CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 OYSTERS

Molluscs, such as oysters and clams, and crustaceans, such as shrimps, prawns,

lobsters, and crabs, are all examples of shellfish, which is a general term for

aquatic invertebrate organisms with a hard outer coating (Anisuzzaman et al.,

2016).

Oysters are a general term for a wide variety of salt-water bivalve mollusk

families living in marine or brackish water environments. The valves of certain

species are heavily calcified, and many are irregular in shape. The superfamily

Ostreoidea includes many oysters, but not all. Oysters are often cooked or eaten

raw and are considered a delicacy in some areas. The pearl generated within the

mantle of some varieties of pearl oysters is harvested. The translucent shells of

windowpane oysters are harvested and used to manufacture a variety of

beautiful products (Wikipedia, 2021).

Oysters are good filter feeders and can have a big impact on the water column

where they live (Padilla, 2010). Oysters filter plankton and organic debris from

the water column as filter feeders (Jud and Layman, 2011).

Because oysters filter a huge amount of water, a flow-through channel or a self-

contained "living stream"' is suggested for storing samples for long periods of

1
time. Small animals or samples may be held in aquaria, in which case extra air

stones and constant monitoring may be required. For experimental purposes, a

properly conditioned I 0-gal (38-L) aquarium can house up to 350 oysters (5-20

mm). The number of animals that can be held in an aquarium reduces as their

size grows. Due to the rapid degeneration of tissues, it is critical to remove

moribund and dead shellfish from tanks as soon as possible (Tubiash, 1971).

Individual oysters may filter up to 50 gallons of water per day, according to

multiple studies, and oyster reefs can dramatically enhance water quality and

clarity. Oysters consume nitrogenous substances (nitrates and ammonia),

phosphates, plankton, detritus, bacteria, dissolved organic substances and

eliminate them from water (Jonas, 1997). What isn't utilised for animal growth

is ejected as solid waste pellets, which breakdown into nitrogen in the

atmosphere (Crisp, 1985).

Nigeria's extensive water resources, particularly the Lagos lagoon, are among

the most stressed by human population increase, urbanization, and

industrialisation. Garbage disposal and management in Lagos, Nigeria, poses

major environmental issues, as traditional waste disposal practices such as land

filling, dumping, and incineration pollute subterranean and surface water bodies

(Adeyemi et al., 2009).

Different hematologic and serologic indicators have been tested to determine

the condition of bivalve mollusks' defense (immune) system (Feng, 1988).

2
Changes in ambient temperature and salinity influence bivalve defensive cells

and hemolymph molecules (Fisher, 1988), which could explain the wide

variation in defense responses of oysters collected at different locations and/or

times of year (Oliver and Fisher, 1995). This heterogeneity is a major challenge

for research attempting to understand the relationship between defense

processes and infection and resistance in protozoan parasite-infected oysters

Crassostrca virginicai (Chintala et al., 1994).

Fig 1: Oyster (Wikipedia, 2021)

3
Figure 2: Oyster Crassostrea vilginica gross anatomy (Howard et al., 2021).

4
1.2 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF OYSTERS

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Mollusca

Class: Bivalvia

Subclass: Pteriomorphia (Wikipedia, 2021).

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Water pollution is a major issue in the global context, but lagoon pollution has

become increasingly significant in recent years, and it has been found to

contribute significantly to environmental problems in many developing

countries where, as a result of man's exploitation of water resources, the normal

dynamic balance in the aquatic ecosystem is constantly disrupted, resulting in a

variety of environmental problems. The Lagos Lagoon is being used as a waste

disposal system since it is the cheapest and most convenient. The indiscriminate

release of wastes into coastal seas has overburdened these aquatic systems,

pushing them beyond their self-purification capacity.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION

Water is the natural habitat of fish. They dwell in close proximity to water.

Changes in the physio-chemistry of water cause physiological stress in aquatic

life, including oysters in this case. The Oyster would have to either overcome or

5
adapt to the stress in order to survive in its environment. Although the

physiological stress response is launched as an adaptive response to

destabilizing circumstances, if it is extended, it can have negative consequences.

Some researchers have established and observed that continuous stress affects

the behavior and normal development of aquatic life, that these stressors cause

growth reduction, that these stressors are responsible for suppression of

reproduction and an increase in susceptibility to infections, which causes

mortality, and that these stressors are responsible for suppression of

reproduction and an increase in susceptibility to infections, through immune

depression. As a result, there is a better understanding of the importance of

establishing reference haematological and values in oysters in order to monitor

health status and diagnose disorders.

1.5 AIM

To carry out haematological study of Oysters from selected locations of Lagos

lagoon.

1.6 OBJECTIVES

 To carry out parasitological studies on oysters collected from Lagos

lagoon.

 To carry out heamatology studies on oysters collected from Lagos

lagoon.

6
 To compare haematological results from all selected locations in Lagos

lagoon.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 TYPES OF OYSTERS

2.1.1 True Oysters

True oysters belong to the Ostreidae family. The edible oysters, which are

mostly found in the genera Ostrea, Crassostrea, Ostreola, Magallana, and

Saccostrea, belong to this family. The European flat oyster, eastern oyster,

Olympia oyster, Pacific oyster, and Sydney rock oyster are all examples. The

Early Triassic epoch saw the emergence of the Ostreidae family, with the genus

Liostrea growing on the shells of live ammonoids (Hautmann, 2017).

2.1.2 Pearl Oysters

Although almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, most of them are

of no real value. Pearls can be produced in both salt and fresh water

environments. Pearl oysters are part of a separate family, the feathered oysters,

and are not closely related to real oysters (Pteriidae). Pearl oysters can produce

both cultured and natural pearls, but other mollusks, such as freshwater mussels,

can also produce commercially valuable pearls. The marine Pinctada maxima,

which is about the size of a dinner plate, is the largest pearl-bearing oyster.

Natural pearls are not produced by all oysters. Pearl oysters make pearls by

coating a small invading object with nacre in the wild. The annoying object

8
accumulates enough layers of nacre to become a pearl over time. The inherent

pigment of the nacre, as well as the shape of the original irritant, determine the

numerous diverse varieties, colors, and shapes of pearls. A nucleus, usually a

piece of polished mussel shell, is placed into the oyster by pearl growers to

develop a pearl. The oyster may create a perfect pearl in three to seven years.

Ass various scholars learned to make artificial pearls at the turn of the century,

the market for cultured pearls has considerably exceeded the market for natural

pearls (Nagai, 2013).

2.2 NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITON OF OYSTERS

Oysters are one of the most highly prized seafoods because they are high in

fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals, all of which are necessary for a well-

balanced diet (Nagabhushanam and Bidarkar, 1978). n-3 polyunsaturated fatty

acids (PUFAs) are abundant in coastal bivalves, particularly the long-chained

eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3; EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (22:6n-

3; DHA; Taylor and Savage, 2006). Consumption of these bivalve mollusks

also provides a low-cost supply of high-biological-value protein, as well as vital

minerals and vitamins (Astorga España et al., 2005).

In a study by Chakraborty et al., (2016) during the premonsoon season, the

nutritional composition of edible oysters (Crassostrea madrasensis) from wild

and cultured growing environments on India's southwest coast was examined

over a four-year period (2008–2011). Chlorophyll-a concentration, sea surface

9
temperature, and phytoplankton density in these species' growing conditions

have all been linked to their key nutritional properties. The higher proportions

of total polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic

acids found in edible oysters collected from wild habitats were significantly

correlated with chlorophylla concentration, indicating that phytoplanktons play

a role in the occurrence of these essential fatty acids. C. madrasensis qualified

as a prospective health food due to its optimal atherogenic index (AI),

thrombogenicity index (TI), hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio

(HH), and balanced amounts of vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and low

cholesterol content.

2.3 EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON OYSTERS

Oysters are known to be one of nature's best natural filters, but there are limits

to how much pollution they can clean up. In fact, some of the nation’s

estuaries are so overwhelmed with excess pollutants that it would take more

oysters than available in order to purify the water. Adult oysters are known to

filter about 50 gallons of water daily, but existing studies have never fully

addressed how much pollution is removed from the water filtered by an

oyster, compared to how much pollution passed through the animal’s body

back into the water. Oysters are a keystone species in the environment, that is

they are the backbone of ecosystems. They are heroes in a small shell. In

addition to where they sit on the food chain, oysters can filter up to 50 gallons

10
of water per day, cleaning the surrounding water of chemicals and pollutants.

However, this means they inevitably suck up more than they bargained

for. Scientists have discovered that oysters contain microplastics, plastic pieces

that measure less than 5 mm in size in one dimension (similar to the size of a

sesame seed).

2.4 HEAMATOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF

FISHES AND SHELLFISHES (OYSTERS)

Because of the increased emphasis on aquaculture and increased awareness of

the contamination of natural freshwater resources in the tropics, haematological

investigations in aquatic animals have taken on a new dimension.

Environmental physiological, pathological, and biochemical changes in fish

have all been monitored using such research as an effective and sensitive index

(Akinrotimi et al., 2007). As a result, the formulation of base line values for

haematological parameters of fish that will serve as a reference standard for a

particular species in a location with permissible limitations is referred to as

haematological features (Akinrotimi et al., 2009). Any changes in the

constituent component of a blood sample when compared to the blood profile,

according to Babatunde et al., (1992), might be utilized to evaluate the

metabolic and health condition of the animal.

Haematological measures are frequently employed as helpful markers for

determining the health of aquatic organisms (Gabriel et al., 2004). The fish

11
species, aquatic biotope, health and nutritional status, age, and sexual maturity

all influence blood parameters (Fazio et al., 2016). Furthermore, aquatic species'

blood parameters are extremely susceptible to environmental changes. Blood

parameters indicate water quality, oxygen, temperature, and salinity, as well as

basic ecological aspects including feeding regime and stocking density (Sheikh

and Ahmed 2016). The availability of reference values, which aid in

understanding the link of blood properties to phylogeny, activity, habitat, and

species adaptability to the environment, is essential for accurate interpretation

of fish haematology (Wilhem et al., 1992).

Haematological profiles are frequently used to determine the physiological state

of diverse species and consequently provide information on the health of local

populations (Petri et al., 2006). Crustacean haematology, including the function

of each cell type, has been characterized by a number of writers, and features of

crustacean haematology, including the function of each cell type, have been

characterized by a number of authors (Jiravanichpaisal et al., 2006). In the

freshwater crab Potamon fluvialilis, Yildiz and Atar (2002) found three forms of

haemocytes: hyalinocytes, semigranulocytes, and granulocytes, with relative

occurrences of 15.00 percent, 54.25 percent, and 30.75 percent, respectively.

The chemical components of serum or plasma - the noncellular part of blood -

are measured in blood chemistry studies, and this includes a wide range of

electrolytes, enzymes, and hormones (Petri et al., 2006). A number of proteins

12
(trypsin, lysozyme, antibodies, C-protein, complement factors, and other lytic

factors) are found in the serum and plasma of aquatic organisms. These proteins

act as antimicrobial agents and are the first line of defense, primary barrier

against invasion, and contain the proliferation of pathogens, including parasites

(Jones, 2001). The biochemical elements of haemolymph have also been

studied, which are important for understanding tissue injury and crustacean

adaptive responses to their environment (MohanKumar and Ramasamy, 2006).

In a study by Fazio et al., (2016) the hematological and biochemical parameters

of farmed rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss from Italy and Turkey were

evaluated to establish baseline values in relation to various locales. The

researchers looked at forty Italian trout (total length 32.590.25 cm, weight

397.406.49 g) and forty Turkish trout (total length 33.000.24 cm, weight

385.703.50 g). There were no significant variations in weight, length, or

condition factor between two farmed trout groups, according to statistical

analysis (unpaired t-test). Some hematological and biochemical characteristics

were observed to differ statistically significantly (P 0.05) between Italian and

Turkish farmed rainbow trout. Our findings revealed that the levels of red blood

cells (RBC), hematocrit (Hct), cholesterol, and total protein in Italian farmed

rainbow trout were significantly lower than those in Turkish trout. Glucose,

Triglycerides, and Serum albumin all had considerably higher values than Mean

corpuscular volume (MCV), Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), Mean

13
corpuscular hemoglobin concentrations (MCHC), and Glucose, Triglycerides,

and Serum albumin. White blood cell (WBC) and hemoglobin did not show any

statistically significant changes (Hgb). The findings of this work add to our

understanding of the baseline of hematological and biochemical parameters in

rainbow trout farmed in two different environments, implying that blood

parameters could be useful in monitoring environmental conditions and fish

culture management.

Fisher et al., (1996) investigated the hematologic and serologic diversity of

eastern oysters from Florida's Apalachicola Bay. During a year, eastern oysters

Crassostrea virginicas were gathered weekly from two sites in Apalachicola

Bay, FL, about 15 kilometers apart. On hemolymph extracted from the adductor

muscle, hematologic and serologic tests were performed. During the study

period, the two sites had virtually identical temperature trends, but salinity and

other physical parameters varied. With data from both sites pooled, significant

differences related to sampling date were detected for circulating hemocyte

density, phagocytic activity, and superoxide anion (02 -)-producing ability, as

well as serum protein, lysozyme, and agglutinating activity. Temperature or

temperature-influenced reproductive cycling were most likely to blame for this

variation. Over the study period, there were no significant variations in oyster

hemocyte motility, nor were there any significant differences between sites. For

O2 -, protein, and lysozyme, substantial variations between site means

14
(combined for all dates) were detected, as well as significant date" site

interactions for phagocytosis agglutination and lysozyme, showing that local

circumstances, such as salinity fluctuations, influenced these findings. More

frequent sampling and a better understanding of local environmental factors will

be required to accurately describe diversity in oyster defensive functions.

2.5 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF OYSTERS

Oysters can be eaten raw, smoked, boiled, baked, fried, roasted, stewed, canned,

pickled, steamed, or broiled, and they can also be used in a number of cocktails.

Opening the shell and eating the contents, including the juice, is an easy way to

eat. Butter and salt are often added. Poached oysters with a cream roux can be

served on toast. Various diseases affect oysters, reducing harvests and severely

depleting local populations. Disease control focuses on controlling infections

and generating resistant strains, and it is a hot topic of research right now

(Wikipedia, 2021).

2.6 DISEASES IN OYSTER

2.6.1 Juvenile Oyster Disease (JOD)

Since 1984, a disease with no known source has killed a large number of

cultivated oysters in the northeastern United States. The syndrome of juvenile

oyster disease (JOD) is defined by a variety of distinct characteristics. In

immature oysters up to about 25-30 mm in size, mortality rates of 60-80% are

15
frequent over a short period of time (Lewis 2001). Multiple shell checks can be

seen on some oysters, indicating that they have had more than one encounter

with the disease. Oysters larger than 30 mm may show indications of JOD, but

they are far less likely to die. Mantle lesions with small round bodies measuring

2-6 11m in diameter, a small dense-staining nucleus that is Feulgen-positive,

and commonly a second Feulgen-positive body akin to a micronucleus, are

found in JOD-infected oysters. Mantle lesions appear 1-2 weeks before

mortalities, according to experimental and field research (Lewis 2001).

16
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 MATERIALS

The following materials were used for the parasitic studies of the four samples

of the oyster shell fish.

i. Olympus binocular compound microscope.

ii. Forceps.

iii. Petri dishes

iv. Laboratory hammer.

v. Microscope slides.

vi. Microscope cover slips.

vii. Centrifuge.

viii. Centrifuge tubes.

ix. Hand gloves

x. Nose mask.

xi. Laboratory goggles.

xii. Hypochlorite solution.

xiii. Liquid hand wash.

xiv. Cotton wool.

17
3.2 SAMPLING AREA

Lagos, Nigeria's most populous metropolis, has a population of around 12

million people. Lagos lagoon is roughly 50 kilometers long and 3 to 13

kilometers broad, separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a long sand and spit 2 to

5 kilometers wide on the lagoon side, with swampy borders. The Lagos Lagoon

drains into the Atlantic through the Lagos harbor, a main canal 0.251 km wide

and 10 km long that runs through the heart of the city. Lagos' primary ocean

port is in Apapa, which is located in a broad western branch of the harbor's main

channel. The Lagos Lagoon is fairly shallow, and the city sprawls for more than

30 kilometers along its southern and western shorelines. The 11-kilometer-long

bridge was created to avoid the congested mainland suburbs. Many settlements

in the area west of the lagoon have traditionally relied on water transportation

due to a lack of road access. The lagoon's pollution by urban and industrial

waste is a big issue because the lagoon serves as a source of drinkable and

recreational water as well as a supply of cheap and affordable protein in the

form of fish for a large population. Oysters were collected from the following

lagoon: Makoko, Iddo and Okobaba in Lagos state.

18
Fig 2: Map of Lagos Lagoon showing sampling location (Lawal-Are, 2010)

Fig 3: Map showing Makoko, Oko baba region in Lagos lagoon (Ugwu and

Soyinka, 2018)

19
3.2.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION

Oysters were collected with hand tongs from the following lagoon: Makoko,

Iddo and Okobaba in Lagos state and placed immediately into coolers

containing cold ice packs. The coolers were transported to the Environmental

biology laboratory, Yaba college of Technology, Lagos and placed in a

refrigerator (4°C) overnight.

3.3 PARASITOLOGICAL STUDIES OF OYSTER SHELL FISH

3.3.1 SAMPLE PREPARATION

The sample had a very hard shell, hence, needed a strong percussion tool like

the Laboratory hammer. After hammering, the shell opened and the content was

trapped in a sterile Petri dish. The fluidy material obtained was centrifuged at

2500 rpm for 10 minute to concentrate the parasites. After centrifugation, the

supernatant was discarded and the deposits were loaded on the microscope

slide. Cover slip was applied on the loaded slide before viewing under the

microscope.

3.3.2 MICROSCOPIC STUDIES

The prepared slide was viewed with the x10 microscope objective lens. After

navigating through the microscopic fields, parasite seen was brought to a sharp

focus using the coarse and the fine adjustment knobs of the microscope.

20
Pictures were taken for record and documentation of results. The monograph

used for interpretation was zootaxa.

3.4 HEAMATOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS OF OYSTER

3.4.1 SAMPLE PREPARATION

Oysters collected from the following lagoon: Makoko, Ido and Okoba in Lagos

state were scrubbed clean of fouling organisms and a grinder was used to notch

the shells at the posterior edge adjacent to the adductor muscle. The mantle

cavity was rinsed thoroughly with filtered (0.22 ILm pore size) seawater to

remove debris. Hemolymph was withdrawn from the adductor muscle with a 3-

mL syringe and a 22-gauge needle. Hemolymph was used to measure various

hematologic characteristics.

3.5 HAEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

3.5.1 Packed cell volume (Haematocrit)

Suction pressure was used to fill pre-heparinised capillary tubes up to 2 ml (75

percent) with blood samples from experimental fish, and one end of each tube

was promptly sealed with plasticine. The tubes were placed on a tray and

centrifuged at 12,000 revolutions per minute for 5 minutes in a micro-

haematocrit centrifuge (SP 6–500 UV spectrophotometer). A haematocrit reader

(UV–VIS Spectrophotometer 108) was used to determine the packed cell

21
volume (PCV). The percentages were used to represent the results (Kelly,

1979). According to Duke (1975),

PCV was determined as:

PCV= 100(Blood volume- Plasma volume)

----------------------------------------
Blood volume

Blood volume was calculated as:

Blood volume= Plasma volume X 100

----------------------------------------
100-PCV

3.5.2 Haemoglobin concentration (Hb)

The cyanomethaemoglobin procedures published by Schalm et al., (1975) and

Kelly (1979) were used to determine Hb concentration. 4 ml of Drabkin's

solution was added to each 0.02 ml of suitably mixed blood (which is a mixture

of 250 mg potassium ferricyanide, 200 mg potassium cyanide and 50 mg

potassium dihydrogen phosphate). The final mixture (Drabkin's solution) was

allowed to settle at room temperature for 10 minutes to allow all of the

haemoglobin to react with the reagent and generate cyanomethaemoglobin (that

is, for proper colour development). The absorbance of the resulting solution was

22
measured against a blank at 540 nm in a Unicam spectrophotometer

(Spectrumlab 23a Model).

3.5.3 Red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cell (WBC) counts

The blood cells were counted using a Neubauer haemocytometer, according to

Kelly's instructions (1979). The number of red blood cells was determined by

diluting each blood sample collected (at a ratio of 1:200) with Dacies fluid (a

mixture of 99 ml of 3 percent aqueous sodium citrate and 1 ml of 40 percent

formaldehyde), which kept the red blood cells in their normal shape. The

amount of white blood cells was evaluated by diluting the blood sample with a 3

percent aqueous solution of acetic acid (at 1:200, i.e. at the same ratio as red

blood cells) and then adding gentian violet. On a microscope slide, 1 ml of the

mixture was dropped and labeled according to the dietary regimens. Red and

white blood cells were counted at x106d/litre and x103d/litre, respectively,

using an Olympus Japan312545 binocular light microscope.

3.5.4 Determination of Lymphocytes, Neutrophils and Monocytes

As stated by Russia and Sood (1992), lymphocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes

were determined using a Neubauer-type haemocytometer with Turk's solution

as the diluting fluid.

23
3.6 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The mean and standard deviation were used to present all of the data collected

in this investigation. Between the control and experimental groups, comparisons

were done. To detect significant differences between the control and

experimental groups, one-way ANOVA and Duncan's multiple range tests

(Duncan, 1955) were used on SPSS statistical software (Version 17.0 for

Windows; SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). At probability levels less than 0.05 (i.e.

p0.05), differences were considered statistically significant.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 PARASITOLOGY EXAMINATION

The table below shows the result of the parasitology examination of Oyster

samples from Okooba, Iddo and Makoko region as well as the control. The

monograph used for interpretation was zootaxa. The results revealed the

presence of Helminths. Ichthyofilaria canadensis was detected in Oyster

samples obtained from Oko oba and Iddo lagoon. Ascarophis sebastodis was

seen in Oyster sample from Makoko while salvelinema trofimenko was seen in

the control.

S/N SAMPLE PARASITE SEEN PARASITE INTERPRETIVE

NAME TYPE DOCUMENT

1 Sample from Ichthyofilaria canadensis Helminth Zootaxa

Okooba

2 Sample from Ichthyofilaria canadensis Helminth Zootaxa

Ido

3 Sample from Ascarophis sebastodis Helminth Zootaxa

Makoko

4 Control Salvelinema trofimenko Helminth Zootaxa

Table 1: Result of Parasitology examination of Oysters

25
4.2 HAEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

The haematological parameters of oysters from selected locations in Lagos

lagoon are shown in Table 2. The highest level of white blood cell count was

recorded in the control oysters. This was not significantly different (p > 0.05)

from those recorded in the oyster collected from Makoko. On the other hand,

white blood cells count was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the oyster from Ido

and Okoba. Also, the levels of red blood cell count and haemoglobin recorded

in the oyster were not significantly different between the control and those from

Makoko, Ido and Okoba.

Pack cell volume was not detected in the oyster from Makoko, Ido and Okoba.

However, the pack cell volume was detected in the control oyster (0.25±0.21).

Level of platelets was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control oyster than

those of the other groups. This was followed by those from Ide, Okoba and

Makoko respectively.

Similarly, neutrophil count was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control

oyster. On the other hand, the levels of neutrophil count recorded in the oyster

from Makoko, Ido and Okoba were not significantly different (p > 0.05). Level

of neutrophil (%) was significantly higher in the oyster from Ido. This was

followed by the control and those from Makoko and Okoba respectively.

However, lymphocytes count was highest in the oyster from Makoko. This was

26
not significantly different from that of Okoba. Lymphocyte count was

significantly lowest in the oyster from Ido.

Makoko Ido Okoba Control

White blood 1.10±0.28 0.70±0.28b 0.55±0.07b 1.90±0.03a

cells a

Red blood 0.01±0.01 0.01±0.00a 0.01±0.01a 0.05±0.04a

cells a

Haemoglobin 0.10±0.00 0.20±0.00a 0.60±0.57a 0.65±0.49a

a

Pack cell 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00b 0.00±0.00b 0.25±0.21a

volume b

Platelet 37.00±4.2 121.00±11.3 47.00±1.41 213.00±16.0

4c 1b c
5a

Neutrophil 0.15±0.07 0.20±0.14b 0.10±0.00b 2.05±2.33a

b

Neutrophil 14.50±0.9 25.95±4.74a 13.30±9.48 20.00±1.13b

(%) 9c c

Lymphocytes 76.40±0.1 43.30±13.86 72.55±17.7 55.70±4.38b

4a c
5a

Table 2: Haematological parameters of oysters from selected locations in Lagos

lagoon

27
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSION

The goal of this study was to give haematological indices for Oysters in Lagos

lagoon (Makoko, Iddo and Okooba area) a brackish water environment that is

tropical and polluted. Okafor and Chukwu (2010) also emphasized the

importance of establishing normal haematological features of aquatic species as

a baseline for future comparison investigations. As Moiseenko (1998) and

Adhikari et al., (2004) point out, haematological examination is a

pathophysiological determinant of the whole body, and blood parameters are

significant in assessing the functional and structural condition of aquatic

animals exposed to pollutants.

The results of this study revealed the presence of Helminths. Ichthyofilaria

canadensis was detected in Oyster samples obtained from Oko oba and Iddo

28
lagoon. Ascarophis sebastodis was seen in Oyster sample from Makoko while

salvelinema trofimenko was seen in the control.

Several parasites (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and metazoa) have been found in

eastern oyster populations along North America's Atlantic coast, from Canada

to the southern United States. Only two protozoon species, Haplosporidium

nelsoni and Perkinsus marinus, are responsible for up to 90% of the losses in

the North American oyster industry (Ford and Tripp, 1996).

The results from this study agrees with a similar study by Aguirre-macedo et

al., (2007) who carried out a study between late 1999 and early 2001, a

parasitological research of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica in 11 coastal

lagoons in the southern Gulf of Mexico revealed the presence of 36 bacterial, 2

protozoan (Nematopsis prytherchi and Perkinsus marinus), and 4 helminth

species (Urastoma cyprinae, Proctoeces maculatus, a Bucephalus sp., and a

Tylocephalum sp.). The prevalence and mean abundances of protozoa and

helminths differed greatly between locales, but were always below 50%. The

most common species were Nematopsis prytherchi and Tylocephalum sp.

(values were above 60% in most places). Perkinsus marinus was found in

oysters from eight different coastal lagoons, with a low prevalence (less than

30%) in practically all of them. All of the detected protozoa and helminths are

common oyster parasites found across the Gulf of Mexico. Only P. marinus and

Bucephalus sp. were linked to tissue injury in the host. Rickettsia-like bacteria

29
were discovered in the digestive gland and gills, as well as viral gametocytic

hypertrophic inclusions in the gonads, according to histological testing.

This research backs up Leron's and Kinamot's findings (2015) A total of 53

Crassostrea iredalei were discovered to be infected with parasites after 90 oyster

samples were tested. Fifty shells with a length of 1-3cm were infected with

annelids, while 45 shells with a length of 7-10cm were infected with annelids.

Two individuals were infected with Platyhelminthes with a prevalence of 5 4-

6cm in shell lengths 4-6cm and 69.537 and 4.16 in shell lengths 1-3cm,

respectively, and with Platyhelminthes with a prevalence of 5 4-6cm in shell

lengths 1-3cm; only one individual was infected with Nemertea with a

prevalence. A total of 80 annelid parasites were obtained from 4.16 infected C.

iredalei, with an infection intensity ranging from 0.69 to 2. The annelid

parasites found in this study were from the families Neridae, Opheliidae,

Hesionidae, Spionidae, Syllidae, Capitellidae, Phyllodocidae, and Polynoidae,

and belonged to the class Polychaeta. Despite the fact that the helminths found

in this study are not the same as those found in other studies, the study

demonstrates the presence of parasites in oysters.

Table 2 shows the haematological parameters of oysters from selected locations

in Lagos lagoon. The highest level of white blood cell count was recorded in the

control oysters. This was not significantly different (p > 0.05) from those

recorded in the oyster collected from Makoko. On the other hand, white blood

30
cells count was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the oyster from Ido and Okoba.

Also, the levels of red blood cell count and haemoglobin recorded in the oyster

were not significantly different between the control and those from Makoko, Ido

and Okoba. Pack cell volume was not detected in the oyster from Makoko, Ido

and Okoba. However, the pack cell volume was detected in the control oyster

(0.25±0.21). Level of platelets was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control

oyster than those of the other groups. This was followed by those from Ide,

Okoba and Makoko respectively. Similarly, neutrophil count was significantly

higher (p < 0.05) in the control oyster. On the other hand, the levels of

neutrophil count recorded in the oyster from Makoko, Ido and Okoba were not

significantly different (p > 0.05). Level of neutrophil (%) was significantly

higher in the oyster from Ido. This was followed by the control and those from

Makoko and Okoba respectively. However, lymphocytes count was highest in

the oyster from Makoko. This was not significantly different from that of

Okoba. Lymphocyte count was significantly lowest in the oyster from Ido.

The haemoglobin concentration values recorded in this study are similar to

those reported for burrowing brittle stars Henipholis enlongata and Barbatia

reeveena (Grinich & Tervullige, 1980).

According to Adedeji and Adegbile (2011), haematocrit or PCV determines

anaemia (Blaxhall and Daisley, 1973); high Hb concentration indicates higher

activity; high RBC indicates more effective O 2 and CO2 delivery to lung tissue;

31
and increased WBC and Lymphocytes indicate ability to defend infections from

the water environment. However, it's remarkable that an Oyster in a

contaminated environment like the Lagos Lagoon would have higher blood

values than a healthy Oyster would have. This could be an Oyster internal

homeostatic reaction to the pressures posed by the saline gradient and the

contaminants in the Lagoon.

The study's comparable levels of haematological markers could possibly be

attributable to the Lagoon's numerous stresses. Several authors, including

Gabriel et al., (2007), have demonstrated that contaminants such as herbicides,

pesticides, and industrial effluents change fish haematological indices. The

Makoko area of the Lagos Lagoon is biologically polluted, particularly with

sewage from floating shanties, wood waste from logging and sawmill

operations, and refuse discharges from the neighboring Better-life fish market.

32
 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Although haematological and biochemical measures have been recognized as

helpful instruments for monitoring Oyster and other aquatic animal health, their

normal values for diverse species of Oysters are still unknown. The findings of

this preliminary study provide insight into the characteristics of blood

parameters in Oysters from three different locations in Lagos lagoon, as well as

a better understanding of the impact of environmental factors on haematological

parameters in Oysters.

The findings of this preliminary study provide a foundational understanding of

the blood profile of Oysters allowing for a better understanding of the effects of

varying environmental conditions and feeding habits on Oyster blood

parameters. Furthermore, the results of this study show that automatic

33
haematological count as diagnostic tools for early comprehension of the

variability of blood cells in different Oyster species is useful.

The lagoon did certainly reveal indicators of environmental stress, which could

have a negative impact on the oysters’ health. Indirectly, these have an impact

on coastal communities. As a result, periodic monitoring and enforcement of

environmental legislation by relevant institutions is required to safeguard the

health and safety of people, particularly in coastal regions.

Oyster culture in the country is still in its infancy. This study will serve as a

guide for aquaculturists on how to control the health conditions of these

bivalves in culture medium for maximum production.

34
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 ABSTRACT

Oysters are salt-water bivalve mollusc families living in brackish water environments. This

study was carried out to determine the haematological parameters of Oysters from selected

locations of Lagos lagoon. The oysters where obtained from Makoko, Iddo and Okooba area

of Lagos lagoon and subjected to parasitological and heamatology examination.

Parasitology examination of Oyster samples revealed the presence of Helminths.

Ichthyofilaria canadensis was detected in Oyster samples obtained from Oko oba and Iddo

lagoon. Ascarophis sebastodis was seen in Oyster sample from Makoko while salvelinema

trofimenko was seen in the control. The hematology result revealed the highest level of white

blood cell (WBC) count in the control oysters. This was not significantly different (p > 0.05)

from those in the oyster from Makoko. WBC cells count was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in

the oyster from Ido and Okoba. Also, the levels of RBC count and haemoglobin recorded in

the oyster were not significantly different between the control and those from Makoko, Ido

and Okoba. Pack cell volume was not detected in the oyster from Makoko, Ido and Okoba but

43
was detected in the control oyster (0.25±0.21). Level of platelets was significantly higher (p

< 0.05) in the control oyster than those of the other groups. Neutrophil count was

significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control oyster. Neutrophil count in the oyster from

Makoko, Ido and Okoba were not significantly different (p > 0.05). However, lymphocytes

count was highest in the oyster from Makoko and was significantly lowest in the oyster from

Iddo. Periodic monitoring and enforcement of environmental legislation by relevant

institutions is required to safeguard the health and safety of people, particularly in coastal

regions.

Keywords: Oyster, Lagos lagoon, Hematology, Parasitology

44