Impact of Energy Efficient Design

in Low-Cost Housing Projects in

India

Introduction

Apart from food and clothing, home is one of the most fundamental needs for human

beings. Many inhabitants in India are homeless. They may be categorized as either lawfully

homeless or homeless in threat. Housing affordability issues, unemployment, poverty, etc.

are substantial causes. The government's greatest challenge is to provide a house for

everyone. The rapid urban population boom, resulting in housing shortages and poor

urban living conditions, is a critical concern for the government of India. Slums have grown

in number throughout time as a result of the rising housing shortage. Slums contribute to a

very crowded and hazardous atmosphere. The government has implemented several

projects to remediate slums. Many of them were a flop owing to poor implementation.

Another big challenge that homeless people encounter is a lack of financial resources.

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People desire a home that is affordable to them. To address this issue, low-cost housing

initiatives have been established. Furthermore, when housing shortages are addressed by

supplying dwellings, excess development of building units occurs, posing a harm to our

environment. Buildings account for 35% of total electricity usage in India and contribute

considerably to greenhouse gas emissions. Because the construction industry is one of the

greatest producers to GHG emissions, mitigation initiatives in this sector will help greatly

reduce the harmful effects of global warming. This article focuses on how low-cost housing

projects address housing shortages and how the concept, when combined with energy-

efficient design, reduces the impact of severe environmental concerns produced by

conventional building construction methods.

Research Question

1. What are the design strategies used in the Low Cost Housing projects, and materials

adopted in their construction?

2. How can energy-efficient design in low-cost housing benefit the economy and the

environment, as well as how it improves home quality?

Aim

To study low-cost housing techniques and determine how the inclusion of energy-efficient

design affects low-cost housing in terms of material utilization, financial stability, a healthier

built environment, and housing quality.

Objectives

1. To study on Low cost housing techniques used.

2. To identify the parameters of Energy efficient design.

3. To examine several strategies for reducing the use of non-renewable resources and

its impact on energy efficiency.

4. To compare the cost of energy efficient design and low cost housing design

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 5. To examine how energy-efficient design might benefit low-cost housing projects.

Scope of the Study

Housing affordability is more than just a problem faced by individual households who

cannot find a place to live. Homeownership is the goal of every individual, and they strive to

achieve it. Many, though, do not have access to even a modest shelter. Some

people/families are already homeless, while others are in imminent danger of becoming

homeless. These are people who have lost their houses as a result of natural catastrophes.

Floods and other recent environmental disasters have made this a major issue in Kerala.

The government is challenged with the responsibility of providing shelter for everyone. The

introduction of low-cost homes would address the issue of housing scarcity. However, as

the number of building units increases, so does the likelihood of environmental

repercussions on Earth. As a result, incorporating energy-efficient design into low-cost

housing projects will provide relief.

Limitations

1. The research focuses mostly on material analysis and design approaches employed

at the planning and design level.

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Methodology

Reviewing Literature

1. Defining Low-Cost Housing:

Low-cost housing refers to housing units that are economical to people in society whose

income is less than the average household income. This is dictated by three main factors:

income level, dwelling unit size, and affordability. In today’s economic scenario, it is

exceptionally hard for middle and lower income earners to own a home. As a result, it has

now become necessary to adopt cost-effective, creative, and environmentally friendly

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housing technologies for the construction of houses and structures and to make them

available at a low cost as compared.

Low- and moderate-income earners might consider low-cost housing reasonable if they

can obtain a dwelling unit (owned or rented) for up to 30% of their family income (Miles,

2000). In developing nations such as India, just 20% of the population is affluent enough to

purchase standard housing units. In general, low-income populations in developing nations

are unable to enter the housing market.

Low cost home is a novel idea that deals with good budgeting and the use of strategies

that aid in decreasing the cost of building by using locally available materials as well as

improved skills and technology without jeopardizing the structure's strength, performance,

and longevity.

There is a widespread misperception that low-cost housing is only fit for substandard

works and is built using low-quality building materials. The truth is that low-cost housing is

achieved via good resource management. In terms of foundation, construction, and

strength, a low-cost house is planned and built in the same way as any other building. The

cost savings are obtained by the appropriate use of locally accessible building materials

and procedures that are durable, affordable, user-accepted, and do not need costly

maintenance. Structure costs can also be reduced by deferring finishing work or adopting it

in stages.

Low-cost housing technologies seek to reduce construction costs by utilising alternatives to

traditional processes and inputs. It is about using local and indigenous building materials,

indigenous skills, energy-saving and environmentally responsible choices.

2. Why Low Cost Housing?

In a developing country like ours, it becomes even more prudent to provide income-friendly
housing options for various sections of society. The Indian government has been pushing for

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 creating more affordable home options for the lower and middle-income groups and the
economically weaker sections (EWS) of society.

Estimates suggest that over 600 million people will be living in urban India by 2031. This
appreciable growth of 51% since 2011 indicates a dire need to roll out cost-effective housing
options, ensuring the underprivileged sections can afford a house while giving a boost to the
Indian real estate sector. Keep reading to know why we need affordable homes in India.

To combat the challenges of urbanisation

India has been going through an economic transition for the last few years. This has widened the
gap between the rich and the poor. Moreover, home loans mainly cater to the more financially
robust section of the population. As such, there is a need for the government to push
affordable home loans in India and create other opportunities to house the growing migrant
population from rural to urban areas.

To provide safe and affordable living conditions

According to the Planning Commission, the housing shortage is calculated by adding factors like:

 Houseless households
 Households living in unacceptable conditions
 Households suffering from physical and social constraints due to over congestion of living
spaces

These conditions persist because of the high home loan interest rates, which gate-keep a large
chunk of the population from buying their own home. Thus, there is a need for affordable interest
rates to make housing available for all.

To improve the overall health of citizens

Having a roof over one’s head can significantly reduce tension and financial stresses. And improve
the mental health, thus boosting their happiness quotient and productivity. It also reduces
exposure to infections and diseases, promoting good health in the population

Affordable housing has become a key issue, especially in developing nations where a

majority of the population isn’t able to buy houses at the market price. Rehabilitation of

slum dwellers through public-private partnership projects, promotion of affordable

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 housing for weaker sections, and promotion of housing for urban poor are considered

to be the elements of this initiative.

3. Materials and techniques used in construction of Low Cost Houses

There are various low cost construction technologies developed and applied around the

world. Few technologies that are relevant in the Indian context are studied.

Apart from technology innovation, many new materials are experimented. Usage of filler

slab by replacing conventional slab could cut the cost of construction by 25% (Srivastava

and Kumar, 2018). Further, it is expected that building up of cooperatives to supply

alternate raw materials can reduce the cost by 20-30%. Bricks made from cotton mill waste,

recycled paper mill waste and rice husk ash have an extra edge on sustainability angle than

burnt clay bricks or fly ash bricks when life cycle analysis was done (Joglekar et al,

2018). Sometimes, clay bricks are more sustainable than other options. For example,

timber is the conventional construction material and it becomes scare due to deforestation

and erosion in Ethiopia. Hence, sun-dried clay bricks or adobe technology using locally

available materials becomes a sustainable option (Hjort and Widen, 2015). Use of bamboo

reinforced prefabricated wall panels are 56% lighter in weight, 40% cheaper and have good

strength in comparison to partition brick walls making it suitable for low-cost construction

(Puri et al, 2017)

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8
Low cost Housing materials can be broadly classified into natural materials and manmade
materials according to the source of the building materials.

2.1. Natural Materials

2.1.1. Bamboo

After China, India is the second largest in bamboo production. Coupled with China, it holds
50% of the world’s total share of bamboo production [1]. Of the total 136 species of bamboo
occurring in India, 58 species spread out over 10 genera are endemic to the north eastern
part of India alone (Sharma, 1987) [2]. The forest area, over which bamboos occur in India,
on a conservative estimate, is about 9.57 million hectares, which constitutes about 12.8% of
the total area under forests (Bahadur and Verma, 1980) [3]. Its widespread availability and
rapid growth in areas of China, Japan and India has made this grass an interesting structural
material due to its affordability, easy assembly and relatively long durability. The salient point
regarding bamboo is the design specification and concept selection of bamboo structures
which are controlled by Young’s Modulus (i.e. its flexibility), and tensile strength (i.e. its
resistance of a material to a tearing force). Also it has been seen that bamboo fibre has
almost similar tensile strength as that of steel (650 MPa compared to steel’s lying in the range
500 - 1000 MPa). It has much higher flexibility as determined by its lower Young’s Modulus
value (~50 GPa compared to steel’s ~200 GPa) [4]. A bamboo hut was constructed in 1955
which was treated with 4 percent CCa and since it has no deterioration [3]. But bamboo
culms offer some disadvantage like Bamboo [5] has a circular profile which makes it
inherently difficult to connect other members. Also Bamboo has no support in the middle as
it is hollow there, hence it cannot be subjected to high compressive forces perpendicular to
the culms face.

2.1.2. Earth

Earth is the oldest building material known to mankind. But its widespread use is hindered
due to the limitations like water penetration, erosion of walls at level by splashing of water
from ground surfaces, attack by termites and pests, high maintenance requirements etc.
These limitations can be overcome by using compressed earths block and non-erodible mud
plaster.
1) Compressed Earth Block The compressed earth block is the developed form of moulded
earth block, more commonly known as the adobe block [4]. This technology offers an
economic, environment friendly masonry. Stabilized earth blocks are manufactured by
compacting raw material earth mixed with a stabilizer such as cement or lime using manual
soil press [4].
2) Nonerodable Mud Plaster Central Building Research Institute, India has developed an
economical but effective process to protect mud walls by applying non-erodible mud plaster.
Non-erodible mud is prepared by mixing bitumen cutback (Bitumen & Kerosene oil mixture)
with a specified mud plaste. Non-erodible mud plastered walls are resistant to water erosion.

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Centre for Science for Villages, Wardha India has developed a technique of providing potter
made tile lining to mud-walls protecting them from rain and moisture [6].

2.1.3. Straw

Straw is basically an agricultural by-product which comprises only of the plant stalks (mostly
cereals) after removal of grain and chaff. Rice straw has the highest silica content making it
the toughest amongst all other cereal straws [7].Straw is considered as an environmental
problem as its burning causes breathing problems. Straw and Straw bale have a huge scope
in India as it is one of the largest producers of straw bale. 46% of total land (32, 87,590 sq·km)
of India is agricultural land and out of a total population of 1, 17, 09, 38,000 people 58.4%
are solely dependent upon agriculture as a means of livelihood. So straw has high potential
as an alternate building material. It is also fire resistant as it does not support combustion,
is thermally insulated, has sound and moisture insulation and is not toxic.
The following are the profiles of some construction alternatives constructed with straws and
straw bales.
Life Extended Thatch Roofing: It is one of the locally available and environment friendly
alternative for corrugated sheets. By treating it with copper sulphate solution, its life can be
extended by reducing the effect of biodegradability. Additional layer of treatment on the roof
surface using phosphorylated spray or CNSL oil imparts water proofing, fire resistance,
termite proofing and weathering resistance (Developed by CBRI/RRL-TVM [7]).
Improved Thatch Roofing: In order to decrease the fire hazard of thatch roof and making it
water repellent a treatment had been designed by the Central Building Research Institute. It
essentials the thatch layers are plastered with specified mud plasters making it durable and
fire resistant [7].

2.1.4. Fiber Cement Composites

From centuries, mankind has used the various natural fibres for a wide spectrum of
applications ranging from consumption to housing. In recent days many researchers have
explored the possibilities of using the natural fibre obtained from different plants, which
includes bagasse, cereal straw, corn stalk, cotton stalk, kenaf, rice husk/rice straw etc as an
alternative building material. Due to the light weight, high strength to weight ratio, corrosion
resistance and other advantages, natural fibre based composites are becoming important
alternatives for building materials for use in civil engineering fields. A few of the important
composites are summarized as under: Table 1.
Cement fibre composites are found to have superior properties as compared to concrete
blocks. This is mainly due to addition of fibres [9]. The superior properties comprise of better
workability, resistance to cracking, lighter weight, high fracture toughness and a higher
degree of flexibility. These properties make it a suitable material for use in low cost
construction.

2.2. Man Made Materials

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The Industrial Revolution introduced many foreign substances which were the by products
of industries like fly ash and rice husk and created problems for their disposal. But on further
research into their properties it was observed that these materials possess excellent
pozzoloanic properties. Hence these can be used as alternative building materials.

2.2.1. Fly Ash

The mineral residue produced by burning coal and the fine glass powder recovered from its
gases is called Fly Ash. The major constituents of fly ash are silica, alumina and iron [11]. Coal
fired electricity generating plants are the primary producers of fly ash nowadays. In the first
half of the year 2011-2012 out of the sixteen states placed under survey five have generated
more than five million tonne of fly ash. The state of UP was the top producer of fly ash
producing more than nine million tonnes of fly ash. Fly Ash can be substituted for many
constituents in building materials making it the ideal choice for alternate building material.
Some of them are discussed as under Fly Ash Brick Fly Ash Brick is a construction material,
masonry unit comprising of Class C Fly Ash and water. Due to the high concentration of
calcium oxide in Class C Fly Ash, the brick can be described as self-cementing [11]. These
properties make fly ash bricks energy efficient, mercury pollution resistant, lower water
penetration, light weight, thermal insulation and cost effective (it costs 20% less than
traditional clay brick manufacturing). The only major disadvantages of using fly ash brick is
that there is very less information on its toxic fume emission. Also it contains many unhealthy
elements like silica, aluminium, iron oxides, arsenic, cadmium and mercury. Its mechanical
bonding is weak and presents poor outlook.

2.2.2. Aerocon Panels

Aerocon panels are the inorganic bonded sandwich panels made of two fiber reinforced
cement sheets engulfing a light-weight core consisting of Portland cement, binders and a
mix of silicaceous and micaceous aggregates [12]. The use of Fly ash and its substitution for
timber based products makes the panels environmental-friendly.
The property attributes are eco-friendly, faster construction, no wet plastering and on-site
curing, light weight, high thermal insulation, fire resistant, excellent sound reduction
properties, water and termite and weather resistant, suitable for Seismic and Cyclone prone
zones, relocatable, thin walls (space saving), smooth finish, minimum foundation or ground
preparation required and easy workability.
Recently in a project called “Mass Housing” under “VALMIKI” scheme sponsored by Govt. of
India for improving the living conditions of slum dwellers in Mumbai was completed in a very
short span of time using aerocon panels demonstrating its prowess [12].
Table 3. Availability of different materials in India showing feasibility.

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2.2.3. Ferro-Cement

Ferro-cement can be defined as a thin walled versatile high strength cement based
composite material made of cement mortar reinforced with one or more layers of wire mesh
closely bound together to create a stiff structure unit with high performance, lightness of
structure and strength. It possesses the property of completely homogeneous material [7].
The only real disadvantage of using Ferro-cement is its high rates of shrinkage and creep
when using rich mortars). It can be used for constructing pre cast toilet units, water tanks,
cycle sheds etc. As it is pre casted and then manufactured, it can play a major role during
post disaster housing requirements which is economical and easy to build.

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2.2.4. Cement Concrete Hollow Blocks

Cement Concrete Block is a recently developed masonry unit of concrete. It works on the
principal of densification of a lean concrete mix to make a regular shaped, uniform, high
performance masonry unit. They are cost affective and better alternative to burnt clay bricks
due to their good durability, fire resistance, partial resistance to sound, thermal insulation,
small dead load and high speed of construction [13]. And as they are larger in size as a
conventional clay bricks, less mortar is required and thus cost reduction in the construction
is achieved. The major advantage of concrete blocks is that their strength can be engineered
as per specified. Concrete blocks have an excellent thermal property due to the cavities
present in them. It is also fire and sound insulated. They are inert and non toxic.

2.2.5. Rice Husk

India is one of the world’s largest producers of white rice contributing about 20% of world’s
total rice production. The state of West Bengal ranks first in terms of area under production
whereas Punjab has the highest productivity in the country. The major rice growing states
are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bihar and
Chhattisgarh. Rice mills generate a by-product known as husk (it surrounds the paddy grain).
During milling of paddy about 78% of weight is received as rice, broken rice and bran, but
rest 22% of the weight is collected as husk. The husk contains about 75% organic volatile
matter and the balance 25% of the weight of this husk is converted into ash during the firing
process, which is known as rice husk ash (RHA). RHA contains about 85% to 90% amorphous
silica. About 20 million tonnes of RHA is produced annually. This RHA is a great environment
threat causing damage to the land and the surrounding area on which it is dumped. So
products are being developed to use it as an alternative building material:
1) Low Cost Sandcrete Block The rice husk ash produced using charcoal from rice husk is
pozzoloanic and therefore is suitable for use in block making. The compressive strength of
the blocks for all mixes increases with age at curing and decreases as the RHA content
increases. The optimum replacement level of OPC with RHA is 20% and the water
requirement increases with increase in ash content in the paste (OPC/RHA) [14].
2) In Concrete The rice husk ash is a highly siliceous material that can be used as an
admixture in concrete if the rice husk isburnt in a specific manner. The characteristics of the
ash depend on the components, temperature and time of burning (Hwang, 185). But the
silica must be kept at a non crystalline state in order to generate an ash with high
pozzoloanicactivity. RHA imparts corrosion resistance and compactibility to the concrete.

4. Advantages of the scheme

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Construction of low cost housing by using the low cost construction materials increases the

access to buildings by low income group peoples. Advantages of low cost building materials

are pollution prevention, Reducing Energy Consumption and use of Natural materials, Use

of Local material, Energy Efficiency, Use of non-toxic building materials, Longitivity,

durability and maintenance of building material, Recyclability and reusability of building

material and Biodegrability.

5. Cost factors in Low cost housing :

Cost reduction through adhoc methods
Foundation
Normally the foundation cost comes to about 10 to 15% of the total building and
usually foundation depth of 3 to 4 ft. is adopted for single or double store building
and also the concrete bed of 6″(15 Cms.) is used for the foundation which could be
avoided.
It is recommended to adopt a foundation depth of 2 ft.(0.6m) for normal soil like
gravely soil, red soils etc., and use the uncoursed rubble masonry with the bond
stones and good packing. Similarly the foundation width is rationalized to 2
ft.(0.6m).To avoid cracks formation in foundation the masonry shall be thoroughly
packed with cement mortar of 1:8 boulders and bond stones at regular intervals.
It is further suggested adopt arch foundation in ordinary soil for effecting reduction
in construction cost up to 40%.This kind of foundation will help in bridging the loose
pockets of soil which occurs along the foundation.
In the case black cotton and other soft soils it is recommend to use under ream pile
foundation which saves about 20 to 25% in cost over the conventional method of
construction.
Plinth
It is suggested to adopt 1 ft. height above ground level for the plinth and may be
constructed with a cement mortar of 1:6. The plinth slab of 4 to 6″ which is normally
adopted can be avoided and in its place brick on edge can be used for reducing the
cost. By adopting this procedure the cost of plinth foundation can be reduced by
about 35 to 50%.It is necessary to take precaution of providing impervious blanket
like concrete slabs or stone slabs all round the building for enabling to reduce
erosion of soil and thereby avoiding exposure of foundation surface and crack
formation.
Walling
Wall thickness of 6 to 9″ is recommended for adoption in the construction of walls

14
 all-round the building and 41/2 ” for inside walls. It is suggested to use burnt bricks
which are immersed in water for 24 hours and then shall be used for the walls
Rat – trap bond wall
It is a cavity wall construction with added advantage of thermal comfort and
reduction in the quantity of bricks required for masonry work. By adopting this
method of bonding of brick masonry compared to traditional English or Flemish
bond masonry, it is possible to reduce in the material cost of bricks by 25% and
about 10to 15% in the masonry cost. By adopting rat-trap bond method one can
create aesthetically pleasing wall surface and plastering can be avoided.
Concrete block walling
In view of high energy consumption by burnt brick it is suggested to use concrete
block (block hollow and solid) which consumes about only 1/3 of the energy of the
burnt bricks in its production. By using concrete block masonry the wall thickness
can be reduced from 20 cms to 15 Cms. Concrete block masonry saves mortar
consumption, speedy construction of wall resulting in higher output of labour,
plastering can be avoided thereby an overall saving of 10 to 25% can be achieved
Soil cement block technology
It is an alternative method of construction of walls using soil cement blocks in place
of burnt bricks masonry. It is an energy efficient method of construction where soil
mixed with 5% and above cement and pressed in hand operated machine and cured
well and then used in the masonry. This masonry doesn’t require plastering on both
sides of the wall. The overall economy that could be achieved with the soil cement
technology is about 15 to 20% compared to conventional method of construction.
Doors and windows
It is suggested not to use wood for doors and windows and in its place concrete or
steel section frames shall be used for achieving saving in cost up to 30 to
40%.Similiarly for shutters commercially available block boards, fibre or wooden
practical boards etc., shall be used for reducing the cost by about 25%.By adopting
brick jelly work and precast components effective ventilation could be provided to
the building and also the construction cost could be saved up to 50% over the
window components.
Lintals and Chajjas
The traditional R.C.C. lintels which are costly can be replaced by brick arches for
small spans and save construction cost up to 30 to 40% over the traditional method
of construction. By adopting arches of different shapes a good architectural pleasing
appearance can be given to the external wall surfaces of the brick masonry.
Roofing
Normally 5″(12.5 cms) thick R.C.C. slabs is used for roofing of residential buildings.
By adopting rationally designed insitu construction practices like filler slab and
precast elements the construction cost of roofing can be reduced by about 20 to
25%.
Filler slabs
They are normal RCC slabs where bottom half (tension) concrete portions are

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 replaced by filler materials such as bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks, etc.These
filler materials are so placed as not to compromise structural strength, result in
replacing unwanted and nonfunctional tension concrete, thus resulting in economy.
These are safe, sound and provide aesthetically pleasing pattern ceilings and also
need no plaster.
Jack arch roof/floor
They are easy to construct, save on cement and steel, are more appropriate in hot
climates. These can be constructed using compressed earth blocks also as
alternative to bricks for further economy.
Ferrocement channel/shell unit
Provide an economic solution to RCC slab by providing 30 to 40% cost reduction on
floor/roof unit over RCC slabs without compromising the strength. These being
precast, construction is speedy, economical due to avoidance of shuttering and
facilitate quality control.
Finishing Work
The cost of finishing items like sanitary, electricity, painting etc., varies depending
upon the type and quality of products used in the building and its cost reduction is
left to the individual choice and liking

6. Defining Energy efficient design :

Energy conservation in the built environment has become one of the most important
topics on both political and scientific agendas. The rising global population, decreasing
fossil-based energy resources, rising emissions of harmful gases have emerged as the main
motivators for energy efficiency in buildings. In addition, cost efficiency, safety and the
need to reduce carbon emissions are fundamental reasons for energy conservation. In
the last century, the incredible increase in the amount of energy usage and the increasing
dependence on energy resources have forced human beings to consume energy in the
most efficient way in every area. The world is dominated by buildings with about 40%
energy consumption. For this reason, the construction sector is affected by global energy
issues, and the traces of these effects are manifested in the design, construction and usage
processes of the buildings. In this context, energy efficient design systems related to the
production of the buildings that draw so much of the world's energy consumption have
been put forward.

Buildings consume energy at different levels in every stage of life cycle. Approximately half

of all nonrenewable resources (water, energy, and raw materials) mankind consumes are

16
used in construction. Contemporary human civilization depends on buildings and what

they contain for its continued existence, and yet our planet cannot support the current

level of resource consumption associated with them [1]. Construction also has a major

impact on the environment in its consumption of energy. For example, building materials

occupy a great share of this consumption. The large bulk of materials used consume a

great deal of energy for transport [2].

There is a growing concern about energy consumption in buildings and its possible adverse

impacts on the environment. These are issues that the building professions in the whole

world have to address [3]. Energy consumption is rapidly increasing due to the increase in

population and urbanization. Residential energy requirements vary from region to region,

depending on climate, dwelling type, and level of development [4]. The construction

activities consume 38% of the globally used energy every year [5]. There is a growing

concern about energy consumption in buildings and its possible adverse impacts on the

environment. These are issues that the building professions in the whole world have to

address [6]. Buildings consume energy at different levels and different aims in every stage

of the life cycle. In an operating phase, a building with at least a 50-year lifespan, energy

used for production of materials, transportation, and construction, "at least five times" as is

required in the amount of energy use and operating phases. A large part of the energy (35–

60%) is used for heating, air-conditioning, ventilation, and artificial lighting at this stage.

Energy-efficient approaches that have the potential to significant energy economy, most of

the buildings if you live a long time considered more than 50 years. Even if only to focus on

the use and operation phase is very important [7].

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 7. Need for considering Energy efficiency in Housing Design:

Climate change and growing energy prices have become global challenges in the

construction sector, compelling architects and engineers to develop new building design

concepts.

Furthermore, sustainable planning necessitates a focus on indoor comfort and damage-

free construction. The holistic building design is difficult since climatic boundary conditions

have a large effect on both comfort and energy efficiency needs.

It is critical to focus on developing an interior environment that supports productive

working circumstances in office buildings or comfortable living settings in residences.

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) consume a significant amount of energy,

accounting for 40% of total building energy usage. It is critical to developing an energy-

efficient building thermal comfort control approach that can minimize HVAC energy usage

while preserving occupant comfort.

India's cooling action plan has categorically stated the goal of thermal comfort for all. This

needs to be integrated with the requirement of affordable housing. While planning for

improved energy efficiency in buildings, it is also important to target improved thermal

comfort through material choices, designs, and orientation.

Lowering energy costs is the primary advantage of efforts to enhance energy efficiency in

buildings, but there are frequently additional benefits to consider as well. Energy efficiency

solutions are intended to minimize energy consumption while preserving or increasing the

level of services delivered in the facility.

● Reducing energy use for space heating and/or cooling and water heating

● Reducing electricity use for lighting and domestic type appliances

● Lower maintenance requirements;

● Improved comfort;

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 ● Increased property value is among the benefits that are likely to result from energy

efficiency investments in buildings.

8. Materials and technologies used:

It is not possible to bring recommendations of solution that can procure energy efficiency

for all buildings. As the function, system, position, and importance of a building changes

from building to building, the ways of solution providing energy efficiency will also change.

Therefore, a conscious approach needs to be developed in order to reach the right solution

at the stage of architectural design through enabling necessary data. In the end, the

product to be obtained must be aimed to have the quality of being more efficient, in other

words, spending less resource within a longer period of time to perform the same action.

There are very different applications targeting the decrease of energy consumption of

buildings. Considering energy consumption in each phase of structuring is achieved with

the analysis of building life cycle. In this respect, we need to know the life cycle of building.

Building life cycle is divided into three main phases such as the prebuilding phase, building

phase, and postbuilding phase. These phases have some processes. Prebuilding phase

includes the appropriate site selection, site planning, building form, building plan, and

appropriate space organization, building envelope design choosing energy-efficient

building materials, energy-efficient landscape design, obtaining raw materials for building

material, manufacturing, and transporting them. The building phase includes the

construction and usage processes of the building. The postbuilding phase is the phase

following the completion of building usage. In this phase, we have the demolition, recycling,

and wipe-out of the building. The methods applied so as to fulfill the energy efficiency of

buildings depending upon life cycle phases.

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2.1. Energy-efficient designing methods in the prebuilding phase The prebuilding phase

includes the choice of the space where construction is to be built, the design of the

building, the choice of building materials, obtaining raw materials for building material,

manufacturing, and transporting them. In these processes, the strategies have been

explained with significant energy saving in building life cycle such as the appropriate site

selection, site planning, building form, building plan and appropriate space organization,

the design of building envelope, the choice of building material, landscape design, and

benefitting from renewable energy resources in sequence. These strategies are explained

below. 2.1.1. Appropriate site selection The locations of the hemisphere, slope, and aspect

are important design parameters. Location of the building determines the microclimate

conditions which has very important role in building energy efficiency, as it is important for

learning, climatic values such as sun radiation, air temperature, air circulation, and

humidity, which effect energy costs [8]. The site of building and distance between other

buildings are one of the most important design parameters, which affect sun radiation

amount and air circulation velocity around the buildings. For this reason, the site of the

building in the area should be determined to benefit and defend from the renewable

energy resources like sun and wind [8]. In order to provide adequate protection from the

prevailing wind and sun, the orientation of buildings on the land needs to be appropriate

to the climatic conditions of the region. In cold regions, lower overnight temperatures

cause colder, denser air to accumulate in hollows and valleys. Therefore, in cold regions it

is advisable to position buildings on hillsides rather than in valleys. Such sloping areas are

not affected by cold wind as much as valleys and benefit from more direct as shown in

Figure 1 [9]. The topography of the location of the building is important because of the

effect the angle of incidence of solar radiation, slope, and orientation of the land in terms

of the use of daylight and natural ventilation, solar radiation. If the settlement will be

sloping, gained solar radiation energy is reduced in summer, and gained solar radiation

energy increases in winter. Therefore, the slope of the land, the amount of incoming solar

radiation, and the latitude are very important parameters [11]. It is well known that a south

slope is warmer and has the longest growing season in the northern hemisphere. When a

20
choice of site is available, a south slope is still the best for most building types. In the

winter, the south slope is the warmest land due to two reasons: the south slope receives

the most solar energy on each square foot of land because it most directly faces the winter

sun. The south slope will also experience the least shading because objects cast their

shortest shadows on south slopes [12]. Figure 2a illustrates the variation in microclimate

with different slope orientations. The south slope gets the most sun and is the warmest in

the winter while the west slope is the hottest in the summer. The north slope is the

shadiest and coldest, while the hilltop is the windiest location. Low areas tend to be cooler

than slopes because cold air drains into them and collects there [12]

2.1.2. Site planning In the design of buildings, distance between buildings is an important

designing parameter that affects utilization of solar energy, wind direction, and speed

concerning artificial environment. In the design process, building should be handled as a

whole with its environment. The distances between buildings highly affect the energy

performance in the usage phase of building. The fact that a building remains within the

shading space of other buildings influences the utilization of solar rays and will raise the

consumption of energy. In order to utilize solar radiation, building spaces must not be less

than the tallest shade height of other buildings. Besides, the position and distance of other

buildings affect the speed and direction of wind on building, and this impacts the energy

performance of building [15]. Orientation of building affects the ratio of the solar radiation

gain of building sides, consequently the total solar radiation gain of building. In addition,

the side of buildings affects wind amount, consequently, affecting natural ventilation

possibility and heat loss amount by convection and air lack. For this reason, according to

the necessities of that region, buildings must be oriented for avoid of or benefit from the

sun and wind according to the conditions [8]. As the positioning of buildings as attached to

each other would decrease the building envelope/volume rate, declines heat loss and gains

through building envelope. In addition, positioning them in the direction of south,

southeast, and southwest as an external curve crescent make them utilize solar ray more

[16]. In London-BedZED settlement, separate houses having their own gardens were

21
designed. So as to lessen the heat loss of buildings, both compact forms were used and

construction groups were gathered together and it tried to decrease the outer surface

space/volume rate as shown in Figure 3 [17]. Energy-Efficient Building Design in the

Context of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 97 2.1.3. Building form The

shape of building which is a considerable factor affecting heat loss and gain can be defined

through geometrical variables making up building such as the proportion of building length

to building depth of the building in the plan, building height, type of roof, its gradient, front

gradient, and bossages. Heat loss-gain of building may rise and decline depending upon

the proportion of the surfaces constituting environment to volume [18]. Energy

performance of building is affected by such factors as its form, volume surface rate and

frontal motions. There is a direct relationship between the geometrical shape and energy

performance of building. In the conducted studies, it was observed that different results

were obtained in the energy performance of the masses which had the same volume but

made in different forms [14]. It was calculated that the surface area of the masses has the

same volume but different forms. The surface of the cube that was taken as 100 was

accepted as a reference (Figure 4). The shape of building is important in areas that have

different climate conditions. In cold climate regions, compact forms should be used which

minimize the heat loss part. In hot-dry climate regions, compact forms and courtyards

should be used which minimize heat gain and helps to provide shaded and cool living

spaces. In hot-humid climate region, long and thin forms whose long side oriented to the

direction of prevailing wind makes possible maximum cross-ventilation. In mild climates,

compact forms, which are flexible more than the forms used in cold climate regions, should

be used [8]. Figure 3. Site plan of London-BedZED ecological settlement [17]. 98 Energy

Efficient Buildings 2.1.4. Building plan and appropriate space organization Building plan

and shapes should be effective in energy conservation. Therefore, buildings should be

formed to ensure minimum heat gain in warm seasons and maximum in cold. Due to

simple plan types such as square or rectangle having a reduced surface area, their heat-

loss and -gain are also reduced. Smaller buildings, where internal space has been used

efficiently, use less energy as they can be heated, cooled, and illuminated more efficiently

22
than larger buildings [20]. According to the results of the research called “Construction and

Energy” performed by German Ministry of Research and Technology, the place of space in

the organization of plan is more efficient than the orientation of space with respect to

energy consumption [21]. The energy requirement of buildings can be reduced by the

internal layout of the design. By making the best use of the sun’s radiation, the need for

heating energy can be reduced. These communal areas require more heating, whereas

spaces with a lower heating requirement such as the pantry, bathroom, and toilet can be

used as buffer areas, reducing heat transfer to the exterior by placing these in areas of

heat-loss. Spaces such as sun rooms, if located on south façades of buildings, also

contribute to heating of the building and energy conservation, by storing solar radiation

[20]. In the building design, stratification can perform zoning depending on buffer zone,

sanitary spaces, noise level, lighting level, and heating need. Therefore, areas with many

users and which are used throughout the day should face southerly direction. Thermal

zoning and the settlement of indoors can be designed in a way to raise mutual air motion

(Figure 5). Deep plans and the use of too many dividing elements may restrict air motion in

environments [22]. 2.1.5. Building envelope Building envelope is the components such as

wall, ceiling, ground, window, and door which separate building (conditioned space) from

outdoor and let heat energy transfer into inside or outside. As an indoor and outdoor

reagent, it has a vital impact on energy consumption [10]. While the cost of constructing a

building envelope makes up 15–40 of the total constructional cost, its contribution to life

cycle costs especially to energy cost is around 60% [12]. The skin of building performs the

role of a filter between indoor and outdoor conditions, to control the intake of air, heat,

cold, and light [24]. Building envelope should minimize the heat loss in the winter and the

heat gain in the summer. Figure 4. Building form-surface relationship [19]. Energy-Efficient

Building Design in the Context of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 99 The

physical and structural specifications of building components, such as walls, windows,

flooring, and doors, which make up the outer shell of the building, have a significant impact

on the energy consumption of the building. The thermal performance, thickness, and color

of the materials used in these components play a significant role in regulating the heat loss

23
and gain of the building [20]. The energy-saving features of the building components

analyzed are described below. Outer walls: Thermal and massive characteristics of outer

walls are related to building material constituting them and the characteristics of building

element layers and how they are sorted. The walls that will minimize heat loss and gain are

well-isolated massive walls with high heat-storing capacity. The formation of outer surfaces

that can get most solar radiation or be protected from radiation in terms of heat gain

should be handled depending upon the characteristic of climatic zones. To keep sunlight as

much as possible in winter, wall-to-window ratio is desired not to exceed 15% with the use

of dark and high-density materials in the parts exposed to the sun [25]. Roofs: In

commercial and institutional buildings, roofs are generally flat, and the insulation can be

resting on the suspending ceiling. In gabled roof construction where the attic is not used,

the insulation is generally in the ceiling [12]. The shape, material, gradient, orientation,

outer surface color, and insulating qualities of the roof determine the thermal performance

of the buildings. Therefore, roofs need to be designed in such a way to suit the climatic

conditions [20]. Figure 5. Spatial zoning [23]. 100 Energy Efficient Buildings Thermal

insulation qualities of roofs, their gradient and facade should be chosen properly to

climatic character, their outer surface color and stratification order should, however, be

chosen taking heat gain and loss into account. In temperate dry and temperate humid

climatic zone and cold climatic zones, the well-isolated gradient roofs should be preferred.

In hot and dry climate zones, flat roofs should be preferred to reduce the impact of solar

radiation; in hot and humid climates that allow air flow, raised or sloping roof should be

arranged [9]. Windows: Windows affect energy efficiency in buildings via heat loss or gain,

natural ventilation, and illumination. The most appropriate direction is south in terms of

heat gain, after the east and west side. Large windows reduce the need for artificial lighting

while improving daylight [26]. Windows should be designed in the magnitude that is

sufficient to provide natural lighting. For example, window magnitude should be at least

15% of the room’s floor area [27]. While taking a decision on the transparency rates in

building envelope, in which climatic zone the building is placed should be ascertained in

advance. Since protection from solar radiation and wind is the basic purpose in hot and

24
arid climatic zones, small and few windows should be used. In hot and humid climatic

zones, by taking necessary precautions, large openings should be used in order to raise

indoor air circulations. In cold climatic zones, to minimize the heat losses stemming from

windows, again small and few windows should be used. Yet, so as to utilize the beneficial

effect of solar radiations, the window openings in the southern front should be kept more

than the ones in other fronts. In temperate climatic zones, however, it should be given to

openings that would enable sufficient air circulation [28]. The use of windows also serves a

number of essential purposes such as ventilation, natural lighting, and opening to scenery;

it does not bring much load on constructional cost. In the climatic zones having cold

winters, positioning window openings in the north should not be preferred due to the fact

that heat gain from the sun is too little to be considered and air penetrations increase

because winter winds usually blow from the north and thus heat losses grow. It is possible

to obtain a certain amount of sun gain from the openings placed in the east and west, even

if it is less in winter than the southern front. However, since the summer sun comes

horizontally in the morning and afternoon hours, it is very difficult to protect these

openings and we may face the problem of overheating. The windows looking toward south,

however, may utilize solar rays coming horizontally in winter almost the whole day; in

summer, they may be easily protected from the rays coming more vertically [29]. Because

of all of these components, southern windows are the systems which can be very

commonly used in utilizing sun passively. Yet, compared with wall, due to their weak

isolation qualities they are much more open to heat-loss and gain; therefore, it is needed to

take precautions for winter and summer. In this case, the application of double-glazing

gains a high importance. Night isolation applications, however, are necessary to dismiss the

heat losses that may occur after sunset. These isolation elements may be shutter, roller

blind, or jalousie fixed either from inside or outside. Or, losses should be reduced through

at least bringing curtains strictly down. In summer days, windows may be easily protected

by the help of eaves, sunshade, or curtain [29]. Energy-Efficient Building Design in the

Context of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 101 In the front, high

performance glass that has the most suitable thermal and light transmittance coefficient

25
for the desired qualities depending on climate, sun direction, and the usage purpose of

building should be used. Energy can be efficiently used thanks to isolated joineries, low-E

covered glasses, argon or krypton-filled double-glazing and air proof detailing and

montage. Doors: The position of outer doors should be chosen considering wind effects,

heat gain, and losses. In cold climatic zones, windbreak is suggested in order to be

protected from the wind effect increasing heat losses. In hot-arid and temperate climatic

zones, as wind does not have a restorative impact on comfort, surfaces closed to wind

should be preferred [9]. Floors: Floorings grounded on soil should be arranged in a way to

enable the desired performance in terms of heat and moisture. In cold and temperate

climatic zones, well-isolated floorings should be preferred. In warm-humid climatic zones,

however, heightened floorings can be preferred since air streams become important [9]. In

the volumes getting sunlight, floor laying can be used as a thermal heat store. In floor

laying, dark color materials having a high heat-storing capacity should be preferred. Not

laying carpets on floor and leaving it open increase its capacity of heat absorption. 2.1.6.

Choosing energy-efficient building materials Building materials both in the production

phase should have energy-efficient features in the use phase. Energy-efficient building

material properties are described below. Local material: In the total energy consumption of

constructions, the amount of energy spent for transportation of the construction materials

to construction sites is considerable and also affects the constructions’ energy efficiency

and economical cost. For this reason, if the construction materials are local material and

are manufactured in nearby places to the construction site as much as possible, energy

consumption in transportation will decrease and that saving in transportation will give the

construction an important ecological quality [30]. Recycled resources: A large amount of

energy is used in manufacturing many building materials. In the manufacture of building

material, using recycled sources instead of the sources which are not newly processed

material provides a considerable preservation of raw material and also a considerable

amount of energy saving. Recycling building materials are essential to reduce the

embodied energy in the building; for instance, the use of recycled metal makes

considerable energy savings between the rates of 40 and 90% comparing the material

26
produced from natural resources [31]. Materials manufactured through low density

industrial processes: Building materials play a significant role in the energy efficiency of

buildings. A large proportion of the total energy used during the building life cycle is

consumed during the production of building materials (especially embodied energy). The

proportion of the energy amount consumed in the manufacture of construction materials

to the total energy amount of a construction with a 50-year process of use consumes in its

life cycle processes varies between 6 and 20% depending on the construction methods,

climate, and similar conditions [31]. The intensity of energy consumption in the first of

these phases for the production of buildings and their components has 102 Energy

Efficient Buildings increased with industrialization [32]. Nonexistence of heavy procedures

in the manufacturing process will cause less energy consumption, which provides energy

efficiency to materials. Using the developed technologies in industrial processes such as a

heat recovery method reduces energy consumption. For instance, in cement

manufacturing technology, using the shaft furnaces instead of the conventional rotary

furnaces makes energy saving between 10 and 40%. Similarly, the use of an arc furnace

instead of a rotary furnace in the steel industry makes about 50% energy saving [31].

Natural materials are quickly obtained from renewable resources: Generally, the energy

content of natural materials is lower than that of artificial materials since these materials

are manufactured with less energy and labor cost. Such kinds of materials which are easy

to be locally provided are generally among the renewable resources. Such vegetal

materials used in constructions for instance, wood, bamboo, reed, straw, rye stalk,

sunflower stalk, mushroom are the natural materials which are quickly gained from

renewable sources [33]. Labor intensive materials: Using highly qualified man power in

manufacturing materials will reduce the processes based upon industry, and accordingly

decrease the energy consumption. Materials manufactured by using renewable energy

resources: especially renewable energy resources (solar energy, wind energy, etc.) instead

of fossil fuels should be preferred as a primary energy supplier in the manufacturing

process. For example, the adobe brick is dried using solar energy after it is molded [33].

Materials consuming less energy during the worksite process: The management of

27
worksite, the need for electricity energy, and machines in operation, heating, and lightening

affect the energy consumption of the worksite. As a result of the increase in mechanization

in worksites, the electricity consumption has increased considerably as well [31]. Use of

durable building materials: Use of durable materials in the buildings makes them more

resistant and long-lasting against various factors. This delays or eliminates the need of

renewing material or maintenance due to impairment and aging. In this way, it is saved

from the energy spent for the material to be used in maintenance or renewing [33].

Building materials with high thermal insulation capacity: With the choice of building

materials whose thermal insulation capacity is high, the energy amount that the

construction consumes in its usage stage will be decreased. As mentioned as examples are

opaque and translucent insulating materials [33]. 2.1.7. Energy-efficient landscape design

Through an accurate and conscious energy protected landscape design, it is possible to

reduce the energy cost spent for heating and cooling during summer and winter seasons at

30% [34]. The ground flooring of outdoor and grass has a cooling impact via vapor

transportation. The materials harboring heat in its body such as asphalt continue to

expand heat following sun and they increase night time radiations. So as to reduce the

cooling costs spent, using such materials that store heat and reflect lights little or shading

them against direct solar rays are among the precautions to be taken [34]. Energy-Efficient

Building Design in the Context of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 103

The energy conserving landscape strategies depend on a region. These landscaping

strategies are listed by the region and in order of importance as shown in Figure 6.

Temperate climate: It should maximize warming effects of the sun in winter and maximize

shade during the summer. Buildings should be protected away from winter winds. Summer

breezes should be directed toward the buildings. Constantly green trees with low branches

to Figure 6. Landscaping techniques appropriate for four different climates (temperate,

very cold, hot and dry, and hot and humid) [12]. (a) The general tree planting logic for most

country [12], (b) landscaping techniques for a temperate climate. The windbreak on the

north side of the building should be no farther away than four times its height, (c)

landscaping techniques for very cold climates, (d) landscaping techniques for hot and dry

28
climates, and (e) landscaping techniques for hot and humid climates. 104 Energy Efficient

Buildings protect them from the cold winter winds on the northern front, low shrubs or

trees not high, should be applied on the south front, high body deciduous trees should be

placed on the eastern and western facades for block the sun and allowing natural

ventilation [12, 35]. Hot-arid climate: It provides shade to cool roofs, walls, and windows.

Allows summer winds to access naturally cooled homes and blocks or deflect winds away

from air-conditioned homes. North and south sides should avoid forestation, while the

eastern and western direction (positioning studies may be substituted), shrubs, vines have

been placed on the walls and deciduous trees should be implemented [12, 35]. Hot-humid

climate: Channel summer breezes toward the home. Maximize summer shade with trees

that still allow penetration of low-angle winter sun. Avoid locating planting beds close to

the home if they require frequent watering. Should avoid forestation on the southern front,

in the northern front, forestation should be done providing the shadow effect in summer.

The eastern and western direction, shrubs, and vines have been placed on the walls and

deciduous trees should be implemented [12, 35]. Cool climate: Use dense windbreaks to

protect the building from cold winter winds. Allow the winter sun to reach south-facing

windows. If summer overheating is a problem, shade south and west windows and walls

from the direct summer sun. The north façade is useful in cold climate regions partly raised

land application. Northern, eastern, and western fronts in constantly green shrubs and the

green, the low branches of trees should be preferred. In the southern wind breaker, low

shrubs and grass should be applied. In southeast and southwest direction away from the

building, deciduous trees should be used [12, 35]. The ground cover may also be utilized

for energy conservation in buildings. Completely or partially buried, construction can

moderate building temperature, save energy, and preserve open space and views above

the building [36]. If the wall and roof being covered by a layer of earth of substantial

thickness sufficient to insulate the dwelling thermally and acoustically and reducing the

quantity of energy necessary to maintain the interior of the building comfortable for the

occupants even when the atmosphere is extremely hot or cold. 2.1.8. Usage renewable

energy resources Renewable energy sources (sun, wind, biomass, biogas, geothermal

29
energy, hydro, wood, ocean thermal, ebb and flow, wave, sea flows) are the energy

resources that can be used by all living creatures on the earth and accepted as

inexhaustible thanks to their continuous renewal. It is possible to benefit from renewable

energy resources with passive and active methods. Usage renewable energy resources with

passive techniques: Passive heating: Passive solar heating systems are categorized by the

relationship between the solar system and the building. There are three categories of

passive solar heating systems: direct gain systems, indirect gain systems, and isolated gain

systems [37]. In the passive solar heating system, building elements (windows, walls, floors

etc.) collect and store heat and then distributes indoor space. Energy-Efficient Building

Design in the Context of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 105 Direct gain

systems: The direct gain passive solar building has windows that admit the winter sun

directly into the occupied space. These solar gains serve to either meet part of the current

heating needs of building or are stored in the thermal mass to meet heating needs that

arise later. Most direct gain buildings include: (1) large, south-facing windows (for north

hemisphere) to admit winter sub; (2) thermal mass inside the insulation envelope to reduce

temperature swings; (3) calculated overhang above the south glass (or other strategy) to

shade the glass in the summer while admitting lower angle winter insolation; (4) a means

of reducing heat loss at night. In a direct gain building, sunlight is admitted directly to

interior through glazing. It strikes massive interior surfaces (typically concrete floor and

masonry wall surfaces), is absorbed, and is converted into the heat. Some of the heat from

the surfaces is immediately released back into the room interior. The remainder of heat

absorbed is conducted into the thermal mass which slowly warms up; later at night, the

stored heat is released back to interior as shown in Figures 7 and 8 [39]. Indirect gain

systems: An indirect gain passive solar system has its thermal storage between facade and

the indoor spaces. Heat is collected and stored in an exterior wall or on the roof (with

water or brick/concrete) of a building, and distributed to the indoor as shown in Figure 9

[37]. Isolated gain systems: Isolated gain passive solar concept contains solar collection and

storage that are thermally isolated from the indoor space of the building. The most

common use in isolated gain systems is a sunspace. Collection and storage are separate

30
from the occupied spaces but directly linked thermally. A sunspace is a room attached to or

integrated with the exterior of a building in which the room temperature is allowed to rise

and fall outside the thermal comfort zone, as shown in Figure 10 [37]. Figure 7. Direct gain

schematic [36]. Figure 8. Direct gain plus storage schematic [37]. 106 Energy Efficient

Buildings Passive cooling and ventilation: Passive solar heating is divided into categories

according to application configuration. On the other hand, passive cooling is better

understood as a series of research fields that focus on the basic heat sinks. While this

organization is helpful to scientists and inventors, it is a source of frustration for designers

and policy makers because so many workable systems involve multiple heat sinks [38].

Nonetheless, this characterization of passive cooling will be described below. Ventilative

cooling: Warm building air and replacing it with cooler outside air. Directing moving air

across occupants’ skin to cool by combination of convection and evaporation. In passive

applications, the required air movement is provided either by wind or by stack effect. In

hybrid applications, movement may be assisted by fans, as shown in Figures 11–13 [39].

Radiant cooling: All building objects radiate and absorb radiant energy. Building objects will

cool by radiation if the net flow the outward. At the night, long wave infrared radiation

from a clear sky is much less than the long wave infrared radiation radiated from a

building. Thus, there is a net flow to the sky, as shown in Figure 14 [12]. Evaporative

cooling: Water has been used to improve the thermal comfort of buildings with or

cascades. Because when water is evaporates, energy is lost from the air and reducing the

temperature. When water evaporates, it draws a large amount of sensible heat from its

surroundings and converts this type of heat in the form of water vapor. As sensible heat is

converted to latent heat, the temperature decreases. This phenomenon is used to cool

buildings in two different ways. If the water evaporates in the building or in the fresh air

intake, the air will be not cooled, but also humidified. This method is called direct

evaporative cooling. If, however, the building or indoor air is cooled by evaporation without

humidifying the indoor air, the method is called indirect evaporative cooling, as shown in

Figure 15 [12].

31
Dehumidification: The removal of water vapor from room air by dilution with drier air,

condensation, or desiccation. In the case of condensation and desiccation,

dehumidification is the exchange of latent heat in air for the sensible heat of water

droplets on surfaces: both are the reverse of evaporative cooling and as such are adiabatic

heating processes [39]. Figure 14. Radiant cooling from ceiling [43]. Figure 13. Air

movement in stack ventilation [41, 42]. Energy-Efficient Building Design in the Context of

Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 109 Mass-effect cooling: The use of

thermal storage to absorb heat during the warmest part of a periodic temperature cycle

and release it later during a cooler part. Night flushing (where cool night air is drawn

through a building to exhaust heat stored during the day in massive floors and walls) is an

example of daily-cycle mass-effect cooling, as shown in Figure 16 [39]. Usage renewable

energy resources with active techniques: The active use of solar energy systems in

buildings: It is possible to produce heat and electricity with solar energy in buildings using

such equipment solar collectors, photovoltaic (PV) Figure 15. Evaporative cooling [40].

Figure 16. Air movement in Eastgate Center Office Building [44]. 110 Energy Efficient

Buildings panels, and building integrated PV (BIPV). The potential application of PV panels

in highrise buildings is more than the low-rise buildings because of higher neighboring

buildings; it gives more possibility for direct solar radiation. Requirements for regulation of

large amounts of PV panels are the most important problem. Because it is necessary to

maintain aesthetics and PV panel’s productivity in buildings[45]. The active systems where

solar energy is used are the systems composed of the aggregation of mechanic and/or

electronic components that convert solar radiation absorbed via collectors produced for

this end into energy in a desired form and permit this to be used in building. Through these

systems, solar radiation can turn into heat and electric energy [46]. These systems that

transform solar radiations into energy are divided into two according to the energy they

produce: solar thermal systems producing thermal energy and thermal electric

(photovoltaic) systems (PV systems) producing electric energy. These systems are briefly

described below. Solar energy thermal systems: Solar energy thermal systems (effective

solar thermal systems) are the aggregation of mechanic and/or electronic components that

32
convert solar radiation into thermal energy via collectors, make it possible to directly use

this energy with water, air, and a similar fluid, or make it usable by evaluating it in a storage

unit. Solar energy-efficient thermal systems are used for heating pool water, preheating of

climatization air and heating environment [46]. The general operation principle of thermal

systems is based on collecting heat via collectors, storing thermal energy to be able to use

later if needed and distributing it to relevant fields [47]. Solar water heating systems: These

systems are composed of the elements that transform solar radiation into thermal energy,

keep and distribute this heat in an aquatic environment. In contrary to the fact that

systems show differences depending on the complexity and magnitude of necessity, all of

the solar water heating systems are based on heating water, storing, and distributing it. As

the hot water produced with the transformation of solar energy can be directly used for

having a bath, laundry, and washing dishes depending on the characteristics of the system,

it can also be used for supporting the conventional heating system [46]. Photovoltaic

systems: The aggregations of the components that produce electric energy via collectors

from solar radiation and make this energy usable are called photovoltaic (PV) systems. With

simple or complex structuring, PV systems are used to produce electricity in a large

number of different fields such as road lighting, lighthouses, vehicles, constructions, and

electric power-plants. A photovoltaic system generates electric energy, stores the produced

energy for necessary conditions and safely transfers this energy to the areas of usage. By

being placed on fronts and roofs of buildings, photovoltaic batteries convert the solar

energy coming to these surfaces into electric energy, as shown in Figure 17 [48]. The active

use of wind energy systems in buildings: Wind energy is the fastest-growing renewable

energy source in the world. Wind energy is a clean fuel source and does not produce

atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gasses. Wind energy is an

inexhaustible energy source. More recent developments in this technology have allowed

wind turbines to be utilized in building design. Consistent with the high performance

approach to building design, the use of wind turbines on high buildings is significantly

enhanced by their integration with building architecture [50]. Energy-Efficient Building

Design in the Context of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 111 When the

33
height of the structure increases the wind without interruption in direct contact with

structure, wind speed increases linearly with height and utilizing the turbine at high

buildings with this feature it is possible to produce significant amounts of electricity.

Implementation of wind turbines in high buildings in the design stage consideration of this

parameter is required: site plan layout, wind aerodynamics in building form, local wind

pattern, wind speed density, frequencies of the wind speed distribution, and prevailing

wind direction [51]. Must be designed taking into account the prevailing wind direction

which mass form of the building and placement in the wind turbine, as shown in Figure 18.

Previous studies show that optimal angle between the prevailing wind direction and wind

turbines for maximum efficiency is determined as 45° [45]. Use of geothermal energy in

buildings: Geothermal energy is used in heating and cooling in houses, greenhouse

cultivation, and agriculture. Geothermal energy systems are applied in three different ways

according to application methods such as heat pumps, downhole heat exchangers, and

heat pipes. Their common usage in buildings is in the form of heat pipes. Another form of

geothermal energy usage is the methods where earth temperature is used. A little under

earth, temperature is always in between 45 and 75 F (7.22 and 23.88°C) depending on

latitude [53]. This temperature of the earth can be benefitted via air or water. The air taken

through the funnels dug in various depths of earth is transferred into building and indoor

is enabled to reach the same level with earth temperature. This application is ensured in

the direction of heating in winter and cooling in summer. A similar application is performed

to utilize the temperature of underground waters, the water circulated within the building

via pipes expands the heat it has into internal volumes [48]. The schematic figure showing

these applications is given in Figure 19. Figure 17. Photovoltaic panels integrated into

building [49]. 112 Energy Efficient Buildings Use of hydrogen energy in buildings: Hydrogen

energy can be used for heating houses, providing hot water, cooking and meeting

electricity need. In order to use hydrogen here, we first need to produce it, then store and

transfer it. Hydrogen can be produced from such renewable energy sources such as sun,

hydroelectric, wind, and geothermal. Nowadays, among the renewable energy sources,

solar-hydrogen hybrid system strikes us as the most productive system. In such a system,

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there is a need for such constituents as photovoltaic panels, electrolyzer, fuel cell,

hydrogen (H2) storing tank, battery pack, and inverter. In solar-hydrogen house energy

mechanism, system works as follows [55]: - with PV panels, electricity is produced from

solar energy, - with electrolyzer, H2 and O2 areproduced, - gases are taken into storage

tank for heating place and water, - in winter, by burning hydrogen “flamelessly” with

catalytic hydrogen lighter (1.5 kW), the air in the ventilation system is heated, Figure 18.

Wind turbines integrated into building [52]. Energy-Efficient Building Design in the Context

of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 113 - if additional electricity is

needed, fuel cell runs, - a part of the heat emerging in fuel cell is used to heat water. Use of

biomass energy in buildings: Biomass is a strategical energy resource, which is renewable

and environment friendly, can be grown everywhere, enables socioeconomic improvement,

and can be used for power generation and for obtaining fuel for vehicles. Biomass is

utilized in the energy sector by being directly burned or its fuel quality is increased with

various processes and thus gained alternative biofuels (easily movable, storable, and

usable fuels), which are equal to existing fuels. From biomass is produced fuel with physical

processes (size reducing-breaking and grinding, drying, filtration, extraction and

briquetting) and transformation processes (biomassive and thermochemical processes)

[56]. In the houses, biomass is used for biogas power generation adopted with airless

increpation, ethanol heating adopted with the pyrolysis method, and hydrogen water

heating adopted with the directly burning method [47]. Natural lighting: Natural lighting in

buildings is carried out through a most basic windows and skylights. Choice of direction in

the windows and roof lighting is important. The most suitable directions for natural lighting

are south and north. The north direction is not exposed to radiation, but can always get

daylight in the same quality. In the west and east directions, the sun radiates in horizontally

and makes it difficult to control. In the south direction, the effect of the sun is permanent

and sun rises at a right angle compared to the west and east directions. Therefore, it is

easy to control [57]. Figure 19. Earth-based heat pipe usage forms [54]. 114 Energy Efficient

Buildings In order to increase daylight’s entrance into the building, light colors should be

used on windows’ wings that direct the light and light shelves. Moreover, the elements

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used to reflect light must be made in a position to reflect the light to the ceiling. Wall and

ceiling surfaces must be light colored so that the light can be spread [58]. Desirable

reflectance according to Illuminating Engineering Society’s recommendations: ceilings

>80%; walls 50–70% (higher if wall contains window); floors 20–40%; and furniture 25–45%

[58, 59]. The proper design and selection of the daylighting systems can help in improving

energy efficiency and reducing environmental pollution. Windows, clerestories, and roof

monitors when properly designed can provide of the lighting needs without undesirable

heat gain and glare. And therefore, electric lights can be turned off or dimmed in day-lit

spaces when the target illuminance is achieved by daylighting. Energy savings can only be

achieved by implementing light controls, sensors, and light dimmers for the lighting system

of those day-lit spaces. The usage of daylight in buildings decreases the electric energy

consumption. For instance, it has been shown that artificial lighting of nondomestic

buildings represents 50% of the energy consumption in Europe. It also has been shown

that it is possible to reduce this consumption by between 30 and 70% by combining the use

of artificial and natural lighting. Potential savings depend on orientation, the size and shape

of the window, and the shape and surface reflectance of the room [60–64]. Another usage

of natural lighting in buildings is the use of the daylighting system. Daylighting is defined as

“the combination of the diffused light from the sky and sunlight.” A daylighting system

preferred function is to redirect a significant part of the incoming natural light flux to

improve interior lighting conditions, therefore located near or in the openings of building

envelope. Daylighting systems are divided into two categories: side-lighting and top-

lighting. Light can come from many types of glazing configurations, which are either vertical

or horizontal and from the side or from the top. Side-lighting, which is more commonly

observed, is simply a window opening. Top-lighting is an opening in the ceiling or roof

element of the building [60]. Applications of the daylight system are discussed below, as

shown in Figure 20. 2.2. Energy-efficient designing methods in building phase Building

phase includes the construction and usage processes of building. Building phase is possible

with preferring building techniques consuming less energy and using energy-efficient

equipment. The energy used in construction changes according to building systems. For

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instance, in a study carried out by Hozatlı and Günerhan, it was established that frame

construction consumes less energy than a reinforced concrete frame construction during

its life cycle [66]. As the energy consumption of the buildings constructed with different

materials changes, energy consumption also changes in the buildings constructed with the

same materials. The energy consumption of the commonly used reinforced concrete frame

building system was analyzed according to three different building methods as follows: 1.

Conventional frame building system: The most prominent characteristic of the

conventional building system is that the whole of production is implemented in building

site thanks to intensive man power. When it is analyzed with respect to energy

consumption, the energy consumption of the conventional system is at a low level due to

the characteristics of the equipment (concrete mixer, roof crane) used in the stages of

concrete production and concrete casting [66]. Energy-Efficient Building Design in the

Context of Building Life Cycle http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 115 2. Tunnel form concrete

masonry system: Tunnel form masonry system requires a certain preliminary investment.

The system is suitable for large scale and permanent productions. Because lifting cranes

consuming a lot of energy are used to carry big and heavy forms, energy consumption is

high. The task of curing with concrete plant and intratunnel heaters raises the energy

consumption of the system [67]. 3. Precast construction systems: Since the majority of the

processes realized in the building area in other systems are made in the manufacturing

plant, energy consumption is very high. In these systems, downloading components from

transportation vehicles to worksite, their storage and mounting are performed by lifting

cranes. For this reason, at these stages as well, the high amount of energy is consumed.

While heavy duty vehicles transporting ready building elements from manufacturing plant

to building site lead to problems in traffic, they also increase the consumption of energy

[67]. As a result, it can be urged that in a tunnel form, precast framework and precast panel

building systems, manufacturing processes create negativities to a large extent in terms of

energy consumption and emissions, energy consumption in the conventional systems is

quite less compared with these but more negative with respect to the formation of solid

waste [67]. As it is understood from the reinforced concrete building system, there are

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different methods for the same material in the construction of buildings. Such heavy duty

vehicles as lifting cranes, concrete pumps, and concrete transit mixers consume the high

amount of energy. For this reason, the building methods consuming less energy should be

preferred on the condition that no concession is made in the quality of building. Usage

process is the process that consumes most energy in buildings. According to WBCSD

(World Business Council for Sustainable Development) report, 88% of the energy

consumed in buildings is spent during usage and maintenance [68]. The applications

mentioned in designing process gain buildings energy efficiency during usage period.

Besides this, the applications below have also the potential of procuring considerable

energy saving during usage period. Supporting multiuse improvement: Sustainable

development advocates the combination of house settlement, trading area, office, and

retail areas. Thus, people get the opportunity of living next to the places they work and

shop. This renders the formation of a community different from traditional suburbs. 24-

hour activity potential also makes the land safer [68]. Combining design with public

transportation: Sustainable architecture on urban scale should be designed in a way to

support public transportation. Thousands of vehicles coming in and going out the land

during daily work pressure cause air pollution and traffic jam and they need parking areas

[69]. Using energy-efficient bulbs and energy-efficient appliance: For example, the light-

emitting diode (LED) is one of today's most energy-efficient and rapidly developing lighting

technologies. Lighting controls: Lighting requirements reply to a building design. The need

for lighting, when during daytime, will depend on the window size and placement, and the

position of buildings. The need for lighting is decreased by the use of automatic controls,

which depend on the orientation of building windows, the supply of daylight, and usage of

the room [70]. 116 Energy Efficient Buildings Figure 20. Daylighting systems using direct

sunlight [57, 65]. Energy-Efficient Building Design in the Context of Building Life Cycle

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66670 117 High-efficiency heating, ventilation, and cooling

equipment: Heating ventilating air conditioning (HVAC) systems extremely influence energy

consumption in buildings. The relationship between building specifications and HVAC

systems are: highly efficient building envelopes reduce the need for heating and cooling

38
systems. Good and intelligent designed buildings can reduce the need for HVAC systems.

Efficiency improvements in HVAC systems can lead to substantial savings. If, for instance,

energy efficiency is improved in a heating boiler or an air-conditioner, total savings will

depend on the total need for heating or cooling in the building. In a well-insulated building

envelope, the energy needs of the HVAC system are reduced. The building can be

separated into thermal zones at suitable dimensions, reducing the need for heating,

cooling and ventilation with careful building planning [70]. 2.3. Energy-efficient methods in

postbuilding phase The postbuilding phase is the phase when the usage phase is

completed. This phase includes the demolition of building, recycling, and destruction of it.

In this phase, it is important to recycle the building materials and compositions used in the

buildings and reuse buildings. After the functional uses of buildings have been completed,

reutilization of them in other functions instead of demolishing them protects such

resources as raw material, water, and energy. It should be enabled to reuse the building

compositions of the buildings, for which demolition decision has been taken, such as the

roof truss, woodworks. Following the saving of appropriate building compositions,

recyclable building materials are needed to be separated. In this way, raw material

protection is provided for the building material to be reproduced, and thus it is saved from

the energy to be consumed while processing raw material. It is necessary to use machines

and equipment as few as possible while demolishing buildings and select equipment

procuring energy saving for demolition

Energy efficient building material

Roofing
One of the biggest influences on the energy efficiency of building is the type of roof that it
has installed over it. Fundamentally, for a roof to be energy efficient, it needs to do a good
job of blocking the heat out instead of absorbing it. When a roof absorbs heat, that warmth
is transferred into the air inside the building radiantly, and pretty soon the entire interior has
gotten much warmer.

Fibre Cement
Although fibre cement roofing resembles slate in most manners, it is considerably
lightweight in comparison. This is made from a mixture of portland cement and special
cellulose fibre. It is an efficient fire-retardant apart from being durable in all weathers.

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Concrete Tiles
These tiles are made from Portland cement and rank quite low on the eco proof scale.
However, their durability has led to them becoming remarkably popular in recent years. The
weight is significantly heavier than others hence it has to be considered while designing the
house.

Insulation
Insulation decreases the exchange of heat (both heat gain and heat loss) through the many
surfaces in a building—walls, ducts, roof, etc. In a well-insulated building, less warm air
escapes during the winter, and less cool air escapes during the summer, reducing the
amount of energy needed for heating and cooling. Insulation can actually be one of the most
practical and cost-effective ways to improve a building’s energy efficiency: by improving the
insulation in new and existing buildings, one can enjoy significant savings and reductions in
energy usage.

Polyurethane insulation
Polyurethane insulation is used in many residential and commercial buildings. It is a solid,
cellular polymer with a high thermal resistance. Polyurethane insulation comes in open or
closed cell form, in varying densities. It is typically installed as insulation on the roofs, walls,
floors and ceilings of new and retrofit buildings. It is also used to insulate appliances, pipes
and a variety of other products. Polyurethane insulation is a sustainable material delivering
real benefits to society facing escalating energy costs, diminishing fossil fuels and the
negative environmental effects of climate change.

Polyurethane insulation is a sustainable material delivering real benefits to society facing

escalating energy costs, diminishing fossil fuels and the negative environmental effects of
climate change.

Spray Polyurethane Foam Insulation

Spray Polyurethane Foam (SPF) is an insulation product that is produced on-site and is
typically applied by certified applicators. Two liquid components, polymeric MDI (A) and a
polyol blend (B) are mixed at high or low pressure using a spray gun, and the reacting mix is
sprayed onto the substrate. It expands and solidifies to form polyurethane foam that
adheres well to the area it is applied to, providing a seamless seal. SPF insulation is ideal for
roofs. It can also be sprayed into exterior wall cavities, or onto the exterior sheathing of
commercial and residential buildings. SPF is compatible with many different wall types.

Construction chemicals
Construction chemicals improve the quality and durability of the buildings. Commonly used
as bonding agents, tile adhesives, expansion & crack joint filters, and plasticizers, these
chemicals increase the overall life of the construction work along with providing protection
against environmental perils. Apart from adding more strength to the buildings, these
chemicals bring down the volume of water and cement used in the construction process at
an excellent rate.

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Another key reason behind the improved adoption of construction chemicals is that it
improves the performance of emerging building technologies like new thermoset hotmelts,
structural tapes, and multi-purpose adhesives. Construction chemicals are one of the best
things to be initiated in the building construction industry. Its astute use is sure to change
the face of the global green building market.

Sealants
Sealants used to block the passage of fluids through the surface or joints or openings in
materials, a type of mechanical seal in other words, they seal top structures to the substrate,
and are particularly effective in waterproofing processes by keeping moisture out.

When sealants are used between substrates having different thermal coefficients of
expansion or differing elongation under stress, they need to have adequate flexibility and
elongation. Sealants generally contain inert filler material and are usually formulated with
an elastomer to give the required flexibility and elongation. They usually have a paste
consistency to allow filling of gaps between substrates. Low shrinkage after application is
often required. Many adhesive technologies can be formulated into sealants.

Waterproofing
Water proofing admixtures can be broadly grouped as permeability reducers and water
repellents or hydrophobic (water hating) agents. Permeability reducers are pore filling and
porosive reducing materials which can be further classified into very fine particulate matters,
workability and air entering admixtures, accelerators.

Water Proofers
Water repellent coatings, which can be applied on the concrete surface to impart water
proofing to the concrete structure. Thermoplastic PU has been used in the water proofing of
below grade structures building foundation, basements, reservoirs, ponds, walkways,
tunnels, earthen shelters, bridge, abutments, retaining walls, landfills and water
canals. Acrylic compound polymer emulsion based additive for cement based coatings when
mixed with cement gives excellent water proofing, excellent adhesion to concrete substrate,
steel, asbestos, excellent resistance to ultra violet rays, excellent breathing properties and
helps in reducing corrosion of reinforcement. Styrene butadiene co polymer emulsion have
also been used as water proofing coating for concrete, which also increase adhesion
strength, chemical resistance and abrasion resistance.

Windows
Windows also represent the major source of heat gain/loss, visual and thermal discomfort.
In residential and commercial buildings, a considerable amount of energy has been used to
compensate the unwanted heat gain/loss through windows. Windows have undergone a
technological revolution in recent years. Energy-efficient window are now available that can
dramatically cut building energy consumption. These high-performance windows feature
multiple glazing, specialized transparent coatings, insulating gas in between glass panes and
improved frame. All these features reduce heat transfer, thus able to cut energy burden due
to the window openings.

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Low-e glass
Low-e glass stands for low-emissivity glass. This type of glass has a special metal coating
which able to reflect much of the infrared portion of the solar spectrum while transmitting
most of the visible. The low-e glass manages the sun’s heat by filtering the sun’s short-wave
radiation. This cuts down the amount of solar heat gain into the building. Therefore, the
energy efficiency of low-e glass is higher than that of ordinary clear glass.

Double Glazed Glasses

Double glazing glasses are nothing but a combination of multiple glass panes mostly two in
number and can be three at times, these panes are having a separation by a spacer and a
still layer of vacuum or gas which reduces the heat transfer while forming a part of building
envelope. The thermal resistance provided reduces the artificial heating required leading to
a reduction in the overall cost and also the ecological footprint. These glasses are also called
as insulation glasses and the manufacturing of the same comes in with a thickness ranging
from 3mm to 12mm or more depending upon its application

9. Cost comparisson of Energy efficient building materials and low cost building

materials:

Low cost building materials cost reduction

Filler slab is much more economical than traditional slab as it saves 16%, 44%, 17% of
cement, steel and cost in two-way slab and 33%, 46%, 25% in one way slab respectively
[10].

Brick panel saves 19% per m3 and Rs 418 in cement, 19% per m3and Rs 21 in sand,
19%per m3 and Rs 127 in aggregate, and 38% per m3and Rs 536 in steel [11].

Soil stabilized bricks are 27.7% cheaper as compared to country fired bricks walls,
where country fired bricks use Rs 934 per m2 there soil stabilized bricks use Rs 736 per m2,
they are less air pollution, energy consumption, carbon emission [24-25].

Aluminium form work is a comparatively high cost construction but give high quality
and speed construction which can be used in places where speedy construction is
required.

GFRG building saves around 50.8%, 35.2%, and 27.47% of cement, steel and cost to
convectional buildings [47].

Flat slab the total quantity of steel and concrete used are 8.644m3and 1294m3as
compared to conventional building which uses 10593m3of steel and 1505.25m3 ofconcrete
and the cost saving percentage in flat slab is 15% in B+G+3 building respectively [78].

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Hollow concrete blocks can be used in those places where the load is not coming directly
on wall, the cost saving is by 17.78%. [79].

Rat trap bond are much economical than convectional bricks. They reduce the usage
of bricks by 25% andeee mortar by 40% [80], and reducing the load by 8% [15] while
giving same compressive strength with a saving of 57% in cement cost, 20% saving in
bricks, and 61% saving in sand [81].

Energy efficient building materials cost factors:

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 THANK YOU
MARIA PAUL I HIAREBCO22
IES COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

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