). The maximum value of this ratio, (L / D)max, is an indication of the
aerodynamic efficiency of the airplane. (L / D)max lies between 12 to 22 for a
subsonic airplanes and between 5 to 8 for supersonic airplanes.
(c) When the weight of an airplane increases the thrust required increases in
proportion to W and the power required increases in proportion to W
3/2
(Eqs.5.3
and 5.4). Hence, airplane design bureaus have a group of engineers which
keeps a close watch on any increase in the weight of the airplane.
5.9 Steady level flight performance with a given engine
At the outset the following three points may be noted.
(I)In steady level flight the thrust must be equal to drag (Eq.5.1).
(II) The thrust is provided by the engine or the engine-propeller combination and
from chapter 4, it is noted that the thrust or power output varies with engine RPM,
flight speed and altitude.
(III) For airplanes with piston engine or turboprop engine, the output is the power
available at the engine shaft. Hence, to estimate the performance of such
airplanes the calculations are carried-out in terms of BHP or THP. For airplanes
with turbofan or turbojet engines, the output is in terms of thrust and to estimate
the performance of such airplanes the calculations are carried-out in terms of
thrust.
Typical variations, with altitude and flight speed, of the maximum thrust available
(Ta) and the maximum thrust horse power available (THP)a are shown in
Figs.5.5 and 5.6a respectively. The thrust required and power required curves
are also shown in same figures.
Consider the curves of Ta and Tr corresponding to sea level conditions. It is seen
that the power or thrust available is much more than the minimum power or thrust
required. Hence, flights over a wide range of speeds are possible by controlling
the engine output with the help of throttle and ensuring thrust equals drag.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
However, as the speed increases above the speed for minimum power or thrust
( Vmp or Vmd ), the power or thrust required increases and at a certain speed the
power or thrust required is equal to the maximum available engine output (point
A in Figs.5.5 & 5.6a). This speed is called the Maximum speed(Vmax). Similar
intersections between power available and power required curves or thrust
available and thrust required curves are seen at higher altitudes (points B, C and
D in Fig.5.5, point B in Fig.5.6a and point C in Fig.5.6b).
Similarly, when the flight speed decreases below Vmp or Vmd the power or
thrust required increases and there is a speed at which the power or thrust
required is equal to the available power or thrust - point D in Fig.5.5 and point C
in Fig.5.6b. Figure 5.6b is drawn separately from Fig.5.6a to show the points C
and C clearly.
Thus, the minimum speed can be limited by available thrust or power output. It is
denoted by (Vmin)e. However, in level flight the requirement of lift equal to weight
should also be satisfied(Eq.5.1). Hence, level flight is not possible below stalling
speed. Thus, two factors viz. the thrust or power available and the stalling, limit
the minimum flight speed of an airplane. Satisfying both these requirements, the
minimum speed of the airplane at an altitude will be the higher of the two speeds
viz. (Vmin)e and VS.
Typical variations of Vmax, (Vmin)e and VS are shown for a jet engined airplane in
Fig.5.9. The details of the calculations are given in Appendix B. Similarly, typical
variations of these speeds in case of a piston engined airplane are shown in
Fig.5.10 with details of calculation given in Appendix A. The following
observations are made.
(i)For a jet airplane Vmax may slightly increase initially with altitude and then
decrease. However, there is an altitude at which the thrust required curve is
tangential to the thrust available curve and flight is possible only at one speed.
This altitude is called Ceiling and denoted by hmax. Above hmax the thrust
available is lower than the minimum thrust required and level flight is not possible
as the requirement of T = D cannot be satisfied.
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
6000
5000
4000
Vs
3000
Vmax
(Vmin)e
2000
1000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Velocity (m/s)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
(iii)In the case of a piston engined airplane, the maximum speed seems to
decrease with altitude. In this case also there is a ceiling altitude beyond which
the power available is lower than the minimum power required and hence level
flight is not possible. The ceiling in this case, is lower than in the case of a jet
airplane because the power output of a piston engine decreases rapidly with
altitude. As regards the minimum speed, it is also limited by stalling at low
altitudes and by power available near the ceiling altitude.
5.10 Steady level flight with a given engine and parabolic polar
If the drag polar is parabolic and the engine output can be assumed to be
constant with speed, then Vmax and (Vmin)e from the engine output consideration,
can be calculated analytically. i.e. by solving an equation. It may be noted from
Figs.5.5 & 5.6 that the assumption of Ta or Pa as constant with V appears
reasonable near the speeds where Vmax occurs.
5.10.1 Airplane with jet engine:
The steps to calculate Vmax and (Vmin)e are as follows.
(1) Choose an altitude h. Let Ta be the thrust available in the range of speeds
where Vmax is likely to occur.
(2) Tr =Ta= W(CD / CL)
Hence,
Ta CD CDO
=
=
+KCL
W
CL
CL
T
Or KC2 - a CL + CDO = 0
L W
(5.25)
Equation (5.25) is a quadratic in CL. Its solution gives two values of CL at which
level flight with the given thrust is possible. Let these values of CL be denoted as
CL1 and CL2. Then, the corresponding flight speeds, V1 and V2, are given as:
1
2W 2
2W 2
V1 =
and V2 =
SCL1
SCL2
(5.26)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
It may be pointed out that the same results can be obtained by using Eq.(5.12),
i.e.
Ta = Tr =
Or
1
V 2S CDO + K
2
4
2W 2
V 2S
AV BV + C = 0
where, A =
(5.27)
2KW 2
1
SCDO , B = Ta and C =
S
2
For given value of thrust (Ta), Eq.(5.27) also gives two solutions for level flight
speeds V1 and V2.
Let V1 be the higher among V1 and V2.Then, V1 is the maximum speed and V2 is
the minimum speed, based on engine output i.e. (Vmin)e. The higher of (Vmin)e
and the stalling speed (Vs) will be the minimum speed at the chosen altitude.
The example 5.2 illustrates the procedure.
Remarks:
i) Calculate the Mach number corresponding to V1. If it is more than the critical
Mach number then CDO and K would need correction and revised calculation,
would be required.
ii) Obtain, from the engine charts, the thrust available at V1 . Let it be denoted by
Ta1. If the thrust available (Ta), assumed at the start of the calculation(step 1), is
significantly different from Ta1, then the calculations would have to be revised
with new value of Ta. However, it is expected that the calculations would
converge to the correct answer in a few iterations.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Chapter 5
Performance analysis I Steady level flight
(Lectures 17 to 20)
Keywords: Steady level flight equations of motion, minimum power required,
minimum thrust required, minimum speed, maximum speed; stalling speed;
equivalent airspeed.
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Subdivisions of performance analysis
5.1.2 Importance of performance analysis
5.1.3 Approach in performance analysis
5.2 Equations of motion for steady level flight
5.3 Stalling speed
5.4 Equivalent airspeed
5.4.1 Airspeed indicator
5.5 Thrust and power required in steady level flight general case
5.6 Thrust and power required in steady level flight when drag
polar is independent of Mach number
5.7 Thrust and power required in steady level flight consideration of
parabolic polar
5.8 Influence of level flight analysis on airplane design
5.9 Steady level flight performance with a given engine
5.10 Steady level flight performance with a given engine and parabolic
polar
5.10.1 Airplane with jet engine
5.10.2 Parameters influencing Vmax of a jet airplane
5.10.3 Airplane with engine-propeller combination
5.11 Special feature of steady level flight at supersonic speeds
References
Exercises
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Chapter 5
Lecture 17
Performance analysis I Steady level flight 1
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Subdivisions of performance analysis
5.1.2 Importance of performance analysis
5.1.3 Approach in performance analysis
5.2 Equations of motion for steady level flight
5.3 Stalling speed
5.4 Equivalent airspeed
5.4.1 Airspeed indicator
5.5 Thrust and power required in steady level flight general case
5.1 Introduction:
During its normal operation an airplane takes off, climbs to the cruising
altitude, cruises at almost constant altitude, descends and lands. It may also fly
along curved paths like turns, loops etc. The flights along curved paths are also
called manoeuvres. Analyses of various flights are the topics under the
performance analysis. A revision of section 1.6 would be helpful at this stage.
5.1.1 Subdivisions of performance analysis
Performance analysis covers the following aspects.
I) Unaccelerated flights:
(a) In a steady level flight an airplane moves with constant velocity at a constant
altitude. This analysis would give information on the maximum level speed and
minimum level speed at different altitudes.
(b) In a steady climb an airplane climbs at constant velocity. This analysis would
provide information on the maximum rate of climb, maximum angle of climb and
maximum attainable altitude (ceiling).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
(c) The forces produced due to control deflection, needed to balance the
moments, are assumed to be small as compared to the other forces. With this
assumption all the forces acting on the airplane are located at the centre of
gravity (c.g.) of the airplane (Fig.5.2) and its motion is simplified to that of a point
mass moving under the influence of aerodynamic, propulsive and gravitational
forces.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
As the flight is steady i.e. no acceleration along the tangent to the flight path,
implies that ax = 0. Further, the flight is straight and at constant altitude, hence,
az= 0.
Consequently, the equations of motion reduce to:
T D = 0, L W = 0
(5.1)
Noting that,
W = (1/2)V2SCL
V = (2W / SCL)1/2
Or
(5.2)
Further,
(1/2)V S = W / CL
(5.3)
(5.3a)
C
W
D
1000
CL
1
Or Pr
1000
2W
S CL
2W 3 CD
S C3/2
L
(5.4)
Remarks:
i) Equations (5.1) to (5.4) are the basic equations for steady level flight and would
be used in subsequent analysis of this flight.
ii) To fly in a steady level flight at chosen values of h and V, the pilot should
adjust the following settings.
(a) The angle of attack of the airplane to get the desired lift coefficient so that the
lift(L) equals the weight(W).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
(b) The throttle setting of the engine, so that thrust equals drag at the desired
angle of attack. He (pilot) will also have to adjust the elevator so that the airplane
is held in equilibrium and the pitching moment about c.g. is zero at the required
angle of attack. As noted earlier, the forces (lift and drag) produced due to the
elevator deflection are neglected.
5.3 Stalling speed:
Consider that an airplane which has weight (W) and wing area (S), is flying at
an altitude (h).
proportional to 1/CL . Thus, the value of CL required would increase as the flight
speed decreases. Since CL cannot exceed CLmax, there is a flight speed below
which level flight is not possible. The flight speed at which CL equals CLmax is
called Stalling speed and is denoted by Vs. Consequently ,
Vs= (2W / SCLmax)
1/2
(5.5)
It is evident from Eq.(5.5) that Vs increases with altitude since the density ()
decreases with height.The variations of Vs with h for a typical piston engined
airplane and a typical jet airplane are presented in Figs.5.3a and b respectively.
Appendices A & B give the details of calculations.
Remark:
The maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) depends on the flap deflection (f). Hence,
Vs will be different for the cases with (a) no flap (b) flap with take-off setting (c)
flap with setting for landing. Figure 5.3a presents the variations of stalling speed,
with altitude, for four cases viz. with no flap and with three different flap settings.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Fig.5.3a Variations of stalling speed with altitude for a low speed airplane
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
1 V 2 = 1 V 2
2
2 o e
Noting = /o , Ve can be expressed as :
Ve = V1/2 =
2W
oSCL
(5.6)
Remarks:
i) From Eq.(5.6) it is evident that for a given wing loading (W/S), the equivalent
airspeed in steady level flight is proportional to 1/CL1/2
and is independent of
altitude. Thus the stalling speed, for a given airplane configuration, when
expressed as equivalent airspeed is independent of altitude.
ii) To avoid confusion between equivalent airspeed ( Ve ) and the actual speed of
the airplane relative to the free stream (V), the latter is generally referred to as
true airspeed.
5.4.1 Airspeed indicator
equation.
p t -ps =
1 2 M2 M4
V 1+
+
+.... ; M = V /a, a = speed of sound
4 40
2
(5.6a)
1
V2
2
It may be pointed out that, in the case of an airplane, the air is stationary and the
airplane is moving. Hence, the quantity V in the above expressions, equals the
speed of the airplane(V). Hence, at low speeds:
pt -ps
1 2
1
V = 0 Ve2
2
2
(5.6b)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
constant value.
At subsonic speeds, when the compressibility effects become significant,
the airspeed indicator mechanism is calibrated to indicate Calibrated airspeed
(Vcal), based on the following equation which is a simplified form of Eq.(5.6a).
2
1
1 Vcal
2
pt -ps = 0 Vcal 1
2
4 a02
(5.6c)
On high speed airplanes the speed with respect to ground called Ground
speed is deduced from the coordinates given by the global positioning system
(GPS). However, airspeed indicator based on Pitot static system is one of the
mandatory instruments on the airplane.
5.5 Thrust and power required in steady level flight general case
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
The drag coefficient (CD)depends on the lift coefficient (CL) and the Mach
number. The relationship between CD and CL, the drag polar, is already known
from the estimation of the aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane.
Thus, when the drag polar, the weight of the airplane and the wing area are
prescribed, the thrust required and the power required in steady level flight at
various speeds and altitudes can be calculated for any airplane using the above
equations. The steps are as follows.
i)
ii)
iii)
For the chosen values of V and h, and given values of the weight of
airplane (W) and the wing area(S) calculate CL as :
CL =
2W
SV 2
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Chapter 5
Lecture 18
Performance analysis I Steady level flight 2
Topics
5.6 Thrust and power required in steady level flight when drag
polar is independent of Mach number
5.7 Thrust and power required in steady level flight consideration of
parabolic polar
5.6 Thrust and power required in steady level flight when drag polar is
independent of Mach number
When the Mach number is less than about 0.7, the drag polar is generally
independent of Mach number. In this case, CD / CL and CD / CL
3/2
can be
calculated for different values of CL. The curves shown in Figs.5.4a and b are
obtained by plotting CD / CL and CD / CL
3/2
3/2
2W 3 CD
S C3/2
L min
(5.7)
(5.8)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Fig.5.4b Variation of CD / CL
3/2
with CL
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
The speeds, at which the drag and the power required are minimum, are denoted
by Vmd and Vmp respectively. The expressions for Vmd and Vmp are:
Vmd =
2W
2W
, Vmp =
SCLmd
S CLmp
(5.9)
Note:
i) CLmd and CLmp are not equal and the corresponding speeds are different. As the
density occurs in the denominator of Eq.(5.9), it implies that Vmd and Vmp
increase with altitude.
ii) Since for Mach number is lower than about 0.7, the drag polar is assumed to
be independent of Mach number, the values of
(CD / C L 3/2)min are also independent of Mach number. From Eqs.(5.7) and (5.8) it
is seen that Trmin is independent of altitude whereas Prmin increases with altitude
1/2
in proportion to 1/ .
iii) It is also observed in Fig.5.4a that a line drawn parallel to the X-axis cuts the
curve at two points A and B. This shows that for the same value of CD / CL or the
thrust {Tr = W(CD / CL) }, an airplane can have steady level flight at two values of
lift coefficients viz. CLA and CLB. From Eq.(5.2) each value of CL corresponds to a
velocity. Hence for the same amount of thrust, in general, flight is possible at two
speeds (VA and VB). These speeds are:
VA= (2W / SCLA)
1/2
, VB = (2W / SCLB)
1/2
(5.9a)
Similarly, from Fig.5.4b it is observed that with the same power, in general, level
flight is possible at two values of lift coefficient viz. CLA and CLB and
correspondingly at two flight speeds viz. VA and VB .
iii) Typical variations of thrust required with flight speed and altitude are shown in
Fig.5.5. Following interesting observations are made in this case where the drag
polar is independent of Mach number. From Eq.(5.7) the minimum drag depends
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
only on W and (CD / CL)min and hence is independent of altitude. However, the
speed corresponding to minimum drag ( Vmd ) increases with altitude (Eq.5.9).
Hence, the thrust required curves at various altitudes have the same minimum
thrust at all altitudes and the curves have a horizontal line, corresponding to
T = Trmin , as a common tangent (see Fig.5.5). This feature should be kept in
mind when thrust required curves for subsonic airplanes are plotted.
Fig.5.5 Thrust required and thrust available for subsonic jet airplane
iv) Typical variations of power required with flight speed and altitude are shown
in Fig.5.6a. Interesting observations are made in this case also. From Eq.(5.8)
the minimum power required (Prmin) depends on W3/2 , (CD/CL3/2)min and -1/2 .
From Eq.(5.9) it is observed that Vmp depends on -1/2 . Noting that for airplanes
with piston engine or turboprop engine, the flight Mach number is less than 0.7,
the drag polar is independent of Mach number. However, due to dependence on
-1/2 , the Prmin and Vmp increase with altitude (Fig.5.6a) . It may be added that
the slope of a line, joining a point on the Pr vs V curve and the origin, is Pr / V or
Tr. However, as pointed out earlier, Tr has a minimum value (Trmin) which is
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
The discussion in section 5.6, was with reference to a general drag polar
which may be given in tabular form or a plot. Consider the parabolic polar given
by :
CD = CD0 + KCL2
(5.10)
(5.11)
2W
1
Tr = V 2 S CDo + K
1 2
2
V S
Or Tr =
1
V 2 SCDO + 2 KW 2 / (V 2S)
2
(5.12)
In Eq.(5.12) the first term () V2 S CD0 is called Parasite drag. The second
2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
It is observed that from Fig.5.7 that the parasite drag, being proportional to V ,
2
increases rapidly with speed. The induced drag being proportional to 1/ V is high
at low speeds but decreases rapidly as speed increases. The total drag, which is
the sum of the induced drag and the parasite drag, is approximately equal to
induced drag at low speeds and approaches parasite drag at high speeds. It has
a minimum value at a speed (Vmd) where the parasite drag and induced drag are
equal to each other (Fig.5.7). This can be verified by differentiating Eq.(5.12) with
respect to V and equating it to zero i.e.
dTr
2KW 2 (-2)
= Vmd S C D0 +
=0
dV
S V 3
md
1
1/4
2W 2 K
Or Vmd =
S CD0
(5.13)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
(5.14)
From Eq.(5.14) it is observed that when V equals Vmd , the parasite drag and
induced drag both are equal to W (CD0 K)1/2. This is also shown in Fig.5.7.
Expression for power required in the present case is given by :
Pr =
Tr V
1 1
=
V3SCD
1000 1000 2
Pr =
Or Pr =
1
1 KW2
V3S CD0 +
2000
500 VS
(5.15)
The first term in Eq.(5.15) is called Parasite power and the second term is called
Induced power. The variations with flight velocity (V) of induced power, parasite
power and the total power required are shown in Fig.5.8.
It is observed that the minimum power occurs at a speed, Vmp , at which the
induced power is three times the parasite power. This can be verified by
differentiating Eq.(5.15) with respect to V and equating it to zero. The verification
is left as an exercise to the student.
1/4
1/2
2W K
Vmp =
S 3CDo
1
Prmin =
1000
1/2
1/4
2W3
256
3
C
K
Do
S
27
(5.16)
(5.17)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
i) The expressions given in Eqs.(5.13) and (5.14) can be obtained in the following
alternate way.
Tr = W (CD / CL)
Hence, Trmin = W (CD / CL)min
(5.18)
(5.19)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
C
d(CD /CL )
= 0 or - D0 + K = 0
dCL
C2
Lmd
This gives CLmd as:
CLmd = (CDo / K)
1/2
(5.20)
KCDO
= 2CDO
K
(5.21)
Equation (5.21) shows that when Tr equals Tmin, both parasite drag coefficient
and induced drag coefficient are equal to CDO . Hence under this condition, the
2
parasite drag and induced drag both are equal to (1/2) V S CDO .
Further,
1
CD
C
2CDO
2
= Dmd =
=
2
(C
K)
DO
1
CL min CLmd CDO / K 2
(5.22)
1/2
2W 3
CD
S
C3/2
3/2
C
CD
= DO + K C1/2
L
C3/2 C3/2
L
L
Therefore,
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
d CD / C3/2
L
dCL
= -3 C
DO
2 C
L
5/2
1 K
2 C 21
L
Equating the R.H.S. to zero, the value of CL at which the power required is
minimum ( CLmp ) is given as:
CLmp = (3 CDO / K)
1/2
(5.23)
3K CDO
= 4 CDO
K
(5.24)
Equation (5.24) shows that when Pr equals Prmin the parasite drag coefficient is
equal to CDO and the induced drag coefficient is equal to 3 CDO . Consequently,
3
the parasite power is (1/2) V S CDO and induced power is 3 times of that.
Hence,
1/4
4CDO
256
CD
=
=
CDO K 3
C3/2
(3CDO / K)3/4 27
L min
1/2
1/2
2W
2W
Vmp =
=
SCLmp
S
(5.24a)
1/4
K
1
=
Vmd 0.76 Vmd (5.24b)
3 CDO
31/4
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Solution:
2
S = 25 m , CLmax =1.5
2W
,
SCLmax
a) VS =
2 100000
= 113.6 m/s = 409.0 kmph.
0.413 25 1.5
At 10 km altitude, VS =
b) CLmd =
CDmd
2 100000
= 66 m/s = 237.6 kmph
1.225 25 1.5
CD0
= 0.016/0.064 = 0.5
K
= 2 CDO = 0.032
Vmd =
Vmp =
2 100000
= 86.30 m/s = 310.7 kmph
1.225 25 0.866
1/4
1
1000
2W 3
1
CD / C3/2
=
L min 1000
S
2 1000003
0.0794 = 641.5 kW.
1.225 25
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Answers :
a) VS at sea level = 237.6 kmph
VS at 10 km altitude = 409.0 kmph
b) (CD / CL)min = 0.064 ; (CD / C3/2 )min = 0.0794 ; Trmin = 6400 N
L
At sea level : Prmin = 641.5 kW; Vmd = 412.2 kmph; Vmp = 310.7 kmph
13
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Chapter 5
Lecture 20
Performance analysis I Steady level flight 4
Topics
5.10.2 Parameters influencing Vmax of a jet airplane
5.10.3 Airplane with engine-propeller combination
5.11 Special feature of steady level flight at supersonic speeds
(5.27)
or AV4 BV2 + C = 0
where, A =
1
2KW 2
.
SCDO , B = Ta and C =
2
S
(5.27a)
B B2 - 4AC 2
V =
2A
Vmax
B+ B2 - 4AC 2
=
2A
Ta
=
+
SCDO
Ta
W
K
-4 2 2
2 2
S CDO
S CDO
2
(5.27b)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Vmax
Ta /W W/S
=
+
C
DO
Ta /W W/S
2
2
CDO
W KC
- 4 2 DO
2
S CDO
Simplifying yields :
1/2
Or
Vmax
2
W
Ta /W W/S + Ta /W - 4CDO K
S
=
CDO
(5.27c)
Equation (5.27c) shows that Vmax depends on thrust to weight ratio ( Ta /W), wing
loading (W/S), CDO , K and .The maximum speed (Vmax) increases with increase
of ( Ta /W) and (W/S) and decreases with increase of CDO and K. The term in
the denominator of Eq.(5.27c) indicates that Vmax would be higher at higher
altitudes because decreases with altitude. In section 4.5 it is pointed out that
the thrust output decreases as 0.7 . Taking this into account, Eq.(5.27c) indicates
that Vmax would increase slightly upto a certain altitude as shown in Fig.5.9.
The trend of Vmax, decreasing after a certain altitude, observed in Fig.5.9, can be
explained as follows.
From atmospheric characteristics (Chapter 2), it is observed that, with the
increase of altitude the speed of sound decreases. Thus for a given Vmax the
Mach number corresponding to it would increase with altitude. When the Mach
number exceeds the critical Mach number, CDO & K would no longer be constant
but actually increase. This would result in lowering of Vmax as compared to that
obtained with constant values of CDO and K. In section 4.2 of Appendix B the
values of Vmax at different altitudes are obtained by a graphical procedure which
takes into account the changes in CDO and K when Mach number is greater than
0.8.
5.10.3 Airplane with engine-propeller combination
The steps to calculate Vmax and (Vmin)e in this case, are as follows.
(1) Assume an altitude h. Let Pa be the THP available in kW at this altitude.
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
1
1 KW2
V3 S CDO +
2000
500 VS
or A1V B1V + C1 = 0
where, A1 =
(5.28)
1
1 KW 2
SCDO , B1 = Pa , C1 =
.
2000
500 S
For the airplane in example 5.1 obtain the maximum and minimum speed in
steady level flight at sea level.
Solution:
0.016
+ 0.064 CL
CL
Solving the above equation gives: CL = 3.04 and 0.0822. The corresponding
speeds are :
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Vmax =
2 100000
= 281.8 m/s
1.225 25 0.0822
and ( Vmin )e =
2 100000
= 45.4 m/s
1.225 25 3.04
Using this polar and revising the calculations, gives: Vmax = 281.3 m/s
This revised value of Vmax is very close to the value of 281.8 m/s obtained earlier
and hence further revision is not needed.
(Answers: Vmax = 281.3 m/s =1012.7 kmph, Vmin = 66.00 m/s = 237.6 kmph)
Example 5.3
2
W = 11,000 N, S = 11.9 m2, CD = 0.032 + 0.055 CL
3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
1
2K W 2
V 3S CDo +
2000
1000 SV
1
2
0.055 110002
3
Or 85.5 =
0.909 11.9 0.032V +
2000
1000 0.909 11.9 V
= 1.731 x 10-4 V3 +
1230.5
V
(5.28a)
Equation (5.28a) is not a quadratic. However, it can be solved for Vmax and (Vmin)e
by an iterative procedure.
Solution for Vmax:
When solving for V max, by an iterative procedure, it is assumed that the first
approximation (Vmax1) is obtained by retaining only the term containing the
highest power of V in Eq.(5.28a) i.e.
3
1st approximation: 85.5 = 1.731 x 10-4 V max1
1230.5
79.05
1230.5
73.93
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
3
85.5 = 1.731 10-4 Vmax4
+
1230.5
73.54
85.5 =
1230.5
Vmin e1
1230.5
85.5 = 1.731 10-4 14.43 +
(Vmin )e2
Or (Vmin )e2 = 14.48 m/s
Since the second approximation is very close to the first one,
(Vmin)e is taken as 14.48 m/s
The stalling speed at 3 km altitude is :
Vs =
2W
=
SCLmax
2 11000
= 38.2m/s
0.90911.9 1.4
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
additional fuel is
However, the specific fuel consumption is very high with afterburner on and
hence this operation is resorted to only for a short duration.
The thrust with afterburner on is shown schematically by a dotted line in Fig.5.11.
It is observed that the thrust available is more than the thrust required and
airplane can accelerate beyond point B. When the Mach number is close to that
represented by point C, the afterburner can be shut down and the airplane runs
with normal engine operation.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Chapter 5
References
5.1 Pallett, E.H.J. Aircraft instrument integrated systems 3rd Edition, Longman
Science & Technology, (1992).
5.2 Illman, P.E. The pilots handbook of aeronautical knowledge 3rd Edition,
Tab books division of McGraw Hill (1995).
5.3 Perkins, C.D. (Editor) AGARD Flight test manual, Vol.I Performance
Pergamon Press (1959).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-5
Chapter 5
Exercises
5.1 Obtain the maximum speed and minimum speed in steady level flight at sea
level for the following airplane:
W = 36,000 N; S = 26.0 m2; CD = 0.032 + 0.043CL2 BHP = 503 kW; Propeller
efficiency = 82%;
CLmax = 1.5
5.2 A jet engined airplane has a weight of 64,000 N and wing area of 20 m . If
the engine output at 5 km altitude be 8000 N, calculate the maximum and
minimum speeds in level flight. Given that
CDO = 0.017, A = 6.5, e = 0.80, CLmax = 1.4.
[Answers: Vmax = 877 kmph,Vmin = 283.6 kmph]
5.3 An airplane stalls at M=0.2 at sea level. What will be the Mach number and
equivalent airspeed when it stalls at 5 km altitude? Compare the thrust required
to maintain level flight near stall at the two altitudes. Assume the weight of the
airplane to be same at the two altitudes.
[Answers: M = 0.274, Ve = 68.06 m/s, (Tr)s.l = (Tr)5 km as CL is same]
5.4 (a) Show that the thrust required in steady level flight at a speed V for an
airplane with parabolic drag polar is given by:
Tr = D = AW (
V 2
AW
) +
Vmd
(V / Vmd )2
1/2
where, Vmd = speed for minimum drag, W = weight of airplane and A = (CD0 K) .
(b) Also show that if V = m Vmd , then the thrust required (Tr) in terms of the
minimum thrust required (Trmin) is given by :
Tr
1
= m2 +m-2
Trmin 2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Chapter 6
Performance analysis II Steady climb, descent and glide
(Lectures 21,22 and 23 )
Keywords: Steady climb equations of motion, thrust and power required;
maximum rate of climb; maximum angle of climb; absolute ceiling; service ceiling;
glide equations of motion, minimum angle of glide, minimum rate of sink;
hodographs for climb and glide.
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Equations of motion in steady climb
6.3 Thrust and power required for a prescribed rate of climb at a given
flight speed
6.4 Climb performance with a given engine
6.4.1 Iterative procedure to obtain rate of climb
6.5 Maximum rate of climb and maximum angle of climb
6.5.1 Parameters influencing (R/C)max of a jet airplane
6.5.2 Parameters influencing (R/C)max of an airplane with engine-propeller
combination
6.6. Climb hydrograph
6.7. Absolute ceiling and service ceiling
6.8 Time to climb
6.9 Steady descent
6.10 Glide
6.10.1 Glide performance minimum angle of glide, minimum rate of sink
and maximum range and endurance in glide.
6.11 Glide hodograph
Exercises
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Chapter 6
Lecture 21
Performance analysis II Steady climb, descent and glide 1
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Equations of motion in steady climb
6.3 Thrust and power required for a prescribed rate of climb at a given
flight speed
6.4 Climb performance with a given engine
6.4.1 Iterative procedure to obtain rate of climb
6.1. Introduction
In this chapter the steady climb, descent and glide are dealt with. A glide
is a descent with thrust equal to zero. The approach in this chapter is as follows.
(a) Present the forces acting on the airplane in the chosen flight,
(b) Write down equations of motion using Newtons second law,
(c) Derive expressions for performance items like rate climb, angle of climb.
(d) Obtain variation of these with flight velocity and altitude.
6.2 Equations of motion in a steady climb
During a steady climb the center of gravity of the airplane moves at a
constant velocity along a straight line inclined to the horizontal at an angle
(Fig.6.1). The forces acting on the airplane are shown in Fig.6.1.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
(6.1)
L W cos = 0
(6.2)
(6.3)
From the velocity diagram in Fig.6.1, the vertical component of the flight velocity
(Vc) is given by:
Vc = V sin = (T- D / W) V
(6.4)
The vertical component of the velocity (Vc) is called rate of climb and also
denoted by R/C. It is also the rate of change of height and denoted by (dh / dt).
Hence,
T-D
Vc = R/C = dh/dt = Vsin =
V
W
(6.5)
dh
d
= DV + mgh
dt
dt
(6.6)
d
mgh represent respectively, the power
dt
available, the energy dissipated in overcoming the drag and the rate of increase
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
of potential energy. Thus, when the airplane climbs, its potential energy
increases and a part of the engine output is utilized for this gain of potential
energy.
Two facts may be pointed out at this juncture. (a) Energy supply to the airplane
comes from the work done by the engine which is represented by the termTV in
Eq.(6.6). (b) The drag acts in a direction opposite to that of the flight direction.
Hence, energy has to be spent on overcoming the drag which is represented by
the term DV in Eq.(6.6). This energy (DV) is ultimately lost in the form of heat
and is appropriately termed as Dissipated. Continuous supply of energy is
needed to overcome the drag. Thus, a climb is possible only when the engine
output is more than the energy required for overcoming the drag.
It may be recalled from section 5.9 that in a level flight, at speeds equal to Vmax
and (Vmin)e , the power (or thrust ) available is equal to the power (or thrust)
required to overcome the drag (see points D and D in Fig.5.5 and points C and
C in Fig.5.6b). Hence, the rate of climb will be zero at these speeds. The climb is
possible only at flight speeds in between these two speeds viz. Vmax and (Vmin)e.
It is expected that there will be a speed at which the rate of climb is maximum.
This flight speed is denoted by V(R/C)max and the maximum rate of climb is
denoted by (R/C)max. The flight speed at which the angle of climb () is maximum
is denoted by V max.
ii) In a steady level flight, the lift is equal to weight but in a climb, the lift is less
than weight as cos is less than one, when is not zero. Note that when an
airplane climbs vertically, its attitude is as shown in Fig.6.2. It is observed that in
this flight, the resolution of forces along and perpendicular flight direction gives:
L = 0, T = D + W
These expressions are consistent with Eqs.(6.1) and (6.2) when = 90o is
substituted in them. Note that in this flight the thrust is more than the weight.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
6.3 Thrust and power required for a prescribed rate of climb at a given
flight speed
Here it is assumed that the weight of the airplane (W), the wing area (S) and the
drag polar are given. The thrust required and power required for a chosen rate of
climb (Vc) at a given altitude (h) and flight speed (V) can be obtained, for a
general case, by following the steps given below. It may be pointed out that the
lift and drag in climb are different from those in level flight. Hence, the quantities
involved in the analysis of climb performance are, hereafter indicated by the
suffix c i.e. lift in climb is denoted by Lc
i) Since Vc and V are prescribed, calculate the angle of climb from:
= sin-1 (Vc / V)
(6.7)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
(6.8)
iv) Obtain the flight Mach number; M = V/a ; a = speed of sound at the chosen
altitude.
v) Corresponding to the values of CLc and M, obtain the drag coefficient in climb
(CDC) from the drag polar. Hence, drag in climb (Dc) is given by:
2
Dc = (1/2 V S CDC)
(6.9)
(6.10)
(6.11)
Example 6.1
An airplane weighing 180,000N has a wing area of 45 m2 and drag polar given
by
CD = 0.017 + 0.05 CL2 . Obtain the thrust required and power required for a
Solution:
2W cos
180000 0.975 2
= 0.381
=
2
0.909 150 150 45
V S
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Dc = (1/2 V S) CDC
= (1/2) X 0.909 X 150 X 150 X 45 X0.02426 = 11163 N
Hence, Trc = W sin + Dc = 180000 X 0.2222 + 11163 = 51160 N
Prc = TrcV/1000 = 51160 X 150/1000 = 7674 kW
Answers:
Thrust required in climb (Trc) = 51,160 N
Power required in climb (Prc) = 7,674 kW
6.4 Climb performance with a given engine
In this case, the engine output is prescribed at a certain altitude and flight
speed. This is in addition to the data on weight of the airplane (W), the wing area
(S) and the drag polar.The rate of climb (Vc) and the angle of climb() are
required to be determined at the prescribed altitude and flight speed.
The solution to this problem is not straightforward as sin depends on
(T- Dc) and the drag in climb (Dc) depends on the lift in climb (Lc ), which in turn
depends on W cos . Hence, the solution is obtained in an iterative manner. This
is explained later in this section. However, if the drag polar is parabolic with
constant coefficients, an exact solution can be obtained using Eqs. (6.1) to (6.4).
The procedure is as follows.
From Eq.(6.4), sin = Vc / V.
Using Eq.(6.7), the lift during climb (Lc) = W cos = W (1-sin2 )1/2
1
2
= W 1-(Vc /V)2
(6.12)
1
2
W 1-(Vc /V)2
Lc
=
Hence, Lift coefficient during climb CLc =
1 2
1 V 2S
V S
2
2
(6.13)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
When the polar is parabolic, the drag in climb (Dc) can be expressed as :
2
1
KW 2 Vc
1Dc = (1/2) V S (CDO+K C2 ) =
V 2 S CDO +
Lc
1 V 2S V
2
(6.14)
W Vc
+ Dc
V
2
2
Vc
V
-B c
or A
V
V
where, A =
2 WV
c
+
V
(6.15)
+ C =0
(6.16)
KW 2
1
2KW 2
, B = W and C = T - V 2SCDO 1 V2 S
2
V 2S
2
(6.17)
Equation (6.16) is a quadratic in (Vc / V), and has two solutions. The solution
which is less than or equal to one, is the valid solution because Vc / V
equals
sin and sin cannot be more than one. Once (Vc / V) is known, the angle of
climb and the rate of climb can be immediately calculated. This is illustrated in
example 6.2.
Example 6.2.
For the airplane in example 6.1, obtain the angle of climb and the rate of climb at
a flight speed of 400 kmph at sea level, taking the thrust available as 45,000 N.
Solution:
2
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
2 WV
c
+
V
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
V2
V
0.05 1800002
+
1 - c 180000 c
1 1.225 111.12 45
V
V 2
2
2
V
V
Simplifying, c - 37.82 c + 7.24 = 0
V
V
Solving the above quadratic gives : ( Vc / V) = 37.62, 0.192.
Since sin cannot be larger than unity, the first value is not admissible.
Hence, Vc / V = sin = 0.192 or = 11o 4
Vc = 0.192 111.1 = 21.33 m/s = 1280 m/min.
Answers:
Angle of climb () = 11o 4 ; Rate of climb (Vc) = 1280 m/min
6.4.1 Iterative procedure to obtain rate of climb
(6.18)
To calculate sin , the drag in climb (Dc) should be known. The term Dc
depends on the lift in climb (Lc). In turn Lc is W cos , but cos is not known in
the beginning.
To start the iterative procedure, it is assumed that the lift during climb (Lc) is
approximately equal to W. Using this approximation, calculate the first estimate
of the lift coefficient (CL1) as :
2
(CL1) = W / (1/2) V S
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
From CL1 and the flight Mach number obtain CD1 from the drag polar. Calculate
the first approximation of drag (D1) as:
2
D1 = (1/2) V S C D1
Hence, the first approximation to the angle of climb (1) is given by:
sin 1 =
Ta - D1
W
(6.19)
In the next iteration, put L = W cos 1 and carry out the calculations and get a
second approximation to the angle of climb (2). The calculations are repeated till
the values of after consecutive iterations are almost the same. Once the angle
is known, Vc is given as V sin .
It is observed that the convergence is fast and correct values of and Vc are
obtained within two or three iterations. This is due to the following two reasons.
(a)When is small (i.e. less than 10o), cos is almost equal to one, and the
approximation, L = W, is nearly valid. (b) When is large the lift dependent part
of the drag, which is affected by the assumption of L W , is much smaller than
Ta . Consequently, the value of given by Eq.(6.18) is close to the final value.
Example 6.3 illustrates the procedure.
Example 6.3
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
CD
0.022
0.0225
0.024
0.026
0.030
0.034
0.040
CL
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
CD
0.047
0.055
0.063
0.075
0.116
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Solution:
1
V 2S CL1
2
60330 2
= 0.615
1.225 50 50 64
CD1: By interpolating between the values given in the above table, the value of
C D1 is 0.041, corresponding to CL1 of 0.615.
Hence, D1 = (1/2) 1.225 50 50 64 X0.041= 4030 N
From Eq.(6.19) : sin 1 =
Or sin 1=
Ta - D1
W
10000 - 4030
= 0.099
60330
Or 1 = 5o 41
Hence, Vc1= 50 x 0.099 = 4.95 m/s
cos 1 = 0.995
2nd approximation:
L = W cos 1 = 60330 0.995 = 60036 N
CL2 =
60036 2
= 0.612
1.225 50 50 64
10000 - 4010
= 0.0993
60330
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
In the present example, is small (5041) hence 2nd iteration itself gives
the correct value. For an interceptor airplane which has very high rate of climb
(about 15000 m/min) few more iterations may be needed.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Chapter 6
Lecture 22
Performance analysis II Steady climb, descent and glide 2
Topics
6.5 Maximum rate of climb and maximum angle of climb
6.5.1 Parameters influencing (R/C)max of a jet airplane
6.5.2 Parameters influencing (R/C)max of an airplane with engine-propeller
combination
6.5 Maximum rate of climb and maximum angle of climb
Using the procedure outlined above, the rate of climb and the angle of
climb can be calculated at various speeds and altitudes. Figures 6.3a to 6.3f
present typical climb performance of a jet transport. Figure 6.4a to 6.4d present
the climb performance of a piston engined airplane. Details of the calculations for
these two cases are presented in Appendices B and A respectively.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
engined airplane V(R/C)max is lower than Vmax at low altitudes . The two velocities
approach each other as the altitude increases. These trends can be explained as
follows.
From Eqs.(6.3) and (6.4), it is observed that is proportional to the excess thrust
i.e. (Ta - Dc) and the rate of climb is proportional to the excess power i.e.
(TaV DcV). It may be recalled that for a piston engined airplane the power
available remains roughly constant with velocity and hence, the thrust available
(Ta = Pa / V) will decrease with velocity. On the other hand, for a jet airplane the
thrust available is roughly constant with velocity and consequently the power
available increases linearly with velocity (see exercise 6.3). The differences in
the variations of Ta and Pa with velocity, in the cases of jet engine and piston
engine, decide the aforesaid trends.
iii) As the excess power and the excess thrust decrease with altitude, (R/C)max
and max also decrease with altitude.
T -D
VC = R/C = V
W
Following simplifying assumptions are made to identify the parameters
influencing (R/C)max.
(a)Drag polar is parabolic with constant coefficients i.e. CDO and K are constants.
(b) Though the angle of climb is not small, for the purpose of estimating the
induced drag, the lift (L) is taken equal to weight. See comments at the end of
section 6.4.1 for justification of this approximation.
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
(c) At a chosen altitude, the thrust available (Ta) is constant with flight speed.
With these assumptions, the expression for drag simplifies to that in the level
flight i.e.
2
2W
1
1
2
2
D = V SCD = V S CDO + K
2
2
2
SV
Hence,
T -D
VC = V a
W
1 2
Ta 2 V
2K W
Or Vc = V
CDO
W
W/S
V 2 S
T
1
2K W
-1
Or VC = a V - V 3 W/S CDO
W
2
V S
(6.20)
(6.21)
V(R/C)max -
2 Ta /W W/S
3CDO
V(R/C)max -
4K W/S
1
V(R/C)max -
2 Ta /W W/S
3CDO
(6.22)
=0
32CDO
4 CDO K
, yields:
W/S
2
2
32CDO
L/D max
2
V(R/C)max
= 0
Thus,
V(R/C)max
Ta /W W/S
=
1
3C
DO
1+
3
2
2
L
Ta /W
D max
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
The negative sign in the above equation, would give an imaginary value
for VR/Cmax and is ignored.
Hence,
VR/Cmax
T /W W/S
1 +
= a
3CDO
2
3
1+
2
2
L/D max Ta /W
1
T /W W/S Z 2
= a
,
3CDO
where, Z = 1 +
1+
(6.23)
3
2
max
L/D
Ta /W
(6.24)
R/C max
1
2
Z
T 1 Ta /W W/S ZC
T /W W/S
2 W/S K 3CDO
DO
a
= a
-
3CDO
3CDO W/S
Ta /W W/S Z
W 2
Or R/C max
T /W W/S Z 2 Ta Z
6KCDO
= a
- Ta /W
3CDO
Ta /W Z
W 6
1/2
W/S Z
=
3CDO
Ta
W
3/2
3
1-
6 2 T /W 2 L/D 2 Z
a
max
(6.25)
Remarks:
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
However, in Eqs.(6.23) and (6.25) the terms involving Z, appear as Z1/2 or Z/6.
Hence, the dependence of VR/Cmax and R/C max on Z does not appear to be of
primary importance. The important parameters however, are ( Ta /W), (W/S),
and CDO. It may be recalled from section 4.5 that for a turbofan engine, Ta
decreases with altitude in proportion to 0.7 ; being the density ratio.
(ii) From Eq.(6.25) it is observed that for given values of W/S and CDO ,
R/C max decreases with altitude. Hence, suitable value of ( Ta /W) is required to
achieve the specified rates of climb at different altitudes.
The same equation also indicates that the rate of climb increases when wing
loading increases and CDO decreases. However, the performance during cruise
and landing generally place a limit on the value of (W/S).
(iii) From Eq.(6.23) it is observed that the flight speed for maximum rate of
climb(V(R/Cmax), increases with ( Ta /W), (W/S) and altitude. In this context it may
be pointed out that the Mach number corresponding to V(R/C)max, should always
be worked out and corrections to the values of CDO and K be applied when this
Mach number exceeds Mcruise. Without these corrections, the values of
In this subsection the simplified analysis is carried out for climb performance of
an airplane with engine-propeller combination.
From Eq.(6.5)
VC = R/C =
V T-D TV - DV
=
W
W
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
1 3
V SCD
2
Following assumptions are made to simplify the analysis and obtain parameters
which influence (R/C)max are V(R/C)max in this case.
(a) Drag polar is parabolic with CDO and K as constants.
(b) L = W for estimation of induced drag.
(c) Power available is constant with flight speed (V).
Consequently,
2
2W
1 3
DV = V S CDO +K
2
2
SV
(6.26)
1
2W 2
K 4
=
S 3CDO
(6.27)
1000p Pa
W
- VR/Cmax
2W
1
2
V
SC
+
K
R/C max
DO
SV2R/Cmax
2
2K
W/S
2
K
W
-1
+
W/S CDO
3CDO S 2 K/ 3C
2
W/S
DO
(6.28)
Noting that
L/D max
1
, and
2 CDOK
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
1/ 3 +
R/C max
= 1.155, yields :
1000p Pa
W
1.155
V
L/D max R/Cmax
(6.29)
R/C max
1000p Pa
W
2
K
1/2 1.155
W/S
3 CDO
L/D max
(6.30)
Remarks:
(i) From Eq.(6.27) it is observed that V(R/C)max increases with wing loading (W/S).
(ii) From Eq.(6.30) it is observed that (R/C)max increases as p , Pa and (L/D)max
increase. However, the second term on the right hand side of this equation
indicates that (R/C)max decreases with increase of wing loading. This trend is
opposite to that in the case of jet airplanes. Thus, for a specified (R/C)max , the
wing loading for an airplane with engine-propeller combination should be rather
low, to decrease the power required.
(iii) The first term in Eq.(6.30) involves p and Pa. From subsection 4.2.2 it is
noted that Pa is nearly constant with flight speed (V). However, the assumption
of p being constant with V is roughly valid only when the airplane has a variable
pitch propeller. For a fixed pitch propeller p varies significantly with V (Fig.4.5a)
and the assumption of Pa being constant with V is not appropriate in this case.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Chapter 6
Lecture 23
Performance analysis II Steady climb, descent and glide 3
Topics
6.6. Climb hydrograph
6.7. Absolute ceiling and service ceiling
6.8 Time to climb
6.9 Steady descent
6.10 Glide
6.10.1 Glide performance minimum angle of glide, minimum rate of sink
and maximum range and endurance in glide.
6.11 Glide hodograph
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
in section 6.8). Hence, for practical purposes an altitude at which the maximum
rate of climb is 100 ft /min(30.5 m/min) is used as Service ceiling.
To obtain the absolute ceiling and service ceiling the values of (R/C)max at
different altitudes are plotted as shown in Figs.6.3e and 6.4d. Subsequently, the
(R/C)max vs h curve is extrapolated till (R/C)max= 0. The altitude at which (R/C)max
equals zero is the absolute ceiling. The altitude at which (R/C)max equals 100
ft/min (30.5 m/min) is the service ceiling. From Fig.6.3e and Appendix B the
absolute ceiling and service ceiling for the jet transport are 11.95 and 11.71 km
respectively. From Fig.6.4d and Appendix A the values of these ceilings for a
piston engined airplane are 5.20 and 4.61 km respectively.
6.8 Time to climb:
From the knowledge of the variation of rate of climb with altitude, the time
required (t) to climb from an altitude h1 to h2 can be calculated as follows.
Vc =
dh
dh
or dt =
dt
Vc
h2
Hence, t =
h1
dh
Vc
(6.31)
The rate of climb (Vc) in Eq.(6.31) depends on the speed and altitude at which
the climb takes place. The appropriate values of Vc can be taken from plots
similar to those given in Figs.6.3e or 6.4d.
Remarks:
i) It may be noted that in a climb which attempts to fly at (R/C)max at each altitude,
the flight velocity, V(R/C)max , increases with altitude (Figs.6.3c and 6.4c).
Consequently, such a flight is an accelerated climb and the values of Vc obtained
using steady climb analysis will need to be appropriately corrected for the
acceleration (see section 8.3.2 on accelerated climb).
ii) As an exercise the student should plot the height (h) on y-axis and the time to
climb (t) on x-axis. It is observed that this curve reaches the absolute ceiling
(hmax) in an asymptotic manner. In other words, the time taken to reach absolute
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
ceiling would be infinite and not practically attainable. Hence, service ceiling is
used for practical purposes.
6.9 Steady descent
(6.32)
L W cos
(6.33)
=0
D-T
W
Rate of descent ( Vd ) =
(6.34)
D-T
V
W
(6.35)
The rate of descent is also called rate of sink and denoted by (R/S).
6.10 Glide
In a glide the thrust is zero. This may happen in a powered airplane due
to failure of engine while in flight. In a class of airplanes called gliders there is no
engine and the thrust is always zero. With thrust equal to zero, the following
equations of motion for glide, are obtained from Eqs.(6.32) and (6.33).
W sin - D =0
(6.36)
L - W cos =0
(6.37)
Hence,
sin = D / W and
(6.38)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Vd = V sin =
D V
W
(6.39)
The angle of glide, , is generally small. Hence, L W and one can write,
sin = =
C
D
D
D
W
L
CL
(6.40)
1/2
1/2
2L
2W
V
SCL
SCL
1/2
2W
DV
DV
and Vd =
W
L
S
CD
C3/2
L
(6.41)
Remarks:
dh
- DV = 0
dt
(6.42)
From Fig.6.6 it is to be noted that V is along the glide path and hence in the
downward direction. Consequently in Eq.(6.42) dh/dt is negative as the altitude
is decreasing. As a result, the potential energy of the glider decreases with time.
This loss of potential energy is utilized to provide for the energy required to
overcome the drag (the second term in Eq.6.42). Hence, for a glider to stay aloft,
it must be brought to a certain height and speed before it can carry out the glide.
This is done by launching the glider by a winch or by towing the glider by another
powered airplane.
6.10.1 Glide performance minimum angle of glide and minimum rate of
sink and maximum range and endurance in glide
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
(c) The distance covered in glide from a certain height or range in glide (Rglide)
(d) The time elapsed in descending from a given height or Endurance in glide
(Eglide).
From Eq.(6.40) the minimum angle of glide (min), occurs when CD / CL is
minimum or at CL = CLmd . From Eq.(6.41) the minimum rate of sink (R/S)min or
Vdmin occurs when CD / C3/2 is minimum or at CL = CLmp .
L
This can be
From
Eq.(6.41) it is observed that a low rate of sink is achieved by (a) low wing loading
(b) low CDO with smooth surface finish and (c ) large aspect ratio (16 to 20) to
reduce K. Note from Eq.(5.24a ) that ( CD / C3/2 )min depends on C1/4 and K3/4.
L
DO
If a glider is left at a height h above the ground, then the horizontal distance
covered in descending to the ground is called Range in glide and denoted by
Rglide. Assuming to be constant during the glide, the range in glide can be
expressed as:
Rglide =
C
h
h
= h L
tan
CD
(6.43)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
In section 6.6, the climb hodograph was discussed. Similarly, a glide hodograph
is obtained when horizontal velocity (Vh) is plotted on the x-axis and the rate of
sink (Vd) is plotted on the y-axis. A typical diagram is shown in Fig.6.7. Such a
diagram gives complete information about glide performance at an altitude
especially, min, Vmin , (R/S)min, V(R/S)min and
(R/S)min .
Example 6.4
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
3 CLmd = 1.25
Hence,
2W 2
3/2
(R/S)min =
(CD /CL )min
S
Noting that the density ()has been assumed to be constant and equal to that at
sea level i.e. = 1.225 kg/m3 , the above equation gives :
1
2 4905 2 0.048
(R/S)min =
= 0.615 m/s
1.225 25 1.253/2
1
2
2 4905
V min =
= 21.05 m/s.
1.225 25 0.721
1
2
2
2W
2 4905
V(R/S)min =
=
= 16m/s
S CLmp
1.225
25
1.25
(b) The greatest distance, in descending from 300 m to sea level, ( Rglide)max,
is (note is assumed constant during glide) :
( Rglide)max = 300 /0.0332 = 9040 m = 9.04 km.
Longest time taken in descending from 300 m to sea level (Eglide)max is (note R/S
is assumed constant during glide) :
(Eglide)max = 300/0.615 = 487 s = 8 min 7s.
Note:
The rate of sink, in a flight when the greatest distance is covered, is higher than
the minimum rate of sink. Hence, the time of flight will be shorter in this case than
in a flight for longest endurance in glide. From the above data, the student may
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
show that (R/S) in the flight corresponding to (Rglide)max is 0.7015 m/s and the
endurance in this flight is 427 s.
Remarks:
i) If the glide takes place from a sufficiently high altitude (as may happen for an
airplane having an engine failure in cruise), the rate of sink (R/S) cannot be taken
as constant during the descent. Equation (6.41) should be used to calculate the
rates of sink at various altitudes.
ii) The time elapsed during glide (Eglide), in a general case is given by:
h2
Eglide =
h1
dh
;
Vd
(6.44)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Chapter 6
Exercises
6.1 An airplane powered by a turbojet engine weighs 180,000 N, has a wing area
of 50 m2 and the drag polar is CD = 0.016 + 0.048CL2. At sea level a rate of
climb of 1200 m/min is obtained at a speed of 150 m/s. Calculate the rate of
climb at the same speed when a rocket motor giving an additional thrust of
10,000 N is fitted to the airplane.
(Answer: 1702 m /min.)
6.2 A glider having a wing loading of 185 N / m2 has the following drag polar.
CL
0.0
0. 1
CD
0.0145
0.014
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.062
Obtain the minimum rate of sink, minimum angle of glide and corresponding
speeds at sea level.
(Hint: Obtain CD / CL and CD / CL
3/2
V 2
AW
) +
, A = CDOK,
Vmd
(V/Vmd )2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-6
Vmd (R/C)max
Ta
T
( a )2 +12A 2
W
= W
6A
Further taking CDO = 0.016 and K = 0.05625 or A = 0.03 obtain the following
table.
Ta / W
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.06
Vmd (R/C)max
1.54
1.36
1.16
1.0
Vmd (R/C)max
Vmd (R/C)max
(R/C)max is zero !.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Chapter 7
Performance analysis III Range and endurance
(Lectures 24-26)
Keywords: Range; endurance; safe range; gross still air range; Breguet
formulae; cruising speed and altitude; cruise climb; effect of wind on range.
Topics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definitions of range and endurance
7.2.1 Safe range
7.2.2 Head wind, tail wind, gust and cross wind
7.2.3 Gross still air range (GSAR)
7.3 Rough estimates of range and endurance
7.4 Accurate estimates of range and endurance
7.4.1 Dependence of range and endurance on flight plan and remark on
optimum path
7.4.2 Breguet formulae for range and endurance of airplanes with enginepropeller combination and jet engine
7.4.3 Discussion on Breguet formulae desirable values of lift coefficient
and flight altitude
7.4.4 Important values of lift coefficient
7.4.5 Influence of the range performance analysis on airplane design
7.5 Range in constant velocity - constant altitude flight (Rh,v)
7.6 Cruising speed and cruising altitude
7.7 Cruise climb
7.8 Effect of wind on range and endurance
References
Excercises
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Chapter 7
Lecture 24
Performance analysis III Range and endurance 1
Topics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definitions of range and endurance
7.2.1 Safe range
7.2.2 Head wind, tail wind, gust and cross wind
7.2.3 Gross still air range (GSAR)
7.3 Rough estimates of range and endurance
7.4 Accurate estimates of range and endurance
7.4.1 Dependence of range and endurance on flight plan and remark on
optimum path
7.1 Introduction
Airplane is a means of transport designed to carry men and materials
safely over a specified distance. Hence, the fuel required for a trip or the distance
covered with a given amount of fuel are important items of performance analysis.
Similarly, airplanes used for training, patrol and reconnaissance would be
required to remain in air for a certain period of time. Thus, the fuel required to
remain in air for a certain length of time or the time for which an airplane can
remain in air with a given amount of fuel are also important aspects of
performance analysis. These two aspects viz. distance covered and the time for
which an airplane can remain in air are discussed under the topic of range and
endurance and are the subject matter of this chapter.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
is the time for which an airplane can remain in air with a given amount of fuel. It
is measured in hours. The above definition of range is very general and terms
like safe range and gross still air range are commonly used. These terms include
details of the flight plan and are explained in the subsequent subsections.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
(c ) Cross wind: When the velocity of the air mass is perpendicular to flight path
and parallel to the sideward direction, it is called Cross wind. Here it is denoted
by v (Fig.7.1c).
Fig.7.1b Gust
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
and then it carries out a chosen flight plan in still air, till the fuel is exhausted.
The horizontal distance covered in this flight is called Gross still air range. In the
subsequent
discussion
the
range
will
mean
gross
still
air
range.
Remark:
As a guideline G.S.A.R. is roughly equal to one and a half times the safe range.
(7.1)
(7.2)
= 180,000N
180000 + 144000
= 162000N
2
Consequently, the average thrust (Tavg) required during the flight is:
Tavg = Wa / (L / D) = 162000/12 = 13500 N
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
800
= 2667km and
10800
1
= 3.33 hrs.
10800
(7.3)
and
(7.4)
(7.5)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Following Ref.1.5, chapter 4, the Eqs.(7.4) and (7.5) are rewritten as:
km/hr
dR = dWf
N of fuel /hr
and
(7.6)
(7.7)
It may be pointed out that (a) km/hr = 3.6 x V, where V is the flight speed in m/s.
(b) the fuel / hr in Newtons is equal to BSFC x BHP for an airplane with enginepropeller combination and equal to TSFC x T for a jet airplane.
Hereafter, the airplane with engine-propeller combination is referred to as E.P.C
and the jet airplane as J.A Note that in the case of an engine-propeller
combination, the engine could be a piston engine or a turboprop engine and in
the case of a jet airplane the engine could be a turbofan or a turbojet engine.
Equations (7.6) and (7.7) can be rewritten as :
dR = dWf
3.6 V
For E.P.C.
BSFC BHP
and dR = dWf
dE =
3.6 V
TSFC T
(7.8)
For J.A.
(7.8a)
dWf
For E.P.C.
BSFC BHP
and dE =
dWf
TSFC T
(7.9)
For J.A.
(7.9a)
2
2W 2
C
2W
1
=
T = D = W D , L = W = V 2SCL , V =
CL
2
S CL
0 S CL
(7.10)
W 1/2
)
.
SCL
(7.11)
Substituting for T and V from Eqs.(7.10) and (7.11), the expression for BHP is:
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
BHP =
1
1 TV
1
=
W 3/2 / p ( S) 2 CD / CL3/2
p 1000 782.6
(7.12)
dR =
- 3600 p dW
BSFC W (CD /CL )
For E.P.C.
- 4.6 dW
For J.A.
TSFC ( S W)1/2 (CD /C1/2 )
L
and dR =
782.6 p ( S)1/2dW
dE = BSFC W 3/2 CD /C3/2
L
-dW
TSFC W CD /CL
and dE =
For E.P.C.
For J.A
(7.13)
(7.13a)
(7.14)
(7.14a)
Let W2 be the weight of the airplane at the end of the flight. Integrating
Eqs.(7.13), (7.13a), (7.14) and (7.14a), the range and endurance are given as:
W2
R=
W2
dR =
W1
W1
W2
and
- 4.6 dW
R =
3600 p dW
For E.P.C.
BSFC W (CD /CL )
W1 TSFC ( S W)
W2
E=
W2
dE =
W1
W2
and
E=
W1
W1
1
2
1
2
For J.A
(7.15)
(7.15a)
(CD /C )
L
782.8 p ( S)1/2 dW
For E.P.C.
3/2
3/2
BSFC W
(CD /C )
L
- dW
For J.A.
TSFC W (CD /CL )
(7.16)
(7.16a)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
The set of Eqs.(7.15),(7.15a),(7.16) and (7.16a) or (7.8), (7.8a), (7.9) and (7.9a)
when integrated, give the range and endurance. However, while doing this, it
should be noted that the weight of the aircraft decreases continuously as the fuel
is consumed. Further, the flight is treated as steady level flight and hence, T = D
and L= W must be satisfied at each instant of time. Consequently, the thrust and
power required and the flight speed may change continuously. Hence, it is
necessary to prescribe the flight plan i.e., the manner in which the velocity
changes with time during the flight. The following three types of flight plans can
be cited as examples.
(a) Level flight at a constant velocity. In this flight, the lift coefficient decreases
gradually as the weight of the airplane decreases (Eq.7.10). Simultaneously, the
thrust required also decreases continuously.
(b) Level flight with constant lift coefficient (or constant angle of attack) . In this
flight, in accordance with Eq.(7.10), the flight velocity and the thrust required
decrease continuously as the weight of the airplane decreases.
(c) Level Flight with constant thrust. In this case, the continous decrease in the
airplane weight during the flight, requires that the flight velocity and the lift
coefficient (CL) be adjusted so that at each instant of time, the thrust balances
the drag and the lift balances the weight.
As mentioned earlier, the airplanes are commercial means to transport men and
materials. Hence, maximization of range and endurance are important
requirements. However, the right hand sides of Eqs.(7.15),(7.15a),(7.16) and
(7.16a) involve integrals. The optimization of an integral is different from the
optimization of an expression. The latter is done by taking the derivative of the
expression and equating it to zero. Whereas, in the case of an integral, it is to be
noted that the value of the integral depends on how the integrand varies with the
independent variable. This variation, in mathematical terms, is called a path. For
example, as mentioned above, the range will depend on the flight plan viz.
constant angle of attack flight or constant velocity flight or constant thrust flight.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
The problem of optimization is to find out the path that will maximize the integral.
The branch of Mathematics which deals with optimization of integrals is called
Calculus of variation. This topic is outside the scope of the present introductory
course. Interested reader may refer, chapter 20 of Ref.7.1.
Remark:
It can be shown, using calculus of variation, that if the specific fuel consumption,
propeller efficiency and altitude are assumed constant, then the maximum range
is obtained in a flight with constant lift coefficient. With these assumptions
Eqs.(7.15),(7.15a),(7.16) and (7.16a) become easy to integrate. The expressions
for range and endurance, obtained with these assumptions, are called Breguet
formulae. These are derived in the next subsection. It may be pointed out that
Breguet was a French pioneer in aeronautical engineering.
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Chapter 7
Lecture 25
Performance analysis III Range and endurance 2
Topics
7.4.2 Breguet formulae for range and endurance of airplanes with enginepropeller combination and jet engine
7.4.3 Discussion on Breguet formulae desirable values of lift coefficient
and flight altitude
7.4.4 Important values of lift coefficient
7.4.2 Breguet formulae for range and endurance of airplanes with enginepropeller combination and jet engine
The derivations of these formulae are based on the assumptions that during
the flight:
(i) BSFC or TSFC is constant
(ii) p is constant for engine propeller combination (E.P.C).
(iii) altitude is constant
(iv) CL is constant and
(v) flight Mach number is below critical Mach number so that the drag polar is
independent of Mach number.
With, these assumptions, certain terms in Eqs.(7.15) and (7.15a) can be taken
outside the integral and the equations reduce to:
R = -
3600 p
w2
BSFC (CD /C ) w
L 1
dW
For E.P.C
W
W2
- 4.6
dW
For J.A.
and R =
Hence,
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
R=
8289.3 p
W
log10 1
BSFC (CD /CL )
W2
For E.P.C.
1/2
W1 1/2 W2
For J.A.
and R =
(
)
1-
1/2
S
W
1
TSFC(CD /C )
L
9.2
(7.17)
(7.17a)
W2
782.6 p ( S)1/2
dW
For E.P.C
E =
3/2
BSFC CD / C3/2 W W
L
1
1
and E = TSFC(CD / CL )
W2
W1
dW
For J.A.
W
Hence,
E =
and E =
1565.2 p
BSFC CD /C3/2
L
S 1/2 1/2
]
W - W1/2 For E.P.C.
1
2
W1
2.303
log 10
TSFC (CD / CL )
W1
For J.A.
W2
(7.18)
(7.18a)
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above expressions for
range and endurance viz. Eqs.7.17, 7.17a, 7.18 and 7.18a.
(1) For range and endurance to be high, it is evident that p should be high and
the TSFC and BSFC should be low.
(2) Desirable values of lift coefficients for an airplane with engine-propeller
combination: The endurance is maximum (Eq.7.18) when the lift coefficient is
such that CD/CL
3/2
fact, that with BSFC being assumed constant, the rate of fuel consumption per
hour would be minimum, in this case, when the power required is minimum.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
1/2
is minimum.
This can be understood from the fact that the range, in this case, is proportional
1/2
for the low speed airplanes which have a wing loading of 1000 to 2500 N/m . The
jet airplanes also cruise at high altitude (10 to 12 km) which is not much below
the ceiling altitude of 12 to 14 km for these airplanes.
From Eq.(7.18) it is observed that the endurance of an airplane with enginepropeller combination is high when (a) the wing loading is low and (b) is high or
flight takes place near sea level.
It may be added that the final wing loading chosen for an airplane is a
compromise between requirements of cruise, climb, take-off and landing. The
take-off and landing distances increase in direct proportion to the wing loading
(subsections 10.4.5 and 10.5.3), and hence, a high wing loading is not desirable
from this point of view.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Remarks:
i) If the drag polar is parabolic, an expression for CLmrj can be derived as follows.
CD = CDO + K C2
L
C
C
Hence, D = DO + K C3/2
L
C1/2
C1/2
L
L
1/2
d(CD / C )
C
3
L
= DO C-3/2 + K C1/2 = 0
Lmrj 2
Lmrj
dCL
2
Or
1/2
The points on the drag polar at which CL is equal to CLmax, CLmp, CLmd and CLmrj
are shown in Fig.7.2. The importance of these values of lift coefficient can be
reemphasized as follows.
(i) The maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) decides the stalling speed which is one of
the criterion for the minimum speed of the airplane. It also affects the minimum
radius of turn (see subsection 9.3.3) and the take-off and landing distances (see
subsections 10.4.5 and 10.5.3)
(ii) The lift coefficient corresponding to minimum power required (CLmp) influences
the performance of airplanes with engine-propeller combination. It decides the
flight speeds corresponding to maximum rate of climb, minimum rate of sink and
maximum endurance of these airplanes.
(iii) The lift coefficient corresponding to minimum thrust required ( CLmd ) is also
the value of CL at which (L/D) is maximum. From Fig.7.2 it is observed that the
slope of a line joining the origin to a point on the curve, is equal to (CL/ CD). At,
CL = CLmd this line, from the origin, is tangent to the drag polar and has the
maximum slope (Fig.7.2). The value of CLmd decides the flight speed for
maximum range of an airplane with engine-propeller combination and the
maximum endurance of a jet airplane.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
max
Example 7.2
has a wing area of 45 m . Its drag polar is given by: CD = 0.022 + 0.059CL2.
Obtain the maximum range and endurance at sea level in a steady level flight at
a constant angle of attack from the following additional data.
Weight of fuel and oil = 15,450 N, BSFC = 2.67 N/kW-hr,
propeller efficiency (p) = 85%.
Note: Along with the fuel, the lubricating oil is also consumed and this fact is
taken into account in this example, by specifying the weight of the oil along with
the weight of fuel.
Solution:
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Since BSFC, p and CL are constant, the maximum range and endurance occur
when CL has the values of CLmd and CLmp respectively.
C Lmd = (CDO/K)
1/2
= (0.022/0.059)1/2 = 0.6106,
1/2
8289.3 p
W 8289.3 0.85
88290
log 10 1 =
log 10
= 3058 km.
Remark:
Since CL is constant during the flight, the flight velocity and the power required
change as the fuel is consumed. In the present case, the following results
illustrate the changes.
Velocity at the beginning of the flight:
1/2
V1= 2W1/ S CLmd
= (2 88290/1.225 45 0.6106)1/2 = 72.41 m/s.
= 260.7kmph.
Velocity at the end of flight:
1/2
= 2W2 / S CLmd
W CD /CL V1
T1 V1
88290 0.044
= 1
=
72.41 = 460.7kW
1000
1000
1000 0.6106
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
=
W CD /CL V2
T2 V2
72840 0.044
= 2
=
65.8 = 345.5kW
1000
1000
1000 0.6106
Maximum endurance:
From Eq.(7.18) the maximum endurance is :
p
CD /C3/2
L min
1565.2 0.85 1.00 45 1/2
=
2.67 0.0808 88290
1565.2
Emax =
BSFC
1/2
S
W1
1/2
W1 -1
W2
88290 1/2
-1 = 14.06hrs
72840
A jet airplane has a weight of 922,140 N and wing area of 158 m2. The
weight of the fuel and oil together is 294,300 N. The drag polar is given by:
CD = 0.017 + 0.0663 C2
L
1/2
0.017
CLmrj =
= 0.292
3 0.0663
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
9.2
TSFC CD /C1/2
L
1/2 W 1/2
W1
1 - 2
S
W1
1/2
922140
9.2
=
1/2
= 311.1 m/s.
The speed of sound at 10 km is 299.5 m/s. Thus the Mach number at this speed
would be 311.1/299.5 = 1.04. This value is definitely higher than the critical Mach
number of the airplane. Consequently, the prescribed drag polar is not valid. The
CD will actually be much higher and the range much lower.
As an alternative, let the critical Mach number be taken as 0.85 and the range be
calculated in a flight at constant CL which begins at this Mach number.
Consequently, V = 0.85 x 299.5 = 254.5 m/s.
Hence,CL = (2 x 922140/0.413 x 158 x 254.52) = 0.436
Consequently, CD = 0.017 + 0.0663 x (0.436)2
and
= 0.0296
0.95 0.0448
0.3369158
922140-294300 1/2
1-
4975 km .
922140
(ii) The data given in this example, roughly corresponds to that of Boeing 727,
the famous jetliner of 1970s. The value of TSFC corresponds to engines of that
period. The value of K equal to 0.0663 includes the change in K, when Mach
number lies in the transonic range.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Chapter 7
Lecture 26
Performance analysis III Range and endurance 3
Topics
7.4.5 Influence of the range performance analysis on airplane design
7.5 Range in constant velocity - constant altitude flight (Rh,v)
7.6 Cruising speed and cruising altitude
7.7 Cruise climb
7.8 Effect of wind on range and endurance
1 CL
V
TSFC CD
Since, high speed airplanes fly in lower stratosphere, where speed of sound is
constant,
1 CL
M
TSFC CD
The quantity
(7.19)
1 CL
M can be referred to as figure of merit (FM) for the
TSFC CD
following reasons.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
(a) A low value of TSFC in an indicator of high engine efficiency and (b) A high
value of (CL/CD) is an indicator of high aerodynamic efficiency.
The figure of merit provided guidelines when the supersonic airplane
Concorde was being designed in early 1960s.The subsonic jets of that period
like Boeing 707 would fly around M = 0.8, have (L / D)max around 16 and TSFC
around 0.9. These values would give the FM of 0.8x16/0.9 or 14.2. If Concorde
were to compete with subsonic jets, it needed to have a similar value of FM. The
fighter airplanes of that period flying at Mach number of two had TSFC of 1.5 and
(L/D) max of 5. This would give FM of (2 x 5) /1.5 = 6.66 which was far too low as
compared to that for subsonic airplanes. Hence the targets for Concorde, which
was being designed for a Mach number of 2.2, were fixed at (L/D) max of 7.5 and
TSFC of 1.2. This would give FM of 2.2(1/1.2) x 7.5 = 13.75, which was
comparable to the FM of subsonic airplanes. However, to achieve a TSFC of 1.2
at M =2.2, a large amount of research was carried out and the Olympus engine
used on Concorde was developed jointly by Rolls-Royce of U.K. and SNECMA of
France. Similarly, to achieve an (L/D) max of 7.5 at M = 2.2 needed a large amount
of computational and experimental effort. A picture of Concorde, a technological
marvel, is shown in Fig.7.3.
It may be added that for Concorde the Mach number was limited to 2.2 as
the designers had chosen to use aluminum as structural material. At M = 3 the
FM could be greater than that of subsonic airplanes but the aerodynamic heating
would cause surface temperatures of around 300oC at which the strength and
modulus of elasticity of aluminum will be significantly reduced.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Fig.7.3 Concorde
(Source: www.airplane-pictures.net)
The B787 (Fig.7.4) being brought out by Boeing and called Dream liner has
M = 0.85, (L/D) max of 22 and TSFC of 0.54 hr-1. These values of (L/D) max and
TSFC indicate steady improvements in aerodynamics and engine performance
over the last five decades .
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
W2
W1
dW
Tr
(7.20)
Tr = thrust required
Assuming a parabolic polar,
1
2K W 2
KW 2
Tr = V 2 S CDO +
= q S CDO +
; q = 1 V2
2
2
qS
V2 S
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Note: The dynamics pressure (q), is constant in a constant velocity and constant
altitude flight.
Substituting for Tr in Eq.(7.20) gives:
3.6 V
Rh v =
1
TSFC q S CD0
Or Rh v =
1
w2
- dW
w 1 1+aW
where, a =
K
q2 S2 CD0
3.6 V
[tan-1 a W1 - tan-1 a W2 ]
qS CD0TSFC a
(7.20a)
Wf
, where Wf = weight of fuel
W1
Hence, W2 = W1(1-) ;
Further, let E1 = W1/D1 = initial lift to drag ratio,
KW12
KW 2
D1 = qSCD1 = qS CDO + 2 12 = qSCDO +
qS
qS
Emax =
W1
W
= 1
2
1 V S
qS
2
1
2 K CD0
Noting that ,
tan -1 1 - tan
-1
-
2 = tan -1 1 2 ,
1 + 1 2
3.6 V
TSFC qSCDO
K
qS CDO
aW1 - aW2
-1
tan
1+aW1W2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
3.6V
tan -1
TSFC KCDO
a W1 - W2
K W12
1
+
1-
2 2
C
q
S
DO
K W1
CDO qS
7.2Emax V
-1
=
tan
K W12
TSFC
1-
1+
2 2
CDO q S
Rh,v =
7.2Emax V
tan -1
TSFC
KCDO W1
KW12 KW12
qSC
+
DO
qS
qS
7.2Emax V
tan -1
TSFC
KC W
DO
1
2
W1
D1 - K qS
Dividing the numerator and denominator of the term in square brackets by D1,
gives :
Rh,v
W
KCDO 1
7.2Emax V
D1
=
tan -1
TSFC
W1 W1
1 - K
qS D1
Or Rh,V =
7.2Emax V
E1
tan -1
TSFC
2Emax 1-K CL1 E1
(7.21)
W1
3600 p dW
BSFC T
(7.22)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Assuming BSFC and p to be constant and the drag polar as parabolic i.e.
T=
1
2KW 2
and substituting in Eq.(7.22) gives:
V 2 S CDO +
2
2
SV
Rh v =
1
7200 p
E1
Emax tan-1
BSFC
2Emax (1-KCL1 E1)
(7.23)
Remarks:
i) Comparing the ranges in the constant velocity and constant CL flights, Ref.1.1,
chapter 9, shows that the maximum range in a constant velocity flight is only
slightly lower than that in a constant CL flight.
ii) In actual practice BSFC (or TSFC) and p may vary during the cruise. If
detailed information about their variations is available, then better estimates of
range and endurance can be obtained by numerical integration of Eqs.(7.8),
(7.8a),(7.9) and (7.9a).
iii) Appendix A section 6 considers the range and endurance performance of a
piston engined airplane at an altitude of 8000 feet (2438 m) in constant velocity
flights at different speeds. The variations in propeller efficiency and fuel
consumption are taken into account. It is seen that the endurance is maximum
around flight speed of 135 kmph. The range is maximum for flight speeds
between 165 to 185 kmph.
iv) Section 6 of Appendix B considers the range and endurance performance of
a jet transport at an altitude of 36000 feet (10973 m) in constant velocity flights at
different speeds. The endurance is near its maximum value in the speed range of
684 to 828 kmph. The maximum range occurs around 240 m/s (864 kmph). The
corresponding Mach number is 0.82, which is slightly higher than the Mach
number beyond which the CDO and K begin to increase due to compressibility
effects.
7.6 Cruising speed and cruising altitude
The cruising speed (Vcr) and the cruising altitude (hcr) together constitute
the combination at which the maximum range is obtained. To arrive at the values
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
of Vcr and hcr the range is calculated at various speeds at a number of altitudes
and the plots as shown in Fig.7.5 are obtained. The dotted line in Fig.7.5 is the
envelop of all the curves. The speed and altitude at which the maximum of this
envelop occurs is called the most economical cruising speed and altitude. In
some cases this speed is rather low and a higher cruising speed may be chosen
from other considerations like, shorter flight time and speed appeal. i.e. a faster
airplane may be more appealing to the passengers even if it consumes more fuel
per kilometer of travel.
To prepare the back ground for the analysis of the cruise climb, consider
Eq.(7.8a) which gives the range of a jet airplane. i.e.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
W2
R=
-3.6 V dW
CD
1 TSFC W
CL
(7.24)
1 2
V SCL , the flight velocity is
2
1 2
V SCL , it has been suggested that the airplane be allowed to climb
2
with altitude
2
-3.6V
dW
3.6V
R =
=
ln W1 /W2
TSFC CD /CL W W
TSFC CD /CL
(7.25)
The flight is called Cruise climb as the altitude continuously increases during the
flight.
Remarks:
(i) Exercise 7.3 would show that for a jet airplane with Wf / W1 = 0.2 and starting
the cruise climb at h = 11 km, the range would be 5141 km and the change of
flight altitude between the end and the start of cruise climb would be only
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
1.415 km. Thus, it is observed that the change in the altitude between the start
and end of cruise climb is very small as compared to the distance covered and
the level flight equations (L = W and T = D) are valid.
(ii) It can be shown (Ref.1.1, chapter 5) that the range in a cruise climb is higher
than that in level flight at the altitude where the cruise climb begins.
(iii) In actual practice continuous increase in altitude may not be permitted by Air
Traffic Regulations. As an alternative, a stepped climb approximation may be
used i.e. the flight path is divided into segments of constant altitude flights with
stepped increase in altitude after certain distance.
(iv)In a cruise climb the thrust required would be
2
T = D = (1/2) V SCD
Since, the flight velocity and CL (and hence CD) are held constant, the thrust
required will be proportional to ambient density (). It may be pointed out that in
lower stratosphere the engine output (thrust available) is also proportional to the
ambient density. Thus, in a cruise climb in lower stratosphere the thrust setting
required is also constant and it becomes a very convenient flight the pilot has
just to set the Mach number and then the autopilot will take care of the flight.
7.8 Effect of wind on range and endurance
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
airplane with respect to the ground will be lower than its velocity with respect to
air and the range decreases. For example, in a hypothetical case of head wind
being equal to the stalling speed, the airplane, in principle, can remain airborne
without moving with respect to the ground. The fuel will be consumed as engine
would produce thrust to overcome the drag, but no distance will be covered as
the airplane is hovering! When there is tail wind the range increases.
An expression for range with effect of wind can be derived as follows.
Consider a jet airplane. Let Rg be the range in the presence of wind.
Equation(7.8a) can be used to calculate Rg, but the quantity V in that equation
should be replaced with Vg i.e. :
W2
Rg = -
W1
3.6 Vg dW
=
TSFC T
W2
Rg = -
W1
W2
W1
3.6 (Va - VW ) dW
, VW in m/s
TSFC T
3.6 Va dW
- 3.6 Vw
TSFC T
W2
W1
W2
W1
dW
= Ra - 3.6 Vw E
TSFC T
(7.26)
3.6 Va dW
TSFC T
and E is the duration of flight in hours. Thus, with head wind the range decreases
by 3.6 Vw E. In example 7.1 the range is 2667 km and the endurance is 3.33
hours. If a head wind of 15 m/s is encountered then the range would decrease
by 15 x 3.6 x 3.33 = 180 km.
Remarks:
i) Before a flight takes- off, the information about head wind, likely to occur on
the route is gathered from weather reports, and adequate amount of fuel is
provided to take care of the situation.
ii) The maximum endurance (Emax) is not affected by the presence of wind,
because Emax depends on airspeed only. The airspeed indicator in the cockpit, as
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
the name suggests, indicates airspeed and the pilot only needs to fly at airspeed
corresponding to Emax.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Chapter 7
Reference
Riley , K.F., Hobson, M.P. and Bence, S.J. Mathematical methods for physics
and engineering Cambridge University press Cambridge, U.K. (1998).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-7
Chapter 7
Exercises
7.1 A jet airplane is flying in level flight at a constant velocity (V). Show that when
the drag polar is parabolic the endurance (E) is given by :
E =
2Emax
tan-1
TSFC
E1
2Emax 1 - K CL1E1
where, = Wfuel / W1
W1= Weight of airplane at the beginning of the flight; W2 = W1 (1 - )
E1 = W1/D1, D1 = drag at the beginning of the flight
Define safe range and gross still air range. Obtain the gross still air range
7.3 Consider a jet airplane with 20% of its weight as fuel fraction. It starts the
cruise climb at an altitude of 11km. What will be the altitude at the end of cruise
climb (hf)? Assuming V = 240 m/s, TSFC = 0.6 and CL/ CD = 16, estimate the
range in cruise climb (Rcc). What is the angle of climb ( cc ) in cruise climb?
(Answers: hf = 12415 m, Rcc = 5141 m, cc = 0.0157o).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
Chapter 8
Performance analysis IV Accelerated level flight and climb
(Lecture 27)
Keywords: Accelerated level flight; accelerated climb; energy height.
Topics
8.1
Introduction
8.2
8.3
Accelerated climb
8.3.1 Equations of motion in accelerated climb
8.3.2 Effect of acceleration on rate of climb
8.3.3 Performance in accelerated climb from energy point of view
8.3.4 Energy height
Exercise
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
Chapter 8
Lecture 27
Performance analysis IV Accelerated level flight and climb
Topics
8.1
Introduction
8.2
8.3
Accelerated climb
8.3.1 Equations of motion in accelerated climb
8.3.2 Effect of acceleration on rate of climb
8.3.3 Performance in accelerated climb from energy point of view
8.3.4 Energy height
8.1
Introduction
The last three chapters dealt with the performance airplane in steady
flights. The flights with acceleration are considered in this and the next two
chapters. The accelerated flights could be along a straight line e.g. accelerated
level flight and accelerated climb or along curved paths like loops and turn. In
this chapter the accelerated level flight and climb are discussed.
8.2 Accelerated level flight
When an airplane moves along a straight line at a constant altitude but its
velocity changes with time, then it is said to execute an accelerated level flight.
This type of flight occurs in the following situations.
(i) The take-off speed of an airplane is about 1.15 to 1.3 times the stalling speed.
However, the speed corresponding to the best rate of climb is generally much
higher than this speed (see Figs.6.3a and c). Hence the airplane may accelerate
from the take-off speed to the speed corresponding to the desired rate of climb.
Similarly, the speed , at the end of the climb to the cruising altitude, is lower than
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
the cruising speed (Figs.6.3a and c) and an airplane would accelerate at the
cruising altitude to attain the desired cruising speed.
(ii) The airplane may also accelerate in the transonic flight range to quickly passover to the supersonic speeds (see Fig.5.11)
(iii) The airplane may decelerate during a combat or when the pilot notices the
possibility of over-shooting a target.
8.2.1 Equation of motion in accelerated level flight
The forces acting on an airplane in an accelerated level flight are shown in
Fig.8.1. It may be recalled that the equations of motion are obtained by applying
Newtons second law. For this purpose, the forces acting on the airplane are
resolved along and the perpendicular to the flight path. Sum of the components
of the forces in each of these directions, is equated to the product of the mass of
the airplane and the component of the acceleration in that direction.
The flight path in this case is a horizontal line. Hence, the equations of motion
are :
T -D=ma=
W
a
g
(8.1)
L-W=0
(8.2)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
a =
g
1
(T - V 2 S CD )
W
2
Note that : V =
(8.3)
ds
dV
dV ds
dV
and a =
=
= V
dt
dt
ds dt
ds
Consequently, dt =
dV
V dV
and ds =
a
a
8.3a
Let the distance covered and the time taken for velocity to change from V1 to V2
be denoted by s and t respectively, Integrating expressions in Eq.(8.3a) gives:
V2
s=
V1
VdV
and t =
a
V2
V1
dV
a
(8.4)
V2
W V dV
W dV
s=
and t =
2
2
1
1
V1 g (T- 2 V S CD )
V1 g (T- 2 V S CD )
(8.5)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
Example 8.1
L=W=
D=
1
V 2SCL
2
1
1
2 KW 2
V 2SCD = V 2S CD0 +
2
2
SV 2
1
2 0.06 1569602
1.225 490.017 V 2 +
2
1.225 49 V 2
4.9225 107
Or D = 0.5102 V 2 +
V2
Or D =
To carry out the numerical integration, the integrands in Eq.(8.5) are evaluated
for several values of V and the methods like trapezoidal rule or Simpsons rule
are used. Books on numerical analysis be consulted for further details of these
methods. Simpsons rule gives accurate results with a small number of points
and is used here. For this purpose the range between V1 and V2 is divided into
six intervals, each of 20 m/s. The values are tabulated below:
V (m/s)
D (N)
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
W
0.3644 0.3705 0.3861 0.4107 0.4456 0.4954 0.5669
g(T-D)
W V
g(T-D)
36.44
44.46
54.06
65.72
80.21
99.09 124.72
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
In this case, the flight takes place along a straight line inclined to the
horizontal at an angle as shown in Fig.8.2. The flight velocity increases or
decreases along the flight path. Figure 8.2 also shows the forces acting on the
airplane.
W
a
g
L - W cos = 0
(8.6)
(8.7)
g (T - D - W sin )
W
(8.8)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
Note that : a =
dV dV dh
dh
=
.
; but
= VC = R/C
dt
dh dt
dt
Consequently, a = Vc
dV
dh
(8.9)
Vc
W
dV
Vc
= 0 or Vc =
V
g
dh
(T-D)V
V dV
W 1+
g dh
(8.10)
From Eq.(6.4), (T-D) V / W is the rate if climb in steady flight. Denoting it by Vco,
Eq.(8.10) reduces to:
Vc =
Vco
V dV
1+ g dh
(8.11)
Remark:
The term (dV/dh) in Eq.(8.11) represents the rate of change of velocity with
altitude. This quantity would be positive if the flight velocity increases with
altitude. Thus, in an accelerated climb, the rate of climb, for given values of
thrust, speed and altitude, will be lower than that in a steady climb. This has
relevance to the flight with shortest time to climb, i.e., to calculate the shortest
time required to achieve desired altitude.
From Fig.6.3c it is observed that the flight speed for maximum rate of climb
(VR/Cmax) increases with altitude. Thus, in a climb which attempts to fly the
airplane at speeds corresponding to the maximum rate of climb (V(R/C)max) at
different altitudes, would not be a steady climb but an accelerated climb.
Consequently, the values of (R/C)max given in Fig.6.3e may need to be corrected
for the effect of acceleration.
8.3.3 Performance in accelerated climb from energy point of view
W dV
V
g
dt
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
Or TV = DV + W
dh
W d V2
+
dt
g dt 2
(8.12)
and (W/g) {d(V / 2) / dt} represents the rate of change of kinetic energy. Thus,
the total available energy can be utilized in three ways viz. overcoming drag,
change of potential energy and change of kinetic energy. If the flight takes place
at Vmax or (Vmin)e in level flight, then entire energy is used in overcoming the
drag and no energy is available for climb or acceleration. Only at speeds in
between (Vmin)e and Vmax, can an airplane climb or accelerate and the excess
power (T-D)V has to be shared for increase of potential energy or kinetic energy
or both. If climb takes at V(R/C)max then no acceleration is possible.
8.3.4 Energy height
W
dt
2g
(8.13)
(8.14)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
Example 8.2
Solution:
In a climb with Ve as constant, the true air speed (V) is given by:
1
V = Ve / 2 ,
Consequently,
1
dV
d
= - Ve -3/2
2
dh
dh
dV
1
g- R 2(g-R)
Hence,
= Ve
2
dh
To R
(8.15)
In I.S.A., = 0.0065 K/m. Using g = 9.81 m/s and R = 287.05 m/s2 K, the
correction factor in Eq.(8.11) is:
1+
V dV
= 1 + 4.894 10-6 Ve2 -1.235
g dh
(8.16)
It is seen that the correction required depends on Ve and . Typical values of the
correction factor at sea level ( = 1) and at 11 km altitude ( = 0.2971) are given
in Table E8.1.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
50
Ve (m/s)
V dV
1+
at s.l
g dh
100
200
1.01224 1.0489
1.1958
V dV
1+
at 11 km
1.0548 1.2191
g dh
1.8766
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-8
Chapter 8
Exercise
8.1 A jet trainer is climbing in troposphere at a constant Mach number of 0.6.
Obtain the rate of climb when it is climbing at an altitude of 5 km. The airplane
has the following data.
W = 54,000 N, S = 17 m2 , CD = 0.017 + 0.055 CL2 , and thrust available at 5 km
altitude = 13,000 N.
[Hint: Show that in a constant Mach number flight :
dV
R
V dV
1
=-M
and 1+
= 1 RM2
dh
2 To -h
g dh
g2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Chapter- 9
Performance analysis V- Manoeuvres
(Lectures 28 to 31)
Keywords : Flights along curved path in vertical plane loop and pull out ;
load factor ; steady level co-ordinated-turn - minimum radius of turn, maximum
rate of turn; flight limitations ; operating envelop; V-n diagram.
Topics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Flight along a circular path in a vertical plane (simplified loop)
9.2.1 Equation of motion in a simplified loop
9.2.2 Implications of lift required in a simplified loop
9.2.3 Load factor
9.2.4 Pull out
9.3 Turning flight
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.3.4
9.3.5
9.3.6
Flight limitations
9.4.2
Operating envelop
9.4.3
V-n diagram
Exercises
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Chapter 9
Lecture 28
Performance analysis V Manoeuvres 1
Topics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Flight along a circular path in a vertical plane (simplified loop)
9.2.1 Equation of motion in a simplified loop
9.2.2 Implications of lift required in a simplified loop
9.2.3 Load factor
9.2.4 Pull out
9.3 Turning flight
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.1 Introduction
Flight along a curved path is known as a manoeuvre. In this flight the
radial acceleration is always present even if the tangential acceleration is zero.
For example, from particle dynamics (Ref.1.2) we know that when a body moves
with constant speed along a circle it is subjected to a radial acceleration equal to
2
the radius of curvature whose magnitude is (V / r). Reference 1.1, chapter 1 may
be referred to for details. In order that the body has these accelerations a net
force, having components along these directions, must act on the body. For
example, in the simpler case of a body moving with constant speed along a
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
W V2
is the magnitude of the inertia force at various points)
g r
WV 2
gr
At point A :
T -D=0;L-W =
At Point B:
T-D-W=0 ;L=
W V2
g r
(9.2)
At point C :
W V2
T - D = 0;L + W =
g r
(9.3)
(9.1)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
At point D :
T-D +W=0;L=
WV 2
gr
(9.4)
WV 2
gr
(9.5)
Note that the Eqs.(9.1) to (9.4) for points A, B, C and D can be obtained from
Eqs.(9.5) by substituting as 180o, 90o, 0o and 270o respectively.
Remarks:
i) If the tangential velocity is not constant during the loop then the first equation of
Eqs.(9.5) would become:
T - D - W sin = (W / g) a, where a = dV / dt
(9.6)
ii) From Eqs.(9.1 to 9.5) it is observed that the lift required and the thrust required
during a loop with constant r and V change rapidly with time. It is difficult for the
pilot to maintain these values and the actual flight path is somewhat like the one
shown in Fig.9.2.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
It is observed, that at the bottom of the loop i.e. point A in Fig.9.1, the lift
required is equal to
V2
2
WV 2
. The term (V / gr) could be
W +
or L = W 1+
gr
gr
much larger than 1 and the lift required in a manoeuvre could be several times
the weight of the airplane. As an illustration, let the flight velocity be 100 m/s and
2
the radius of curvature be 200 m, then the term (V / gr) is equal to 5.1. Thus the
total lift required at point A is 6.1 W. In order that an airplane carries out the
manoeuvres without getting disintegrated, its structure must be designed to
sustain the lift produced during manoeuvres. Secondly, when lift produced is
high, the drag would also be high and the engine must produce adequate output.
Further, lift coefficient cannot exceed CLmax, and as such no manoeuvre is
possible at V= Vstall.
9.2.3 Load factor
The ratio of the lift to the weight is called Load factor and is denoted by n i.e.
n = (L / W)
(9.7)
A flight with a load factor of n is called ng flight. For example, a turn (see
example 9.2) with load factor of 4 is referred to as a 4g turn. In level flight, n
equals 1 and it is a 1g flight.
Higher the value of n, greater would be the strength required of the structure and
consequently higher structural weight of the airplane. Hence, a limit is prescribed
for the load factor to which an airplane can be subjected to. For example, the civil
airplanes are designed to withstand a load factor of 3 to 4 and the military
airplanes to a load factor of 6 or more. The limitation on the military airplane
comes from the human factors namely, a pilot subjected to more than 6g may
black out during the manoeuvre which is an undesirable situation.
To monitor the load factor, an instrument called g-meter is installed in the
cockpit.
9.2.4 Pull out
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
(Fig.9.3). The dive is an accelerated descent while the pull out phase can be
regarded as a flight along an arc of a circle (See example 9.1).
Example 9.1
2
From Fig.9.3 the equations of motion in the dive can be written as follows.
L - Wcos = 0; Wsin - D =
W
a
g
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
CL =
2L
S V 2
2 9810
1.0065 20 69.42
Consequently, CD
= 0.2024
C
0.03811
The drag D = L D = 9810
= 1847.3N
CL
0.2024
Hence,
Or
To obtain the lift required during the pull out, let us treat the bottom part of the
flight path during the pull out as an arc of a circle.
From Eqs.(9.1) to (9.5), the lift required is maximum at the bottom of the loop and
is given by:
L = W+
WV 2
1
69.42
or L = 19620 1+
9.81 200
gr
19620 3.45 2
1.0065 20 69.42
= 1.396
Remarks:
i)
The maximum load factor in the above pull out is 3.45. The value of lift
coefficient required is 1.396. This value may be very close to CLmax and the
parabolic drag polar may not be valid.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
ii) Since CL cannot exceed CLmax, a large amount of lift cannot be produced at low
speeds. Thus maximum attainable load factor (nmaxattainable) at a speed is:
nmaxattainable = (1/2) V2 S CLmax / W
At stalling speed the value of n is only one.
9.3 Turning flight
When an airplane moves along an arc of a circle about a vertical axis then
the flight is called a turning flight. When the altitude of the airplane remains
constant in such a flight, it is called a level turn. In order that a turning flight is
possible, a force must act in the direction of the radius of curvature. This can be
done by banking the airplane so that the lift vector has a component in the
horizontal direction. It may be added that the side force produced by deflecting
the rudder is not large. It also causes considerable amount of drag, which is
undesirable.
9.3.1 Steady, level, co-ordinated-turn
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
(9.8)
(9.9)
W V2
g r
(9.10)
Remarks:
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
r=
W V2
V2
=
g L sin
g tan
(9.11)
1
gives tan = n2 -1 and
n
V2
(9.11a)
g n2 -1
), is given by:
The rate of turn, denoted by (
V
V2
g tan
=V/
=
r
gtan
V
(9.12)
g n2 -1
V
(9.12a)
(iii) In some books, the radius of turn is denoted by R. However, herein the letter
R is used to denote range, and to avoid confusion, the radius of turn is denoted
by r.
Example 9.2
(c) thrust
required in the manoeuvre if the drag coefficient at this angle of attack be 0.055.
Solution:
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Consequently, CL =
dCL
( - oL ) = 0.0803 (8 + 2.2) = 0.82
d
In a 4g turn L = 4W = 1/2 V2 S CL
1/2
2 4 58860
Hence, V = (2L / SCL )1/2 =
= 144.6 m/s.
cos =
1
1
=
or = 750 31'
n
4
V2
=
= 550.3m
Consequently, r =
gtan
9.81 3.873
=
Rate of turn =
V 144.6
= 0.2627 rad /s
=
r
550.3
0.2627
= 11.95 s
The thrust available is given as 24525 N at sea level. If the thrust available is
assumed to be roughly proportional to (0.7), the thrust available at the chosen
altitude would be 24525 x 0.8
0.7
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Chapter 9
Lecture 29
Performance analysis V Manoeuvres 2
Topics
9.3.3
9.3.4
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
(9.13)
(9.14)
It may be noted that, at stalling speed (Vs), the value of CLL equals CLmax or n =
1. Hence, turn is not possible at stalling speed .
(II) Limitation due to allowable load factor from structural consideration : The
bank angle and the load factor in a turn are related by:
cos = 1/n .
However, n cannot exceed the value permitted by the structural design of the
airplane. Let this value be denoted by (nmax)str. Hence, max is limited to
cos-1 {1/(nmax)str}.
(III) The drag coefficient in a turning flight is higher than that in a level flight at the
same speed. However, in a steady turn the thrust required cannot exceed the
thrust available (T ). This also imposes limitations on the attainable values of
a
and n. Let these two values be denoted as ( max)Ta and (nmax)Ta .
It may be noted that, at V = V
max
overcoming the drag in level flight. Hence, the steady level turn is not possible at
these two speeds.
The lowest of the above three values viz nmax CLmax , (nmax)str and (nmax)Ta is
the permissible value of nmax . Let this value be denoted by (nmax)perm .
.
Substituting this value in Eqs.(9.11a) and (9.12a) gives r and
9.3.4 Determination of minimum radius of turn and maximum rate of turn at
a chosen altitude
In a general case, the drag polar and the thrust available are functions of
Mach number. In such a case, the minimum radius of turn (rmin) and the
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
following steps. The limitations stated in the previous subsection, are taken into
account during the procedure.
(i) Choose an altitude. Obtain Vmax and Vmin at this altitude. Note that a steady
level, co-ordinated-turn is possible only within this speed range.
(ii) Choose a flight speed (V) in between Vmax and Vmin and obtain CLL as:
2
CLL = 2W / ( SV )
Obtain Mach number (M) corresponding to the chosen V and the speed of sound
at chosen altitude.
(iii) Obtain the CLmax at the chosen flight Mach number. It may be recalled from
subsection 3.7.4, that for airplanes flying at high speeds, the CLmax depends on
Mach number. Obtain the ratio CLmax / CLL.
The ratio CLmax / CLL gives the quantity nmax CLmax defined above. If this value
is smaller than the allowable load factor from structural consideration viz.
(nmax)str, then the turn may be limited by CLmax. In this situation, choose
CLT1 = CLmax. It may be mentioned that the procedure presented here, aims at
obtaining the value of lift coefficient in the turn (CLT) which satisfies all the three
limitations on the turn mentioned above. The quantity CLT1 is the value of CLT as
limited by CLmax. This will be modified in the subsequent steps.
If CLmax / CLL is more than (nmax)str, then the turn may be limited by (nmax)str. In
this situation, choose CLT1 as (nmax)str x CLL.
(iv) Obtain from the drag polar, the drag coefficient CDT1, corresponding to CLT1
and the chosen Mach number. Calculate the drag DT1 from:
DT1 = 1/2 V2 S CDT1
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
If D T1 is greater than the available thrust (Ta), then the turn is limited by engine
output. In this situation, obtain the maximum permissible value of drag coefficient
2
= cos-1 (CLL/CLT). Knowing and V, the radius of turn (r) and rate of turn
(
), at the chosen speed, can be calculated using Eqs.(9.11) and (9.12).
(vi) The previous steps should be repeated at various values of flight speeds
ranging between Vmin and Vmax. Plotting these results, the values of rmin and
max and the corresponding speeds V
and V
max can be determined at the
rmin
chosen altitude.
(vii) Repeat steps (i) to (vi) at different altitudes.
The procedure is illustrated, at a chosen altitude, in example 9.3.
Example 9.3
105
115
125
145
165
185
205
Ta (N)
21100
21125
21150
21480
21580
21980
22270
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Solution:
At 8 km altitude the value of is 0.525 kg/m3. The minimum radius of turn and
at various speeds are worked out in a tabular manner using the procedure
max
outlined above.
V (m/s)
105
115
125
145
165
185
205
1.354
1.129
0.955
0.710
0.548
0.436
0.355
CLmax / CLL
1.034
1.240
1.466
1.972
2.553
3.21
3.94
LT1
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.243*
DT1
0.115
0.115
0.115
0.115
0.115
0.115
.0942
D (N)
15000
17993
21258
28601
37042
46568
46852
Ta (N)
21100
21125
21150
21480
21580
21980
22270
**
**
0.1114
0.0864
0.067
0.0543
0.0448
1.4$
1.4$
1.396
1.178
1.08
0.863
0.745
1.034
1.240
1.461
1.659
1.824
1.98
2.10
14.75
36.25
46.9
52.93
56.76
59.63
61.6
4273
1838
1491
1619
1819
2043
2321
0.0838
0.0896
0.0907
0.0906
0.0883
LL
T1
DT
LT
CLT
=n
CLL
(degrees)
r (m)
(rad/s)
0.0246 0.0626
Turn is limited by Ta
with
Table E9.3 Variations of radius of turn (r) and rate of turn
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
with flight
Fig.E9.3 Variations of radius of turn (r) and rate of turn
Answers:
Minimum radius of turn (rmin) = 1490 m at Vrmin = 124 m/s
max ) = 0.090 rad/s at V
Maximum rate of turn (
max = 165 m/s
Remarks:
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
altitudes for that airplane. Figures 9.5c and d present the variations of Vmax
)
Fig.9.5a Turning performance of a jet transport rate of turn (
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Note:
different altitudes for that airplanes. Figures 9.7c and d present the variations of
max with altitude. Figure 9.6e presents the variations of V
rmin and
max and
Vrmin with altitude. Both these speeds increase with altitude. The two speeds
come close to each other as absolute ceiling is approached. Minimum radius of
max decreases with altitude. At absolute
turn (rmin) increases with altitude and
ceiling, the rate of turn becomes zero and the radius becomes infinite.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
)
variation of rate of turn (
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
11
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
iii) In many situations the minimum radius of turn in level flight is limited by the
available engine output. This can be overcome and a smaller radius of turn can
be obtained by allowing the airplane to descend during the turn. In this manner a
loss of potential energy is used to increase the available energy during turn.
Reference 1.12, chapter 2 may be consulted for additional details. See also
subsection 9.3.6 for further information.
12
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Chapter 9
Lecture 30
Performance analysis V Manoeuvres 3
Topics
9.3.5
9.3.5
9.3.6
However, the influence of the wing loading (W/S) and the thrust loading (Ta/W)
can be examined by the following simplified analysis. It is based on the following
two assumptions.
(a)Thrust available (Ta) is constant.
(b)The drag polar is parabolic with CDO and K as constants.
The following relationships are observed in a steady, level, co-ordinated-turn.
T = D, L = nW ; n =
Hence, Ta =
1
g n2 -1
V2
=
, r=
,
V
cos
g n2 -1
1
1
V 2 SCD = V 2 S CDO + K CL2
2
2
1
Or Ta = V 2S
2
2nW
CDO +K
2
SV
(9.15)
V T
V 2 CDO
a
n = 2
- 2
K W/S W
W/S
(9.16)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
1 2
V
2
(9.17)
Ta qCDO
q
K(W/S) W W/S
(9.18)
From Eq.(9.11a)
r=
Or r =
V2
g n2 -1
2q
(9.19)
g n2 -1
2g n2 -1 - 2gqn n2 -1
dr
=
dq
g2 2 n2 - 1
Or n2 - 1 - qn
-1/2
dn/dq
=0
dn
= 0
dq
(9.20)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Ta /W - qCDO
dn
=
dq 2K(W/S) K W/S 2
(9.21)
2K W/S
=1
(9.22)
Equation (9.22) yields the value of q which gives minimum radius of turn. This
value is denoted by qrmin i.e. :
2K W/S
Ta /W
qrmin =
(9.23)
Vrmin =
(9.24)
Ta /W
2K W/S Ta /W
4K 2 W/S CDO
Ta /W K W/S Ta /W 2 K W/S 2
Or nrmin = 2 -
= 2-
4 K CDO
Ta /W
4K CDO
Ta /W
(9.25)
2
Vrmin
2
nrmin
-1
4K(W/S)
Ta /W
g 2-
1
4KCDO
Ta /W
-1
4K W/S
g Ta /W 1 - 4K CDO / Ta / W
(9.26)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
max , which
Proceeding in a similar manner, the values of V max , nmax
and
take into account the constraint of thrust available, can be derived. The final
expressions are given below.
1/2
2(W/S)
V max =
1/4
K/CDO
(9.27)
1/2
T /W
n max = a
- 1
KCDO
(9.28)
1/2
max
1/2
Ta /W CDO
= g
-
W/S
2K
K
(9.29)
Remarks:
(i)From Eqs.(9.26) and (9.29) it is observed that for a jet airplane to have a low
value of rmin and a high value of V max , the value of (Ta/W) should be high and
that of (W/S) should be low. However, as stated in section 7.4.3 the wing loading
(W/S) is a compromise between various considerations like range, take-off and
landing. Consequently, the general practice is to select (Ta/W) to give the desired
max , taking into account the wing loading chosen from other
value of
considerations.
(ii) The constraints of (nmax)str and CLmax have not been taken into account in
the above analysis. Also the variation of thrust available with flight speed has
been ignored.
Equation (9.25) shows that the load factor for minimum radius of turn (nrmin) is
less than
given by Eq.(9.28), could be high, especially near the sea level where (Ta/W) is
at its highest. In this situation the constraint of (nmax)str needs to be taken into
consideration.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
(iii)The constraint of CLmax is likely to affect the value of rmin. Example 9.4
illustrates such a situation.
(iv) A simplified analysis of the turning performance of an airplane with engine
propeller combination can be carried out by assuming that (a) THP in constant
with flight velocity and (b) CDO and K are constants. However, the resulting
expression has the following form.
4
A Vrmin
+B Vr min +C = 0
This equation does not have an analytical solution and a graphical or numerical
procedure is needed. Reference 1.12 chapter 2 can be consulted for details.
It can be inferred from the analysis of Ref.1.12, that if it is desired to increase
max or decrease rmin of a given airplane, then the wing loading (W/S) should
Consider the airplane in example 9.3 with the simplification that the thrust
remains constant with flight velocity and has the value of 21685 N. Obtain the
max as given by the analysis in
values of Vrmin, V max , nrmin, n max , rmin and
subsection 9.3.5.
Solution :
4K (W/S)
Ta /W
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
nrmin = 2 -
rmin =
4K CDO
Ta /W
4K W/S
g Ta /W 1- 4K CDO / Ta /W
1/2
2(W/S)
V max =
K/CDO
1/4
1/2
T /W
n max = a
- 1
KCDO
1/2
max
1/2
Ta /W CDO
= g
-
K
W/S 2K
Accordingly ,
Vrmin =
4 0.05 3920
= 110.23 m/s
0.525 0.1229
nrmin = 2 rmin =
4 0.05 0.017
= 1.332
0.12292
2
Vrmin
g n2 -1
110.232
9.81 1.3322 -1
1/2
23920
V max =
0.525
= 1407.6 m
1/4
0.05
0.017
= 160.04 m/s
1/2
0.1229
n max =
- 1
0.05 0.017
max =
g n2 max - 1
V max
= 1.793
9.81 1.7932 -1
=
= 0.0912 rad/s
160.04
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
CLrmin =
nrmin W
1.332 176400
=
= 1.637
2
1 2
0.5
0.525
110.23
45
S
V
2 rmin
CL max =
n max W
1 2
V
S
2 max
1.793 176400
1
0.525 160.042 45
2
= 1.045
These values are lower than the prescribed values of (nmax)str and CLmax.
max of 0.0912 rad/s at V = 160.04 m/s is
Hence, this turn is possible and
possible. However, the value of CLrmin is 1.637 which is higher than CLmax and
this turn is not possible. In this situation, a new value of flight velocity (V) is to be
obtained at which the values of load factor (n) given by the two constraints of
thrust available and CLmax, are equal.
The value of n from the constraint of thrust available can be denoted by nTa . It
is given by Eq.(9.16):
1/2
1 2
2 V Ta
1 2 CDO
nTa =
- V
2
W/S
K W/S W
(9.30)
1
V 2 S CLmax
2
C
1
V 2 Lmax
2
W/S
(9.31)
Equating Eqs.(9.30) and (9.31) gives the value of V which satisfies both the
constraints i.e.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
1 2
2 V Ta 1 2 CDO
- V
K
W/S
W
2
W/S
1 2 CLmax
V
2
W/S
Simplifying yields :
2
C
1
Ta /W
CLmax
DO
=
+
V 2
2
2
K W/S K W/S
W/S 2
0.1229
0.017
1.42 1
=
+
0.525 V 2
2
2
0.053920
3920 2
0.053920
Or V = 126.32 m/s
Consequently,
1 2
V CLmax
0.50.525126.322 1.4
n = 2
=
= 1.496
W/S
3920
rmin =
126.322
2
= 1461.9 m
9.81 1.496 -1
The value of V = 126.32 m/s satisfies the constraints of Ta and CLmax. The
corresponding value of n = 1.496 is also less than (nmax)str of 3.5. Hence, all
constraints are satisfied.
Answers : Based on the simplified analysis at 8000 m altitude the following
values are obtained.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
The agreement between the two results is seen to be reasonable. The reasons
are that (Ta/W) is rather low and the variation of Ta with V is not large.
9.3.6 Sustained turn rate and instantaneous turn rate
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Chapter 9
Lecture 31
Performance analysis V Manoeuvres 4
Topics
9.4 Miscellaneous topics flight limitations, operating envelop and V-n
diagram
9.4.1
Flight limitations
9.4.2
Operating envelop
9.4.3
V-n diagram
airplane. Figure 9.7b presents similar plots for a piston engined airplane.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
It has been pointed out earlier that (a) the maximum lift coefficient limits the
minimum speed in level flight (Vs), the minimum radius of turn (rmin) and the
max ) , (b) the power output limits the maximum speed
maximum rate of turn (
(Vmax), the minimum speed (Vmin)e , the maximum angle of climb (max), the
max , (c) the maximum allowable load
maximum rate of climb (R/C)max, rmin and
max . In addition to these, the performance of the
factor, (nmax)str, limits rmin and
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
6000
5000
Altitude (m)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
20
40
60
Velocity (m/s)
.
and
max
(ii)The sonic boom problem is encountered when an airplane flies at supersonic
speed at low altitudes. The shock waves created by an airplane, when it is flying
at a supersonic speed, coalesce and form two waves across which there is a
finite pressure rise (overpressure). When these waves reach the ground each of
them is perceived as an explosive like sound called sonic boom or sonic bang.
The intensity of the boom depends on the size and shape of the airplane, its flight
altitude and the atmospheric conditions. It increases with the increase in the size
of the airplane and decreases with the increase of the altitude of the flight. An
overpressure in excess of about 100 N/m2 is quite annoying and may cause
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
1
V 2 ) of
2
100,000 N/m . This limit would not permit attainment of high supersonic Mach
number at low altitudes.
(iv)As the flight Mach number increases, the stagnation temperature (Ts) on the
surface increases. It is given by:
Ts = Tamb (1+
-1 2
M )
2
(9.32)
where, Tamb is the ambient temperature and is the recovery factor which has a
value of around 0.9 for turbulent boundary layer on the surface. The maximum
stagnation temperature (Ts) may be limited from the consideration of material
used for the fabrication of the airplane. This would limit the maximum permissible
Mach number.
(v) Reference 3.9, chapter 17, mentions about other limits like engine relight limit,
pilot ejection altitude and duct pressure limit. The minimum speed from engine
relight limit is encountered in some cases at high altitudes where enough air may
not be available to restart the engine in the event of flame-out. The highest
altitude may be limited to about 15 kms which is the the highest altitude at which
ejection by the pilot is permitted.
9.4.2 Operating envelop
The maximum speed and the minimum speed of the airplane can be
calculated from the level flight analysis. However, the attainment of maximum
speed may be limited by the considerations mentioned in the previous
subsection. A diagram which indicates the range of flight speeds permissible for
an airplane at different altitudes is called Operating envelope. Typical operating
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
2W
; CLmax without flap
S CLmax
Recalling that when Mach number exceeds 0.5, the maximum lift coefficient
(CLmax) decreases due to shock stall or buffetting. The line FG includes this effect
when Mach number corresponding to Vs is more than 0.5.
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
(iii)The line HJK represents the dynamic pressure (q) limit corresponding to q of
100,000 N/m2.
(iv)The line LMNOP represents the boundary corresponding to stagnation
temperature (Ts) of 400K. It may be pointed out that Tamb and hence the speed
of sound change with altitude in troposphere. They are constant in lower
stratosphere. Hence, the allowable flight Mach number, for stagnation
temperature to be below allowable value, changes with altitude.
The flight envelope taking into account the above limits is the curve FDCONMJH.
Remark:
Figure 9.8 also shows zones marked as : (I) advantageous for interceptor role,
(II) advantageous for aerial combat and (III) suitable for high speed low altitude
flight.
It may be added that for the interceptor role, it is advantageous if the airplane
flies at high altitude and high speed (zone I in Fig.9.8).
For aerial combat the manoeuverability, which is measured mainly by the rate of
turn, is important. It may be recalled from subsection 9.3.3 that the rate of turn is
low at (a) altitudes near the ceiling and (b) flight speeds close to Vmax and Vmin.
Further, the aerial combat cannot take place at very low altitudes. Hence, the
aerial combat zone is the region marked as (II) in Fig.9.8.
For airplanes used as ground attack fighter, the ability to fly at high speed and at
low altitude is important. Zone (III) in Fig.9.8 is appropriate for these airplanes.
9.4.3 V-n diagram
The load factor (n) has already been defined as the ratio of lift and weight
i.e. n = L / W. In level flight n = 1. However, as pointed out in subsections 9.2.3
and 9.3.3 the value of n during a manoeuver is greater than one. Hence, the
structure of the airplane must be designed to withstand the permissible load
factor. Further, when an airplane encounters a gust of velocity Vgu (see Fig.7.1b)
the angle of attack of the airplane would increase by = Vgu /V. This increase
in angle of attack, would increase the lift by L, given by :
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
2
L = V S CL = V S CL Vgu / V
= VSCL Vgu
Hence, n = L / W = VSCL Vgu / W
(9.33)
(9.34)
From Eqs.(9.33) and (9.34), L increases with Vgu. Further, for a given Vgu, the
values of L & n increase with flight velocity. An airplane must be designed to
withstand the gust loads also.
In aeronautical engineering practice, the load factors due to manoeuver
and gust are indicated by a diagram called Velocity-load factor diagram or V-n
diagram. A typical V-n diagram is shown in Fig.9.9. This diagram can be
explained as follows.
(i) Curves OIA and OHG : The lift (L) produced by an airplane is given by
L = V2S CL. It should be noted that (i) CL CLmax and (ii) at stalling
speed(Vs), L = W and n = 1. However, if the airplane is flown with CL = CLmax at
speeds higher than Vs, then (a) L will be more than W and (b) L or n would be
proportional to V2. This variation is a parabola and is shown by curve OIA in
Fig.9.9. In an inverted flight the load factor will be negative and the V vs n curve
in such a flight is indicated by the curve OHG in Fig.9.9. It may be mentioned that
an airplane can fly only at V Vs and hence the portions OI and OH in Fig.9.9
are shown by chain lines.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Type of airplane
npositive nnegative
2.5 to 3.8
-1
Transport
3 to 4
-1
Fighter
6 to 9
-3
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-9
Chapter 9
Exercises
9.1 Define steady level co-ordinated-turn. An airplane having a weight of 11,000
N has a wing area of 15 m2 and drag polar of CD = 0.032 + 0.06CL2. Obtain the
radius of turn in a steady level coordinated turn at a speed of 160 kmph at sea
level from the following data.
CLmax = 1.4, (THP)available = 90 kW,
9.2 Define load factor. What are its values in (a) level flight (b) free fall (c) in a
turn of radius 200 m at a speed of 100 m/s and (d) at the bottom of a loop of
radius 200 m at a speed of 100 m/s?
[Answers: (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 5.19 (d) 6.097]
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Chapter 10
Performance analysis VI Take-off and landing
(Lectures 32-34)
Keywords: Phases of take-off flight take-off run, transition and climb; takeoff distance; balanced field length; phase of landing flight; landing distance.
Topics
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definitions of take-off run and take-off distance
10.3 Phases of take-off flight
10.3.1 Take-off ground run
10.3.2 Transition and climb phases
10.4 Estimation of take-off performance
10.4.1 Distance covered and time taken during ground run
10.4.2 Various speeds during take-off run
10.4.3 Distance covered and time taken during transition phase
10.4.4 Distance covered and time taken during climb phase
10.4.5 Parameters influencing take-off run
10.4.6 Effect of wind on take-off run
10.4.7 Guidelines for estimation of take-off distance
10.4.8 Balanced field length, its estimation and effect of number of
engines on it.
10.5 Landing performance
10.5.1 Definition of landing distance
10.5.2 Phases of landing flight
10.5.3 Estimation of landing distance
10.6 Flap settings during take-off and landing
References
Exercises
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Chapter 10
Lecture 32
Performance analysis VI Take-off and landing 1
Topics
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definitions of take-off run and take-off distance
10.3 Phases of take-off flight
10.3.1 Take-off ground run
10.3.2 Transition and climb phases
10.4 Estimation of take-off performance
10.4.1 Distance covered and time taken during ground run
10.4.2 Various speeds during take-off run
10.1 Introduction
An airplane, by definition, is a fixed wing aircraft. Its wings can produce lift
only when there is a relative velocity between the airplane and the air. In order to
be airborne, the lift produced by the airplane must be at least equal to the weight
of the airplane. This can happen when the velocity of the airplane is equal to or
greater than its stalling speed. To achieve this velocity called Take-off
velocity(VTO) the airplane accelerates along the runway. Thus, an airplane
covers a certain distance before it can take-off. Similarly, when an airplane
comes in to land, the lift produced must be nearly equal to the landing weight.
Hence, the airplane has a velocity, called Touch down speed (VTD), when it
touches the ground. It then covers a certain distance before coming to halt.
The estimation of take-off distance and landing distance are the topics
covered in this chapter.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
settings. In the case of an airplane with tricycle type of landing gear, all the three
wheels remain in contact with the ground till a speed of about 85% of the VT0 is
reached. This speed is called Nose wheel lift off speed. At this speed the pilot
pulls the stick back and increases the angle of attack of the airplane so as to
attain a lift coefficient corresponding to take-off (CLT0). At this stage, the nose
wheel is off the ground (Fig.10.1b) and the speed of the airplane continues to
increase. As the speed exceeds the take off speed the airplane gets airborne and
the main landing gear wheels also leave the ground.
When the airplane has a tail wheel type of landing gear, the angle of attack is
high at the beginning of the take-off run (Fig.10.1c). However, the tail wheel is
lifted off the ground as soon as some elevator effectiveness is gained
(Fig.10.1d). This action reduces the angle of attack and consequently the
drag of the airplane during most of the ground run. As the take-off speed is
approached the tail wheel is lowered to get the incidence corresponding to CLT0.
When VT0 is exceeded, the airplane gets airborne.
The point at which all the wheels have left the ground is called Unstick point
(Fig.10.1a).
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Fig.10.1d Tail wheel type of airplane during middle part of take-off run
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
(10.1)
(10.2)
Hence, R = W - L and
T - D - (W-L)
W/ g
a=
(10.3)
Further,
a=
dV dV ds
dV
=
=V
dt ds dt
ds
V dV
W
=
a
g
V1
V dV
T- D - (W-L)
(10.4)
V1
t1 =
o
dV W
=
a
g
V1
dV
T - D - (W-L)
(10.5)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Equations (10.4) and (10.5) can be integrated numerically, when the variations
of T, D and L are prescribed and is known. The value of depends on the type
of surface. Typical values are given in Table 10.1.
Type of surface
Coefficient of
rolling friction ()
0.02
Hard turf
0.04
0.05
0.1
Soft ground
0.1-0.3
The thrust during take-off run can be approximated as T = A1 B1V . The angle
of attack and hence, the lift coefficient ( CL ) and the drag coefficient ( CD ) can be
assumed to remain constant during the take-off run. With these assumptions, the
left-hand side of Eq.(10.1) becomes :
T - D - (W -L) = A1- B1V 2 - W -
1 2
V S (CD - CL )
2
= A BV where A = A1 - W and
B = B1 +
1
S (CD - CL )
2
V1
V dV
2
o A - BV
W
ln A/(A - BV 2 )
1
2gB
(10.6)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
W
and t1 =
g
V1
dV
A-BV 2
A + B V1
W
ln
2g AB
A - B V1
(10.7)
Remarks:
i) The denominator in the integrands of Eqs.10.4 and 10.5, i.e. [T- D - (W - L)],
is the accelerating force during the take-off run. A good approximation to s1 and
t1 is obtained by taking an average value of the accelerating force (Fa) to be its
value at V = 0.7 V1 i.e.
Fa = [T- D - (W - L)]V = 0.7 V1
Consequently,
W
s1 =
g
V1
2
V dV W V1
Fa = 2g Fa
o
W
and t1 =
g
(10.8)
V1
dV WV1
=
Fa
g Fa
o
(10.9)
ii) Generally the flaps are kept in take-off setting (partial flaps) right from the
beginning of the take-off run. Hence, CD during the take-off run should include
the drag due to flaps and landing gear.
Reference 3.6, section 3.4.1 may be consulted for increase in CDO due to the flap
deflection and the landing gear. See also section 2.9 of Appendix A. The
proximity of the ground reduces the induced drag. As a rough estimate, the
induced drag with ground effect can be taken to be equal to 60% of that in free
flight at the same CL.
(iii) The take-off speed (VTO or V1) is (1.1 to 1.2) Vs ; where Vs is the stalling
speed with W = WTO and CL = CLTO . As mentioned in subsection 3.7.4, CLTO is
0.8 times CLland.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
In the subsection 10.3.1 the nose wheel lift-off speed and take-off speed have
been explained. Section 6.7 of Ref.1.10 mentions additional flight speeds
attained during the ground run. A brief description of the speeds, in the sequence
of their occurance, is as follows.
(a) Stalling speed (Vs) : It is the speed in a steady level flight at W = WTO and
CL = CLTO.
(b) Minimum control speed on ground (Vmcg): At this speed, the deflection of full
rudder should be able to counteract the yawing moment due to failure of one
engine of a multi-engined airplane when the airplane is on ground.
(c) Minimum control speed in air (Vmca) : At this speed, the deflection of full
rudder should be able to counteract the yawing moment, due to failure of one
engine of a multi-engined airplane if the airplane was in air.
(d) Decision speed (Vdecision) : This speed is also applicable to a multi-engined
airplane. In the event of the failure of one engine, the pilot has two options. (I) If
the engine failure takes place during the initial stages of the ground run, the pilot
applies brakes and stops the airplane. (II) If the engine failure takes place after
the airplane has gained sufficient speed, the pilot continues to take-off with one
engine inoperative.
If the engine failure takes place at decision speed (Vdecision), then the distance
required to stop the airplane is the same as that required to take-off with one
engine inoperative. See subsection 10.4.8 for additional details.
(e) Take-off rotation speed (VR): At this speed the elevator is powerful enough to
rotate the airplane to attain the angle of attack corresponding to take-off.
(f) Lift-off speed (VLO) : This is the same as unstick speed mentioned in
subsection 10.3.1. This speed is between (1.1 to 1.2) VS.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Chapter 10
Lecture 33
Performance analysis VI Take-off and landing 2
Topics
10.4.3 Distance covered and time taken during transition phase
10.4.4 Distance covered and time taken during climb phase
10.4.5 Parameters influencing take-off run
10.4.6 Effect of wind on take-off run
10.4.7 Guidelines for estimation of take-off distance
W
(V22 - V12 )
2g
V - V
2
2
2
1
T -D
(10.10)
T and D in Eq.(10.10) are evaluated at the mean speed during this phase i.e., at
(V2 + V1) / 2.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
t2 =
s2
0.5 (V2 + V1 )
(10.11)
Since the vertical height covered during the transition has been ignored,
the horizontal distance covered in climb phase (s3) is the distance covered while
climbing to screen height i.e.
s3 = (Screen height) / tan
(10.12)
T -D
W
(10.13)
Hence, the take-off distance (s) and the time taken for it (t) are given by :
s = s1 + s2 + s3
(10.14)
t = t1 + t2 + t3
(10.15)
Example 10.1
2
A jet airplane with a weight of 441, 450 N and wing area of 110 m has a
tricycle type landing gear. Its CLmax with flaps is 2.7. Obtain the take-off distance
to 15 m screen height and the time taken for it. Given that:
(i) V1 = 1.16 Vs
(ii) V2 = 1.086 V1
(iii) CL during ground run is 1.15
(iv) Drag polar with landing gear and flaps deployed is CD = 0.044 +0.05CL2
(v) Thrust variation during take-off can be approximated as :
2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
(vi)Take-off takes place from a level, dry concrete runway ( = 0.02) at sea level.
Solution:
2W
2 441450
Vs =
=
= 55.08 m/s
Hence,
V1 = 1.16 x 55.08 = 63.89 m/s
and V2 = 1.086 x 63.89 = 69.38 m/s.
For CL = 1.15,
CD = 0.044 + 0.05 x 1.152 = 0.1101
Hence, T - D - (W-L) = T- W -
1 2
V S {CD - CL }
2
441450
ln [119671/(119671-7.0752 x 63.89 x 63.89)] = 878.32 m
2 9.81 7.0752
1
1
t1 =
ln
= 26.34 s.
1
119671 21 - 7.0752 21 63.89
2 9.81 (119671 7.0752) 2
441450
To get the drag during this phase it is assumed that CL equals CLTO and it is given
by :
2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
= 230.4 m
2 9.81 123159 - 51695
= 1.36
Hence, CL = W/ V 2S =
1
2
2
122704 - 44269
= 0.1777
441450
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
The major portion of the take-off distance is the ground run. Hence if
ground run is reduced, the take-off distance is also reduced. From Eq.(10.8), it is
observed that the distance s1 is given by :
s1 =
V12
W
g T -D - W -L
avg
(10.16)
2W
, Eq.(10.16) can be rewritten as :
SCLmax
1.21 2W 2
2 gSCLmax T -D - W -L avg
1.21 W/S
(10.17)
While discussing the range performance it was shown, with the help of a
derivation in section 7.8, that the distance covered with respect to the ground
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
decreases when the flight takes place in the presence of head wind. Same effect
occurs during the take-off and the take-off distance reduces in the presence of
head wind. In a hypothetical case of head wind being equal to the stalling speed
(Vs), the airplane can get airborne without having to accelerate along the ground.
A quantitative estimate of the effect of wind velocity (Vw) on s1, can be obtained
from Eq.(10.4), by replacing the limits of integration from (0 to V1) by (Vw to V1)
i.e. :
W
s1 with wind =
g
V1
Vw
V dV
T - D - (W -L)
Thus, the head wind, though bad for range, is beneficial during take-off as it
reduces the take-off distance.
Airports have a device to indicate the direction of wind. The take-off flight takes
place in such a manner that the airplane experiences a head wind. This is
referred to as Take-off into the wind.
10.4.7 Guidelines for estimation of take-off distance
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
W
W
)T0 ( )T0
S
P
CLT0
where,
(W/S)T0 = wing loading based on take-off weight.
(W/P) T0 = power loading based on take-off weight and sea level static power
output.
= density ratio = /0
CLT0 = Lift coefficient in take off configuration (about 80% of CLmax in landing
configuration)
The above quantity is called take-off parameter for FAR-23 and denoted by
TOP23 i.e.
W
W
)T0 ( )T0
P
= S
CLT0
(
TOP23
(10.18)
Based on the data of Ref.10.2, the following relationship has been deduced in
Ref.3.18, pt.I, chapter 3.
2
sto23 (in ft) = 8.134 TOP23 + 0.0149 TOP23
(10.19)
(10.20)
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
2
TOP23 = 2400 x 24/(1 x 1.6) = 36000 N2/( m kW)
(10.21)
lbs / ft . However, when a second order equation is fitted to that curve, the
relationship can be expressed in SI units in the following form.
2
(10.22)
Example 10.3
5195
= 8017 N/m2
12.160.3
From Eq.(10.22) :
2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Chapter 10
Lecture 34
Performance analysis VI Take-off and landing 3
Topics
10.4.8 Balanced field length, its estimation and effect of number of
engines on it.
10.5 Landing performance
10.5.1 Definition of landing distance
10.5.2 Phases of landing flight
10.5.3 Estimation of landing distance
10.6 Flap settings during take-off and landing
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
required to stop the airplane is the same as that required to take-off with one
engine inoperative. The take-off distance required when engine failure takes
place at the decision speed is called Balanced field length (BFL). It is estimated
as follows.
FAR 25 (see Ref.10.1) is used as a set of regulations for obtaining the take-off
distance of jet airplanes. The regulations also prescribe a procedure to calculate
the balanced field length (BFL). Reference 10.2 has estimated BFL for many jet
airplanes and observed that BFL is a function of TOP defined in Eq.(10.21).
2
Based on this data, the BFL in feet, when W/S in lbs / ft is given as (Ref.3.18,
Pt.I, chapter 3):
2
(10.23)
(10.24)
where W / S is in N / m .
Remark :
(i) Effect of number of engines on BFL :
The data in Ref.10.2, on which Eq.(10.23), is based, shows some scatter
(Fig.3.7 of Ref.10.2). However, the data for airplanes with two, three and four
engines show some definite trend; the BFL is more as the number of engines
decrease. This is expected, as for a two engined airplane, when one engine is
inoperative, the thrust available would decrease to half of the full thrust, whereas
for an airplane with four engines, with one engine inoperative, the thrust available
would be three fourth of the full thrust. Consequently, BFL would be less for a
four engine airplane as compared to that for a two engined airplane. Perhaps,
based on this argument, Ref.3.9, chapter 5, suggests three different lines for BFL
vs TOP curve for airplane with two three and four engines. In SI units these lines
can be expressed as:
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
(10.25)
2
(10.26)
(10.27)
Example 10.4
Consider the airplane of example 10.3 and obtain the balance field length.
Solution:
In this case :
2
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
estimation cannot be done accurately as the flare and float phases depend very
much on the judgment of the pilot.
Royal Aeronautical Society Data sheets (presently called Engineering Science
Data Unit or ESDU) have given a simple method which amounts to assuming a
constant deceleration and calculating the distance to decelerate from VA and to
come to a halt i.e.
2
sland = - (VA) / 2a
(10.28)
2 441450
Hence, Vs =
1.2251102.7
= 49.24 m/s
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
sland
64.012
== 961.9 m
2 (-2.13)
to (Vs) . The following observations can be made by noting that (Vs) equals
2W/(SCLmax).
(a) The landing distance increases with increase of (W/S) and the altitude of
landing field. (b) The landing distance decreases with increase of CLmax.
iii) The use of reverse thrust and reverse pitch propeller to reduce the landing
distance has been mentioned earlier. The landing run can also be decreased by
using (a) arresting gear, (b) drag parachute and (c) spoilers.
The arresting gear is used for airplane landing on the deck of a ship.
The drag parachute, when opened, increases the drag significantly and reduces
the landing run.
The spoilers are located on the upper surface of the wing. When deflected up,
the spoiler disturbs the flow, resulting in reduction of lift and increase of drag.
Spoiler ailerons are shown in Fig.1.2c. When used as a device to produce a
rolling moment, the spoiler aileron is deflected only on the left or the right wing
half. The lift on that wing half is reduced and the airplane rolls. Whereas, during
landing, the spoiler ailerons on both the wing halves are deployed
simultaneously. This results in a large reduction in lift and increase in drag. Both
these effects help in reducing the landing run.
iv) Like take-off distance the landing distance is also reduced by head wind.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
It is mentioned in subsection 10.4.1, that the CLmax during take-off is 80% of that
during landing. The flap setting during take-off is lower than the setting during
landing. The reasons for this difference are as follows.
Equation (10.17) shows that the take-off run depends on ambient density ,
wing loading (W/S), maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) and the average accelerating
force. Out of these parameters, as pointed out earlier, the values of (W/S) and
(T/W) are chosen based on considerations of cruise, maximum speed etc. In this
situation, the choices available to reduce the take-off distance are (a) CLmax and
(b) average accelerating force during the take-off.
It may be pointed out at this juncture that a high value of CLTO would reduce V1
and hence the take-off run (Eq.10.17). However, the high value of CLTO would
also result in high value of CD and consequently high value of drag and a lower
accelerating force. This would tend to increase the take-off run (Eq.10.17). On
account of these two opposing effects, there is an optimum value of C LTO and
the corresponding flap setting, that would result in lowest take-off run.
On the other hand, during landing the approach speed and the touch down
speed would be lowest when the CLmax is highest. Further, the high value of CD
associated with high value of CLmax would also increase the decelerating force
during landing run and consequently reduce it. Thus a high value of CLmax is
beneficial for reducing the landing run & distance.
Keeping these two aspects in view, the flap setting during the take-off is
lower than that during the landing. As a guideline it is mentioned in Ref.3.15,
chapter 5, that the flap deflection for take-off f TO is about half of that during
landing f Land .The deflection of the leading edge slat during take-off, is about
two-thirds of that during landing.
It may be further added that during landing run, after all the landing gear
wheels have touched ground, the lift is not needed. Hence, in airplanes with
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
provision of spoilers, they (spoilers) are deployed during the landing run to
reduce the lift and increase the drag.
Acknowledgements
The major portion of the lecture material was prepared when the author was an
AICTE Emeritus fellow at IIT Madras. Support of AICTE and IIT Madras is
greatfully acknowledged. He is also grateful to Prof.J.Kurian, Prof.P.Sriram and
Prof.K.Bhaskar, the Heads of the department of Aerospace engineering, IIT
Madras and to Prof. K. Mangala Sunder, Co-ordinator NPTEL, and Prof.S.R.
Chakravarthy, Co-ordinator for Aerospace Engineering, NPTEL, IIT Madras for
providing facilities to carry-out the work.
The lecture material in powerpoint format was reviewed by Prof. K.
Sudhakar, Dept.of Aerospace Engg. , IIT Bombay, Prof.C.V.R. Murti, formerly of
IIT Kanpur and now at Institue of Aeronautical Engg. near Hyderabad,
Prof. B.S.M. Augustine, Sathyabama University, Prof.K.Elangovan ,Dept.of
Aeronautical Engg., M.I.T., Chennai, Prof. R.Rajasekhar, Park college of
Engg.&Technology, Coimbatore and Mr.K.Ibrahim , former chief deisgner, HAL.
The author is indebted to them for their comments which helped in considerably
improving the text. Prof.C.V.R. Murti made detailed comments and even went
through the revised draft. Special thanks are due to him.
The lecture material in the running matter format was reviewed by two reviewers
selected by NPTEL. The comments by the reviewers, helped in adding new
topics and giving explanatory notes. Authors wife, Mrs. Suniti, also went through
the lecture material and her comments helped in refining the text. The author is
thankful to these persons.
The help of Mr. Amudan Arun Kumar and Mr.S.Ananth former B.Tech
students, Mr.Aditya Sourabh, Dual Degree student, Mr.M.Mahendran, M.S.
scholar, Mr.S.Gurusideswar, Ph.D. scholar and Sandip Chajjed, Project staff
Department of Aerospace Engineering and Ms. K. Sujatha of NPTEL Web studio,
IIT Madras is gratefully acknowledged.
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Chapter 10
References
10.1 Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington D.C. USA.
10.2 Loftin , Jr. L.K. Subsonic aircraft evolution and the matching of size to
performance NASA Reference publications ,1060, August 1980. This report can
be downloaded from the site NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS) .
Flight dynamics-I
Chapter-10
Chapter 10
Exercises
10.1 Describe the various phase of take-off flight, Write down the equations of
motion during take-off run. Taking CD, CL and T as constant during take-off run
show that the ground run (s1) is given by:
s1 =
W
ln
S g (CD - CL )
- q1
T -W
.
S (CD - CL )
10.2 A rocket motor firing for a short duration of say 10 s is proposed to be used
to reduce the take of run. Explain that a larger reduction in the take-off distance
would be achieved by using the rocket motor in the later part of the take-off run
than in the beginning of the take-off run.
10.3 Describe various methods to reduce the take-off distance and landing
distance.
APPENDIX - A
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A PISTON ENGINED
AIRPLANE PIPER CHEROKEE PA-28-180
(Lectures 35 - 37)
E.G. TULAPURKARA
S. ANANTH
TEJAS M. KULKARNI
FEBRUARY 2007
(REVISED OCTOBER 2011)
Engine Characteristics.
Variation of stalling speed with altitude for flaps up and flaps down
conditions.
Variations of the maximum speed (Vmax) and minimum speed (Vmin) with altitude.
Variations of maximum rate of climb (R/C)max and maximum angle of climb (max) with
speed and altitude. Variation of VR/Cmax and Vmax with altitude. Values of absolute
ceiling and service ceiling.
altitude.
Contents
1 Information about the airplane
* Reference numbers in this Appendix relate to those given at the end of this appendix.
3 Engine characteristics
Appendix A
Lecture 35
Performance analysis of a piston engined airplane 1
Topics
1 Information about the airplane
Length
: 7.148 m
Wing span
: 9.144 m
: 2.217 m
Wheel base
: 1.897 m
Wheel track
: 3.048 m
Name
: Lycoming O-360-A3A
Rating
Weight
Number
:1
Propeller
1.3 Weights
Empty weight
Fuel capacity
Payload
Planform shape
Span (b)
: 9.144 m
: 14.864 m2
* The dimensions / areas are based on Fig.1 and the additional details given in Ref.2.
Flap area
: 1.384 m2
Aileron area
: 1.003 m2
Airfoil
Root chord
: 2.123 m
Tip chord
: 1.600 m
: 1.480
Dihedral
: 60
Twist
: -20
Incidence
9.144
(c req +1.60)
2
creq= 1.651 m
(iii) Root chord of exposed wing (cre):
From Fig.1, the maximum fuselage width is 1.168 m. Hence semi span of the exposed wing
(be / 2) is:
be 1
= (9.144-1.168)=3.988 m
2 2
(iv) The root chord of exposed equivalent wing (cre) is obtained as follows.
An expression for the chord of the equivalent wing is
c =1.651-
y
(1.651-1.600)
b/2
Hence,
cre =1.651-
0.584
(1.651-1.600)=1.644 m
9.144/2
Length (lb)
Maximum width
: 1.168 m
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Plan-form shape
Span
: 3.048 m
Area
: 2.267 m2
: 0.762 m
Airfoil
: NACA 0012.
Span
: 1.219 m
Area
: 1.059 m2
Root chord
: 1.182 m
Tip chord
: 0.517 m
: 21.80
Airfoil
: NACA 0010.
: 0.4374
: 1.403
Type
Number of wheels
Thickness
: 0.135 m
Diameter
: 0.4547 m
Wheel base
: 1.897 m
Wheel track
: 3.048 m
Altitude
: 2438 m ( 8000 )
Density
: 0.9629 kg/m3
Speed of sound
: 330.9 m/s
Kinematic viscosity ( )
Flight speed
Mach number
: 0.1992
Wing loading
: 73.3kgf/ m2
: 246 kmph
Cruising speed
: 237 kmph
Stalling speed
Service ceiling
: 4035 m
Take-off run
: 350 m
Take-off to 15m
: 488 m
Landing run
: 280 m
: 427 m
Range with allowance for taxi, take-off, climb, descent and 45 min reserves at 6000 feet
(1830 m) : 924 km at 55 % power ; 875 km at 65 % power ; 820 km at 75 % power.
$
Remark: The performance calculations are being done for PA-28-180 as a large
amount of data on the airplane, the engine and the propeller are available in Ref.2. However,
information on actual performance of this airplane is not given there. Ref.3 (which is easily
accessible) contains information about PA-28-181 which is only slightly different from
PA-28-180.
Dimensions in m
10
CD =CDo +
CL 2
= CDo +KCL2
Ae
(1)
(2)
where suffixes WB, V, H and Misc denote wing-body combination, vertical tail, horizontal tail
and miscellaneous items respectively.
2.1 Estimation of CDOWB
From Ref.1, section 3.1.1, at low subsonic Mach number, CDoWB is given by the following
expression.
(S )
t
t
CDoWB ={Cfw [1+L( )+100( ) 4 ]R LS wet e +
c
c
SRef
(S )
l
S
60
CfB [1+
+0.0025( B )] S e }R WB +CDb B
3
(lf /d)
d SRef
SRef
(3)
11
12
Hence,
30.53
14.864
60
23.34
+0.00272[1+
+0.00254.882]
}1.06+0
3
4.882
14.864
={0.00348[1+0.18+0.051]1.07
30.53
23.34
+0.00272[1+0.5156+0.0122]
}1.06
14.864
14.864
={0.00941+0.006525}1.06=0.009975+0.006917=0.01689
2.2 Estimation of CDoH
(4)
13
(Swet) v
t
t
CDoV = C fV [1+L( )+100( ) 4 ]R LS
c
c
Sref
(5)
The landing gear drag coefficient can be obtained from Ref.1. However, the values for Piper
Cherokee given in Ref.2 are used as guidelines. Table 4.3 of Ref.2 indicates that parasite area of
landing gears components would be (a) wheel strut 0.19 ft2, (b) wheels 0.44 ft2 (c) wheel pants
0.40 ft2 (see remark on p.180 of Ref.2). Thus, parasite drag area of landing gear would be:
0.19 + 0.44 + 0.4 = 1.03 ft2 = 0.0957 m2
Again from Table 4.3 of Ref.2 The sum of the parasite drag areas of miscellaneous items like
beacon, antennas etc is 0.52 ft2 or 0.0483 m2. Thus,
CDOLG + CDOMisc = (0.0957 + 0.0483)/14.864 = 0.00645+0.00325 = 0.00970
14
Remarks:
i)
Reference 7, chapter 5 mentions that the drag of landing gear (CDLG)without fairing is
about 35% of the sum of the drags of major components viz. wing-body, horizontal
tail and vertical tail. For landing gear with fairings, CDLG would be about 25% of the
aforesaid sum. In the present case :
CDWB + CDHT + CDVT is (0.01689 + 0.00171 + 0.00076 = 0.01936).Thus CDLG of
0.00645, estimated above appears reasonable.
The value of CDmisc of 0.00325 is about 17% of the aforesaid sum and appears
ii)
reasonable.
2.5 Cooling drag and leakage drag
These drags are important for piston engined airplanes. Appendix A of Ref.7 gives some
guidelines. However, Ref.2, p.179 mentions that the sum of the two drags could be
approximately taken into account by multiplying the sum of all the other drags by a factor of 1.2.
2.6 Estimation of parasite drag coefficient (CDO)
(7)
(8)
Remark:
For comments on the above value of CDO see remark at the end section 2.8
2.7 Estimation of induced drag coefficient (CDi)
1
Ae
15
(9)
Figure 2.4 of Ref.1 presents ewing for unswept wings of rectangular and tapered planforms. In the
present case the taper ratio ( ) is almost unity. The value of ewing for rectangular wing of
A = 5.625 is 0.845.
Further, for a fuselage of rectangular cross section and wing of aspect ratio 5.625, Fig.2.5 of
Ref.1 gives:
1
efuse
Or
Sb
) =1.6 ; Sb = frontal area of fuselage
Sref
1
efuse
=1.6
1.412
= 0.152
14.864
1
eother
= 0.05
Consequently,
1
1
=
+0.152+.05 =1.3854
e 0.845
e = 0.722
Hence, K =
1
= 0.0784
5.6250.722
(10)
Combining Eqs.(8) and (10) gives the drag polar in cruise condition as:
CD = 0.0349 + 0.0784 C2L
(11)
16
1
2 CDO K
1
= 9.56
2 0.03490.0784
CDO
L/D
Piper Cherokee
6.02
0.0358
10
0.758
5.81
0.0373
9.6
0.75
Cessna Skyhawk
7.32
0.0317
11.6
0.747
Beechcraft D17S
6.84
0.0348
10.8
0.76
1
CL2
5.6250.76
CD = 0.0349+0.0755CL2
(12)
17
Remarks:
i)
It may be added that Piper Cherokee is an airplane famous in its class but is of
older design. The current trend is to have (a) smoother surfaces which would
reduce CDO to about 0.032 and (b) wing of larger aspect ratio of 8 and above,
which would give K of around 0.053. These would give (L/D)max of in excess of
12.
ii)
For subsequent calculations, the following expression for drag polar is used.
CD = 0.0349+0.0755CL2
To obtain the drag polar under take-off condition, the flight velocity is taken as 1.2 Vs, where Vs
is the stalling speed with flaps in take-off condition (f =100). In the present case, CLmax with 100
flap deflection, from Ref.2 is 1.42. Hence,
Vs =
210673.28
= 28.73m/s
1.421.22514.864
18
The increment in CLmax due to 100 flap deflection, CLmax, as noted earlier, is 0.09.
Using these data and interpolating the curves given in Ref.1, section 3.4.1, gives Cdp , the
increment in the drag coefficient of airfoil due to flap deflection, as 0.008. Hence,
C Dp = Cdp x (area of flapped portion of the wing/ wing area)
= 0.008 x 0.4827 = 0.0038
According to Ref.1, the increase in induced drag coefficient ( CDi ) due to flap deflection is
K f 2 CLmax 2 . Using Ref.1, section 3.4.1 Kf is estimated as 0.163.
Consequently, CDi = 0.163 20.09 2 = 0.00022
The interference drag due to deflection, of plain flaps is negligible.
Thus, the parasite drag coefficient in take-off condition is
(13)
Remarks:
i) In the approach just presented, to estimate the drag polar in take-off condition, the change in
the induced drag coefficient is included in the parasite drag coefficient. When the flap
deflections are large, the change in the induced drag can be accounted for by reducing the value
of the Ostwald efficiency factor (e) by 0.05 for take-off condition and 0.1 for landing condition
(Ref.4 section 3.4.1). Equations 12 and 13 are the drag polars for cruise condition and take-off
condition respectively. The polars are presented in Fig.2.
ii) It may be pointed out that the parabolic drag polar is not valid beyond CLmax. It is only
approximate near CL = 0 and CL = CLmax.
19
1.6
1.4
Lift coefficient
1.2
1
Cruise condition
Take-off condition
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Drag coefficient
20
Appendix A
Lecture 36
Performance analysis of a piston engined airplane 2
Topics
3 Engine characteristics
3.1 Variation of engine BHP
3.2 Thrust horsepower available
4 Steady level flight
4.1 Variation of stalling speed with altitude
4.2 Variations of Vmax and Vmin with altitude
5 Steady climb performance
6 Range and endurance
6.1 Estimation of range in constant velocity flight
6.2 Calculation of BHP and fuel flow rate at different RPMs and MAPs at 8000
6.3 Sample calculations for obtaining optimum N and MAP for a chosen flight
velocity (V)
3 Engine characteristics
Model
: Lycoming O-360-A3A.
Type
Propeller
The variations of power output and fuel consumption with altitude and rpm are shown in Fig.3.
For the present calculations, the values will be converted into SI units.
BHPa (kW)
135.00
1000
0.9075
120.89
2000
0.8217
107.80
3000
0.7423
95.69
4000
0.6689
84.49
5000
0.6012
74.16
5500
0.5691
69.27
6000
0.538
64.52
6500
0.5093
60.14
7000
0.4812
55.86
efficiency. The propeller efficiency ( p ) depends on the flight speed, rpm of the engine and the
diameter of the propeller. It can be worked out at different speeds and altitudes using the
propeller charts. However, chapter 6 of Ref.2 gives an estimated curve of efficiency as a function
of the advance ratio (J =
V
) for the fixed pitch propeller used in the present airplane. This
nD
(14)
It is seen that the fit is very close to the data points. The dotted portions are extrapolations.
0.9
0.8
Propeller efficiency
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
For the calculation of maximum speed, maximum rate of climb and maximum rate of turn, it is
convenient to have maximum power available (THPa = p BHP) as a function of velocity. The
maximum power occurs at 2700 rpm (45 rps). Noting the propeller diameter as 1.88m, the P vs J
curve can be converted to p vs V curve (Fig.6).
The expression for P in terms of velocity is as follows.
p = - 4.044710-8 V 4 + 6.3445 10-6 V 3 - 5.139810-4 V 2 + 3.0244 10-2 V - 0.0051668
(15)
120.00
100.00
THPa (kW)
80.00
Sea level
1000 m
2000 m
3000 m
4000 m
5000 m
5500 m
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Velocity (m/s)
T-D=0
(16)
L -W=0
(17)
6
Further,
1
L= V 2SC L =W
2
(18)
1
T = D = V 2SC D
2
(19)
2W
SC L
V=
Since CL cannot exceed CLmax , there is a flight speed below which the level flight is not
possible. The flight speed at which CL equals CLmax is called the stalling speed and is denoted
by Vs.
Hence,
Vs =
2W
SC Lmax
Since density decreases with altitude, the stalling speed increases with height.
In the present case, W = 1088 9.81 = 10673.28 N and S = 14.864 m2.
As regards CLmax , Reference 2 gives the values of CLmax as 1.33, 1.42, 1.70 and 1.86 for flap
deflections of 0o , 10o , 25o and 40o respectively.
Using these data, the variations of stalling speeds with altitude are presented in Table 3 and
plotted in Fig.9.
H(m)
Vs (f = 0o)
Vs (f =10o)
(m/s)
Vs (f =25o)
Vs (f = 40o)
(m/s)
(m/s)
(m/s)
1.000
29.69
28.73
26.26
25.10
1000
0.908
31.16
30.16
27.57
26.35
2000
0.822
32.75
31.70
28.97
27.69
3000
0.742
34.46
33.35
30.48
29.14
4000
0.669
36.30
35.13
32.11
30.70
4500
0.634
37.28
36.08
32.97
31.52
5000
0.601
38.29
37.06
33.87
32.38
5500
0.569
39.36
38.09
34.81
33.28
6000
0.538
40.46
39.16
35.79
34.22
6000
Altitude (m)
5000
4000
No flap
Flap deflection 10 degrees
3000
2000
1000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Fig.9 Variations of stalling speed with altitude for different flap settings
4.2 Variations of Vmax and Vmin with altitude
With a parabolic drag polar and the engine output given by an analytical expression, the
following procedure gives Vmax and Vmin. Available power is denoted by Pa and power required
to overcome drag is denoted by Pr. At maximum speed in steady level flight, required power
equals available power.
Pa = BHPp
Pr =
(20)
DV
1
=
V 3SCD
1000 2000
2W
and substituting in the above
SV 2
equations we get:
BHPp =
1
KW 2
V 3SCDO +
.
2000
500SV
(21)
The propeller efficiency has already been expressed as a fourth order polynomial function of
velocity and at a chosen altitude, BHP is constant with velocity. Their product ( p BHP) gives
an analytical expression for power available. Substituting this expression on the left hand side of
Eq.(21) and solving gives Vmax and (Vmin )e at at the chosen altitude. Repeating the procedure at
different altitudes, we get Vmax and (Vmin )e at various heights. Sample calculations and the plot
for sea level conditions are presented in Table 4 and Fig.10.
V
(m/s)
Pa
(kW)
Pr(kW)
0.000
0.000
0.134
18.086
188.983
10
0.252
33.995
94.789
15
0.352
47.549
64.053
20
0.438
59.185
49.778
25
0.513
69.259
42.753
30
0.578
78.045
40.069
35
0.635
85.735
40.615
40
0.685
92.438
43.953
45
0.727
98.184
49.947
50
0.762 102.918
58.611
55
0.789 106.503
70.040
60
0.805 108.724
84.376
65
70
200
180
160
Power (kW)
140
120
Pa
Pr
100
80
60
Point A: (Vmin)e
Point B: Vmax
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Velocity (m/s)
If this minimum speed is less than the stalling speed, a level flight is not possible at this
speed. The minimum velocity is thus higher of the stalling speed and (Vmin )e .
The results for VS , (Vmin )e , Vmin and (Vmax ) at various altitudes are tabulated in Table 5 and
plotted in Fig.11. It may be noted that at h = 5200 m, Vmax and (Vmin )e are same. This altitude is
the maximum height attainable by the airplane and will be referred later as absolute ceiling.
10
Vs(no flap)
(Vmin)e
Vmin
Vmax
Vmax
(m)
(m/s)
(m/s)
(m/s)
(m/s)
(kmph)
29.7
18
29.7
66.84
240.624
1000
31.2
20.4
31.2
65.75
236.7
2000
32.75
23.3
32.75
64.3
231.48
3000
34.46
27
34.46
62.3
224.28
4000
36.3
32
36.3
59.15
212.94
5000
38.29
41
41
52.7
189.72
5200
38.73
46.5
46.5
46.5
167.4
The calculated value of Vmax of 240.6 kmph at sea level is fairly close to the value of
246 kmph of the actual airplane quoted in section 1.10.
11
In this flight, the C.G of the airplane moves along a straight line inclined to the horizontal at an
angle . The velocity of flight is assumed to be constant during the climb.
Since the flight is steady, acceleration is zero and the equations of motion can be written as:
T - D -W sin = 0
L - W cos = 0
Noting that CL = 2L/V2S =
CD = CDo +K (
Also
2 W cos
, gives:
SV 2
2 W cos 2
)
SV 2
Vc = V sin , or sin =
cos = 1-
(22)
(23)
Vc
V
Vc 2
V2
2
2
Vc
1
KW
Vc
Ta = V 2S CDO +
1- + W
1
2
V
V 2S V
12
V
V
Or A c + B( c ) + C = 0
V
V
(24)
where,
KW 2
1
A=
, B = - W and C = Ta - V 2SCDo - A ;
1 2
2
V S
2
Ta = available thrust = 1000 x Pa/V.
The available thrust horsepower is given by the following expression:
Pa = BHPsealevel (1.13 - 0.13) p
Equation 24 gives 2 values of
Vc
. The value which is less than 1.0 is chosen as appropriate.
V
Consequently,
= sin -1
Vc
V
(25)
Vc = V sin
(26)
Choose an altitude.
(ii)
Choose a velocity between Vmin and Vmax and obtain A, B and C in Eq.(24).
(iii)
Solve for
(iv)
Vc
, obtain and Vc .
V
Vmax.
(v)
13
V
(m/s)
THPa
(kW)
(N)
Vc/V
Vc
Vc
(deg.)
(m/s)
(m/min)
30
0.578
78.04
2601.49
1049.68
1265.85
0.120
6.894
3.60
216.03
35
0.635
85.73
2449.56
771.19
1289.14
0.122
7.000
4.26
255.89
40
0.685
92.43
2310.96
590.44
1212.13
0.114
6.563
4.57
274.29
45
0.727
98.18
2181.86
466.52
1071.92
0.101
5.790
4.53
272.36
50
0.762
102.91 2058.35
377.88
886.123
0.083
4.777
4.16
249.80
55
0.789
106.50 1936.42
312.30
662.971
0.062
3.568
3.42
205.35
60
0.805
108.72 1812.06
262.42
405.797
0.038
2.181
2.28
137.00
65
0.809
109.28 1681.23
223.60
115.193
0.011
0.619
0.70
42.10
Note: B = - W = -10673.28 N
Table 6 Steady climb calculations at sea level.
Repeating similar calculations at various altitudes gives the variations of and Vc with velocity
at different altitudes. The results are plotted in Figs.13 and 14. From these figures the variations
of max , Vcmax or (R/C)max, Vmax and VR/Cmax at various altitudes are obtained. The results are
presented in Table 7 and in Figs.15, 16 and 17.
14
15
h (m)
V
(m/min)
max (deg)
cmax
Vmax (m/s)
276
34.1
41.7
1000
5.4
219.7
35
42.6
2000
3.83
165.8
38
43.6
3000
2.5
111.7
40.9
45
4000
1.28
60.5
44
45.9
5000
0.2
10
46
46.5
5200
46.5
46.5
16
Remark:
It is observed that the maximum rate of climb and maximum angle of climb decrease with
altitude, but the velocity at which the rate of climb and angle of climb are maximum increase
slightly with height.
17
The altitude at which the maximum rate of climb becomes 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min) is called the
service ceiling and the altitude at which the maximum rate of climb becomes zero is called the
absolute ceiling of the airplane. These can be obtained from Fig.16. It is observed that the
absolute ceiling is 5200 m and the service ceiling is 4610 m. It may be pointed out that the
absolute ceiling obtained from R/Cmax consideration and that from Vmax consideration are same
(as they should be). Further, the service ceiling of 4610 m is close to the value of 4035 m for the
actual airplane quoted in section 1.10.
6 Range and endurance
6.1 Estimation of range in a constant velocity flight
It is convenient for the pilot to cruise at constant velocity. Hence, the range performance in
constant velocity flights is considered here. In such a flight at a given altitude, the range (R) of a
piston-engined airplane is given by the following expression (Eq.7.23 of the main text of the
course).
3600p
E1
W1
W2
E max tan -1
[ tan -1
- tan -1
] (27)
=
BSFC
k1 /k 2
k1 /k 2
2E max (1-KCL1 E1) BSFC k1k 2
1
2K
where, k1 = V 2SCDo , k 2 =
, W1 and W2 are the weights of the airplane at the start and
2
SV 2
R=
7200 p
C
2W1
W
1
, E1 = L1 , CL1 =
, =1- 2 ,
2
CD1
SV
W1
2 CDO K
18
The power required during a constant velocity flight varies as the fuel is consumed. However,
for the purpose of present calculations the power required is taken as the average of power
required at the start and end of cruise. It is denoted as THPavg . It is noted that the power required
(THPavg) can be delivered by the engine operating at different settings of RPM (N) and manifold
air pressure (MAP). But, for each of these settings the propeller efficiency ( p ) and fuel flow
rate would be different. The optimum setting, which would give the maximum range, can be
arrived at by using the following steps.
(a) Select a value of N and calculate J (= V/nd); n = N/60 .
(b) Obtain p corresponding to this value of J from Eq.(14).
(c) Then, BHP required (BHPr) = THPavg / p
(d) The left hand side of Fig 4.2 of the main text, shows the BHP vs MAP and fuel flow rate vs
MAP curves with rpm as parameter. Similar curves are generated for h = 8000 .
(e) From the curves in step (d) the sets of N and MAP values which would give desired BHPr can
be obtained.
(f) Obtain fuel flow rate for each set of MAP and N. Calculate BSFC. Subsequently Eq.(27)
gives the range for chosen set of N and MAP.
(g) Repeat calculations at different value of N.
(h) The combination of N and MAP which gives longest range is the optimum setting.
The aforesaid steps are carried-out in the next three subsections.
6.2 Calculation of BHP and fuel flow rate at different RPMs and MAPs at 8000
Example 4.2 of the main text illustrates the procedure to obtain BHP and fuel flow rate at
N = 2200 and MAP of 20 of Hg. Similar calculations are repeated at N = 2700, 2600, 2400,
2200 and 2000 and at MAP = 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 21.6 of Hg. It may be pointed out
that the atmosphere pressure at 8000 is 21.6 of Hg. (see also right hand side of the engine
characteristics shown in Fig.3 of this Appendix). The values so obtained are plotted and
smoothed. Figure 18 shows the calculated values by symbols and the smoothed variations by
curves.
19
20
W1
10673.28
0.5966
2
1 2
0.5
0.9629
50
14.864
V S
2
W1
9341.5
0.5220
2
1 2
0.5
0.9629
50
14.864
V S
2
1 2
V SCDavg /1000 = 0.5 x 0.9629 x 503 x 14.864 x 0.05862/1000 = 52.43 kW
2
= 70.31 HP
II) Steps to obtain highest p /BSFC or the range
(a) Choose N from 2700 to 2000
(b) Calculate, J = V/nd ; n = N/60 ; d = 1.88 m
(c) Corresponding to the value of J in step (b), obtain p from Eq.(14)
(d) Obtain BHPr = THPavg/ p ; THPavg in HP
(e) From upper part of Fig.18, obtain MAP which would give BHPr at chosen N. For these values
of N and MAP obtain the fuel flow rate (FFR) in gallons/hr , from the lower part of Fig.18.
(f) Convert FFR in gallons per hour to that in N/hr and BHPr in HP to kW.
Obtain BSFC =
FFR in N/hr
BHP in kW
J
0.591
0.613
0.664
0.725
0.797
p
0.762
0.773
0.794
0.807
0.806
BHP
(HP)
92.22
90.88
88.54
87.03
87.22
MAP
15.90
16.10
16.47
17.04
18.25
FFR
(gal/hr)
8.32
7.92
7.38
6.95
6.97
FFR
(N/hr)
234.58
223.44
208.07
196.06
196.56
BHP
(kW)
68.77
67.77
66.02
64.90
65.04
BSFC
p/BSFC
(N/kWhr)
3.410
0.223
3.297
0.234
3.151
0.251
3.020
0.267
3.021
0.266
21
Range
(km)
1023.8
1074.8
1154.2
1224.9
1221.8
It is observed from the above table that at the chosen value of V =180 kmph, the range is
maximum for the combination of N = 2200 and MAP of 17.04 of Hg. The value of R is
1224.9 km.
III Obtaining range and endurance at different flight speeds
Repeating the calculations indicated in item (II), at different values of flight speeds in the
range of speeds Vstall from Vmax at 8000 , yield the results presented in Table 8a. Since the flight
speed is constant, the endurance (E) is given by the following expression.
E (in hours) =
V
THPavg
Range in km
V in kmph
RPMopt MAP
FFR
FFR
(gal/hr) (N/hr)
BHP
(kW)
BSFC
Range
(N/kW (km)
Endur
nce(hr)
hr)
34
122.4
41.01
2000
16.61
6.254
176.26
0.734
55.859 3.155
929.6
7.59
36
129.6
41.13
2000
16.39
6.16
173.62
0.753
54.597 3.18
999.2
7.66
38
136.8
41.64
2000
16.29
6.12
172.52
0.77
54.069 3.19
1061.1
7.76
40
144
42.51
2000
16.32
6.13
172.79
0.784
54.198 3.19
1114.3
7.74
43
154.8
44.53
2000
16.58
6.24
175.81
0.8
55.643 3.16
1176.5
7.6
46
165.6
47.37
2000
17.1
6.46
182.07
0.808
58.573 3.11
1214.5
7.33
50
180
52.43
2200
17.04
6.95
196.06
0.807
64.904 3.02
1225
6.81
52
187.2
55.53
2200
17.7
7.25
204.4
0.81
68.576 2.98
1222.1
6.52
54
194.4
58.98
2200
18.49
7.63
215.12
0.808
72.97
2.95
1205.5
6.2
56
201.6
62.81
2200
19.43
8.13
228.99
0.803
78.23
2.93
1174.1
5.82
58
208.8
67.03
2200
20.56
8.77
247.02
0.793
84.5
2.92
1127.1
5.4
60
216
71.63
2400
20.42
9.37
264.14
0.806
88.87
2.97
1090.2
5.05
22
i) It is seen that the maximum endurance of 7.7 hours occurs in the speed range of
125 to 145 kmph.
23
ii) The range calculated in the present computation is the Gross Still Air Range (GSAR).
The maximum range is found to be around 1220 km which occurs in the speed range of
165 to 185 kmph.
iii) The range quoted in Section 1.10 for Cherokee PA 28 - 181 accounts for taxi, take-off,
climb, descent and reserves for 45 min. This range can be regarded as safe range. This
value is generally two-thirds of the GSAR. Noting that two-thirds of GSAR (1220 km) is
813 km, it is seen that the calculated value is within the range of performance given in
Section 1.10.
24
Appendix A
Lecture 37
Performance analysis of a piston engined airplane 3
Topics
7 Turning performance
8 Take-off and landing distance estimates
8.1 Distance covered during take-off run
8.2 Distance covered during transition
8.3 Distance covered during climb phase
8.4 Landing distance estimate
9 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
7 Turning performance
In this section, the performance of the airplane in a steady level co-ordinated-turn is studied.
The forces acting on the airplane are shown in Fig.21.
The equations of motion in this flight are:
T D = 0, as it is a steady flight
(28)
(29)
L sin =
W V2
, as it is a co-ordinated-turn
g r
(30)
W V2
V2
Radius of turn = r =
=
g L sin
g tan
Rate of turn = =
V
=V
r
(31)
V 2 g tan
=
V
g tan
(32)
Load Factor = n =
L
1
=
W cos
(33)
In the following calculations, CLmax =1.33 and nmax = 3.5 are assumed ; where n max is the
maximum load factor for which the airplane is designed. The following procedure is used to
obtain rmin and max .
1. The flight speed and altitude are chosen. The lift coefficient in level flight ( CLL ) is
obtained as :
CLL =
2. Obtain
2(W/S)
V 2
CLmax
C
. If Lmax n max , then the turn is limited by CLmax and CLT1 = CLmax .
CLL
C LL
However, if CLmax /CLL > n max , then the turn is limited by n max , and CLT1 = n max CLL .
3. From the drag polar, CDT1 is obtained corresponding to CLT1 . Then,
1
DT1 = V 2SCDT1
2
If DT1 > Ta , where Ta is the available thrust at chosen speed and altitude, then the turn is
limited by the engine output. The maximum permissible value of CD in this case is found
from:
CDT =
2Ta
V 2S
CDT - CDO
However, if DT1 < Ta , then the turn is not limited by the engine output and the value of CLT1
calculated in step (2) is taken as CLT.
4. Once CLT is known, the load factor n, which satisfies the three constraints namely of
CLmax , n max and Ta , is given by:
n=
CLT
CLL
5. Knowing n, the values of the radius of turn (r) and the rate of turn ( ) can be calculated
from Eqs.(31), (32) and (33).
6. The above steps are repeated for various speeds at the same altitude and subsequently the
procedure is repeated at various altitudes.
Sample calculations of turning performance at sea level are represented in Table 9. Figures
22 and 23 present turning performance at various altitudes.
CLL
CLmax
C LL
30
1.30
1.021
35
0.96
38
CDT1
DT1
(N)
1.33
0.168
1380
41.4
0.578
78.0
1.33
1.390
1.33
0.168
1879
65.8
0.635
85.7
0.81
1.638
1.33
0.168
2215
84.2
0.666
40
0.73
1.815
1.33
0.168
2454
98.2
45
0.58
2.297
1.33
0.168
3106
50
0.47
2.836
1.33
0.168
55
0.39
3.432
1.33
60
0.33
4.084
65
0.28
4.793
V
(m/s)
THP1
(kW)
THPa
(kW)
CLT
(deg)
(rad/s)
1.02
11.6
445
0.067
1.33
1.39
44.0
129
0.270
89.9
1.33
1.64
52.4
113
0.335
0.685
92.4
1.28
1.75
55.1
114
0.351
139.8
0.727
98.2
1.05
1.82
56.6
136
0.330
3834
191.7
0.762
102.9
0.86
1.83
56.9
166
0.300
0.168
4639
255.2
0.789
106.5
0.69
1.77
55.5
212
0.260
1.14
0.133
4359
261.5
0.805
108.7
0.52
1.60
51.2
295
0.203
0.97
0.106
4082
265.3
0.809
109.3
0.34
1.23
35.7
600
0.108
r
(m)
CLT1
altitudes. The variations are presented in Table 10 and Figs.24, 25 and 26.
h (m)
rmin(m)
Vmax
(m/s)
110
0.351
38
40.0
1000
135
0.301
39
41.2
2000
163
0.248
39.5
41.5
3000
198
0.194
40.5
41.7
4000
324
0.128
41
44.0
5000
918
0.048
45.7
46.0
Remark:
The minimum radius of turn at sea level is about 110 m at flight speed of about 38 m/s. The
maximum rate of turn at sea level is about 0.35 rad/sec at flight speed of about 40 m/s.
Take-off flight can be divided into three phases: take-off run or ground run, transition and
climb (Fig.27).
T - D -R =
W dV
g dt
and
R =W-L
(34)
dV
dV ds
as
, gives :
dt
ds dt
ds =
W
VdV
g T - D -(W - L)
Further, at sea level, BHP = constant = 135kW at 2700 rpm. Thrust is given by :
T = BHP x p / V .
The distance covered during the take-off run (s1) can be expressed as:
VTO
WV
dV
gF
0
where F is the accelerating force given by:
s1 =
(35)
F =
BHP p
V
- D - (W-L)
Eq.(35) at several values of V and carry-out a numerical integration. Simpsons rule is used for
this purpose. Various quantities needed for the purpose are estimated below.
VTO =1.2 Vs , where Vs is stalling speed, given by :
Vs =
2W
SCLmax
During the take-off, flap deflection ( f ) is10 , hence CLmax =1.42 . It is assumed that the
coefficient of friction is 0.02.
The take-off weight is W =10673.28 N
S = wing planform area =14.864 m 2
Density sl =1.225 kg/m3
Thus, Vs = 28.73m/s and VTO = 34.48 m/s
To estimate CL and CD during take -off run it is noted that the airplane has a nose wheel type of
landing gear and hence the airplane axis can be considered as horizontal and the wing produces
lift corresponding to the wing setting angle (see Section 10.3.1 of the main text of the course
material).
From Sec. 1.4, the average wing incidence is the average of incidence at root (4.62o) and that at
tip (2.62o) i.e. 3.62o. The slope of the lift curve of the wing ( CLW ) is approximately given by:
CLW = 2
A
5.625
=2
= 4.63 / rad = 0.0808/ deg
A+2
7.625
The angle of zero lift ( 0L ) for the airfoil NACA 652 415, from Ref. 5, is -2.6o.
Hence, lift coefficient during take-off run due to wing lift is :
(m/s)
0
5.75
WV/gF
(N)
(N)
(N)
(N)
(s)
0.153
3589.94
19.68
11.49
0.283
3329.77
17.24
0.392
22.99
0.000
132.9
3364.45
1.859
78.60
711.5
3051.9
4.096
3072.83
176.9
1601.3
2714.5
6.910
0.484
2843.74
314.7
2848.7
2372.5
10.54
28.73
0.562
2642.65
491.4
4448.2
2026.7
15.42
34.48
0.629
2464.68
707.8
6407.0
1671.6
22.42
* The value of thrust (T) at V = 0 is not zero. It can be evaluated using propeller charts.
However, it is not needed in the present calculation, as the integrand is zero when V is zero.
Using the values of integrand in Table 11 and employing Simpsons rule the ground run (s1) is
given by :
s1 =
5.747
0 + 4(1.859 + 6.91+15.42) +2(4.096+10.54) + 22.42 = 284.4 m
3
The entire power of the engine is assumed to be used to overcome the drag and to accelerate to a
velocity V2 given by V2 = 1.1 VT0. The height attained during the transition phase is ignored.
Hence, Ts 2 = Ds 2 +
s2 =
W
2g
W
2
(V22 -VTO
)
2g
2
(V22 - VTO
)
T-D
where T and D are evaluated at a speed which is mean (Vavg) of V2 and VTO
V2 = 1.1 x 34.48 = 37.93 m/s
Vavg =
T=
p BHP1000
Vavg
Hence, T =
Further, CL =
210673.28
= 0.87
1.22514.86436.712
0.6651351000
= 2366.86 N
37.93
C =
L
210673.28
1.22514.86437.932
= 0.82
1
D = 1.22536.712 14.8640.0897 =1174.5 N
2
sin =
T -D
2366.86 - 1174.5
=
= 0.1117 or = 6.41o
W
10673.28
Hence,
s3 =
15
15
=
= 133.4 m
tan
0.1124
10
i) The above estimation of take off distance is based on several assumptions. Reference 8 has
compiled data on take-off distances of many propeller driven airplanes. This take-off distance is
based on FAR 23 specifications and can be denoted by sto23 . Based on this data the following
formula is obtained for sto23 in terms of a parameter called take-off parameter and denoted by
TOP23 . In SI units the relationship is given as (See Guidelines for take-off distance in
Section 10.4.7 of the main text of the course) .
STo23 = 8.681 x 10-3 x TOP23 + 5.566 x 10-8 x TOP232
W
W
)( )
P ; (W/S) is in N/m 2 , W in N and P in kW.
where, TOP23 = S
CLTO
(
718.179.06
= 39981
1.42
s to23 = 8.681 x 10-3 x 39981+ 5.566 x 10-8 x 399812 = 347 +89 = 436 m
ii) The estimated take-off distance of 530 m is somewhat higher than the actual take-off distance
of 488 m (section 1.10). This may be because the height attained during the transition phase has
been ignored.
11
The landing distance can be calculated in a manner similar to that for take-off distance.
However, due to uncertainty associated with piloting techniques during landing, the following
formula is used.
s land = -
Va 2
2a
1. The performance of a piston-engined airplane has been estimated for stalling speed, maximum
speed, minimum speed, steady climb, range, endurance, turning, take-off and landing.
2. A reasonable agreement has been observed between the calculated performance and the actual
performance of the airplane (PA 28 181).
3. Figure 28 presents the variations, with altitude, of the characteristic velocities corresponding
to:
Stalling speed Vs
12
6000
5000
Altitude (m)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
20
40
60
Velocity (m/s)
Acknowledgements
The first author (EGT) thanks AICTE for the fellowship which enabled him to carry out the work
at IIT Madras. He is grateful for the support given by Prof.J.Kurian, Prof.P.Sriram,
Prof.K.Bhaskar, the Heads of the department of Aerospace engineering, IIT Madras. The help
rendered, while carrying out the revision, by Mr.Aditya Sourabh, Dual Degree student,
Mr.S.Gurusideswar, Ph.D. scholar and Sandip Chajjed, Project staff Department of Aerospace
Engineering and Ms. K. Sujatha and Mr. G. Manikandasivam of NPTEL Web studio is gratefully
acknowledged.
13
Appendix A
References
1.Roskam, J. Methods for estimating drag polars of subsonic airplanes Roskam aviation
engineering corporation, Kansas,U.S.A,(1983).
2. McCormick B.W. Aerodynamics, aeronautics and flight mechanics, John Wiley,
New York, (1979 First edition, 1995 Second edition).
3. Jackson, P. (editor-in-chief) Janes all the worlds airplane (1999-2000) Janes
information group ltd, Surrey, U.K.
4. Roskam, J. Airplane design Vol. I, Roskam aviation engineering corporation, Kansas,
U.S.A, (1989).
5. Perkins C.D. and Hage R.E. Airplane performance stability and control, John Wiley,
(1960).
6. Torenbeek. E. Synthesis of subsonic airplane design Delft University Press (1981).
7. Raymer, D.P. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach AIAA` educational series fourth
edition, (2006).
8. Loftin, Jr. L.K. Subsonic aircraft evolution and the matching of size to performance
NASA Reference publications, 1060, August 1980. This report can be downloaded from
the site NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS).
9. Samoylovitch, O. and Strelets, D. Determination of the Oswald efficiency factor at
airplane design preliminary stage, Aircraft Design, Vol. 3, pp. 167-174, (2000).
10. Nicholai, L.M. and Carichner, G.E. Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design Vol. I
Aircraft design AIAA educational series (2010).
APPENDIX- B
PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION OF A TYPICAL
SUBSONIC JET TRANSPORT AIRPLANE
(Lectures 38 40)
E.G.TULAPURKARA
V.GANESH
FEBRUARY 2007
(REVISED OCTOBER 2011)
Engine characteristics
Steady level co-ordinated turn - minimum radius of turn, maximum rate of turn
Contents
1 Airplane details
1.1 Overall dimensions
1.2 Engine details
1.3 Weights
1.4 Wing geometry
1.5 Fuselage geometry
1.6 Nacelle geometry
1.7 Horizontal tail geometry
1.8 Vertical tail geometry
1.9 Other details
1.10 Flight condition
Three-view drawing of the airplane
2 Estimation of drag polar
2.1 Estimation of (CDo)WB
2.2 Estimation of (CDo)V and (CDo)H
2.3 Estmation of misc drag nacelle
2.4 CDo of the airplane
2.5 Induced drag
2.6 Final drag polar
3 Engine characteristics
4 Level flight performance
4.1 Stalling speed
4.2 Variations of Vmin and Vmax with altitude
5 Steady climb
6 Range and endurance
7 Turning performance
8 Take-off distance
9 Landing distance
10 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
References
Appendix B
Lecture 38
Performance analysis of a subsonic jet transport 1
Topics
1 Airplane details
1.1 Overall dimensions
1.2 Engine details
1.3 Weights
1.4 Wing geometry
1.5 Fuselage geometry
1.6 Nacelle geometry
1.7 Horizontal tail geometry
1.8 Vertical tail geometry
1.9 Other details
1.10 Flight condition
Three-view drawing of the airplane
2 Estimation of drag polar
2.1 Estimation of (CDo)WB
2.2 Estimation of (CDo)V and (CDo)H
2.3 Estmation of misc drag nacelle
2.4 CDo of the airplane
2.5 Induced drag
2.6 Final drag polar
1 Airplane Details
1.1 Overall Dimensions
Length
: 34.32 m
Wing span
: 32.22 m
: 11.17 m
Wheel base
: 13.2 m
Wheel track
: 5.8 m
By pass ratio
SFC
1.3 Weights
Gross weight
Empty weight
Fuel weight
Payload
: Cranked wing
Span
: 32.22 m
Area (Sref)
: 111.63 m2
Airfoil
Root chord
Tip chord
: 11.28 m
: 3.9 m
: 27.69o
Dihedral
: 5o
Twist
: 3o
Incidence
: 1.4 o
Taper ratio
Aspect ratio
: 9.3
: 33 m
Maximum diameter
: 3.59 m
:2
Nacelle diameter
: 1.62 m
: 2.06 m2
Length of nacelle
: 11.98 m
Area
: 28.71 m2
: 2.67 m
: 32 o
Root chord
: 3.80 m
Tip chord
: 0.99 m
Taper ratio
: 0.26
Aspect ratio
:5
: 6.58 m
Area
: 25.43 m2
Root chord
: 5.90 m
Tip chord
: 1.83 m
: 4.22 m
: 37 o
Taper ratio
: 0.31
Aspect ratio
: 1.70
: 1.4
: 2.7
: 2.16
: 3.5
Mach number
: 0.8
Kinematic viscosity
Density
: 0.3639 kg/m3
Speed of sound
: 295.07 m/s
Flight speed
: 236.056 m/s
C2L
Ae
(1)
SB
Sref
The suffix B denotes fuselage and SB is the maximum frontal area of fuselage.
(CDO)W is given as :
t S
where, Cfw is the turbulent flat plate skin friction coefficient. The Reynolds number used
to determine it (Cfw) is lower of the two Reynolds numbers viz. Reynolds number based
on the mean aerodynamic chord of the exposed wing (Re) and Recuttoff based on surface
roughness. Further, (Swet)e is the wetted area of the exposed wing.
In the present case, cr = 5.59m, ct= 1.34m, b/2 = 16.11m and dfus = 3.59m. Hence,
Root chord of exposed wing = cre = 5.59
e =
= 5.116 m
16.11
2
1.34
=0.262
5.116
177.12 3.596
16.31 x 106
5
3.90536 10
l
3.596
3.543 105
5
k 1.015 10
The Recutoff corresponding to the above l/k is 30 x 106. Consequently, Cfw corresponding
to Re = 16.31 x 106 is obtained from Fig.3.1 of Ref.5, as :
Cfw = 0.00265.
(t/c)avg = 14% and (t/c)max occurs at x/c > 0.3 Hence, L = 1.2 and
Sexposedplanform = 14.314(
5.116 1.341
) 2 = 92.41m2
2
215.8
= 0.00598
111.63
l
S
S
60
+0.0025( b )]( wet ) fus +CDb base
3
(lb /d)
d
SB
Sref
177.12 33
= 149.6 x 106
3.905 105
l
33
= 32.51x105
5
k 1.015 10
The Recutoff corresponding to the above l/k is 2.6 x 108. The Cfw corresponds to
Reb = 149.6 x 106 measured from the graph in Ref.5, Fig.3.1 is:
Cfw = 0.0019
9
x 3.592 = 10.12m2
Hence,
(CDf)B = 0.0019 x
(CDp ) B =0.0019[
279
= 0.0524
10.12
60
279
+0.0025(33/3.59)]
=0.00524
3
(33/3.59)
10.12
10.12
= 0.01138
111.63
The estimation of (CDo)H and (CDo)V can be done in a manner similar to that for the wing.
However, the details regarding the exposed tail area etc. would be needed. In the absence
of the detailed data on the shape of fuselage at rear, a simplified approach given in Ref.5,
section 2.2 is adopted, wherein CDf = 0.0025 for both horizontal and vertical tails.
SW = 2(Sh + Sv)
Hence,
(CDo)HV = 0.0025(28.71 + 25.43)
2
= 0.0024
111.63
For calculating drag due to the nacelles the short cut method is used i.e.:
(CDo)nacelle = 0.006 x
Swet
Sref
where, Swet is the wetted area of nacelle. Here, Swet = 16.79m2. Since, there are two
nacelles, the total drag will be twice of this. Finally,
(CDo)nacelle = 0.006 x
16.79
x 2 = 0.0018
111.63
10
(2)
Taking 2% for miscellaneous roughness and protuberances(Ref.5, section 3.4.6 ), the CDo
of the airplane is:
CDo = 1.02 [0.01138 + 0.0024 + 0.0018] = 0.0159
(3)
The induced drag component has the Oswald's efficiency factor e which is estimated by
adding the effect of all the airplane components on induced drag (Ref.5, section 2.3).The
rough estimate of e can be obtained as follows :
Figure 2.4 of Ref.5 is useful only for estimating ewing of unswept wings of low speed
airplanes. For the present case of swept wing, the following expression given in Ref.2 ,
chapter 7 is used.
ewing = (ewing)=0 cos( - 5)
where is the quarter chord sweep. Ref.1, chapter 1 is used to estimate (ewing)=0.
the present case, with A = 9.3 and = 0.24, the value of (ewing)=0 is 0.97.
Hence, ewing = 0.97 x cos (27.69 - 5) = 0.8948.
From Ref.5, section 2.3,
1/efus
= 0.8 for a round fuselage. Hence,
(Sf /S)
1
10.122
= 0.8
= 0.0725
efus
111.63
Further, from Ref.5, section 2.3,
1
eother
= 0.05
Finally,
e=
1
= 0.8064
0.8948 + 0.0725 + 0.05
-1
Hence,
K=
1
1
=
= 0.04244
Ae
9.3 0.8064
Remark:
Based on Ref.7, a detailed estimates of ewing and efuselage are given in Ref.5, section 3.3.
For an untwisted wing the value of ewing is given as:
11
In
e wing =
1.1(CLw /A)
C
R( Lw )+(1-R)
A
where,
CLW =
2A
tan 2 1
A
2
2+
1+
2
2
2 2
+4
= 1-M 2
1/2 = sweep of semi-chord line
= ratio of the slope of lift curve of the airfoil used on wing divided by 2 . It is
generally taken as unity.
In the present case,
M= 0.6, h= 10973 m (36000 ft), V= 177.12 m, =3.9053610-5 m 2 /s , S = 111.63 m2
A
= 2.592
cos LE
12
This value of
However, detailed approach is recommended for wings with sweep of above 35o.
Reference 7, section 4.5.3 contains guidelines for estimating drag of wing-body-tail
combination with allowance for trim drag.
2.6 Final drag polar
(4)
Remarks:
i) The polar given by Eq.(4) is valid at subcritical Mach numbers. The increase in CDO
and K at higher Mach numbers is discussed in section 4.2.
13
1
2 CDo K
Using CDO and K from Eq.(4), (L/D)max is 19.25, which is typical of modern jet
transport airplanes.
iii) It may be noted that the parabolic polar is an approximation and is not valid beyond
CLmax. It is also not accurate close to CL = 0 and CL = CLmax.
14
Appendix B
Lecture 39
Performance analysis of a subsonic jet transport 2
Topics
3 Engine characteristics
4 Level flight performance
4.1 Stalling speed
4.2 Variations of Vmin and Vmax with altitude
5 Steady climb
3 Engine characteristics
To calculate the performance, the variations of thrust and SFC with speed and altitudes
are needed. Chapter 9 of Ref.3 contains these variations for turbofan engines with various
bypass ratios. The thrust variations versus Mach number with altitude as parameter are
given, in non-dimensional form, for take-off, cruise and climb ratings. The values were
read from those curves, interpolated and later smoothed. The values multiplied by
97.9 kN, the sea level static thrust rating for the chosen engine, are shown in Figs.3 and 4.
Figure 3 also contains (a) the variation of thrust with Mach number at sea level with takeoff rating and (b) variations of climb thrust with Mach number at various altitudes. The
values at h = 38000 ft and 39000 ft are obtained by interpolating the values at 36000 ft
and 40000 ft and are used for computation of performance.
The SFC variation is also given in Ref.3, but is taken as 0.6 hr-1 under cruise
conditions based on the trend shown in Fig.3.3 of Ref.4.
Fig.3 Output for single engine take-off thrust at sea level and climb
thrust at various altitudes.
(5)
L-W= 0
(6)
1
L = W = V 2SCL
2
(7)
1
D = V 2SCD = T
2
(8)
V=
2W
SCL
(9)
Since, CL cannot exceed CLmax, there is a flight speed below which level
flight is not possible. The flight speed at CL = CLmax is called the stalling
speed and is denoted by Vs
Vs =
2W
SCmax
(10)
Since, decreases with altitude, Vs increases with height. It may be noted that
2
W/S = 5195 N/m2, CLmax = 2.7 with landing flaps and CLmax = 1.4 without flaps. The
values of stalling speed at different altitudes and flap settings are tabulated in Table 1 and
shown in Fig.5.
h
Vs
Vs
(m)
(kg/m3)
(CLmax = 1.4)
(CLmax = 2.7)
(m/s)
(m/s)
1.225
77.83
56.04
2000
1.006
85.86
61.83
4000
0.819
95.18
68.54
6000
0.659
106.06
76.37
8000
0.525
118.87
85.59
10000
0.412
134.09
96.56
11000
0.363
142.80
102.83
12000
0.310
154.52
111.27
To determine the Vmin and Vmax at each altitude, the following procedure is adopted. The
engine thrust as a function of velocity at each altitude is obtained from the smoothed data.
The drag at each altitude is obtained as a function of velocity using the drag polar and the
level flight formulae given below.
CL =
2 (W/S)
V 2
(11)
C D C Do K C L2
Thrust required = Drag =
(12)
1 2
V SCD
2
(13)
(14)
Fig.6 Drag polars at different Mach numbers for B727-100; Symbols are data from Ref.6
and various lines are the parabolic fits.
CDo
0.7
0.01631
0.04969
0.76
0.01634
0.05257
0.82
0.01668
0.06101
0.84
0.01695
0.06807
0.86
0.01733
0.08183
0.88
0.01792
0.10300
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
The thrust available and thrust required curves are plotted at each altitude as a function of
velocity. The points of intersection give the (Vmin)e and Vmax at each altitude from thrust
available consideration (Figs.9 14).
However, to arrive at the minimum speed (Vmin), the stalling speed (Vs) also needs to be
taken in to account. Since, the drag polar is not valid below Vs, in the Figs.9 to 14, the
thrust required curves are plotted only for V Vs. Stalling speed is taken for CLmax
without flaps.
The calculations are carried out for h = 0, 10000, 15000, 25000, 30000 and 36000 ft, i.e
S.L, 3048, 4572, 7620, 9144 and 10972.8 m using Ta as both climb thrust (Tclimb) and as
cruise thrust (Tcr). Results in Figs.9 14 are presented only for climb thrust case. The
variations of Vs, (Vmin)e and Vmax are tabulated in Table 3 and presented in Fig.15.
h
(in ft)
h
(in m)
Vs
(m/s)
S.L
77.833
(Vmin)e
(m/s)
T = Tcr
< Vs
10000 3048
90.579
< Vs
< Vs
272.060
280.595
1010.1
15000 4572
98.131
< Vs
< Vs
275.613
283.300
1019.9
25000 7620
116.292
< Vs
< Vs
272.929
279.291
1005.4
30000 9144
127.278
< Vs
< Vs
267.854
271.755
978.3
253.671
258.154
929.4
243.676
248.630
895.1
235.48
229.865
235.48
238.649
859.1
----
236.40
------
236.40
851.04
10
5 Steady climb
=0
(19)
=0
(20)
To calculate the variation of rate of climb with flight velocity at different altitudes, the
following procedure is adopted.
Choose an altitude.
Choose a flight speed.
Noting that CL = 2W cos / SV2, gives :
C D = C Do
2Wcos
+K
2
SV
Also,
Vc = V sin
Hence,
cos = 1-
Vc2
V2
11
2
Vc
1 2
KW 2 Vc
Ta = V S CDO +
1- + W
1 2 V
2
V
V S
Or
A(
A=
Vc 2
V
) + B( c ) + C = 0
V
V
(21)
1
2KW 2
KW 2
, Ta Thrust available
; B = -W; C = Ta - V 2SCDo 2
1 2
2
V
S
V S
2
(22)
Since, altitude and flight velocity have been chosen, the thrust available is read from the
climb thrust curves in Fig.3. Further, the variation of CDo and K with Mach number is
taken as in Eqs.17 and 18. Equation 21 gives 2 values of Vc/V . The value which is less
than 1.0 is chosen, as sin cannot be greater than unity. Hence ,
and
= sin-1(Vc/V)
(23)
Vc = V sin
(24)
This procedure is repeated for various speeds between Vmin and Vmax. The entire
procedure is then repeated for various altitudes. The variations of (R/C) and with
velocity and with altitude as parameter are shown in Figs.16 and 18. The variations of
(R/C)max and max with altitude are shown in Figs.17 and 19. The variations of V(R/C)max
and V max with altitude are shown in Figs.20 and 21. A summary of results is presented in
Table 4.
12
(R/C)max
V(R/C)max
(ft)
(m)
(m/min)
(m/s)
(degrees)
(m/s)
0.0
1086.63
149.7
8.7
88.5
10000
3048.0
867.34
167.5
6.0
111.6
15000
4572.0
738.16
174.0
4.7
125.7
25000
7620.0
487.41
198.2
2.6
164.1
30000
9144.0
313.43
212.2
1.5
188.0
36000
10972.8
115.57
236.1
0.5
230.2
38000
11582.4
41.58
236.9
0.2
234.0
38995
11885.7
1.88
236.5
0.0076
236.0
39220
11954.0
236.40
236.40
max
13
V max
14
15
Remarks:
i) The discontinuity in slope in Figs.20 and 21 at high velocities are due to the change in
drag polar as the Mach number exceeds 0.8.
ii) From Fig.17, the absolute ceiling (at which (R/C)max is zero) is 11.95 km. The service
ceiling at which (R/C)max equals 100 ft /min (30.5 m/min) is 11.71 km.
16
Appendix B
Lecture 40
Performance analysis of a subsonic jet transport 3
Topics
6 Range and endurance
7 Turning performance
8 Take-off distance
9 Landing distance
10 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
6 Range and endurance
In this section, the range of the airplane in a constant altitude and constant
velocity cruise is studied. The range is given by the following formula.
7.2 E max V
tan -1
TSFC
R=
where, E max =
E1
2E max (1-KC L1 E1 )
(25)
1
; K and CDo are at Mach number corresponding to V.
K C DO
Wf
W
= 1- 2
W1
W1
E1 =
W1
C L1
, CL1 =
,
1 2
CD1
V S
2
The values of endurance (in hours) are obtained by dividing the expression for range by
3.6V where V is in m/s. The values of range (R) and endurance (E) in flights at different
velocities are presented in Table 5 and are plotted in Figs.22 and 23.
M
CDo
Emax
CL1
CD1
E1
(m/s)
(km)
(hr)
0.50 147.53
0.0159
0.04244
19.25
1.312
0.089
14.75
2979.0
5.61
0.55 162.29
0.0159
0.04244
19.25
1.085
0.066
16.48
3608.0
6.18
0.60 177.04
0.0159
0.04244
19.25
0.911
0.051
17.82
4189.6
6.57
0.65 191.79
0.0159
0.04244
19.25
0.777
0.041
18.72
4691.7
6.80
0.70 206.54
0.0159
0.04244
19.25
0.670
0.035
19.17
5095.6
6.85
0.75 221.30
0.0159
0.04244
19.25
0.583
0.030
19.23
5396.5
6.77
0.80 236.05
0.0159
0.04244
19.25
0.513
0.027
18.95
5599.8
6.59
0.81 239.00
0.0159
0.04256
19.22
0.500
0.02654
18.84
5619.7
6.53
0.82 241.95
0.01592
0.04300
19.11
0.488
0.02616
18.65
5621.6
6.45
0.83 244.90
0.01597
0.04388
18.89
0.476
0.02591
18.37
5597.7
6.35
0.84 247.85
0.01604
0.04532
18.54
0.465
0.02584
18.00
5544.1
6.21
0.85 250.80
0.01613
0.04744
18.08
0.454
0.02591
17.52
5460.4
6.05
0.86 253.75
0.01624
0.05036
17.48
0.444
0.02617
16.97
5349.3
5.86
0.87 256.71
0.01637
0.05420
16.79
0.433
0.02653
16.32
5210.1
5.64
0.88 259.66
0.01652
0.05908
16.00
0.424
0.02714
15.62
5051.1
5.40
Table 5 Range and endurance in constant velocity flights at h = 10973 m (36000 ft)
Remarks:
7 Turning performance
L sin =
W V2
g r
=
Load factor = n =
V2
gtan
V g tan
=
r
V
L
1
=
W cos
2(W/S)
V 2
2) If CLmax/CLL < nmax, where nmax is the maximum load factor for which the airplane is
designed, then the turn is limited by CLmax and CLT1 = CLmax. However, if
CLmax/CLL > nmax, then the turn is limited by nmax, and CLT1 = nmaxCLL.
3) From the drag polar, CDT1 is obtained corresponding to CLT1 . Then,
DT1 =
1 2
V SCDT1 .
2
If DT1 > Ta, where Ta is the available thrust at that speed and altitude, then the turn is
limited by the engine output. In this case, the maximum permissible value of CD in
turning flight is found from
C DT =
Ta
1 2
V S
2
CLT =
CDT - CDo
K
However, if DT1 < Ta, then the turn is not limited by the engine output and the value of
CLT calculated in step (2) is retained.
4. Once CLT is known, the load factor during the turn is determined as
n=
CLT
CLL
Once n is known, the values of , r and can be calculated using the equations given
above.
The above steps are repeated for various speeds and altitudes. A typical turning flight
performance estimation is presented in Table 6. In these calculations, CLmax = 1.4 and
nmax = 3.5 are assumed. The variation of turning performance with altitude is shown in
Table 7. Figures 24, 25, 26 and 27 respectively present (a) radius of turn vs velocity with
altitude as parameter, (b) Vrmin vs altitude, (c) rate of turn vs velocity with altitude as
vs altitude.
parameter and (d) Vmax
V
(m/s)
CLL
78.8
98.8
118.8
138.8
158.8
178.8
198.8
218.8
238.8
241.8
1.365
0.868
0.602
0.440
0.336
0.265
0.215
0.177
0.149
0.145
CLmax
CLT1
CDT1
CLL
1.026
1.612
2.331
3.181
4.164
5.279
6.527
7.905
9.415
9.655
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.177
0.928
0.751
0.620
0.521
0.508
0.0991
0.0991
0.0991
0.0991
0.0747
0.0525
0.0398
0.0322
0.0274
0.0268
T1
(N)
Ta
(N)
CDT
42106
66182
95678
130595
128778
114709
107635
105461
106860
107282
126250
118125
113750
106611
101539
97041
92606
89483
86229
85779
0.0991
0.0991
0.0991
0.0809
0.0589
0.0444
0.0343
0.0273
0.0221
0.0215
CLT
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.238
1.006
0.819
0.661
0.519
0.383
0.362
1.026
1.612
2.331
2.813
2.993
3.089
3.080
2.930
2.573
2.494
12.9
51.7
64.6
69.2
70.5
71.1
71.1
70.0
67.1
66.4
r
(m)
(rad/s)
2768
787
684
747
912
1115
1384
1772
2452
2609
0.0285
0.1255
0.1738
0.1858
0.1742
0.1603
0.1437
0.1235
0.0974
0.0927
rmin
Vrmin
max
(m)
(m)
(m/s)
(rad/s)
0.0
666
126.8
0.1910
127.8
3048.0
945
132.6
0.1410
133.6
4572.0
1155
135.1
0.1170
136.1
7620.0
1971
138.3
0.0731
165.3
9144.0
3247
151.3
0.0513
187.3
10972.8
8582
211.0
0.0256
231.0
V max
(m/s)
i) The maximum value of is 0.191 and occurs at a speed of 127.8m/s at sea level.
ii) The minimum radius of turn is 666 m and occurs at a speed of 126.8m/s at sea level.
iii) The various graphs show a discontinuity in slope when the criterion which limits the
turn, changes from nmax to thrust available.
8 Take-off distance
In this section, the take-off performance of the airplane is evaluated. The take-off
distance consists of take-off run, transition and climb to screen height. Rough estimates
of the distance covered in these phases can be obtained by writing down the appropriate
equations of motion. However, the estimates are approximate and Ref.4 chapter 5
recommends the following formulae for take-off distance and balance field length based
on the take-off parameter.
This parameter is defined as:
Take-off parameter =
W/S
C LTo (T/W)
(26)
where W/S is wing loading in lb/ft2, CLTO is 0.8 x CLand and is the density ratio at
take-off altitude. In the present case:
W
= 5195N/m2 = 108.2lb/ft2; CLTO = 0.8 x 2.7 = 2.16; = 1.0(sea level)
S
and
T
297900
=
= 0.3373
W 591759.81
108.2
= 148.86
1.0 2.16 0.3373
(27)
From Ref.4, chapter 5, the take-off distance, over 50', is 2823' or 861m. The balance
field length for the present case of two engined airplane is 6000' or 1829m.
Remark:
It may be noted that the balance field length in this case, is more than twice the take-off
distance.
9 Landing distance
In this section the landing distance of the airplane is calculated. From Ref.4, chapter 5,
the landing distance for commercial airliners is given by the formula:
s land = 80 (
W
1
)
+1000 ft
S CLmax
(28)
1
1000 = 3732 ft =1138 m
1.0 2.7
(29)
10 Concluding remarks
1. Performance of a typical commercial airliner has been estimated for stalling speed,
maximum speed, minimum speed, steady climb, range, endurance, turning, take-off
and landing.
2. The performance approximately corresponds to that of B737-200.
3. Figure 28 presents the variations with altitude of the characteristic velocities
corresponding to :
stalling speed, Vs
maximum speed, Vmax
minimum speed as dictated by thrust, (Vmin)e
maximum rate of climb, V(R/C)max
maximum angle of climb, V
max
10
11 Acknowledgements
The first author (EGT) thanks AICTE for the fellowship which enabled him to carry out
the work at IIT Madras. He is grateful for the support given by Prof.J.Kurian,
Prof.P.Sriram, Prof.K.Bhaskar, the Heads of the department of Aerospace engineering,
IIT Madras. The help rendered, while carrying out the revision, by Ms. K. Sujatha and
Mr. G. Manikandasivam of NPTEL, Web studio is gratefully acknowledged.
11
Appendix B
References
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(1959).
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(1965).
3. Jenkinson,L.R., Simpkin,P. and Rhodes,D. Civil jet airplane design Elsevier
Butterworth Heinemann, (1999).
4. Raymer,D.P. Airplane design : a conceptual approach AIAA Education series,
AIAA, (2006).
5. Roskam, J. Methods for estimating drag polars of subsonic airplanes Roskam
Aviation and Engineering Corporation, Kansas, (1983).
6. Roskam,J. Airplane design Vol. I to VIII Roskam Aviation and Engineering
Corporation, Kansas, (1990).
7. Hoak, D.E. et al. USAF stability and control DATCOM, Air force Wright
aeronautical laboratories Technical Report 83-3048, October 1960. (Revised April
1978). Note: Digital DATCOM can be accessed from net.
8. Harris, C.D. NASA supercritical airfoils NASA TP 2969, March 1990. This report
can be downloaded from the site NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS) .