AE 321 - Module 03 - Midterm

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance
LEARNING MODULE 03:

Climb and Drift
Performance
AE 321 – AERODYNAMICS II
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Rate of Climb 5 5
Gliding Flight 1 10
Absolute and Service Ceiling 1 13
Time to Climb 1 15
Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method) 20
Sample Problems 28
Plate No. 1 32
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TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Edition)
4
[E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Figures and Tables No.

Figures 3.1-3.15 are taken from the reference above. 1
Note that tables presented are made for organizing purposes only.
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Modules
Rate of Climb 25
Gliding Flight 25
Absolute and Service Ceiling 20
Time to Climb 30
Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy
50
Method)
References
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd
Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Book Company
Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 90
Plate No. 1 120
Quiz No. 1 120
TOTAL 480 min/s
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1: Apply Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
knowledge of CLO 1: Valuing Topic Learning
mathematics, physical the study of subsonic Outcomes (TLO)
MLO 1: Explain
sciences, engineering aerodynamics and its the steady, TLO 1: Discuss the
sciences to the practice application on the concept of rate of
unaccelerated rate of
of aeronautical aviation industry climb using force
climb of an aircraft diagrams.
engineering. through aerodynamic through a force TLO 2: Derive
PLO 4: Function in computations on working equations for
diagram.
multi-disciplinary and aircraft performance. rate of climb using
MLO 2: Formulate force diagrams.
multi-cultural teams CLO 3: Quantify equation for steady TLO 3: Discuss the
PLO 5: Identify, aerodynamic forces effect of power excess
unaccelerated rate of
formulate, and solve along flight using in rate of climb
climb using equations through aerodynamic
aeronautical aerodynamic equations of motion. data and formula.
engineering problems. derived from Newton’s TLO 4: Compute
MLO 3: Solve
PLO 8: Understand the Second Law of Motion. problems involving
problems involving rate of climb using
impact of aeronautical CLO 4: Utilize steady, unaccelerated working equations
engineering solutions in knowledge in airplane derived for steady,
rate of climb using the
global, economic, performance by unaccelerated rate of
derived working climb.
environmental, and applying theories and equations. TLO 5: Discuss the
societal context principles of flight in concept of gliding
MLO 4: Explain
PLO 9: Recognize the solving problems. flight using force
the steady, diagrams.
need for, and engage CLO 5: Display unaccelerated gliding TLO 6: Derive
in life-long learning analytical skills by working equations for
flight of an aircraft
PLO 11: Use performing gliding flight using
through a force force diagrams.
techniques, skills, and computations in flight diagram. TLO 7: Compute
modern engineering performance problems. problems involving
MLO 5: Formulate
tools necessary for CLO 9: Display gliding flight using
equation for steady, working equations
aeronautical professional unaccelerated gliding derived for steady,
engineering practice commitment to ethical unaccelerated gliding
flight using equations of
PLO 12: Knowledge practice by showing flight.
motion. TLO 8: Differentiate
and understanding of sense of responsibility MLO 6: Solve for absolute and service
engineering and in complying and ceiling of an aircraft
gliding velocity, gliding
management principles compiling academic through their definition
angle, range and rate and specific rate of
as a member and requirement. of descent through climb.
leader in a team, to TLO 9: Derive
problems sets and/or
manage projects and in working equations for
module activities. determining time to
multidisciplinary
MLO 7: Explain climb using the
environments. equation of rate of
absolute ceilings and
PLO 13: Apply climb.
service ceilings through TLO 10: Derive
acquired aeronautical
their definitions and working equations for
engineering knowledge determining absolute
specific property.
and skills for national ceiling using time to
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CONTENT
I. Rate of Climb
A. Equations of Motion
Consider an aircraft right after takeoff. As the nose rotates upward and
the aircraft climbs to its cruising altitude in no time. If we focus on the
aircraft while it is climbing steadily as shown on the figure below, we
have:
Figure 3.1 Flight Diagram of an Airplane in Climb
The velocity along the flight path and the flight path itself is inclined at
an angle ϴ to the horizontal. Lift and drag are perpendicular and
parallel to the flight path (and �∞ ), respectively. The weight is
perpendicular to the horizontal pointing to the ground. Looking at
closely in the free body diagram, we have the equations of motion by
summation of forces parallel and perpendicular:
Summation of Forces
Parallel Direction � = � + ��
Perpendicular Direction � = ��
The equations above show that the thrust does not only overcome the
effects of drag for steady and level climb but it also need to overcome
an additional component of lift. On the other hand, the lift on the aircraft
in a steady level climb is less than the weight.
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Multiplying the summation of forces parallel to the flight path by �∞ :

��∞ = ��∞ + ��∞ ��
��∞ − ��∞
= �∞ ��
�
From the right hand side of the equation, it corresponds to the vertical
component of the flight velocity. This vertical velocity is called the rate
of climb.
�/� = �∞ ��
On the left hand side of the equation, we have ��∞ = �� and the
��∞ = �� which is represented by the Power available curves and the
power required curves. However, for climbing flight, ��∞ is no longer
precisely the power required assumed for steady level flight because
as shown by the equations of motion, the thrust supports not only the
drag but also the component of lift where power must be applied to
overcome these forces. Nevertheless, for small climb angles � < 20⁰, it
is reasonable to neglect this fact and to assume that the term ��∞ is
the power required from steady level flight. From these assumptions,
we now have:
��∞ − ��∞ = ��
�� − �� = ��
��
�/� =
�
��
�/� =
�
The equations above hold true for both propeller-driven and jet driven
airplanes. Power excess is illustrated by the figures below for propeller-
driven and jet driven aircrafts respectively.
Figure 3.2 Power Excess for Propeller and Jet Driven Aircraft
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Note that the PR curve shown above are taken, for convenience, as
those values for steady level flight. Thus, in conjunction with these
curves, the rate of climb equation in terms of power excess is an
approximation to the rate of climb which is good only for small values of
ϴ. To be more specific, the power required vs velocity for climbing
flight is smaller compared to the same curve taken for level flight simply
because drag (D) is smaller for climbing flight than for level flight at the
same velocity.
To prove the point made in the statement above, consider an aircraft

with the following conditions:
Given:
� = 5000 ��
� = 100 ��2
�� = 0.015
� = 0.6
�� = 6
�∞ = 500 ��/� @ �� (��)
If the airplane is assumed to be in level flight, we have:
� �
�� = = = 0.168
�∞ � 1
� �2 �
2 ∞ ∞
�2�
�� = �� + = 0.015 + 0.0025 = 0.0175
��
If the airplane is assumed to be in a climb at 30⁰:

� = ��
� ��
�� = = = 0.145
�∞ � 1 2
� � �
2 ∞ ∞
�2�
�� = �� + = 0.015 + 0.0019 = 0.0169
��
The values for total drag coefficient (CD) for level flight is indeed greater
than for the climbing flight. In addition to this, since L is smaller for
climbing flight, a smaller CL would yield a small induced drag as
compared to level flight conditions. Consequently, the total drag for
climbing flight is smaller than that for level flight at the same velocity.
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Referring again, to the figure above, we can see that the power excess
is different at different values of velocity. The maximum values of
power excess for both graphs is dictated by the value of velocity and at
this point we have:
��
�/�� = =
� �
The figure 3.3 below shows, that at maximum power available for an
aircraft, the maximum power excess yields the maximum rate of climb
that can be generated by an aircraft at that altitude. A conventional
graphical method of determining maximum rate of climb is by graphing
R/C vs �∞ where a horizontal tangent defines the point of maximum
rate of climb as shown in letter (b).
Figure 3.3 Maximum R/C and Maximum Excess Power
Another useful construction is the hodograph diagram, which is a plot

of the airplane’s vertical velocity �� versus it horizontal velocity �ℎ .
Recall that the rate of climb is the vertical velocity of the aircraft, thus a
horizontal tangent to the hodograph defines the point of maximum R/C.
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In addition to that, any line from the origin and intersecting the graph
has the slope �� /�ℎ , which is the angle of climb with respect to the
horizontal axis. In addition to that, the length of the line is equal to �∞
(resultant). As this line is rotated counter clockwise from the reference
horizontal axis, the value of R/C first increases, then goes to a
maximum and then decreases, finally the line becomes tangent to the
graph which gives the maximum climb angle (or the best climb angle)
for which the airplane can maintain steady flight (shown as �� ). Note
that the maximum R/C does not occur at �� .
Climb angle is given by:

�/�
�� =
�∞
Figure 3.4 Hodograph for Best Climb angle and Maximum R/C
For modern aircrafts, large excess power and high thrust available
allow climbing flight at any angle. An example is the high-performance
military aircrafts which can accelerate to supersonic speeds flying
straight up. For those large climb angles, the previous analysis made in
this module is not valid.
Going back to figure 3.2, notice that a difference in low speed rate of
climb performance can be seen between the two types. For a piston
engine-propeller combination, large excess power is available at low
values of velocity just above the stall. Thus, for an airplane on its
landing approach, this gives a comfortable margin of safety in case the
aircraft needed to climb (balked landings). On the contrary, the power
excess available for jets at low velocities, as shown in letter (b), is low
which corresponds to a reduced rate of climb ability as compared to the
piston engine-propeller combination.
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II. Gliding Flight

A. Equations of Motion
Consider an aircraft in a power-off glide, as shown in the figure 3.5

below. The forces acting on the aircraft are lift, drag and weight, but
remember that we considered an aircraft to be in a power-off glide so
that the thrust is zero. The glide path makes an angle � below the
horizontal reference axis. For a steady, unaccelerated glide, the sum of
the forces must be equal to zero.
Figure 3.5 Force Diagram for Gliding Flight
From the summation of forces parallel and perpendicular, we have:
Summation of Forces
Parallel Direction � = ��
Perpendicular Direction � = ��
The glide angle can be calculated by dividing the equations above:

� ��
=
� ��
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� 1
�� = =
� �/�
The equation for glide angle shows that it is a function of the lift to drag
ratio. The higher the lift to drag ratio, the shallower the glide angle.
Thus, the smallest glide angle (�� ) occurs at ( �/� �� which means
�� = �� and corresponds to the maximum range for the glide as
shown below.
� 1
�� = arctan ( ) = arctan ( )
� �/� ��
Figure 3.6 Glide Angle and its Range
B. Gliding Velocity
From the equations of motion for gliding flight, we know that:
� = �� = ��
1
�� = ��2 ��
2
2��
�2 =
��
2��
�� =
��
C. Gliding Range
Referring to figure 3.6, we have the following relations:
ℎ �
tan � = �� tan � =
� �
ℎ
tan �� =
��
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1
tan �� =
�/� ��
Equating:
ℎ 1
=
�� /� ��
�� = ℎ �/� �� = ℎ �� /��
D. Rate of Descent
Referring to figure 3.6 in terms of velocity, we have the following
relations:
Vg
RD
�
Range
��
sin � =
��
�� = �� sin �
2��
�� =
��
� �� sin �
tan � = = �� tan � =
� �� cos �
��
sin � = cos � ∗
��
Substituting to RD, we have:
�� = �� sin �
2��
�� = cos � ∗
��
2��3��2�
�� =
��3�
For minimum rate of descent:
2��3 �
�� =
�3�
�� 2
��
Where: 3�� = ��
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III. Absolute and Service Ceilings

For the sake of discussion, consider a propeller driven aircraft which
shows qualitatively the same result for jets. The power available and
power required are given by the graph in figure 3.7 shown below. Notice
that with an increase in altitude, there is a decrease in power excess. This
can be proven by graphing power available and power required curves for
different altitudes and comparing it at sea level values of power excess.
Figure 3.7 Comparison of Power Excess
The result of the reduction in power excess as altitude increases is that,

the maximum rate of climb decreases as shown in the figure 3.8 below
where the altitude vs R/C max is plotted.
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Figure 3.8 Altitude vs. Maximum R/C
As the aircraft climb at a higher altitude, there will come a point at some
altitude where the power available and power required curves become
tangent with each other as shown by figure 3.9 below. This results in a
zero power excess and this is the only velocity where level and steady
flight is possible. Since the power excess is zero, this denote that the rate
of climb is also zero which means that beyond this altitude the aircraft can
no longer climb at a higher altitude. The altitude where the maximum rate
of climb is zero is defined as the absolute ceiling. Another useful quantity,
is the service ceiling, which is defined as the altitude corresponding to a
max rate of climb of 100 ft/min. The service ceiling represents the practical
upper limit of steady level flight.
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Figure 3.9 Graphical Representation of Zero Rate of Climb
Remember that the rate of climb at service ceiling for:
Propeller Driven Aircraft 100 ft./min
Jet Driven Aircraft 500 ft./min
IV. Time to Climb

In aircraft performance, the time to climb of an aircraft to its design altitude
is an important design consideration. For instance, a commercial airplane
should rapidly climb to its designate altitude in order to avoid inclement
weather, passenger discomfort and traffic avoidance. The time it takes to
climb after takeoff is crucial primarily because passenger safety should
always be prioritized. On another note, say, a fighter aircraft need to
launch from an aircraft carrier and climb as fast as it could to intercept an
invading enemy. The time it took from its takeoff until reaching the desired
altitude is of great importance.
From the definition of rate of climb, it is the vertical velocity component of

an aircraft in climb. Velocity is simply the rate of change of distance where
the distance is the altitude for this case. We have the following equations:
�ℎ
�/� =
��
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�ℎ
�� =
�/�
The equations above show that dt is a small increment in time required to

climb a small increment of altitude (dh). From integral calculus we have:
� ℎ2
�ℎ
�� =
0 ℎ1 �/�
ℎ2
�ℎ
� =
ℎ1 �/�
The equation above shows the time to climb from a lower altitude h1 to a
higher altitude h2.
In order for the equation for time to climb to be useful, we should find a
rate of climb equation (R/C equation) in terms of the variable which is
height, h for this case.
From the similar triangles and definition of absolute and service ceilings,
we have:
Absolute Ceiling
h
Altitude
RCh RCO
Rate of Climb
Since the variation of rate of climb to altitude is linear, then from the graph
of altitude versus rate of climb, we can obtain a rate of climb equation
using similar triangle relationships.
From the figure, we can see the absolute ceiling where we defined that the
rate of climb is zero. Remember that rate of climb at sea level is
designated as ( �� ). Now, if we consider another altitude (h) anywhere
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from sea level to the absolute ceiling (except service ceiling), then a
corresponding rate of climb (RCh) at that altitude will be given.
From similar triangles, we have:
��
�� =
��
ℎ
�� =
�� − ��ℎ
Equating both triangles, we have:
�� ℎ
=
�� − ��ℎ
Notice that, a variable h is now visible in the equation and the ��ℎ is the
rate of climb equation we are looking for. Therefore, solving for ��ℎ :
�� − ��ℎ = ℎ(�� )
�� − �� ℎ = ℎ(�� )
�� ℎ = �� − ℎ(�� )
�� − ℎ ��
��ℎ =
��
�� ℎ
��ℎ = �� −
��
Substituting from the time to climb, we have:

ℎ2 ℎ2
�ℎ �ℎ
� = =
ℎ1 �/� ℎ1 ��ℎ
ℎ2
�ℎ
� =
�� ℎ
ℎ1 �� − ��
The equation for time to climb is now useful for any two altitudes.
Remember that the triangle similarity can also be used for service ceiling
and yield the equation:
��
=
�� − ��
Where:
�� = 100 ��./��
�� = 500 ��./��
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Further solving for time to climb may be done by the following analysis, Let:
�� = �
ℎ1 = 0
�� ℎ
��ℎ = �� −
��
�� ℎ
��ℎ = �� −
�
ℎ
��ℎ = �� (1 − )
�
�−ℎ
��ℎ = �� ( )
�
ℎ2 ℎ2
�ℎ �ℎ
� = =
ℎ1 �/� ℎ1 ��ℎ
ℎ2
�ℎ
� =
0 �� (
�−ℎ
� � )
ℎ2
� �ℎ
� =
�� 0 � − ℎ
�
� = ln � − ln � − ℎ
��
� �
� = ln
�� −ℎ
��
� = ln
�� − ℎ
For time in minutes:
��
� = 2.303 log10
�� − ℎ
Where:
�� ./��
�� .
Finding Absolute Ceiling by time to climb formula

Since the time to climbs is a function of ceiling, it is possible to use this
relation to find the ceiling of an airplane by noting the altitudes attained at
twice the time in a continuous climb. Thus, if the time it takes from 0 to h1
is twice the time to climb from 0 to h2. Note that h1 and h2 are any altitude
in the atmosphere below the absolute ceiling (AC).
� �
� = ln
�� −ℎ
� �
�1 = ln
�� − ℎ1
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� �
�2 = ln
�� − ℎ2
Dividing, t2 by t1:
� �
�� ln
�2 � − ℎ2
=
�1 � �
�� ln
� − ℎ1
�
ln
�2 � − ℎ2
=
�1 �
ln
� − ℎ1
�2 � �
ln = ln
�1 � − ℎ1 � − ℎ2
�2 /�1
� �
ln = ln
� − ℎ1 � − ℎ2
From the assumption that t2 = 2t1:

2
� �
ln = ln
� − ℎ1 � − ℎ2
2
� �
=
� − ℎ1 � − ℎ2
�2 �
2 =
� − ℎ1 � − ℎ2
�2 � − ℎ2 = � � − ℎ1 2
2
� � − ℎ2 = � − ℎ1
�2 − �ℎ2 = �2 − 2�ℎ1 + ℎ21
�2 − �ℎ2 = �2 − 2�ℎ1 + ℎ21
−�ℎ2 = − 2�ℎ1 + ℎ21
2�ℎ1 − �ℎ2 = ℎ21
�(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = ℎ21
ℎ21
�=
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2)
ℎ21
�� =
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2)
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V. Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method)

Modern fighter aircrafts are capable of highly accelerated rate of climb.
This goes beyond the considerations we have made for unaccelerated rate
of climb in the previous sections. In this section, we will introduce a
method dealing with the energy of an airplane which is entirely different
from the forces acting on the airplane that we have considered before.
Consider an aircraft of mass m in flight at some altitude h and with some

velocity V. Due to its altitude, the airplane inherently has a potential energy,
PE, which is equal to the product of its mass, altitude, and gravitational
acceleration (mgh). Due to its velocity, the airplane has kinetic energy, KE,
equal to (1/2)��2 . Therefore, the total energy of the airplane is the sum of
its energies.
�� = �� + ��

1
�� = ��ℎ + ��2
2
The energy per unit weight of the airplane is obtained by dividing, W = mg
which yields the specific energy, denoted by He as:
�� + ��

=
� �
1 2
�� ℎ 2 ��
= +
� � �
1 2
��ℎ 2 ��
�� = +
��
�2
�� = ℎ +
2�
Note that by dimensional analysis, we have:
��
�� = =�
�
Therefore, the specific energy is given in terms of height, which is why it is
also called the energy height of the aircraft. The energy height, He of the
aircraft is the sum of its potential and kinetic energies per unit weight.
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Figure 3.10 Energy Height Contours
The figure above shows contours of constant energy height, He which is

simply an Altitude-Mach number map where the dashed lines represent
the lines of constant energy height.
Example:
Consider airplane A and airplane B flying at 30,000 ft. and 10,000 ft.
respectively. If airplane A is flying at M = 0.81 and airplane B is flying at M
= 1.3, then by calculation both aircrafts have the same energy height, He of
40,000 ft.
Solution:
For 30,000 ft:
�
�30� = 519 � − (0.003566 ∗ 30000 ��)
��
�30� = 519 � − 106.98 �
�30� = 412.02 �
�= ��
��
�= 1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 412.02 �
��
� = 994.91 ��/�
� = ��
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��
� = 0.81 ∗ 994.91 = 805.55
� �
�2
�� = ℎ +
2�
��
(805.55 )2
�� = 30,000 + �
2(32.2)
�� = 400076.2547 �� ≈ 40000 ��
For 10,000 ft:

�
�30� = 519 � − (0.003566 ∗ 10000 ��)
��
�30� = 519 � − 35.66 �
�30� = 483.34 �
��
�= 1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 483.34 �
��
� = 1077.58 ��/�
� = ��
��
� = 1.3 ∗ 1077.58 = 1400.85
� �
2
�
�� = ℎ +
2�
��
(1400.85 )2
�� = 40000 + �
2(32.2)
�� = 40471.75305 �� ≈ 40000 ��
As shown by our computation, the energy height for airplane A and B are
both 40000 ft. However, airplane A has more potential energy than kinetic
energy while airplane B has more kinetic energy than potential energy. If
both airplanes maintain their same states of total energy, then both are
capable of zooming to an altitude of 40,000 ft. at zero velocity
(represented by point C) simply by trading all their kinetic energy for
potential energy.
Consider another airplane, D, flying at an altitude of 50,000 ft at M = 1.85

which gives us an energy height of 100,000 ft and is indeed capable of
zooming to 100000 ft by trading its kinetic energy for potential energy.
Since airplane D is in a much higher energy state (100000 ft), compared to
airplane A and B (40000 ft), it has much greater capability for speed and
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altitude performance. In air combat, having high He, everything else being
equal, is favorable compared to aircrafts with smaller He.
How does an airplane change its energy state? How could airplane A and
B increase their energy height equal to that of airplane D? Let us try to
quantify.
Recall that from the rate of climb free body diagram and applying Newton’s
Second Law of motion:
��
� − � − �� = �
��
�
�=
�
� ��
� − � = �� +
� ��
1 ��
� − � = � (�� + )
� ��
�−� 1 ��
= (�� + )
� � ��
Multiplying both sides by V, we have:

�−� 1 ��
∗ � = �(�� + )
� � ��
�� − �� ℎ
= �� + �� /� = �� =
� � ��
Recall that from power excess:
�� − ��
= = ��
� �
�� = ��
Therefore, specific power excess:
�ℎ � ��
�� = +
��
The equation for specific power excess states that an airplane with excess
power can use this excess for rate of climb (dh/dt) or to accelerate along
its flight path (dV/dt) or for a combination of both.
Example:
Consider an airplane in level flight at a velocity of 800 ft/s. Assume the
pilot pushes the throttle all the way forward, an excess power is generated
in the amount Ps = 300 ft/s. The equation for Ps illustrates that the pilot can
choose to use all this excess power to obtain a maximum unaccelerated
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rate of climb of 300 ft/s (dV/dt = 0 and Ps = dh/dt = R/C). In this case the
velocity along the flight path stays at 800 ft/s.
Alternatively, the pilot can choose to maintain level flight (that is dh/dt = 0)
and to use all the excess power to accelerate at the rate of dV/dt where:
�� 32.2 ��/�2 (300 ��/�)
= = = 12.1 ��/�2
�� 800 ��/�
On the other hand, some combination could be achieved by, such that the
rate of climb dh/dt =100 ft/s along with an acceleration along the flight path
of dV/dt = 8.1 ft/s2.
�ℎ � ��
Note that �� = ��
+�
��
is a generalization of R/C equation given for
steady climb where as in this section, we are treating a more general case
of climb with a finite acceleration.
Returning to the energy height, we can derive and express it in terms of dt:
�2
�� = ℎ +
2�
��
�� = �ℎ +
�
Multiplying both sides by 1/dt:

��
�� ∗
= �ℎ +
��
�� ℎ ��
= +
��
The differential form of energy height as shown above is identical to PS (in
ft/s):
�� ℎ ��
= +
��
�ℎ ��
�� = +
��
��
�� =
��
Therefore, the time rate of change of energy height is equal to the specific
excess power. This answers the questions made above. An airplane can
increase its energy state simply by the application of excess power. In
other words, airplane A and B can reach the high energy state of airplane
D if they have enough excess power to do so.
24 | P a g e
This immediately leads to the next question. How can we ascertain

whether or not a given airplane have enough PS to reach a certain energy
height?
To address this question, recall that power excess is the difference
between power available and power required. For a given altitude, h, the
excess power (PS) can be plotted versus velocity or Mach number. For a
subsonic airplane below the drag divergence Mach number, the resulting
curve will resemble the sketch shown below:
Figure 3.11 Excess Power vs. Mach Number
At a given h1, Ps will be an inverted U shaped curve which is essentially

the same for rate of climb vs velocity graph shown in the previous section.
As the altitude increases to h2 and h3 respectively, Ps is getting smaller.
Note that power excess decreases with increase in altitude as shown in
the previous sections. Hence, the graph above is simply a plot of Ps vs
Mach number with altitude as a parameter. This graph can be cross
plotted as an Altitude-Mach number map using Ps as a parameter as
shown below:
25 | P a g e
Figure 3.12 Altitude vs. Mach Number with Excess Power as a Parameter
An entire series of Ps contours can be generated in the Altitude-Mach

number map. For a supersonic airplane, the Ps vs Mach curves at different
altitudes will appear as an inverted U-shaped curve but with a “dent”
around M=1 due to the large increase in drag in the transonic flight regime
as shown below in letter (a) and in turn can be cross plotted on the
Altitude-Mach number map as shown in letter (b).
Figure 3.13 Excess Power vs. Mach Number for Supersonic Flows
26 | P a g e
Figure 3.14 Altitude vs. Mach Number with Excess Power as a Parameterfor
Supersonic Flows
Overlaying all the Ps contours and specific energy states on an Altitude-

Mach number map. We will have the following curve:
Figure 3.15 Altitude vs. Mach Number with PS contours and He
27 | P a g e
In the figure above, note that Ps contours always correspond to a given

airplane at a given load factor, whereas He lines are universal fundamental
physical curves that have nothing to do with any given airplane. This figure
clearly establishes what energy states are obtainable by a given airplane.
The regime of sustained flight lies inside the envelope formed by the Ps =
0 contour. Hence, all the values of He inside this envelope are obtainable
by the airplane. A comparison of this figure for different airplanes will
clearly show what regions of altitude and Mach number an airplane has
maneuver advantages over another.
In addition to this, the figure also represents the proper flight path to
achieve minimum time to climb. First consider two energy heights, He1 and
He2 where He2 > He1. The time to move between these energy states can
be obtained from:
��
�� =
��
Integrating:
�2 �� 2
��
�� =
�1 ��
1
�� 2
��
�2 − �1 =
�� 1 ��
The equation above shows that the time to climb will be a minimum when
PS is maximum. Maximum Ps is tangent to the He curve as shown by
points A to I in the graph. The heavy curve through these points illustrates
the variation of altitude and Mach number along the flight path for
minimum time to climb. The line segment between D and D’ represents a
constant energy dive to accelerate through the drag divergence region
near Mach 1.
VI. Sample Problems

1. A light, single-engine, propeller driven airplane has the given
specifications listed below, at SSLC conditions:
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
Fuel Capacity = 65 gal. of aviation gas
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8
28 | P a g e
Find, the PR, PA, R/C @ Sea Level, Climb Angle, R/Cmax if the aircraft is
flying 150 ft/s and the engine is rated at 230 HP.
Solution:
1
� = � = ��2 ��
2
2� 2 ∗ 2950
�� = 2 = = 0.63
�� 0.002377 ∗ 1502 ∗ 174
�2�
�� = �� + �� = �� +
��
2
��
�� = �� +
��
0.63 2
�� = 0.025 + = 0.047
35.8 2
� ∗ 0.8 ∗
174
2�3 �2�
�� =
�∞ ��3�
2 2950 3 0.047 2 ��

�� = 3
= 33116.61
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 0.63 �
�� 1 ��
�� = 33116.61 ∗ = 60.21 ��
� ��
550 �
�� = ⴄ�
�� = 0.8 ∗ 230 = 184 ��
��
�/� =
�
33000 ��/��
184 �� − 60.21 �� ∗
�/� = 1 ��
2950
�/� = 1384.77��/��
�� − ��

�/�� = =
� �
4 2� 3�� 3
�� = �
3 �∞ � �� 3
29 | P a g e
35.8 2 3
3 ∗ 0.025 ∗ � ∗ 0.8 ∗
4 2 ∗ 2950 174
�� = ∗ 2950 ∗
3 0.002377 ∗ 174 35.8 2 3
� ∗ 0.8 ∗
174
�� 1 ��
�� = 27546.75 ∗ = 50.085 ��
� ��
550 �
33000 ��/��
184 �� − 50.085 �� ∗
�/�� = 1 ��
2950
�/�� = 1498.03 ��/��
�/� = � sin �
�/�
� = sin−1 ( )
�
1384.77�� 1��
�� ∗ 60 �
� = sin−1 ( )
150
� = 8.85⁰
2. An airplane takes, 7 min, 30 sec to reach 8000 ft altitude. In that same
interval, (i.e. 15 min from sea level) it reaches 13600 ft. altitude. What
is the absolute ceiling?
Solution:
ℎ21
�� =
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2)
(8000)^2
�� = = 26666.67 ��.
((2 ∗ 8000) − 13600)
3. For a rate of climb equation given as RC=850-1/12 h (ft./min). find:
a. Time to climb from sea level to 300 ft.
b. Time to climb from sea level to 600 ft.
Solution:
ℎ2
�ℎ
� =
ℎ1 �/�
300
�ℎ
� =
1
0 (850 − 12 ℎ)
30 | P a g e
Let:
1
� = 850 − ℎ
12
1
�� =− �ℎ
12
�ℎ =− 12��
300
−12��
� =
0 �
� =− 12 ln � �� 0 − 300
1
� =− 12 ln (850 − ℎ ) �� 0 − 300
12
1 1
� =− 12 ln (850 − 300 ) + 12 ln (850 − 0 )
12 12
� =− 80.58 + 80.94 = 0.36 �� = 21.6 ��
4. From problem #1. Calculate the minimum glide angle at maximum
gliding range if gliding starts at 10000 ft.
Solution:
1
tan �� =
�/� ��
�2�
�� = �� =
��
�� = ��
�� = 2��
1
tan �� =
�� /2��
2��
tan �� =
��
2 ∗ 0.025
tan �� =
35.8 2
0.025 ∗ � ∗ 0.8 ∗
174
2 ∗ 0.025
�� = tan−1 ( ) = 4.20⁰
35.8 2
0.025 ∗ � ∗ 0.8 ∗
174
�� = ℎ �/� �� = ℎ �� /��
31 | P a g e
��
�� = 10000( )
2��
35.8 2
0.025 ∗ � ∗ 0.8 ∗
174
�� = 10000(
2 ∗ 0.025
�� = 136059.33 ��
VII. Plate No. 1 – Midterm

1. For an airplane weighing 4000 lb, the excess horsepower at sea level
is 60 hp; at 10000 ft altitude there is an excess power of 17 hp. What is
its service ceiling?
2. At sea level an airplane’s rate of climb is 1000 ft. per min. Its absolute
ceiling is 15000 ft. How long will it take to climb to 7000 ft altitude?
3. An airplane takes, 7 min, 30 sec to reach 8000 ft altitude. In that same
interval, (i.e. 15 min from sea level) it reaches 13600 ft. altitude. What
is the ceiling?
4. An airplane weighs 4600 lbs; its rate of climb at sea level is 1100
ft./min; its absolute ceiling is 14,000 ft. What is its service ceiling?
5. The service ceiling of an airplane is 15,000 ft. Its rate of climb at sea
level is 890 ft./min, what is the absolute ceiling?
6. An airplane weighs 4,200 lbs. What is the excess horsepower at its
service ceiling?
7. At sea level, an airplane weighing 5200 lbs has 135 excess
horsepower. Its absolute ceiling is 19,000 ft.
a. How long will it take to climb from sea level to 7000 ft?
b. How long will it take to climb from sea level to 8000 ft?
8. A Beechcraft airplane has a service ceiling of 18000 ft. Its rate of climb
at sea level is 1200 ft. per min. How long will it take to climb from sea
level to 10,000 ft. altitude?
9. A Waco airplane, whose service ceiling is 14000 ft., climbs 950 ft. per
min at sea level. How long will it require to climb from sea level to 8000
ft?
10. A Luscombe Trainer climbs 900 ft. per min at sea level. How long does
it take to climb to its service ceiling which is 15,000 ft?
32 | P a g e

AE 321 - Module 03 - Midterm

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AE 321 - Module 03 - Midterm

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE 03:

Figures and Tables No.

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Activities Time (min)

Figure 3.1 Flight Diagram of an Airplane in Climb

Multiplying the summation of forces parallel to the flight path by �∞ :

To prove the point made in the statement above, consider an aircraft

If the airplane is assumed to be in level flight, we have:

If the airplane is assumed to be in a climb at 30⁰:

Figure 3.3 Maximum R/C and Maximum Excess Power

Another useful construction is the hodograph diagram, which is a plot

Climb angle is given by:

II. Gliding Flight

Consider an aircraft in a power-off glide, as shown in the figure 3.5

Figure 3.5 Force Diagram for Gliding Flight

From the summation of forces parallel and perpendicular, we have:

The glide angle can be calculated by dividing the equations above:

Figure 3.6 Glide Angle and its Range

III. Absolute and Service Ceilings

Figure 3.7 Comparison of Power Excess

The result of the reduction in power excess as altitude increases is that,

Figure 3.8 Altitude vs. Maximum R/C

Figure 3.9 Graphical Representation of Zero Rate of Climb

Remember that the rate of climb at service ceiling for:

Propeller Driven Aircraft 100 ft./min

Jet Driven Aircraft 500 ft./min

IV. Time to Climb

From the definition of rate of climb, it is the vertical velocity component of

The equations above show that dt is a small increment in time required to

Substituting from the time to climb, we have:

Finding Absolute Ceiling by time to climb formula

From the assumption that t2 = 2t1:

V. Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method)

Consider an aircraft of mass m in flight at some altitude h and with some

����� �������� ������ = �� + ��

����� �������� ������ �� + ��

Figure 3.10 Energy Height Contours

The figure above shows contours of constant energy height, He which is

For 10,000 ft:

Consider another airplane, D, flying at an altitude of 50,000 ft at M = 1.85

Multiplying both sides by V, we have:

Multiplying both sides by 1/dt:

This immediately leads to the next question. How can we ascertain

Figure 3.11 Excess Power vs. Mach Number

At a given h1, Ps will be an inverted U shaped curve which is essentially

An entire series of Ps contours can be generated in the Altitude-Mach

Overlaying all the Ps contours and specific energy states on an Altitude-

Figure 3.15 Altitude vs. Mach Number with PS contours and He

In the figure above, note that Ps contours always correspond to a given

VI. Sample Problems

2 2950 3 0.047 2 ����

����� ��������� �� − �����

���� = ℎ �/� ��� = ℎ �� /�� ���

VII. Plate No. 1 – Midterm

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�� = �� + ��

�� + ��

2 2950 3 0.047 2 ��

�� − ��

�� = ℎ �/� �� = ℎ �� /��