University of Tripoli

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Geological Engineering

Technical Writing (152)

Dr. Nureddin Saadi

 What is Technical Writing?
• Technical writing is sometimes defined as simplifying the
complex.

• It results in delivering relevant and accurate information

to targeted readers.
 Technical writing quiz
How much do you know about technical writing?
Find out by doing this quiz.
1. The main difference between technical writing and normal
writing is that technical writing:
(a) uses longer words
(b) tries to be precise and unbiased
(c) is harder to understand

2. The difference between a project and an essay is:

(a) essays are longer
(b) projects are longer
(c) students choose projects’ topics
 Technical writing quiz
3. Teachers complain most about students:
(a) not answering the question given
(b) not writing enough
(c) not referencing properly

4. The best time to write an introduction is often:

(a) first
(b) last
(c) after writing the main body

5. Plagiarism is:
(a) a dangerous disease
(b) an academic offence
(c) an academic website
 Technical writing quiz
6. Making careful notes is essential for:
(a) writing essays
(b) revising for exams
(c) all academic work

7. An in-text citation looks like:

(a) (Manton, 2008)
(b) (Richard Manton, 2008)
(c) (Manton, R. 2008)

8. Paraphrasing a text means:

(a) making it shorter
(b) changing a lot of the vocabulary
(c) adding more detail
 Technical writing quiz
9. Paragraphs always contain:
(a) six or more sentences
(b) an example
(c) a topic sentence

10. The purpose of an introduction is:

(a) to give your aims and methods
(b) to excite the reader
(c) to summarize your ideas

11. Proofreading means:

(a) getting a friend to check your work
(b) checking for minor errors
(c) re-writing
 The purpose of technical writing
The most common reasons include:

- to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted

- to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen
- to discuss a subject of common interest and give the
writer's view
- to integrate research done by others on a topic

Can you suggest any other reasons?

 Common types of technical writing
Below are the most common types of written work produced by students.
Match the terms on the left to the definitions on the right.
A piece of research, either individual or group work, with the
Notes
topic chosen by the student(s).
The longest piece of writing normally done by a student
Report (20,000+ words) often for a higher degree, on a topic chosen
by the student.
A written record of the main points of a text or lecture, for a
Project
student’s personal use.
A general term for any academic essay, report, presentation
Essay
or article.
A description of something a student has done e.g.
Paper
conducting a survey.
Dissertation/ The most common type of written work, with the title given
Thesis by the teacher, normally 1000–5000 words.
 Essential Writing Tips
A good piece of technical writing should:
• Allow the reader to locate information easily.
• Provide the context and background for your work,
research and/or findings.
• Provide the methodology used such that others in the field
could repeat the process, if applicable.
• “Speak“ based on results, not opinions.
• Have clear figures and tables that convey relevant
information.
 Effective techniques for writing
1. Sentence and paragraph length
Sentences should be reasonably short and simple. You can
write shorter sentences by sticking to the following principles:
• A sentence should contain a single unit of information.
• Incorrect use of commas is a common cause of poorly
constructed and long sentences.
Just as it is bad to write long sentences, it is also bad to write
long paragraphs. A paragraph should contain a single
coherent idea. You should always keep paragraphs to less
than half a page.
 Effective techniques for writing
1. Sentence and paragraph length
Example 1:
The government can now better understand the potential location
and impact of where the biggest earthquakes will occur within a
1.5 million square kilometer area and is using the information to
assess the best ways of solving this issue.
Becomes
The government can now better understand the potential location
and impact of where the biggest earthquakes will occur within a
1.5 million square kilometer area. It is using the information to
assess the best ways of solving this issue.
 Effective techniques for writing
2. Bullet points and enumerated lists
If the sentences in a paragraph need to be written in
sequence it suggests that they are related and form some
kind of a list. For example, the following paragraph is a mess
because the writer is trying to make what is clearly a list into
one paragraph:
 Effective techniques for writing
2. Bullet points and enumerated lists
Getting to university on time for a 9.00 am lecture involves
following a number of steps. First of all you have to set your alarm
– you will need to do this before you go to bed the previous night.
When the alarm goes off you will need to get out of bed. You
should next take a shower and then get yourself dressed. After
getting dressed you should have some breakfast. After breakfast
you have to walk to the tube station, and then buy a ticket when
you get there. Once you have your ticket you can catch the next
train to University station. When the train arrives at the station you
should get off and then finally walk to the University.
 Effective techniques for writing
2. Bullet points and enumerated lists
The following is much simpler and clearer:
To get to university on time for a 9.00 AM lecture:
1. Set alarm before going to bed the previous night
2. Get out of bed when the alarm goes off
3. Take a shower
4. Get dressed
5. Have some breakfast
6. Walk to the tube station
7. Buy a ticket
8. Catch next train to University station
9. Get out at the station
10.Walk to the University
 Effective techniques for writing
2. Bullet points and enumerated lists
The previous example is an example of an enumerated list.
The items need to be shown in numbered order. If there is no
specific ordering of the items in the list then you should use
bullet points instead. For example, consider the following
paragraph:
 Effective techniques for writing
2. Bullet points and enumerated lists
One such principle is getting a good understanding of the
customer requirements. It is also important to make a regular
update. Another principle is that it is necessary to do testing
throughout. In addition to the previous principles, you need
to be able to maintain good communication within the
project team (and also with the customer).
 Effective techniques for writing
2. Bullet points and enumerated lists
The paragraph is much better when rewritten using bullet
points:
Good software engineering is based on the following key
principles:
• Get a good understanding of the customer requirements.
• Make a regular update.
• Do testing throughout.
• Maintain good communication within the project team
(and with the customer).
 Effective techniques for writing
3. Using verbs instead of nouns
Look at the following sentence:
“Half the team were involved in the development of system Y”.
This sentence contains a classic example of a common cause of
poor writing style. The sentence is using an abstract noun
‘development’ instead of the verb ‘develop’ from which it is
derived. The simpler and more natural version of the sentence
is:
“Half the team was involved in developing system Y”.
Using abstract nouns always results in longer sentences than
necessary.
 Effective techniques for writing
3. Using verbs instead of nouns
The following examples show the improvements you can
achieve by getting rid of nouns in favor of verbs:
Bad Good
When you take into consideration … When you consider …
Clicking the icon causes the execution of The program executes when the icon is
the program clicked
Measurement of the material density The instrument measured the material
was performed by the instrument density
The analysis of the data was performed Adam analyzed the data
by Adam
The testing of the product was carried Sami tested the product
out by Sami
It was reported by Sarah that method A Sarah reported that method A
succeeded succeeded
 Effective techniques for writing
4. Using active rather than passive style
Consider the following two sentences:
1. Amir tested the product
2. The product was tested by Amir
Both sentences provide identical information. The first is called
the active style and the second is called the passive style.
Using the passive style is the most common reason for poorly
structured sentences and it always leads to longer sentences
than are necessary.
 Effective techniques for writing
4. Using active rather than passive style
The following examples show the improvements of switching
from passive to active:
Bad Good

The report was written by Ali, and was Ali wrote the report, and it was excellent
found to be excellent

The values were measured The control system measured the values
automatically by the control system automatically

It was reported by the manager that the The manager reported that the project
project was in trouble was in trouble

The stability of the process is enhanced Cooperation improves the stability of

by cooperation the process
 Effective techniques for writing
5. Using personal rather than impersonal style
Look at the following sentence:
“My results have shown…”
is an example of a sentence using the personal (also called
first person) style. This contrasts with:
“The author’s results have shown…”
which is an example of the impersonal (also called third
person) style.
The most important justification for using first person style is
that it is more natural and results in simpler sentences.
 Effective techniques for writing
5. Using personal rather than impersonal style
Consider the following examples:
Bad Good

The current research work of the author I also describe my current research work
of this report is also described

In the previous report of the authors the In our previous report we discussed in
rationale for the proposed method was detail the rationale for the proposed
discussed in detail method
However, it is the writer’s belief that this However, I believe this situation should
situation should not have occurred not have occurred

Examination and discussion of the We must examine and discuss the

results obtained, are necessary before a results before we decide
decision can be taken
 Effective techniques for writing
6. Use consistent naming of the same ‘things’
There is a wrong rule says: “Never use the same word twice”.
So, some writers always use a different word to describe the
same thing. In technical writing, exactly the opposite rule
applies: You should always use the same word to refer to the
same thing.
Consider, for example, the following paragraph that appeared
in a group project final report:
 Effective techniques for writing
6. Use consistent naming of the same ‘things’
In the first three weeks of the project we wrote a project plan
for the system. We were ambitious in our requirements
because we wanted the group project to be a success and we
wanted the software to be of high quality. In fact we were
determined that our software would win the prize. By the end
of term we realized there were major problems with the
project. The first project we delivered was inconsistent with
the requirements specification and it was clear the final code
would not be the best system as there were clearly better
groups than ours.
 Effective techniques for writing
6. Use consistent naming of the same ‘things’
The problem with this paragraph is that the authors refer to
three key ‘things’ in different and inconsistent ways. The
‘things’ are:

• The project: This refers to the entirety of the group

experience.
• The plan: This refers to a document describing the
requirements and schedule for implementing them.
• The system: This refers to the software system that the
group project is supposed to deliver.
 Effective techniques for writing
6. Use consistent naming of the same ‘things’
Unfortunately, we find that the authors refer to these things
at different parts of the paragraph as:
• The project: project; group project; group.
• The plan: project plan; requirements; requirements
specification.
• The system: system; software; project; code; final code.

Not only is there inconsistent naming of the same ‘things’ but

we also find ambiguity because the same words are used to
refer to different ‘things’.
 Effective techniques for writing
6. Use consistent naming of the same ‘things’
Be consistent and use the same name. In the previous
example this would lead to the following improved text:
In the first three weeks of the project we wrote a plan for the
system. Our plan was ambitious because we wanted the
project to be a success and we wanted the system to be high
quality. In fact we were determined that our project would
win the prize. By the end of term we realized there were
major problems with the project. The first system we
delivered was inconsistent with the plan and it was clear the
final system would not be the best system as there were
clearly better systems than ours.
 Using plain English: the mechanics

In this section, we look at the mechanics of using plain

English. We focus on:

1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors

2. Abbreviations
3. Punctuation.
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
Here are some common mistakes that even native
speakers may struggle with.
1. Your/You’re
‘Your’ refers to a thing belonging to you, another person
who is directly identified, i.e. “I read your report.” The
report, which belongs to the person (“you”).
“You’re” is a compression of ‘you’ and ‘are’ and is not
possessive but rather a grammatical construction, i.e. “You
are good” = “You’re good”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
2. Practice/Practise
‘Practice’ is a noun: i.e. The doctor’s practice/ driving
practice. And ‘practise’ is a verb (i.e. to practise) “I
practised geology.”/ “We have been practising engineering
for five years.”
Think of the words: effect/ affect and advice/advise, which
have the same rule.
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
3. Me/I
‘me’ is used when related to an action being done which
affects the ‘me/I’, i.e. “Adam gave the letter to me.”
The subject of the sentence here is Adam, not ‘me’ – ‘me’
is the person who is affected by the subject.
However, “I gave the letter back to Adam.” We use I when
in the first person: I is the subject.
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
4. Who/Which
In general, when talking about a person – it’s who; and an
object/place/thing – it’s which.
For example: “The scientist who discovered the vaccine
are attending the conference.” or “This computer, which
used to work just fine, isn’t saving my files correctly.”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
5. Its and It’s
Similar to your and you’re. Its is a possessive article,
denoting something belonging to ‘it’, i.e. “I looked at the
book. Its pages were yellow.”
‘Its’ is not singular or plural – just possessive; so it can be
‘its pages’ or ‘its page’…think of it as the neutral version of
‘his’ (also: his papers/his paper).
It’s is a compression again – of ‘it’ and ‘is’… so: “The book
is in the shelf. It’s [it is] looking new.”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
6. Nor
‘Nor’ literally means ‘and not’. It is perhaps not so
commonly used, but you’ll still see it. You should use this
when expressing a negative condition followed by another
(usually with the word ‘neither’ first).
i.e. “It is neither hard nor soft.”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
7. All together/Altogether
These words are pronounced exactly the same.
‘All together’ means all in the same place, at one time.
“We want to ride the bus all together!”
‘Altogether’ is an adverb that means completely.
“I’ve stopped studying altogether!”
‘Altogether’ can also be used to summarize a point.
“Altogether, I think it’s a good decision for the company.”
‘Altogether’ can also mean ‘in total’.
“Altogether you’ll pay $5000, if you travel all together.”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
1. Avoid common grammar and vocabulary errors
7. Along/a long
They sound exactly the same again. ‘Along’ is an adverb or
a preposition and it means to move along something
(horizontally) on a flat surface.
“The chairs were lined up along the wall.”
“Can I bring my friend along?”
‘A long’: ‘long’ is an adjective that refers to the length of
something either in distance or in time. ‘A’ is an article
here, used with the noun that follows the adjective ‘long’.
“A long day.” or “A long road.”
“There is a long list of names on the board.”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
2. Abbreviations
The rules you should follow on abbreviations are:
• Always avoid abbreviating words out of laziness. For
example, never write ‘approx.’ for ‘approximately’ (it may
be better to write ‘about’);
Misused abbreviation is ‘etc.’. People usually use it in the
following way: “He reads lots of books, such as history,
geology, medicine, etc.”
The ‘etc.’ here is unnecessary because of the ‘such as’. If
you are using ‘etc.’ then the correct way to write the above
sentence would be: “He reads lots of books: history,
geology, medicine, etc.”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
2. Abbreviations
The rules you should follow on abbreviations are:
• A long title, such as Shuttle Radar Topography Mission,
should not be abbreviated if it is used only once in a
document. However, if it is used more than once then you
can abbreviate it to its initials (SRTM) providing that the
first time it is used you write the full title with the initials in
brackets.
Where initials such as SRTM are used, as above, it is useful
to provide a glossary.
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
This subsection covers the rules for using:
• Capital letters
• Apostrophes
• Commas
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
Capital letters
People use capital letters far more frequently than they should.
Apart from at the beginning of sentences, and proper names,
the only other times you need to use capitals are for:

• Capitalize the first word of a sentence;

• Organizations and places (for example, the University of
Tripoli);
• North, South, East and West when they form part of a
country name but not otherwise (hence South Africa, but
south Libya);
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
Capital letters
• Capitalize cities, countries, companies, nationalities, and
languages (for example, the capital of Libya is Tripoli. Almost
all Libyans speak Arabic);
• Certain periods of history (for example, the Dark Ages, World
War);
• Capitalize names and other proper nouns (for example, my
favorite scientist is James Hall);
• Capitalize days, months, and holidays, but not seasons (for
example, I always work on Mondays). The names of seasons,
however, are not proper nouns, so there’s no need to
capitalize them (for example, cold of winter);
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
Apostrophes
Apostrophes have two purposes only:
1. To show that a letter has been missed out: For example, isn’t
(is not), can’t (cannot), it’s (it is).
2. To show possession: For example, the country's history. If the
thing doing the possessing already has an s at the end then
do not add an s. For example, countries' flags.
The only exception to this last rule is if:
it is a proper noun (Mr. Jones’s daughter);
the word ends in a double ss (the boss’s office).
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
Commas
Commas help the reader to understand the writing more easily.
There are just four reasons for using a comma:
1. Where you are writing a list. For example: ‘I like apples,
oranges, grapes and bananas.’ However, note that in
technical reports it is usually better to use enumerated lists
or bullet points. Where the items in the list include commas
themselves you should use semicolons rather than commas
to separate the list items as in: “Government departments
such as health; agriculture, food and fisheries; the foreign
office and employment.”
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
Commas
Commas help the reader to understand the writing more easily.
There are just four reasons for using a comma:
2. Where you are using a qualifying word or expression at the
beginning of a sentence, such as:
• However, it is best…
• For example, we can see …
• Unfortunately, you should know…
• Firstly, it is unlikely …
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
Commas
Commas help the reader to understand the writing more easily.
There are just four reasons for using a comma:
3. Where the sentence would be ambiguous without it. For
example: “I decided on an alteration of course” means that
you changed your course, whereas: “I decided on an
alteration, of course” means that, naturally, you decided to
make an alteration.
 Using plain English: the mechanics
3. Punctuation
Commas
Commas help the reader to understand the writing more easily.
There are just four reasons for using a comma:
4. To show where you have inserted a phrase. For example:
“Teddy, who is normally the best in the team, had a very
poor match.” In any such case, the sentence should still make
sense if you remove the part between the commas.
 Basic structure for reports
What every report should contain
Make sure every report contains the following basic information:
• Title
• Author name(s), affiliation and contact details
• Date
• Page numbers (if the report is more than two pages)

Reports of more than seven pages should normally also include:

• Abstract
• Table of contents
• Conclusions
• Acknowledgements and references
 Basic structure for reports
General layout
Fonts: Apart from headings and caption labels, you should generally
use the same font and font size throughout. The Times New Roman
font at 12pt is a good choice.
Spacing: It is good to have plenty of white space on a page. However,
double-spacing throughout is overkill, unless you are producing a draft
that you want somebody to annotate. Using a font like Times New
Roman with the spacing set as 1.5 lines in MS Word looks fine.
The space between paragraphs is defined by setting Home→
Paragraph → Spacing After to 6pt in Microsoft Word. That way when
you start a new paragraph the correct space is automatically inserted.
Margins: Leave wide margins (3.18 cm is good). For formal reports it is
also useful to use the ‘justify’.
Basic structure for reports
Basic structure for reports
Basic structure for reports
 Sections and section numbering
Any report longer than four pages should be broken up into
sections using the following principles:
• Sections should be numbered (preferably using numerals. 1, 2,
3,...). Whatever numbering convention you use must be consistent.
• Each section should have a proper heading that accurately reflects
the material contained within it.
• Long sections should be broken up into subsections, which should
be numbered like: 1.1, 1.2, etc.
• Long subsections should be broken up into subsubsections which
should be numbered like: 1.1.1, 2.1.1, etc.
• Never use numbered decomposition smaller than subsubsections.
Instead, use bullet points, numbered lists, etc.
References
• Norman Fenton, 2019. Improving Your Technical Writing Skills. Version 9.

• Stephen Bailey, 2015. Academic Writing A Handbook for International

Students. Fourth edition.

• Gerald J. Alred, Charles T. Brusaw, Walter E. Oliu, 2008. Handbook of

Technical Writing. Ninth edition.

• A Practical Guide to Academic Writing for International Students. This

chapter is excerpted from Academic Writing: A Handbook for
International Students by Stephen Bailey. 2018 Taylor & Francis Group.