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Environmental Pollution of Marine and Costal Areas in Greece.

Review on marine pollution, monitoring and quality of seawater

Athanasios Valavanidis

Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University Campus

Zogafou, 15784 Athens, Greece

Abstract
Greece is a Mediterranean country which is surrounded by sea and with a coastline
of approximately 18,000 km. Medium and severe marine and coastal environmental
pollution has become a serious problem for Greece in the last decades. A large
percentages (estimated at 30%) of the Greek coastline is affected by erosion involving
vulnerable coastal ecosystems and marine protected areas. The most important marine
pollution involves discharges of ship fuel, untreated discharges of municipal and industrial
liquid and solid waste, agricultural and stock farming effluents, depletion of marine species
by overfishing, overexploitation of living marine resources and coastal loss of marine
habitat. The rapid expansion of tourism and urbanization (roads, houses and hotels) in
coastal areas threatens marine and coastal degradation. Sewage remains the largest
source of pollution. In the last decades Greek scientists established monitoring projects for
the most important marine gulfs in Greece. The state of pollution in the most ports, gulfs,
estuaries and marine coastal areas in Greece varied substantially. Improvements in the
quality of seawater was established in the last decade with the completion of sewage
works in many Greek cities. There are numerous research reports and monitoring of Greek
gulfs with industrial facilities and ports, such as Eleufsis Bay, Patras port, Corinth Gulf,
Euvoicos Gulf, Keratsini Gulf and port, Thermaikos Gulf and Thessaloniki port, Piraeus port,
Saronikos Gulf, Amvrakicos Gulf, Volos port, and others. Also, environmental monitoring og
pollution was our in islands like Mytilini, Rhodes, Crete and others. A selection of these
studies of the last 20 years are presented in this review and their main conclusions.

1
Introduction: marine and coastal zone environment in Greece

Greece mainland is surrounded from all directions by sea and with a coastline of
18,000 km (including estuaries) has a series of difficult marine environmental problems.
Around 30% of the Greek coastline is affected by erosion which threatens vulnerable
coastal ecosystems and protected areas. Despite national protection actions and
application of European Union legislation in recent years, marine pollution by discharges of
ship fuel, industrial and municipal waste continues to damage fragile marine
environments. Overexploitation of living marine resources and coastal loss of marine
habitat still prevail in many areas. The rapid expansion of tourism and urbanization (roads,
houses, hotels) in coastal areas threatens marine and coastal degradation. Municipal,
industrial and agricultural sewage remains the largest source of marine pollution. Marine
and coastal eutrophication from elevated nitrogen and phosphorous inputs is a worrying
trend and has occurred in several enclosed bays.1-3
Greece hosts a large variety of Mediterranean habitats (included in Natura 2000
initiative) from open sea, tidal areas and sea dunes, to several types of shrubs and
grasslands and Mediterranean mountainous forests.

Figure 1. Greece is surrounded from all directions by sea with a coastline of 18,000 km and
has more than 3,000 islands. Marine pollution and erosion of coastal areas are important
environmental problems in the last decades.

2
 The Greek Ministry for Environment (Ypeka), Energy and Climate Change follows
the fundamental environmental directives of the European Community and various desk
dealing with The Aquatic Environment, Special Secretariat for Water and follows the EU’s
Marine Strategy Framework Directive (adopted 2008). The Directive for marine strategy
was aiming to achieve good environmental status of EU’s marine waters by 2020 and to
protect the marine resources. The European Commission also produced a set of detailed
criteria and methodological standards to help Member States implement the Marine
Directive. These were revised in 2017 leading to the new Commission Decision on Good
Environmental Status.4,5

Environmental pollution in coastal and marine areas in Greece

Greece has a coastline of more than 16,500 km the longest of any other
Mediterranean or European country (or 18,000 km according to CORINE 2000 report that
include estuaries). The Greek seas are part of the Mediterranean Sea that is oligotrophic
and they have the physical characteristics of semi-closed seas which are more vulnerable
to human pressures and anthropogenic pollution. Pollution problems of industrial, urban
or shipping origin are of rather local character. Measures taken during the last decades
have decreased considerably the importance of the pollution problems and their impacts
on the coastal zones. Part of the pollution is caused by coastal shipping services for people
living in islands and for tourism annually perform an extraordinary work by serving 94 islands, 144
ports and around 36-40 million passengers. The numbers of passengers increased substantially in
the last decade with the dramatic increase of tourism in Greece (in 2015 tourists accounted for 30
million visits). Around 30% of the Greek coastline is affected by erosion which threatens

vulnerable coastal ecosystems and protected areas. Despite national protection actions in
recent years, marine pollution by discharges of ship fuel, industrial and municipal waste,
overexploitation of living marine resources and coastal loss of marine habitat still prevail in
many areas. The rapid expansion of tourism and urbanization (roads, houses, concrete
pavements and hotel complexes) in coastal areas threatens marine and coastal
degradation. Sewage remains the largest source of pollution. Marine and coastal
eutrophication from elevated nitrogen and phosphorous inputs from agricultural farms and
municipal sewage is a worrying trend and has occurred in several enclosed bays.2

3
 The Greek sea coasts are of high biological, geophysical, aesthetic, cultural, and
economic value, while at the same time they constitute a natural resource and a common
heritage of Mediterranean and European seas. The Greek coastal and marine ecosystems
are characterized by high productivity, particularly the lagoons, river estuaries and deltas,
meadows of Posidonia, wetlands, sand dunes etc. The sea coastline constitute the biotopes
of numerous species of flora and fauna with high biological diversity. Recent studies of the
marine waters and environmental conditions in Greece became more systematic and
extensive. Studies expanded to physiological and ecological levels of the marine flora and
fauna. The most important challenges of marine environmental research are the increasing
pollution of the seas and the funding of the costly environmental projects. Some of the
most important marine research of the last decades has been contacted by scientists of the
Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR) and various university departments in
Greece.6
The Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR) is a governmental research
organization under the supervision of the General Secretariat for Research and
Technology (GSRT), in Anavyssos, Agios Kosmas, Crete and Rhodes and has three research
institutes a. Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture (IMBBC), b. the
Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters (IMBRIW) and c. the Institute of
Oceanography (IO). The HCMR contacts marine research, and experimental measurements
aiming for the dissemination and implementation of produced results, especially in the
fields of protection of the hydrosphere, its organisms, its interface with the atmosphere,
the coast and the sea bottom, the physical, chemical, biological and geological conditions
that prevail in the Greek seas and coastline. 7-10 Indicative research reports on marine
pollution in Greece are included in the reference eleventh. 11

Figure 2. The HCMR has 3 research institutes (oceanography, marine biological resources
and inland waters, and marine biology, biotechnology and aquaculture)

4
 The Middle East crisis in the last 5 years resulted in a rapid increase of tourism to
Greece and in particular to Aegean and Ionian Sea islands. Also, Greece became an
attractive destination for cruise passengers touring the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea. In
2017 it is estimated that around 30 million tourists will visit Greece. Commercial shipping,
recreational boating and ferry transportation have increased substantially in the last years
from Greek ports. The commercial shipping in Greece serves 120 islands, 144 ports and
transport around 35-40 million passengers per year. There are 350 coastal shipping routes
that serve the Greek islands with their connection to the mainland. 12,13

Monitoring of marine pollution in the gulfs and ports of Greece

In the past decades, Greek marine scientists monitored the state of pollution in the
most important ports, gulfs, estuaries and marine coastal areas in Greece. There are
numerous research reports and monitoring of Greek gulfs with industrial facilities and
ports, such as Elefsis, Patras, Corinth, Euvoicos, Keratsini, Thermaikos, Piraeus, Saronikos,
Amvrakicos, Volos, etc., and in islands like Mytilini, Rhodes, Crete and others.
Greece has numerous coastal marine areas and semi-enclosed bays with various
environmental problems, mainly from stock farming sewage, agricultural effluents,
municipal and industrial waste. Several initiatives have been undertaken in the last decade
by the Ministry for the Environment with the financial assistance of the European Union.
The ENVIREG Programme, co-financed by the Greek government focused on the reduction
of coastal pollution and protection of coastal biotopes. Also, the National Programme for
the Environment assisted by regional activities dealt with water quality and pollution in
coastal areas. Also, the programme Life-Nature for coastal areas was involved with many
projects for management of environmental problems

Saronikos Gulf. The Saronikos Gulf and the port of Piraeus have been the focus of
research and monitoring for the last decades because of the discharge of untreated
municipal sewage from Athens and Piraeus (3.5 million inhabitants in the 1990s). The
wastewater treatment plant of Athens, located on the island of Psyttalia, was put into
service in 1994, followed by a sludge treatment plant that became operational in 2007. The
Psyttalia treatment plant is the final recipient of domestic sewage and pre-treated

5
industrial wastewater with an hydraulic capacity of 27 m3/s and sewage treatment capacity
of 5,600,000 Equivalent Population. [EYDAP, Psyttalia Wastewater Treatment Plant,
https://www.eydap.gr/userfiles/c3c4382d-a658-4d79-b9e2-ecff7ddd9b76/Fact-sheet-
PWWTP.pdf ].
The population of Athens-Piraeus increased substantially after the 1970s and the
untreated municipal sewage pollution and the shipping pollution of the port caused
substantial damage to the benthos of Saronikos Gulf and marine life suffered losses. The
untreated sewage effluent (calculated at 600-750,000 m3 per day) accumulated toxic
pollutants, such as organic hydrocarbons, sediments, heavy metals, PAHs and
polychlorinated compounds. The most vulnerable area was the Elefsis Bay and areas near
and around the port of Piraeus. When finally the Psyttalia wastewater treatment plant
(1994-1999 and later with biological treatment plant) started operating the situation in the
Gulf changed and the conditions have improved substantially in the last decade.14

Figure 3. The Saronikos Gulf and the port of Piraeus have been for many years the centre
of investigations for the accumulation of toxic pollutants in the benthos from the
untreated municipal and industrial sewage of Athens and Piraeus. The Psyttalia sewage
treatment plant from 1994 reduced substantially pollution and helped in the recovery of
the seawaters of Saronikos.

Monitoring studies in the Saronikos focused on sediments in polluted areas

(untreated discharges) contaminated by heavy metals. Very high concentrations were
measured of antimony (Sn), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), gold (Au), mercury (Hg), silver (Ag)
and zinc (Zn) at around 8–200 times greater than in the surrounding uncontaminated

6
sediments. The bottom area affected by increased metal concentrations is at least 13
km2.13 Dissolved and particulate metals were monitored in the last years in various
positions of the Saronikos Gulf.15,16
Indigenous mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis of the Saronikos Gulf were used for
monitoring heavy metal pollution. Seasonal variations of the activity of antioxidant defence
enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), as well as lipid peroxidation (LP)
were measured as biomarkers in a period of three years in relation to concentrations of
trace metals in their gills and mantle and compared to mussels in unpolluted sites.17 Also,
PAHs in surface seawater and in mussels from Saronikos sites were measured. 18 A series of
interesting scientific monitoring in Saronikos in the last decades established the levels of
pollution and the improvements after the installation and running of the sewage treatment
palnt.19-22
A study monitored for the period 2000-2012 the benthic communities of
Saronikos Gulf and Elefsis Bay in relation to the functioning of the Psittalia treatment
plant. The Bentix index was adopted for the implementation of the Water Framework
Directive. The results showed a gradient from a moderate ecological status at stations up
to a distance of 8,000 m from the outfalls to good environmental and ecological status at
more remote stations. In Elefsis Bay, the enclosed physiography, shallower depth and
local pressures result in more adverse environmental conditions for benthic
communities.23
Another study measured dissolved and particulate metals Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn in the
Saronikos Gulf and Elefsis Bay. The trace metal variability correlated to pollution sources.
The results showed that the status of Saronikos Gulf is classified as ‘High’ for most metals
studied. An exception to this is the enclosed Elefsis Bay where Cu, Ni and Zn concentrations
are found above background.24

Thermaikos Gulf (Thessaloniki)

Thermaikos Gulf is a semi-enclosed bay close to the city of Thessaloniki with severe
pollution problems. The Gulf receives the waters of four major rivers (Aliakmon, Loudia,
Axios and Gallikos) and as a result it is enrinched with organic carbon, nutrients and
particulate matter. Nutrient concentrations are very high at the mouths of the rivers. As a

7
consequence, red tides and phytoplankton blooms have been observed and anoxic
conditions during the summer period near the harbor. Also, the Gulf is polluted by
municipal sewage and industrial effluents. A new wastewater treatment plant has
improved the situation in the last few years.25
Metals, hydrocarbons and organochlorine compounds were studied in mussels
(Mytilus galloprovincialis) and surface sediments collected from Thermaikos gulf in March
1999. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), DDTs, PCBs and metal concentrations were
low. Different spatial distribution patterns were observed between organic and inorganic
contaminants bioaccumulated in mussels. In all cases the contaminant concentrations in
mussels were well below the permissible limits for consuming seafood. 26 In a similar study
mussels were used (M. galloprovincialis) as useful pollution bioindicator species of heavy
metals (collected monthly April to October 2000) in various sites of Thermaikos Gulf.
Analyses metals Cu, Cr, Ni, Zn, Fe, Mn and ( 137)Cs showed that the concentrations
measured were low and similar to those from other non-polluted Mediterranean areas.27

Figure 4. The Thermaikos Gulf has a total area of 5.100 km2. It is called Gulf of Salonika or
the Macedonian Gulf. Under certain conditions and days with high temperatures that the
Thermaikos Gulf is covered with phytoplankton with strong stench.

Organochlorine insecticides in eggs of wild birds of wetlands of the Thermaikos Gulf

in the period 1992-1993. The monitoring was performed in eggs and freshly dead chicks of
the Squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides), Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) and Night Heron
(Nycticorax nycticorax), as well as in frogs (Ranasp.), the main heron prey. Residues of the

8
organochlorine pesticides α-BHC, β-BHC, lindane, 4,4′-DDD, 4,4′-DDE, heptachlor and
dieldrin were found in the eggs, chicks and prey of the herons. α-BHC, β-BHC, and lindane
had highest concentration in the Night Heron and lowest in the Little Egret. In all samples
examined, the bioconcentration factors (BCF) of these compounds had very high values.28
Heavy metals Zn, Cu, Pb and Cr were measured (40 sediment samples) in the
Thermaikos Gulf. The level of pollution attributed to heavy metals was evaluated using
several pollution indicators (to determine anthropogenic influence) sediment
contamination (enrichment factors, contamination factors, modified contamination
degree, and geoaccumulation Indexes). The highest metal levels were measured along the
shoreline of the Bay of Thessaloniki, reflecting long-term exposure to anthropogenic
activities. Although the total metal content in the sediments has decreased with time, the
long-term effect of the industrial and urban activities in the area is still reflected in the
sediments of the marine environment. 29
Phenolic and steroid endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) were measured in
the marine environment of Thermaikos Gulf. Seawater, suspended particulate matter,
sediments and biota were examined for nonylphenol (NP) (dominant pollutant),
octylphenol (OP), their mono- and diethoxylate oligomers, bisphenol A, estrone, 17α-
estradiol, 17β-estradiol, estriol, mestranol and 17 α -ethynylestradiol. The occurrence of
nonylphenol in sediments presents a significant risk to the biota. Mussels exhibited
relatively low concentrations and low bioconcentration factors for NP and OP. 30
For the years 1994-1995 the green algae Ulva rigida C. Agardh was used as
bioindicator species of heavy metals Fe, Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd in 5 sample sites of the
Thermaikos Gulf that were recipients of municipal industrial wastes. Also, concentrations
of metals were measured in sediments and seawater in the same sites. The concentrations
of all metals in the alga were distributed uniformly among the five stations. Measurements
showed that there is a significant positive correlation in U. rigida between Pb–Cu, Fe–Cu
and Cd–Pb. Pb and Cu concentrations in the alga were positively correlated with the
respective concentrations in the sediment. 31 In a second paper the scientists extended
their measurements. The relative abundance of metals in the algae decreased in the
order: Mg > Na > K >Ca > Pb > Fe > Mn > Zn > Cr, Cu > Ni >Co > Cd. Only Pb
concentrations in the alga showed a significant positive correlation with concentrations

9
in the seawater. There were both positive and negative correlations among some metals
in the algae.32
Marine pollution in the Elefsis Gulf

The Elefsis Gulf during the period 1960-1980 was the centre of many heavy
industries. Especially, steel industries disposing directly into the sea, untreated toxic
wastes of ammonia liquid, phenols and cyanides. In the area there were two spirit
distilleries disposing organic sewage, and pollution from oil residues by two petroleum
refineries. The oceanographic characteristics of the Elefsis Gulf, are similar to those of a
lake. Shallow (maximum depth 33m), no strong currents, anoxic conditions, water
stratification, especially during the summer with a clearly defined thermocline, intensify
the pollution problem, by favoring the accumulation of sediments and inhibiting the
natural destruction/decomposition of pollutants.33
The special environmental problems of Elefsis Gulf, in particular for heavy metals
monitoring started from 1977 and were continued for 40 years. (Prof. M. Scoullos and Prof.
M. Dassenakis, Lab of Environmental Chemistry, University of Athens). The industrial
activities in the enclosed gulf of Elefsis contributed with significant amounts of toxic
sediments. In a special conference of 2016 a compilation of data on metals were presented
(Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, 1977-2015). The results showed that concentrations off trace metal
levels in seawater (dissolved and particulate forms) during these last 38 years decreased in
all monitoring areas. After 1980s many industrial activities in Elefsis came to an end.34,35

Figure 5. The region of the Thriassion Plain area is well known in the past decades for the
concentration of industries and manufacturing activities.

10
 The Thriassion Plain pollution and the conditions of in the Elefsis Gulf were the
subject of research by Greek and foreign environmental scientists. Numerous scientific
papers, research projects, conferences and publications were devoted to monitoring and
the environmental situation of Elefsis Gulf in the last 30 years. 36

Gulf of Euboea
The Gulf of Euboea (Euboic Sea or Evoikos Gulf, Ευβοϊκόσ Κόλποσ) is part of
the Aegean Sea between the island of Euboea (or Evia, northeast coastline) and the Greek
mainland (southwest coastline). Trending diagonally northwest-southeast, the gulf of
Euboea is divided by the narrow Strait of Euripus, at the town of Chalcis. The North
Euboean Gulf is about 80 km long and up to 24 km wide, and the South Euboean Gulf is
about 48 km long, with a maximum width of 14 km.

Figure 6. A map of the Euboea Gulf between the large island of Evia and the mainland of
Greece, separated by Euripus Straits, with the city of Chalkis and the bridge connecting the
city with the mainland.

The Euboea Gulf (or Evoikos Gulf) in the past was the subject of many
environmental studies because of the special tidal currents in the straits, the effluents and
sewage of the port (large shipping activity) and the city of Chalkis and the impact of
dumping coarse metalliferous waste on the benthos in Evoikos Gulf from industry.
The Southern part of the Euripos Straits were monitored in the 1990s for trace
metals were (seawater, particulate matter and sediments) of the southern part of the
Euripos Straits. The sea has been polluted from municipal wastes, industrial effluents, land
washout and shipping since the early 1960s. The results showed that the area was

11
seriously polluted and the tidal currents affected the distributions of metals, which have
their highest concentrations at the near shore zone. Comparison with measurements in the
1980s (13 years) revealed a significant increasing in heavy metal concentrations which
might be dangerous to the marine ecosystem of the Gulf of Evoikos. 37,38
Another study in 2000 investigated the impact of river-transported metal pollution
on the metal distribution in coastal sediments in Southern Evoikos Gulf. The river Asopos,
flowing into this part of the Gulf, acts as a recipient of industrial effuents generated in the
river drainage basin, which hosts approximately 300 chemical and metal processing
industries and workshops. Several trace metals (Cd, Cr, Cu and Ni) were found enriched in
the marine sediments near the river mouth. However, only Cd and to a lesser degree Cu
were related to the river-transported industrial pollution.39
A serious problem in the Evoikos Guf for many years was the environmental
pollution by a ferro-nickel smelting plant in the small bay of Larymna (Northern Evoikos Gulf).
The ferro-smelting plant extracted iron and nickel from laterite ore. Studies showed that there is

accumulation of heavy metals, such as Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn in the sediments of
the sea near the plant. Also, accumulation of heavy metals was observed in the seagrass
Cymodocea nodosa roots and stems and in two gastropods collected in the area adjacent
to a ferro-nickel smelting plant compared in clean sea water in other sites.40

Figure 7. The smelter of nickel in Larymna started operation in 1966 using as raw material
the Greek nickel deposits in Euboea. The annual production in the 3 nickel mines in Greece
(Euboea, Agios Ioannis, Kastoria) exceed the production of two million tones of nickel.

12
 Another study in the same area focused on a set of biomarkers in order to assess
the impact of heavy metal by a ferro-nickel smelting plant in Larymna bay (North Evoikos
Gulf). Scientists investigated two biochemical biomarkers reflecting oxidative stress
(glutathione peroxidase, GPX) and neurotoxicity (acetylcholinesterase, AChE) measured in
mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis transplanted for 1 and 6 months at the coastal area of
Larymna. All biomarkers in mussels at Larymna revealed differences from mussels at a
reference site, signaling effects of the increased heavy metal levels on the biota. Results
from field-collected and laboratory-exposed mussels indicated a potential of GPX as
predictive biomarker of population-level effects of heavy metal exposure.41

Amvrakikos Gulf (Ambracian Gulf)

The Amvrakikos Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium
(Αμβρακικόσ κόλποσ), is a gulf of the Ionian Sea in NW Greece. About 40 km long and 15
km wide, it is one of the largest enclosed gulfs in Greece. The towns of Preveza,
Amphilochia and Vonitsa lie on its shores. The Amvrakikos Gulf is host of a rich fish fauna,
with several commercial fish species. Also, Amvrakikos is a marine area with a permanent
population of 120 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), loggerhead turtles (Caretta
caretta) and seals (Monachus monachus). Amvrakikos is a Ramsar Protected Area, a
Wildlife Refuge and an Important Bird Area and since 2008 was established as a National
Park.

Figure 8. The Amvrakikos Gulf is the largest wetland area of Greece and one of the most
important wetland of Europe. The Amvrakikos Gulf is host of a rich fish fauna, with several
commercial fish species. Amvrakikos developed in the last years severe environmental
problems due to agricultural effluents.

13
 The lagoons of Amvrakikos Gulf form one of the most important lagoonal
complexes in Greece. The optimal ecological status of these lagoons is crucial for the well-
being of the biodiversity of the Gulf. Also, the quality and health of seawaters are very
important for the economic prosperity of the local communities. The shallow lagoonal
complex was formed by the flowing activity of the rivers Louros and Arachthos. The
lagoons are included in the Natura 2000 network and protected under the Ramsar
Convention. Seasonal changes of freshwater inflows are responsible for the temporal shifts
in nutrient concentrations as well as in the other abiotic parameters. A scientific research
investigated heavy metals in Amvrakikos Gulf. Their concentrations were higher than the
SQG (Sediment Quality Guidelines, U.S. EPA) threshold in many cases, but lower than the
TEL (Threshold Effect Level, Canadian Freshwater standard) threshold for the majority of
the metallic elements. However, the concentrations of Cr and Ni were exceeding both of
the limits in all the monitoring stations. No evidence of severe disturbance was detected in
the lagoons of Amvrakikos.42 Various studies investigated pollution by metals in the
lagoons of Amvrakikos Gulf in connection the environmental conditions in the area.43-45
A study in 2000 in Amvrakikos Gulf measured the temporal variations of nutrients,
chlorophyll a (chl a), suspended particulate matter (SPM) and particulate organic carbon
(POC) were measured over (duration 12 months in three shallow coastal brackish water
lagoons-Tsoukalio, Rodia and Logarou- of the Amvrakikos Gulf). Nitrate concentrations
were largely the same in the three lagoons and higher than in the Amvrakikos Gulf.
Phosphate concentrations in Logarou exceeded by far those of Tsoukalio/Rodia and caused
an extended phytoplankton bloom with chl a concentrations higher than in the other two
lagoons. Scientists suggested that increased phytoplankton biomass in Logarou coupled
with the better water exchange may be related to the higher fish production in this
lagoon.46
The wetlands of Amvrakikos are influenced by the sediments brought by the rivers
Louros and Arachthos (passing through agricultural lands). A study in 1992-93 provided
water and sediment samples (for herbicides and organochlorine insecticides used by
farmers). The herbicides atrazine, simazine, alachlor, metolachlor, trifluralin and diuron
and the organochlorine insecticides α-BHC, lindane and 4,4′-DDE were detected in riverine
estuaries and wetlands. The same herbicides and insecticides as well as the β-BHC and 4,4′-

14
DDT were found in significant amounts in sediments of river estuaries and wetlands of the
Amvrakikos Gulf.47
Mussels were used in another study to assess possible pollution impacts in the
Amvrakikos Gulf. Especially for pesticide used in agriculture of the area and discharged
through riverine transport in the swallow lagoons. Scientists used mussels to detect
general oxidative stress effects on the health status of mussels. They used special
biomarkers of oxidative stress. Decreased acetylcholinesterase activities indicated
exposure to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Responses of the antioxidant
enzyme glutathione peroxidase suggested the presence of contaminants capable of
reactive oxygen species production that could be related to organochlorine pesticide
contamination in the area. On the other hand, metallothionein levels implied low metal
contamination.48
The Amvrakikos Gulf was investigated for various cyanobacterial species,
microcystins, and cyanotoxins which are considered health hazards because of their
potential hepatotoxic effects. A scientific study investigated seasonal changes of
microcystin concentrations both in water and in the edible species of mussels Mytilus
galloprovincialis collected from Amvrakikos Gulf. The microcystin concentrations in the
water ranging from 0.003 to 19.8 ng l−1, below the World Health Organization (WHO) upper
limit for recreational activities. In contrast, measurements found that microcystin
concentrations in mussels (ranging from 45±2 to 141.5 ± 13.5 ng g−1 ww) exceeded the
upper limit of the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of microcystin as determined by WHO. 49
The presence of residues of the organochlorine pesticides, α-BHC, β-BHC, lindane,
2,4′-DDD, 4,4′DDD, 4,4′-DDE and 4,4′-DDT were investigated in collected pelican eggs and
eels (1992-93) from the wetlands of Amvrakikos Gulf. The bioconcentration factors values
of lindane and α-BHC were in lower levels in pelican eggs and eels, as compared with 4,4′-
DDE. The biomagnification factor for 4,4′-DDD, 4,4′-DDE and 4,4′-DDT had higher values
than α-BHC, β-BHC and lindane in pelican eggs.50
Eutrophication problems due to intensive agriculrural activities in the area of the
Amvrakikos Gulf were investigated in 1994. Marine species were used for the investigation.
4 species of fish (Liza aurata, Mugil cephalus, Mullus barbatus and Sardina pilchardus), 4
species of benthic organisms (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Murex trunculus, Paracentrotus
lividus and Penaeus kerathurus) and one seagrass (Cymodocea nodosa), taken from the

15
estuarine area of Amvrakikos Gulf, presenting eutrophication problems due to the
intensive agricultural activities, are examined in the present study. Some heavy metal in
these species were in the upper limits. Concerning the behaviour of the examined heavy
metals in the food webs, high concentrations are observed in the benthic predator M.
trunculus, the filter feeder M. galloprovincialis, the grazing herbivore P. lividus and the
primary producer Cymodocea nodosa, while in the examined fish the concentrations are at
the lower limits.51

Marine pollution of Greek islands

Environmental studies and monitoring of coastal waters were performed in the last
decades in many Greek islands. One study focused on the concentrations (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe,
Mn, Pb and Zn) in extractable fraction of surface sediments collected in Rhodes Harbour,
(Rhodes Island). Metals, such as Cu, Pb, Zn, are part of anthropogenic municipal and
industrial activities and mostly from sewage effluents. Their concentrations were in
relatively higher concentrations in the harbour sediments. The highest metal enhancement
was found in the fine sediments of the Mandraki Harbour, which is located in the vicinity of
the main sewage outfall of a densely populated area. 52
The harbour of capital city Mytilene and coastal areas of the island of Lesvos were
investigated for metal concentrations of sediments from 28 stations in 1996. The results
showed that sediments were highly enriched in Cd, Cu and Zn and also slightly enriched in
Pb. No enrichment was found in the sediments of the coastal area outside the harbour.53
The coastal waters of Central Greece and the island of Lesvos were investigated for
environmental pollution by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), nonylphenol and
octylphenol (pollutants with toxic and endocrine disrupting activities). The substances
monitored were 7 PAHs, NP and OP which are in the priority list of substances regulated by
2000/60/EC Water Framework Directive. Samples were collected and analyzed seasonally
for one year from the 4 reservoirs that supply water to Athens (Mornos, Marathonas, Yliki
and Evinos) and coastal waters of the Lesvos Island (rivers Mylopotamos and
Evergetoulas), and from coastal waters (five sampling points) of the Mytilene. The results
have shown that in most cases the water samples that were analyzed are free from PAHs.

16
The concentrations for Nonyphenol were at low levels in several cases, while Octyphenol
was detected at low concentration only in one sample.54
A new methodology was used by Greek scientists for the study of coastal
ecosystems in Greek islands. The research team used a multi-dimensional evaluation
methodology and GIS. This methodology can set a number of criteria to rank the coastal
areas of islands. Rhodes island was used for marine studies (the NE part of the island) and
sub-areas were ranked according to socio-economic and environmental parameters, The
study assessed the criteria and reapplication of the methodology, as well advantages and
disadvantages of the evaluating potential.55
Organotin compounds, or stannanes (SnR3+, Tributyltin, Dibuty;tin and
Triphenyltin) are used as PVC stabilizers, and for antifouling paints of boat hulls. They
cause extensive marine pollution and are highly toxic. A study (1998-99) investigated the
pollution by organotin substances of seawater in 10 sample sites of coastal areas, in 6
wastewater treatment systems, 19 rivers and 12 lakes throughout Greece. The method of
determination was the Electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry and GC-MS..
Organotins pollutants were detected in most seawater and wastewater samples at
concentrations up to 19.4 and 89.9 ng l−1, respectively. The highest concentrations were
detected in wastewater treatment plants. The concentrations decreased with increasing
distance from the coastline. Triphenyltin was not detected in any of the samples. 56

Environmental pollution in the island of Crete

A study in July 1997 initiated the sampling of floating tar, litter and sea water for
dissolved/dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons in the Cretan Sea. The results gave the
opportunity to researchers to assess the status of floating marine pollution in the region.
Petroleum hydrocarbon measurements showed low concentrations of 0.145 μg/l of
chrysene equivalents (n = 24). Tar and plastics concentrations were in the range of 1–4280
and 0–1160 μg/m2, respectively. Mean pelagic tar concentration was 318 μg/m2, more
than two times higher than what was reported for the area in previous studies. 57
Aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons were determined in surficial sediments
from the Cretan Sea (South Aegean Sea). Total concentrations of both aliphatic (AHC) and
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were low (562–5697 and 14.6–158.5 ng/g, respectively)

17
with respect to other coastal sediments worldwide and compare with concentrations
found in open sea areas. The composition of AHC indicated petroleum-related substances.
PAH consisted mainly of pyrolytic four- to five-ring compounds. The spatial distributions of
AHC and PAH indicated that urban run-off and transport from the continental self are the
major input pathway of anthropogenic and biogenic hydrocarbons from terrestrial
sources.58

Figure 9. Floating litter, especially plastics, can be found in the Greek coastal waters.
Scientists used models depicting high concentrations of floating litter.

Scientists used the first simulation-modeling study to investigate fate and

distribution of floating litter (mainly plastics) in the Greek coastal waters and in the
Mediterranean Sea (in the period 1990-2009). In their modeling took into account the
seasonal and interannual variability of surface circulation. Model results depicted high
concentrations of floating litter particles in the North Aegean plateau, the Saronikos Gulf,
and along Evia and Crete islands. Modeled transport pathways of floating litter
demonstrated that source regions are interconnected, with Saronikos Gulf being a main
receptor of litter from other sources. Notably higher percent of litter exit (∼35%) than
enter the model domain (∼7%) signified that Aegean Sea seems to act as a source rather
than receptor of floating litter pollution in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Beached litter
was found around 10%, mostly located in the western part of the Aegean Sea. 59

18
Monitoring of sea bathing water quality in Greece.
Among a list of 50 countries Greece comes 3rd in terms of Blue Flag certification,
with 430 beaches and 9 marinas for 2016 (established by the non-profit organization
Foundation for Environmental Education-Blue Flag Program). The country also came 4th in
Europe (monitoring by the European Environment Agency) confirming that more than 90%
of Greek beaches are of the highest quality for swimming. In Greece every year monitoring
teams gather data from more than 2,000 sampling points and 25,000 monitoring samples.
Greece reported 8 parameters under the Directive 76/160/EEC (total coliforms, faecal
coliforms, faecal streptococci, mineral oils, etc). In 2009, a total of 2.107 bathing waters
were reported in Greece of which 2.101 were coastal bathing waters. 60% of the coastal
bathing waters met the mandatory quality parameters. The mandatory water quality was
met in 98% of the bathing waters since 1996. Also, 66% of the freshwater bathing waters
were in compliance with the mandatory values. 60

Figure 10. Greece is on the top of a list of 50 countries in terms of Blue Flag certification,
with 430 beaches and 9 marinas for 2016.

The 2016 Report for bathing water quality in Greece contained assessment
measurements for 1.507 sea bathing sites. The bathing water quality assessment was
carried out through statistical analysis of the bathing water by the Special Secretariat for
Water of the Ministry for the Environment and Energy. Under the provisions of the
Directive 2006/7/EC, Greece provided the European Commission with the results of the
monitoring and the bathing water quality assessment. According to the statistical analysis

19
of the bathing water quality data set, the classification status for the 1,507 bathing waters
is the following: 1.496 bathing waters (99%) are classified as "excellent quality", 10 bathing
waters (0.66%) are classified as "good quality", 1 bathing water (0.07%) is classified as
"sufficient quality" and none of bathing waters is classified as "poor quality". The analytical
report is available through the web site http://www.bathingwaterprofiles.gr. The bathing
water quality in sites of the South Aegean for 2017 are available through the analytical
website: http://www.bathingwaterprofiles.gr/en/node/3307.]. 61

Marine alien fauna of Greek marine environment

The number of biological invasions of the marine environment has grown

dramatically in recent decades, causing serious ecological and economic impacts. The
Mediterranean Sea is subject to the ever-increasing arrival of non-indigenous marine
organisms. Scientists from the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research monitored alien marine
species for many years. The numbers of alien marine species recorded in the Greek marine
environment increased to 110 (2007). The last species were zoobenthic and zooplanktonic
species and teleost fish. The list of marine alien fauna in Greek waters is updated taking
into account new findings. Of the eight new records, five are zoobenthic species, two
zooplanktonic and another one a teleost fish. Moreover, records referring to the expansion
range of aliens from an established stand to new areas are also presented, pointing out the
species that could be considered as possible invaders to local communities. 62,63
In the last years scientists recorded an uncontested increase in the number of alien
marine species, most of which were Lessepsian migrants, in the Aegean Sea during the last
decades. By December 2010, the number of recorded alien marine species in Greek waters
was 237, of which 76 have been reported from the south Aegean, excluding the
Dodekanisos area. With the exception of the Saronikos Gulf and Rhodes Island, which are
systematically monitored for alien species, information on the occupancy and spatial
distribution of alien marine species in the Aegean Sea is scattered. Alien species were
recorded in shallow sea waters of Kyklades Archipelago (Paros, south Aegean Sea).64-66
The Greek islands Paros and Antiparos (Cycladic islands) was surveyed for the
presence of alien megabiota during July 2011. 14 sites were surveyed by snorkeling at
depths between 0 and 10 m, and 8 alien species were recorded: Caulerpa racemosa var.

20
cylindracea, Halophila stipulacea, Pinctada radiata, Percnon gibbesi, Cassiopea andromeda,
Aplysia dactylomela, Siganus luridus and Fistularia commersonii. Cassiopea andromeda
reappeared in the Aegean Sea after a hiatus of 55 years, reaching densities >20
individuals/m2 at one site.67 There is an extensive literature of the marine alien fauna of
Greek waters.68-71

Figure 11. Alien marine species in the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Lion fish from
Indian Ocean to Aegean sea waters. The lionfish, found in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea,
South Africa and east of Sumatra, has now made its way to the Aegean Sea, particularly in
the sea region of Rhodes. (2015). Cotylorhiza Tuberculata Jellyfish, Lefkada, Greece-Ionian
Sea

Fisheries in Greek sea waters

Fisheries in Greek sea waters are characterized as multispecies and target mainly
demersal and pelagic fish stocks. The demersal species such as hake, red mullet,
cephalopods and shrimps are mainly caught by trawlers, while small pelagics such as
sardine, anchovy, bogue, mediterranean horse mackerel and scorbidae are caught by purse
seiners. Among highly migratory species (tuna and tuna like species), the main
commercially valuable species are bluefin tuna, swordfish and albacore. About 50 – 60% of
total domestic fisheries production consists of small pelagics. A major problem beside
pollution is the intense exploitation and depletion of fisheries stocks in Greece's seas. In
the past fisheries issues were considered almost in economic and political terms. Today
fisheries activities are recognized as environmental problems in the broader sense.72

21
Figure 12. The Fisheries in Greek sea waters are characterized as multispecies and target
mainly demersal and pelagic fish stocks,

The General Directorate for Fisheries (Greek Ministry of Rural Development and
Food) is responsible for exercising fisheries policy at the national level in Greece,
implementing the rules of the EU CFP by issuing regulatory measures for fisheries in Greek
territorial waters, and developing and managing the aquaculture sector. The Ministry of
Mercantile Marine, Aegean & Island Policy’s Directorate of Port Police, along with local
port offices and the Fisheries Divisions of Local Authorities of the Prefectures, implement
the provisions of the fishing legislation (EU and national) and, in the case of infringements,
imposes administrative penalties (fines, temporary withdrawal of vessels and licenses).
Responsibility for the inspection of the market for fisheries products is vested in the
Ministry of Development/General Secretariat of Commerce. Participation of the fishing
industry stakeholders in the design, examination and introduction of new fisheries
legislation is arranged through a Fisheries Council that includes, inter alia, representatives
of the central administration and research institutions. All aquaculture operations
(including fish and shellfish farming) in Greece require approval by an array of Ministries;
i.e. an Environmental Impact Assessment that is submitted to Ministry of the Environment
and a license from a Regional Fisheries Authority. A system of limited entry for new
applicants is in place to control production and to support the overall policy objective of
achieving a balance between environmental and health concerns as well as economic
benefits. The licensing procedure for aquaculture farms controls the introduction of alien
species. There are also plans underway to establish Areas of Organised Aquaculture

22
Development, to increase efficiency of aquaculture activities and to better integrate them
in coastal zone management. It should also be noted that one important benefit of the
mariculture effort has been the new employment and income generated in previously
uninhabited island areas normally excluded from commercial activities. 73
Greek aquaculture is dominated by the farming of marine finfish in offshore cages,
specifically of gilthead sea bream and European sea bass (combined production capacity of
about 110,000 tones in 2015). Also, the culture of Mediterranean mussels is very
important with an annual production of 35–40,000 tones in 2015. After several crises
mainly as a result of imbalance between supply and demand, the marine fish sector has
been restructured, with the aim of doubling its production by 2030. Freshwater species
and extensive lagoon aquaculture have a limited growth potential mainly because of the
lack of natural resource (water, wild stocks) availability. Marine fish is the top Greek
exported animal product and contributes about 11% of the total national agricultural
exports, which together account for 19% of the total Greek exports. Marine fish farming in
Greece provides 12, 000 jobs (scientific, technical, workers) mainly in remote and isolated
areas. In several cases, it is the major employer, and the wealth of the local society strongly
depends on its activities. An additional 5,000 jobs exist in the value chain and peripheral
activities. Greece was the leading European producer, exceeding 120,000 tones of marine
fish, before the beginning of the Greek crisis in 2008. Even since the crisis, Greece is a
significant world producer with yearly production of 110,000 tonnes of fish, even though
the sector is operating below the existing capacity of the fish farms.74
Some critical remarks have been published in the last years on the overexploitation
of Greek seawater fish stocks and the urgent need for better management measures.
Scientists argued that large-scale fishing and the greedy fishers that exploit the fishery
resources. A study analysed data on the annual fish landings for the Greek seas (period
1982–2007) and classified into exploitation categories based on a catch-based stock
classification method. In 2007, about 65% of the Greek stock were characterised as
overfished, 32% as fully exploited and only 3% were characterised as developing; collapsed
stocks were not recorded. The results suggest that the apparently stable overall catches
and decreasing effort may be deceiving, as they hide an underlying pattern of
overexploitation in some of the stocks. It was concluded that the Greek fisheries are no
longer sustainable and radical management measures are needed. Other scientific

23
publications focused on the risks of overexpoitation of fish stocks in the Mediterranean
and Black Seas.75-77

The legal framework for the protection of marine environment

The legal framework for the protection of the Greek sea and coastal areas is,
primarily, based on the article 24 of the Greek Constitution which constitutes the backbone
of the legal protection of the natural environment. ….. “The protection of the natural and
cultural environment constitutes a duty of the State and a right to every person. The State
is bound to adopt special preventive or repressive measures for the preservation of the
environment in the context of the principle of sustainable development”. The provisions of
the article establish the fundamental principles of the environmental protection: the
principle of sustainable development (article 106 of the Constitution), the prevention
principle and the precautionary principle. The constitutional provisions are analyzed in
detail through the law 1650/1986 on the “protection of the natural environment” and,
regarding the protection of sea and coastal areas, the law 2971/2001 for the foreshore and
beach and, more recently, the law 3983/2011, “National Strategy for the protection and
management of the marine environment”.
The law 3983/2011 specifies the legal framework for the adoption of the necessary
measures aiming at achieving or maintaining proper environmental status for the marine
environment until the year 2020 the latest. The law promotes the development and
implementation of strategies for the sea through the adoption of measures which ensure
the protection and preservation of the marine environment, restore the marine
ecosystems in areas where they have suffered adverse effects and prevent and reduce the
depositions in the marine environment gradually eliminate pollution.
For the management of human activities, the marine strategies follow the
ecosystemic approach which ensures that the total pressure of these activities remains at
levels consistent with achieving good environmental status and that the ability of marine
ecosystems to react to human-provoked changes is not jeopardized, while at the same
time enabling the sustainable use of marine goods and services by both the present and
future generations. The law provides programme of measures for the protection of the
area, which contribute to the creation of coherent and representative networks of

24
protected marine areas and are sufficient to cover the variety of ecosystems composing
these areas, such as the Special Preservation Zones established with 33318/3028/1998
joint ministerial decision and the Special Protection Zones.78

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