AE 321 - Module 05 - Midterm

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 5: Takeoff and Landing
LEARNING MODULE 05:

Take-off and Landing
AE 321 – AERODYNAMICS II
1|Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Takeoff Performance 1 5
Landing Performance 1 11
Sample Problems 15
Plate No. 1 17
2|Page
TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Edition)
4
[E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Figures and Tables No.

Figures 5.1-5.5 are taken from the reference above. 1
Table 5.1 is taken from the reference above. 2
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Modules
Takeoff Performance 30
Landing Performance 30
References
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd
60
Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Book Company
Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 30
Plate No. 1 30
Quiz No. 1 60
TOTAL
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.
3|Page
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1: Apply Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
knowledge of CLO 1: Valuing Topic Learning
mathematics, physical the study of subsonic Outcomes (TLO)
MLO 1: Explain
sciences, engineering aerodynamics and its takeoff performance TLO 21:
sciences to the practice application on the and landing Discuss
of aeronautical aviation industry performance using the concept of
engineering. through aerodynamic takeoff
force diagrams
PLO 4: Function in computations on performance
MLO 2: Formulate
multi-disciplinary and aircraft performance. through their
working equations for
multi-cultural teams CLO 3: Quantify definitions and
takeoff and landing
PLO 5: Identify, aerodynamic forces presentation of
performance using
formulate, and solve along flight using force diagrams.
force diagrams and TLO 22:
aeronautical aerodynamic equations application to Newton’s Derive
engineering problems. derived from Newton’s second law. working equations
PLO 8: Understand the Second Law of Motion. MLO 3: Identify for takeoff
impact of aeronautical CLO 4: Utilize quantities affecting performance
engineering solutions in knowledge in airplane takeoff performance through the
global, economic, performance by application of
using the derived
environmental, and applying theories and force diagrams to
working formula.
societal context principles of flight in Newton’s second
PLO 9: Recognize the solving problems. law.
need for, and engage CLO 5: Display TLO 23:
in life-long learning analytical skills by Discuss
PLO 11: Use performing quantities
techniques, skills, and computations in flight affecting takeoff
modern engineering performance
performance problems.
tools necessary for through the
CLO 9: Display parameters
aeronautical professional involved in the
engineering practice commitment to ethical working
PLO 12: Knowledge practice by showing equations.
and understanding of sense of responsibility TLO 24:
engineering and in complying and Discuss
management principles compiling academic the concept of
as a member and requirement. landing
leader in a team, to performance
manage projects and in through their
multidisciplinary definitions and
environments. presentation of
force diagrams.
PLO 13: Apply
TLO 25:
acquired aeronautical Derive
engineering knowledge working equations
and skills for national for landing
4|Page
CONTENT
I. Takeoff Performance
The previous sections discussed airplane performance where we assumed
that the acceleration is zero. In other words, we have dealt with static
performance. This chapter will focus on aspects of airplane performance
with finite acceleration or dynamic performance such as takeoff and
landing runs, turning flight, and accelerated rate of climb.
An airplane started on one end of the runway and accelerates as it is

cleared for takeoff. Notice that at some point on the runway, the airplane
noses up and become airborne. This brings us the question, what is the
running length along the ground required by the airplane, starting from
zero velocity, to gain flight speed and lift off the ground? We will define this
distance as the ground roll, or lift off distance sLO.
Figure 5.1 Free Body Diagram of an object in motion
Addressing the question above, let us look at a body in an accelerated

rectilinear motion with a mass m, and experiencing a constant force F as
shown in the figure above.
From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we have:

� = ��
��
�=�
��
�
�� = ��
�
Assuming that the body starts from rest, at a location where s = 0 at time t
= 0 and is accelerated to a velocity V over the distance s at time t.
Integrating between these two points and remembering that F and m are
constant, we have:
�
� �
�� = ��
0 � 0
5|Page
�
�= �
�
�
�= �
�
Considering an instant where the velocity is V, the incremental distance

covered during an incremental amount of time is given by the differential
form of velocity:
��
�=
��
��
�� = �� =
�
Performing integration from s = 0 to s = s and t = 0 to t = t:

�
� �
�� = ��
0 � 0
� �2 �
�= �� = �
�2 �
� 2
� � �)
(
�=
� 2
�2 �
�=
2�
The equation above gives us the distance (s) required for a body of mass
(m) to accelerate to velocity V under the constant action of a force F.
Consider the free body diagram of an aircraft during its ground roll as
shown below. In addition to the four forces we have in steady level flight,
we also have a resistance force R, which impedes the aircraft’s forward
motion because of the rolling friction between the tires and the ground.
Figure 5.2 Free Body Diagram of an airplane in Takeoff
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The resistance force, R is given by the formula of frictional force given by:
� = ��
Where:
N = Normal force
F = Frictional Force
� = Frictional Coefficient.
Applying to the resistance forces from the diagram we have:

� = ��
� = �(� − �)
Summation of forces parallel to the ground and employing Newton’s

Second Law of Motion:
�� = � − � − �
�� = � − � − �(� − �)
�� = � − � − � � − � = ��
��
�� = � − � − � � − � = �
��
The equation above gives the local instantaneous acceleration of the

airplane, dV/dt as a function of T, D, L, and W. For takeoff, over most of
the ground roll, T is reasonably constant (holds true for jets), and W is
constant. However, both L and D vary with velocity such that:
1
� = �∞ �2∞ ��
2
1 2
�2�
� = �∞ �∞ � (�� + ∅ )
2 ��
Notice that for the drag equation presented, the ∅ stands out and requires
some explanation. When aircraft is flying close to the ground, the strength
of the wing tip vortices is somewhat diminished because of its interaction
with the ground. Since these tip vortices induce downwash on the wing, it
generates induced drag or drag due to lift. The downwash and hence, the
induced drag is reduced when the aircraft flies close to the ground. This
phenomenon is called the ground effect. This causes the aircraft to have
the tendency of flaring, or “floating” above the ground near the instant of
landing. The reduced drag, in the presence of ground effect is accounted
for by the term ∅ whose value is ≤ 1. An approximation of the expression
∅, based on aerodynamic theory, is given by McCormick as:
16ℎ/� 2
∅= 2
1 + 16ℎ/�
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Where:
h = height of the wing above the ground
b = wing span of the aircraft
To accurately calculate the variation of velocity with time during the ground
roll, and the ground roll required for takeoff, the equation must be
integrated numerically to account for the variation of Lift and Drag with
velocity as well as any velocity effect on Thrust.
��
�� = � − � − � � − � = �
��
A typical variation of these forces are sketched in the figure below. Note
�2 �
that from � = 2�
, s is directly proportional to V2 and hence the horizontal
axis from the figure below might as well be V2. Since both lift and drag are
1
proportional to the dynamic pressure �∞ = �∞ �2∞ , they appear as linear
2
variations. The figure sketched below shows that Thrust is relatively
constant, which is a case for jet driven airplanes.
Figure 5.3 Force vs. Distance along the Ground

8|Page
An approximation for the lift of distance can be obtained by assuming T is

constant. In addition to that, assume an average value for Drag and
Resistance force, � + � � − � �� and that this average value, taken as
a constant force, produces the proper lift off distance sLO. Considering an
effective constant force acting on the airplane during takeoff roll as:
�� = � − � + � � − � �� = ��
Notice that the assumptions are fairly reasonable such that the sum of
� + � � − � versus V2 is reasonably constant as shown by a dashed line
representing the sum. Hence, the accelerating force � − � + � � − � is
also reasonably constant as sketched by the difference between the
Thrust curve and the dashed line.
Substituting to the equation of s, we can say that:

�2 �
�=
2�
2
�� (�/�)
�� =
2 (� − � + � � − � �� )
Where:
�� = lift off distance or ground roll
�� = lift off velocity
�
�= �
where g, is the acceleration due to gravity.
As a consideration, to ensure a margin of safety during takeoff, the lift off

velocity is 20% higher than the stalling velocity and is given by the
equation:
2�
�� = 1.2�� = 1.2
�∞ � ��
Substituting to SLO, we have:

2
2�
1.2 (�/�)
�∞ � ��
�� =
2 (� − � + � � − � �� )
2�
1.44 ∗ � � � (�/�)
∞ ��
�� =
2 (� − � + � � − � �� )
1.44�2
�� =
��∞ � �� − � + � � − � ��
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In order to make computations for the equation of lift off distance given
above, Shevell suggests that the average force be set equal to its
instantaneous value at a velocity equal to 0.7VLO that is:
� + � � − � �� = � + � � − � 0.7��
This means that the velocity to be used for lift and drag should be set to
70% of the lift off speed:
2�
� = 0.7 �� = 0.84
�∞ � ��
A further simplification may be obtained by assuming that thrust is much
larger than either Drag or Resistance Force, during takeoff. Ignoring the
values of D and R, we have:
1.44�2
�� =
��∞ � ��
This equation illustrates some important physical trends, as follows:

1. Lift off distance is very sensitive to the airplane’s weight varying directly
as the square of Weight. In other words, if the weight of the airplane is
doubled, the lift off distance required would be 4 times as much.
2. Lift off distance is dependent on ambient density, �∞ . Assuming thrust
to be proportional to the ambient density, then the equation above
demonstrates:
1
�� ∝
�
1
�� ∝
�∞
This explains that on hot summer days, where the ambient density is
lower than on cooler days, a given aircraft needs a longer ground roll to
get off the ground. The same case applies for airports situated at high
altitudes above sea level where density is much lower compared to that
of sea level ambient density.
3. The lift distance may be decreased by increasing the wing area and
CLmax (which is why flaps are used at low angles during takeoff) and
increasing thrust.
Note that as defined by the FAR, the total takeoff distance is the sum of
the ground roll sLO and the distance (measured along the ground) to clear
a 35 ft. height (for jet powered civilian transport) and 50 ft. height (for all
other airplanes.
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II. Landing Performance

Consider an airplane during landing. After the airplane touched the ground,
the force diagram during the ground roll is exactly the same given for the
takeoff performance but the instantaneous acceleration is negative.
However, we assume that in order to minimize the distance required for a
complete stop, the pilot has decreased the thrust to zero at touch down.
Figure 5.4 Force Diagram during Landing
Therefore, from the summation of forces, we have:

�� = � − � − � �� = 0
�� =− � − �(� − �)
�� =− � − � � − � = ��
��
�� =− � − � � − � = �
��
A typical variation of these forces on the airplane during landing is

sketched below. The landing roll distance or ground roll distance is
designated as sL. Accurate calculations can be obtained by numerically
integrating the equation above with the variations of lift and drag.
Assume an average constant value for � − � � − � which yields correct

ground roll distance for landing. Once again, we assume that � − � � −
� �� is equal to its instantaneous value evaluated at 0.7�� . VT is the
touch down velocity.
�� =− � + � � − � �� = ��
�� =− � + � � − � �� =− � + � � − � 0.7��
That is, the velocity for lift and drag should be 70% of VT.
11 | P a g e
Figure 5.5 Force vs Distance along the ground during Landing
As shown by the figure above, the net decelerating force is given by � +

� � − � , which can vary considerably with distance as shown by the
dashed line. Hence, our assumption here for landing is more tenuous than
for takeoff.
Recall that:
��
�� = �� =
�
��
�� = ��
�
Integrating from the point where s = sL to s = 0 and t = 0 to t = t:

0
� �
�� = ��
�� 0
� �2
− �� =
�2
� �2 �
�� =− �� = �
�2 �
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� 2
� ( � �)
�� =−
� 2
2
� �
�� =−
2�
The equation above gives the distance required to decelerate from an

initial velocity V to zero under the action of a constant force F. Accounting
for the Feff and that V = VT, we have:
�2� (�/�)
�� =−
2( − � + � � − � 0.7�� )
�2� (�/�)
�� =
2( � + � � − � 0.7�� )
In order to maintain a factor of safety, we have:

2�
�� = 1.3�� = 1.3
�∞ � ��
Substituting to SL, we have:
2
2�
1.3 (�/�)
�∞ � ��
�� =
2( � + � � − � 0.7�� )
2�
1.69 ∗
�∞ � �� ∗ (�/�)
�� =
2( � + � � − � 0.7�� )
1.69�2
�� =
��∞ � �� ( � + � � − � 0.7�� )
Note that the velocity for lift and drag should be:
2�
� = 0.7�� = 0.91
�∞� ��
It is important to remember that the coefficient of friction for aircraft that

use brakes are estimated to be 0.4 for a paved surface. However, for a jet,
thrust reversal is used using the landing ground roll. Thrust reversal is
created by ducting air from the jet engines and blowing it in the upstream
direction, opposite to the usual downstream direction during thrust
production. Accounting for thrust reversal, the thrust vector is reversed and
points in the drag direction, aiding deceleration and shortening ground roll.
Therefore, we have:
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��
�� =− � − � − � � − � = �
��
�� =− � − � + � � − � �� =− � + � + � � − � 0.7��
Assuming TR (Thrust Reversed) is constant:

1.69�2
�� =
��∞� �� (�� + � + � � − � 0.7�� )
Another ploy to shorten ground roll is to decrease lift to near zero. This is
facilitated by spoilers which destroys lift in an aerodynamic surface.
Consequently, this action impose the full weight of the airplane in the tires
and the ground thereby increasing the resistance force due to friction.
Therefore, for landing at zero lift, we have:
1.69�2
�� =
��∞ � �� ( � + � � 0.7�� )
The FAR defines the total landing distance as the sum of the ground roll
distance plus the distance (measured along the ground) to clear a 50 ft
height.
Frictional Coefficients
Brakes Off �
Concrete runway, or wooden deck 0.02
Hard turf, Level Field 0.04
Short Grass 0.05
Long Grass 0.10
Soft Ground 0.10 - 0.30
Brakes On �
Concrete runway 0.5
Hard turf 0.4
Short Grass 0.3
Long Grass 0.5
Table 5.1 Frictional Coefficients
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III. Sample Problems

1. A light, single-engine, propeller driven airplane has the given
specifications listed below, at SSLC conditions:
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
Fuel Capacity = 65 gal. of aviation gas
BHPSea-level¬ =230 HP
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8
μ = 0.02
CLmax at ground roll = 1.0
Height of wing to the ground = 6 ft.
Find the total lift-off distance.
Solution:
2�
�� =
��
2 ∗ 2950
�� = = 119.436 ��/�
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1.0
For VLO:
�� = 1.2�� = 1.2 119.436 = 143.32 ��/�
For lift, drag:

� = 0.7�� = 0.7 ∗ 143.32 = 100.326 ��/�
Lift:
1 2 1 2
�= �� = ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 100.326 ∗ 174 ∗ 1 = 2081.495273 ��
2 2
Drag:
1 �2�
� = ��2 � �� + ∅
2 ��
16ℎ/� 2 16 ∗ 6/35.8 2
∅= 2 = 2 = 0.8779
1 + 16ℎ/� 1 + 16 ∗ 6/35.8
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1 12
�= ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 100.326 2 ∗ 174 ∗ 0.025 + 0.8779
2 � ∗ 0.8 ∗ 7.37
� = 150.69 ��
Thrust for the setting where, PA = PR

ⴄBHP = TV
550 ��/�
ⴄBHP 0.8 ∗ 230 �� ∗ 1 ��
T= = = 1008.7116 ��
� 100.326 ��/�
For Takeoff Roll:

1.44�2
�� =
��∞ � �� − �+� �−� ��
1.44 2950 2
�� =
32. 2 ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1 ∗ (1008.7116 − [150.69 + 0.02 2950 − 2081.495 ]
�� = 1119.325 ��.
2. Estimate the sea level landing roll for an airplane X. Assume landing
weight of 2850 lbs, CLmax with flaps at touchdown is 1.8. After touch
down, assume L=0. Airplane X’s specification are listed below.
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
Wo = 2950 lbs
CDo = 0.025
� = 0.4
Solution:
2�
�� =
��
2 ∗ 2850
�� = = 87.5 ��/�
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1.8
For Touchdown velocity, VT:

�� = 1.3�� = 1.3 87.5 = 113.75 ��/�
For drag:
� = 0.7�� = 0.7 ∗ 113.75 = 79.625 ��/�
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Drag:
1 �2�
� = ��2 � �� + ∅ �� = 0
2 ��
1 1
� = ��2� �� = ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 79.6252 ∗ 174 ∗ 0.025 = 32.78 ��
2 2
1.69�2
�� =
��∞ � �� ( � + � � 0.7�� )
1.69 2850 2
�� =
32.2 ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1.8 32.78 + 0.4 ∗ 2850
�� = 488.26 ��.
IV. Plate No. 3 – Midterm

1. Estimate the sea-level landing ground roll distance for the airplane in
problem #4. Assume the airplane is landing with a weight of 2900 lb.
The maximum lift coefficient with flaps at touchdown is 1.8. After
touchdown, assume zero lift.
2. Estimate the sea-level lift off distance for the airplane in problem #3.
Assume a paved runway. Also, during the ground roll, the angle of
attack is restricted by the requirement that the tail not drag the ground.
Hence, assume CLmax during the ground roll is limited to 0.8. Also,
when the airplane is on the ground, the wings are 5 ft. above the
ground.
17 | P a g e

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE 05:

Figures and Tables No.

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Activities Time (min)

An airplane started on one end of the runway and accelerates as it is

Figure 5.1 Free Body Diagram of an object in motion

Addressing the question above, let us look at a body in an accelerated

From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we have:

Considering an instant where the velocity is V, the incremental distance

Performing integration from s = 0 to s = s and t = 0 to t = t:

Figure 5.2 Free Body Diagram of an airplane in Takeoff

Applying to the resistance forces from the diagram we have:

Summation of forces parallel to the ground and employing Newton’s

The equation above gives the local instantaneous acceleration of the

Figure 5.3 Force vs. Distance along the Ground

An approximation for the lift of distance can be obtained by assuming T is

Substituting to the equation of s, we can say that:

As a consideration, to ensure a margin of safety during takeoff, the lift off

Substituting to SLO, we have:

This equation illustrates some important physical trends, as follows:

II. Landing Performance

Figure 5.4 Force Diagram during Landing

Therefore, from the summation of forces, we have:

A typical variation of these forces on the airplane during landing is

Assume an average constant value for � − � � − � which yields correct

Figure 5.5 Force vs Distance along the ground during Landing

As shown by the figure above, the net decelerating force is given by � +

Integrating from the point where s = sL to s = 0 and t = 0 to t = t:

The equation above gives the distance required to decelerate from an

In order to maintain a factor of safety, we have:

It is important to remember that the coefficient of friction for aircraft that

���� =− � − � + � � − � ��� =− � + � + � � − � 0.7��

Assuming TR (Thrust Reversed) is constant:

Table 5.1 Frictional Coefficients

III. Sample Problems

For lift, drag:

Thrust for the setting where, PA = PR

For Takeoff Roll:

��� = 1119.325 ��.

For Touchdown velocity, VT:

IV. Plate No. 3 – Midterm

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�� =− � − � + � � − � �� =− � + � + � � − � 0.7��

�� = 1119.325 ��.