THAKUR COLLEGE OF COMMERCE AND SCIENCE

NAME - ANIKET GUPTA BALENDRA

STD- BSC (AVIATION)

DIV – AVIATION

ROLLNO – 3014

SEMESTER VI PROJECT

TOPIC – UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES

(UAV) &

UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEM (UAS)

DATE- 09/03/2021

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UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES AND UNMANNED
AERIAL SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any
human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft
system (UAS), which includes adding a ground-based controller and a system of
communications with the UAV

.[1] The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by a human operator, as remotely-
piloted aircraft (RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy, such as autopilot assistance, up
to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention.

[2] UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions too
"dull, dirty or dangerous

[3] for humans, and by the twenty-first, they had become essential assets to most militaries.
As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military
applications.

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[4] These include aerial photography, product deliveries, agriculture, policing and
surveillance, infrastructure inspections, science,

[5] smuggling

[6] drone racing

Unmanned aircraft system (UAS) means an unmanned aircraft and the equipment to control it
remotely. Unmanned aircraft (UA) means any aircraft operating or designed to operate
autonomously or to be piloted remotely without a pilot on board.

TYPES OF UAS

1. fixed wing

Fixed wing units have rigid wings and look similar to airplanes

2. Rotary wing

Rotary wing units rely on lift from the constant rotation of rotor blades

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DESCRIPTION

An Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) has three components:

An autonomous or human-operated control system which is usually on the ground or a ship
but may be on another airborne platform;

An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV);

A command and control (C2) system - sometimes referred to as a communication, command
and control (C3) system - to link the two.

These systems include, but are not limited to, remotely piloted air systems (RPAS) in which
the UAV is controlled by a 'pilot' using a radio data link from a remote location. UAS can
also include an autonomously controlled UAV or, more likely, a semi-autonomous UAV.

In recent years, the tendency to refer to any UAV as a "drone" has developed but the term is
not universally considered appropriate. UAVs can vary in size from those which can be hand
launched to purpose built or adapted vehicles the size of conventional fixed or rotary wing
aircraft.

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TERMINOLOGY

Many terms are used for aircraft which fly without any persons on board.
The term drone has been used from the early days of aviation, being applied to remotely-
flown target aircraft used for practice firing of a battleship's guns, such as the 1920s Fairey
Queen and 1930s de Havilland Queen Bee.

Later examples included the Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles Queen Martinet, before
ultimate replacement by the GAF Jondavid. The term remains in common use.

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not
carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly
autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a
lethal or nonlethal payload".

AV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases. However, missiles with
warheads are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition. The term
unmanned aircraft system (UAS) was adopted by the United States Department of Defense
(DoD) and the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2005 according to
their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030.

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The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the British Civil Aviation
Authority adopted this term, also used in the European Union's Single-European-Sky (SES)
Air-Traffic-Management (ATM) Research (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020.

This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements
such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. A similar term is an
unmanned-aircraft vehicle system (UAVS), remotely piloted aerial vehicle (RPAV), remotely
piloted aircraft system (RPAS). Many similar terms are in use. "Unoccupied" and
"uninhabited" are occasionally used as alternatives to "unmanned".

In addition to the software, autonomous drones also employ a host of advanced technologies
that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention, such as cloud
computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and
thermal sensor

Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019, the term RPAS (Remotely
Piloted Aircraft System) has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean "a set of
configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the
command-and-control links and any other system elements required during flight operation"

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The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear. [citation needed] UAVs
may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or
weight; however, the US FAA defines any uncrewed flying craft as a UAV regardless of size.
For recreational uses, a drone (as opposed to a UAV) is a model aircraft that has first-person
video, autonomous capabilities, or both.

CLASSIFICATION

BASED ON WEIGHT
Based on their weight, drones can be classified into five categories — nano (weighing up to
250 g), Micro air vehicles (MAV) (250 g - 2 kg), Miniature UAV or small (SUAV) (2-25 kg),
medium (25-150 kg), and large (over 150 kg).

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BASED ON THE DEGREE OF THE AUTONOMY

Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight operations.
ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous.
Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy.

For example, a vehicle that is remotely piloted in most contexts but has an autonomous
return-to-base operation. Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which
may include manned aircraft transformed into uncrewed or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs).

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BAESD ON ALTITUDE

Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry events
such as Par Aberporth Unmanned Systems forum:

Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up
to 10 km range NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range Tactical 18,000 ft
(5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to
30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over 200 km HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over
30,000 ft (9,100 m) and indefinite range

Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft (15,200
m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km Orbital low Earth orbit (Mach 25+) CIS Lunar
Earth-Moon transfer Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs

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BASED ON COMPOSITE CRITERIA

An example of classification based on the composite criteria is U.S. Military's unmanned

aerial systems (UAS) classification of UAVs based on weight, maximum altitude and speed
of the UAV component

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HISTORY

EARLY DRONES

The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July
1849, with a balloon carrier (the precursor to the aircraft carrier in the first offensive use of
air power in naval aviation. Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200
incendiary balloons at the besieged city.

The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the
Austrian ship SMS Volcano. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind
changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over
Austrian lines and the launching ship Volcano.

The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system

called the "Telecinco" at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903 with the intention of testing
an airship of his own design without risking human lives

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Significant development of drones started in the 1900s, and originally focused on providing
practice targets for training military personnel. The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was
A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" in 1916.

Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under control
on 21 March 1917 using his radio system. Following this successful demonstration in the
spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches
D.C.B.s with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he
also assisted Wing Commander Brock in preparations for the Zeebrugge Raid.

Other British unmanned developments followed, leading to the fleet of over 400 de
Havilland 82 Queen Bee aerial targets that went into service in 1935.

Nikola Tesla described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat vehicles in 1915. These
developments also inspired the construction of the Kettering Bug by Charles Kettering from
Dayton, Ohio and the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane - initially meant as an uncrewed
plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target.

Development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company
invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time.

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The film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny developed the first scaled
remote piloted vehicle in 1935.Soviet researchers experimented with controlling Tupolev TB-
1 bombers remotely in the late 1930s.

WORLD WAR II

In 1940 Denny started the Radio plane Company and more models emerged during World
War II – used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack-missions. Nazi

Germany produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like the Argus as 292 and
the V-1 flying bomb with a jet engine.

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POST WAR PERIOD

After World War II development continued in vehicles such as the American JB-4 (using
television/radio-command guidance), the Australian GAF Jondavid and Teledyne Ryan Fire
bee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for the U.S. Navy in
1955.

Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam War.
In 1959 the U.S. Air Force, concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began
planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft. Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot
down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly-classified UAV program started under the code
name of "Red Wagon".

The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between naval units of the U.S. and the North
Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly-classified UAVs (Ryan Model 147, Ryan AQM-
91 Firefly, Lockheed D-21) into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War. When the
Chinese government showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via Wide World Photos, the
official U.S. response was "no comment".

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During the War of Attrition (1967–1970) in the Middle East, Israeli intelligence tested the
first tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras, which successfully returned
photos from across the Suez Canal.

This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short
runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle.

In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into
wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles. After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people
from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to
develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to
the development of the first Israeli UAV.

In 1973 the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast
Asia (Vietnam). Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were missing
or captured. The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3,435 UAV
missions during the war at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF
General George S. Brown, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, in 1972,

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"The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the
cockpit."[49] Later that year, General John C. Meyer, Commander in Chief, Strategic Air
Command, stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying ... the loss rate is high, but we are
willing to risk more of them ...they save lives!"

During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile-batteries in Egypt
and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets.

As a result, Israel developed the IAI Scout as the first UAV with real-time surveillance.
The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize
the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed.

In Israel in 1987, UAVs were first used as proof-of-concept of super-agility, post-stall-

controlled flight in combat-flight simulations that involved tailless, stealth-technology-based,
three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight-control, and jet-steering.

MODERN UAVS

With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s,
interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. In the 1990s, the U.S.
DoD gave a contract to AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy
bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly.

Many of these UAVs saw service in the 1991 Gulf War. UAVs demonstrated the possibility
of cheaper, more capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews.

Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft, but some carried armaments, such
as the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground
missiles.CAPECON, a European Union project to develop UAVs,[55] ran from 1 May 2002
to 31 December 2005.

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As of 2012 the United States Air Force (USAF) employed 7,494 UAVs – almost one in three
USAF aircraft. The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs. By 2013 at least 50
countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others[which?] designed and
built their own varieties. The use of drones has continued to increase.

Due to their wide proliferation, no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists. The
development of smart technologies and improved electrical-power systems led to a parallel
increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities.

As of 2021, quadcopter drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby radio-

controlled aircraft and toys, however the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is
limited by a lack of autonomy [clarification needed] and by new regulatory environments
which require line-of-sight contact with the pilot. [citation needed]

In 2020 a Kargus 2 drone hunted down and attacked a human target in Libya, according to a
report from the UN Security Council’s Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021.
This may have been the first time an autonomous killer-robot armed with lethal weaponry
attacked human beings.

Superior drone technology played a role in Azerbaijan's successes in the 2020 Nagorno-
Karabakh war against Armenia. Artist's concept of Dragonfly landing on Titan
UAVs are also used in NASA missions.

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The Dragonfly spacecraft is being developed, and is aiming to reach and examine Saturn's
moon Titan. Its primary goal is to roam around the surface, expanding the amount of area to
be researched previously seen by Landers. As a UAV, Dragonfly allows examination of
potentially diverse types of soil. The drone is set to launch in 2027, and is estimated to take
seven more years to reach the Saturnian system.

DESIGIN

Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical
components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life
support systems. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less
than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller.

Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed
counterparts with comparable armaments.

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Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus be built out of lighter but less
sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems.

For small UAVs, the quadcopter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely
used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies
can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and
batteries.

Control systems for UAVs are often different than crewed craft. For remote human control, a
camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital
commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used on both crewed and
uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF UAS

Military and other State use of UAS has developed rapidly since it began apace in the USA in
the early 1990s and has utilized satellite communications and GNSS navigation to operate
UAVs at very long distances from their controllers.

However, well before this, the first recorded use of large UAVs was in 1935, when the
British Royal Navy began using adapted DH82 Tiger Moth aircraft called 'Queen Bees' which
were flown under radio control for gunnery target practice. A total of 380 of these were built
and used by both the Navy and the RAF before they were retired in 1947.

In recent years, fixed wing UAVs have been joined by increasing numbers of rotary and
multi-rotor UAVs. As previously, the military has led the way in using UAVs and only more
recently have they become, at the smaller size, accessible to civil users who were previously
limited to the longstanding hobby activity of flying radio-controlled model aircraft.

AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION

The primary difference from manned aero planes is the lack of need for a cockpit area and its
windows. However, some types are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for
optional piloted or unmanned operational modes.

Air safety is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer
greater freedom to experiment. These two factors have led to a great variety of airframe and
engine configurations in UAVs.

For conventional flight the flying wing and blended wing body offer light weight combined
with low drag and stealth, and are popular configurations. Larger types which carry a variable
payload are more likely to feature a distinct fuselage with a tail for stability, control and trim,
although the wing configurations in use vary widely.

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For vertical flight, the tailless quadcopter requires a relatively simple control system and is
common for smaller UAVs. However, the mechanism does not scale well to larger aircraft,
which tend to use a conventional single rotor with collective and cyclic pitch control, along
with a stabilizing tail rotor.

PROPLUSION

Traditional internal combustion and jet engines remain in use for drones requiring long range.
However, for shorter-range missions' electric power has almost entirely taken over.

The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North
Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one
of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel"
holds this record.

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Besides the traditional piston engine, the Wankel rotary engine is used by some drones. This
type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running.
Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range. [citation needed]
Small drones mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have
adopted a hydrogen fuel cell.

The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However
electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-engine, multi-propeller
installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive
efficiency.

For such complex power installations, Battery elimination circuitry (BEC) may be used to
centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under the control of a microcontroller
unit (MCU).

Ornithopters - wing propulsion

Flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, have been flown as microUAVs. Their
inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.

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Sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on
vertical surfaces. Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.

Computer control systems

UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with
analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC) and single-
board computers (SBC).

System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller
board (FCB) or autopilot.

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Architecture

Sensors

Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive
sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while Ex proprioceptive
ones correlate internal and external states. Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets
autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.

Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF
implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical inertial measurement unit – IMU), 9
DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a
GPS receiver.

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Actuators

UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM of the
motors) linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and helicopters
mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.
Software

Software

UAV software called the flight stack or autopilot. The purpose of the flight stack is to obtain
data from sensors, control motors to ensure UAV stability, and facilitate ground control and
mission planning communication.

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 Flight stack overview

layer requirement operations example

firmware Time critical From machine Arducopter-v1
code to , PX4
processor
execution,
memory
access
middleware Time critical Flight control PX4, Clean
navigation, flight, Ardupilot
radio
management
Operating Computer - Optical flow, ROS, Nuttx,
system intensive obstacle Linux
avoidance distributions,
slam, decision Microsoft IOT
making

Civil-use open-source stacks include:

ArduCopter
Crazy lie
KKMultiCopter
MultiWii
BaseFlight (forked from MultiWii)
Clean Flight (forked from BaseFlight)
Betalight (forked from Clean Flight)
iNav (forked from Clean Flight)
Race Flight (forked from Clean Flight
OpenPilot
dRonin (forked from OpenPilot)
LibrePilot (forked from OpenPilot)
TauLabs (forked from OpenPilot)

Paparazzi

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PX4 autopilot
DroneCode (Umbrella organization managing PX4 within the Linux Foundation)

Due to the open-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific
applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Kosice have replaced
the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.

This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open-source
stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as Clean Flight, which is forked from
BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked from.

Loop principles

UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures

Open loop – This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down)
without incorporating feedback from sensor data.

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Closed loop – This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to
reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The PID controller is common. Sometimes,
feedforward is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.

Communications

UAVs use a radio for control and exchange of video and other data. Early UAVs had only
narrowband uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links
carried command and control (C&C) and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to
the remote operator.

In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having

separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a broadband link is used to carry all types
of data. These broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques and carry TCP/IP
traffic that can be routed over the Internet.

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The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:
Ground control – a human operating a radio transmitter/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a
computer, or the original meaning of a military ground control station (GCS).

Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some military powers.
Downstream digital video over mobile networks have also entered consumer markets, while
direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in
trials.

Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station – military manned-unmanned

teaming (MUM-T).
Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include
optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using
ultra-reliable and low-latency communications.

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Autonomy

The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV manufacturers often build in specific
autonomous operations, such as

Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.

Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data.
Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while
maintaining position using GNSS or inertial sensors.

Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the
vehicle's axes.
Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
Take-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground-based sensors and systems; see
also "Autoland")

Failsafe: automatic landing or return-to-home upon loss of control signal

Return-to-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible
intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).

Follow-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, image
recognition or homing beacon. GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an
intermediate location on a travel path.

Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow-me but continuously circle a target.

Pre-programmed aerobatics (such as rolls and loops)
One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on OODA terminology, as
suggested by a 2002 US Air Force Research Laboratory report, and used in the table on the
right.

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X-47B receives fuel from an Omega K-707 tanker
Full autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as airborne refueling or ground-based
battery switching.

Other functions available or under development include; collective flight, real-time collision
avoidance, wall following, corridor centering, simultaneous localization and mapping and
swarming, cognitive radio and machine learning.

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Performance considerations

Flight envelope

UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined

surfaces, and then to climb toward better communication spots. Some UAVs can control
flight with varying flight modulization, such as VTOL designs.
UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.

Endurance

UEL UAV-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations

Flight time against mass of small (less than 1 kg) drones
UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.

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Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio,
Wankel rotary engines are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the
engine is not susceptible to shock-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched
fuel mixture for cooling at high power.

These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.Proper drone cooling is
essential for long-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the
most common cause of drone failure

Hydrogen fuel cells, using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small
UAVs, up to several hours.

Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping-wing UAVs, followed by
planes and multirotor standing last, due to lower Reynolds number

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Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the Astro Flight Sunrise in 1974,
have achieved flight times of several weeks.Solar-powered atmospheric satellites
("automats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet)
for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more
versatility than low Earth orbit satellites.

Likely applications include weather monitoring, disaster recovery, Earth imaging and
communications. Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power
beaming are other potential endurance solutions.

Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at a battlefield for a long
interval (ARGUS-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that
could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.

Lengthy endurance flight

UAV FLIGHT TIME DATE NOTES
HOURS; MIN
Boeing condor 58;11 1989 The aircraft is
currently in the hiller
aviation museum
General Atomics 40;00 1992
gnat
Tam-5 38;52 11 August 2003 Smallest uav to cross
the Atlantic
QinetiQ Zephyr 54;00 September 2007
solar electric
RQ-4 Global hawk 33;06 22 march 2008 Set an endurance
record for a full
scale operational
uncrewed aircraft
QinetiQ Zephyr 82;37 28-31july 2008
solar electric
QinetiQ Zephyr 336;22 9-23 July 2010
solar electric

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Reliability

Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using resilience engineering and
fault tolerance techniques.

Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without

excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight. Besides, dynamic assessment of flight
envelope allows damage-resilient UAVs, using non-linear analysis with ad hoc designed
loops or neural networks. UAV software liability is bending toward the design and
certifications of crewed avionics software.

Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given
unit failures.

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The civil applications of UAS

The recent rapid progress in extending the scope of military and State use of UAS has led to
recognition of the very widespread potential for civil commercial applications of various
UAS, the majority of which are small UAVs operating below the height above terrain
normally used by manned aircraft or at least below about 1000 feet agl. Many of these uses
are now well established and include:

Security surveillance
Emergency response including SAR
Facilitation of communications and broadcast
Small package and bulk cargo transport
Visual, spectral and thermal examination of structures
Monitoring of linear network infrastructure such as railway tracks, power lines and pipelines
Photography and cartographic survey
Agricultural fertilizer and chemical application
Aircraft external maintenance inspection
Atmospheric research

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Applications

Main article: List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications

In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they
can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) while maximizing production, reducing costs
and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance, and protecting the human
workforce in times of a pandemic.

They can also be used for consumer-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated
by Amazon Prime Air, and critical deliveries of health supplies.

There is numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs.
These include:

General

Recreation, Disaster relief, archeology, conservation of biodiversity and habitat, law

enforcement, crime, and terrorism.

Commerical

Aerial surveillance, filmmaking, journalism, scientific research, surveying, cargo transport,

mining, manufacturing, Forestry, solar farming, thermal energy, ports and agriculture.

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Warfare

With extensive cost reductions and advancements in the UAVs technology, the defense
forces around the globe are increasingly using these for various applications such as
surveillance, logistics, communication, attack and combat.

As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs
in a military capacity. The global military UAV market is dominated by companies based in
the United States, Turkey, China, and Israel. By sale numbers, the US held over 60%
military-market share in 2017.

Top military UAV manufactures are including General Atomics, Lockheed Martin, Northrop
Grumman, Boeing, Baykar, TAI, CASC and CAIG. China has established and expanded its
presence in military UAV market since 2010. Turkey also gains large market share in
military UAV export.
Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 to 2019,
the top 12 all purchased their drones from China. Israeli companies mainly focus on small
surveillance UAV systems and by quantity of drones, Israel exported 60.7% (2014) of UAV
on the market while the United States export 23.9% (2014); top importers of military UAVs
are the United Kingdom (33.9%) and India (13.2%).

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The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014. General Atomics is the dominant
manufacturer with the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems product-line.
For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of micro-UAV flapping-
wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and
makes them difficult targets to bring down.
UAVs are used for reconnaissance, attack, demining, and target practice.

Civil

Wing's aircraft delivering goods in Vuosaari, Helsinki.

The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies.
Chinese drone manufacturer DJI alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no
other company accounting for more than 5%, and with $11 billion forecast global sales in
2020.

Following increased scrutiny of its activities, the US Interior Department grounded its fleet
of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for
the purchase of DJI and other foreign made UAVs.

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DJI is followed by Chinese company Yuneec, US company 3D Robotics and French
company Parrot with a significant gap in market share. As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs have
been registered with the US FAA, of which 42% are categorized as commercial drones and
58% as recreational drones.
2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features
with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and $1000+ market segments.

The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are
emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early-stage
startups have received support and funding from investors as is the case in the United States
and by government agencies as is the case in India.

Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees. Private entities also
provide online and in-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV
use.

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Consumer drones are also widely used by military organizations worldwide because of the
cost-effective nature of consumer product. In 2018, Israeli military started to use DJI Mavic
and Matrice series of UAV for light reconnaissance mission since the civil drones are easier
to use and have higher reliability.

DJI drones is also the most widely used commercial unmanned aerial system that the US
Army has employed. DJI surveillance drones have also been used by Chinese police in
Xinjiang since 2017.

The global UAV market will reach US$21.47 billion, with the Indian market touching the
US$885.7 million mark, by 2021.Lighted drones are beginning to be used in nighttime
displays for artistic and advertising purpose

Aerial photography

Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and
are widely used for this purpose. Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination
between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles

However, big drones with professional cine cameras, there is usually a drone pilot and a
camera operator who controls camera angle and lens.

For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production in big
blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people. Drones provide access to dangerous, remote or
otherwise inaccessible sites.

Aerial photographs are used in topographical mapping and interpretation. These two different
uses have led to the development of photogrammetry and photo/image interpretation as two
independent but related sciences. Photogrammetry: It refers to the science and technology of
making reliable measurements from aerial photographs.

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Agriculture and forestry

As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland
is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for
more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the
agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress. Agricultural drones
have been used in areas such as Africa to help build sustainable agriculture.

The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether
through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start backfires.

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Law enforcement

Police can use drones for applications such as search and rescue and traffic monitoring.

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Safety and security

US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires

Threats

Nuisance

UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or
other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight
controllers. The first incident of a drone-airplane collision occurred in mid-October 2017 in
Quebec City, Canada.

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The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a hot air balloon occurred on 10 August
2018 in Driggs, Idaho, United States; although there was no significant damage to the balloon
nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the National
Transportation Safety Board, stating that "I hope this incident helps create a conversation of
respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations".

Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of
commercial flights. Drones caused significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during
December 2018, needing the deployment of the British Army. In the United States, flying
close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015,
firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions, including at the Lake
Fire and the North Fire.

In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable
UAVs which invaded restricted airspace.[142] The FAA later required registration of most
UAVs.

Security vulnerabilities

By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.

The interest in UAVs cyber security has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video
stream hijacking incident in 2009, where Islamic militants used cheap, off-the-shelf
equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV.

Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight.

Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in
some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks. At a workshop
on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the Federal Trade

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Commission showed they were able to hack into three different consumer quadcopters and
noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security
measures of encrypting the Wi-Fi signal and adding password protection.
Aggression

UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads, and crashed into vulnerable targets.
Payloads could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards.
UAVs with generally non-lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious
purposes. Anti-UAV systems are being developed by states to counter this threat.

This is, however, proving difficult. As Dr J. Rogers stated in an interview to A&T "There is
a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs,
whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner
by a terrorist actor".

Countermeasures

Counter unmanned air system

Italian Army soldiers of the 17th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment "Sforzesca" with a portable
drone jammer in Rome.
Further information: Electronic warfare
The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of counter unmanned air system (C-
UAS) technologies such as the Aaronia AARTOS which have been installed on major
international airports.[148][149] Anti-aircraft missile systems such as the Iron Dome are also
being enhanced with C-UAS technologies

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Regulation

Regulatory bodies around the world are developing unmanned aircraft system traffic
management solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace.

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones is becoming increasingly regulated by
the civil aviation authorities of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ
significantly according to drone size and use. The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a
2011 report.

France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and
larger aviation bodies such as the FAA and the EASA quickly followed suit.

In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially-used UAVs and all UAVs
regardless of intent weighing 250g or more to participate in Remote ID, which makes drone
locations, controller locations, and other information public from takeoff to shut down; this
rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit RaceDayQuads v. FAA.

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UAS Operational Issues

The issues which have had to be addressed for this type of operation have centered on both
the safety of other aircraft and issues of public (third party) safety and the protection of
privacy. The latter has been especially prominent due to the fact that many UAS applications
involve the use of the UAV as a platform for a high-definition camera. The relatively small
UAVs typically used are in contrast to the much larger range of UAV sizes which has
collectively typified military use.

The development and use of Military UAS which has been so important in driving the scope
and capability of these systems, especially the larger UAVs, has been possible because the
airspace in which they have been used has been either permanently or temporarily segregated,
with access by manned aircraft excluded or strictly controlled. This has often reduced initial
and continuing airworthiness standards considered acceptable for military operations to levels
below those which would satisfy civil safety regulation requirements.

It has also limited the need for the sense and avoid technology which will be essential for
operation of all but the smallest UAVs in shared non-segregated airspace if the risk of
collision between aircraft and UAVs - or between UAVs - is to be adequately mitigated. In
this matter, the objective for civil RPAS is currently seen to be a demonstration of at least an
equivalent level of risk to that to which manned aircraft are currently exposed. However,
deciding what this level of safety is in operational terms outside controlled airspace has
proved problematic.

The issue of permissions for commercial UAS to operate at low levels - typically below 400-
500 feet agl - in non-segregated airspace has generally been associated with the complete
prohibition of UAV entry into controlled airspace which extends to the surface or to any
uncontrolled airspace to which access could interfere with aerodrome operations. Such
permissions have also generally addressed the risks of third-party injury, undue invasion of
privacy and operator training.

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As a result of requirements for the latter, new training organizations dedicated to the training
of RPAS operators, most of whom controlling civil UAVs do not have experience as a pilot
of a manned aircraft, have appeared - and been embraced and approved by some regulatory
authorities such as the UK CAA. Operator training is also becoming an increasing focus for
military and State users of RPAS, as system deployment increases in line with increasing task
capability and the availability of former military pilots and navigators to act as RPAS
operators diminishes.

Whilst the terms UAV/UAS and RPAS are of relatively recent origin, they have been
retrospectively applied to the long-established leisure activity of flying of radio-controlled
model aircraft within Visual Line of Sight (VLOS). It is this type of restricted UAV operation
which is where current growth in both leisure and commercial use is taking place, but means
to permit the more complex civil use of UAVs which can be controlled Beyond Visual Line
of Sight (BVLOS) and/or safely within un-segregated controlled airspace are also being
actively pursued. Such operations are likely to require demonstrably resilient C2 systems and
effective 'Detect and Avoid' (sometimes called 'Sense and Avoid') mechanisms. It is widely
recognized that the latter will need to deliver a level of safety equivalent to that achieved by
manned aircraft. However, defining what that level of safety actually is within various
classifications of airspace is as yet unresolved.

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Safety Regulation

The two areas of safety regulatory oversight of UAS - operations and UAV airworthiness, are
being overseen on a supra-national basis by the Joint Authorities for Rulemaking on
Unmanned Systems (JARUS). This body was established in 2007 and describes itself as "a
group of experts from National Aviation Authorities (NAAs) and regional aviation safety
organizations" which aims to provide guidance material to facilitate "a single set of technical,
safety and operational requirements for the certification and safe integration of UAS into
airspace and at aerodromes" and thereby enable each authority to write their own
requirements whilst achieving cross-border harmonization and avoiding duplication of effort.

Founder Members include the FAA, the EASA and EUROCONTROL and members from
around the world now represent the interests of 35 States, including both China and the
Russian Federation. One of the many challenges for JARUS has been to consider the extent
to which regulation of a UAS might be based on the size - however defined - of a UAV.

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UAS Operational Safety Issues

The operational safety issues raised by UAS depend essentially on:

the risk and potential consequences of mid-air collision with another UAV or a manned
aircraft

the risk of loss of control of a UAV

the risk of intentional misuse of a UAV

whether the use to which a UAV is put is Military/State, Commercial, Leisure or Hobby

These issues are the focus of the currently mixed picture between States on the most
appropriate balance between regulatory requirements and their communication and the issue
of guidance. In some cases, prohibition is being applied to certain uses or classes of user
pending the development of a comprehensive approach, and much of the commercial use of
UAS is being controlled by ad hoc application to safety regulators such as the FAA or UK
CAA for a uniquely-specified permission which is then issued on that basis.

So far, there are no internationally-recognized licensing or airworthiness certification

systems for UAS operators and outside segregated airspace, only experimental engagement
with the ATM system.

Efforts are beginning to be made to communicate both regulatory and non-regulatory

guidance to leisure operators of very small UAVs but since their identity is not known, this
has not been wholly successful. In some countries, publicizing successful prosecutions for
use of UAVs in breach of local regulations is also being used as a means to spread awareness.

In Europe, it is widely recognized that harmonized State Regulations right across the range of
UAV sizes is highly desirable but the current arbitrary split is based on UAV weight.

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This is currently being used in Europe to distinguish between NAA and EASA regulatory
competence - respectively 'below 150 kg' and '150 kg or more'. This is now generally
accepted to be an arbitrary distinction unsupported by evidence which is not necessarily
significant in terms of the safety issues raised by UAS operations. In particular, it has been
recognized that the third-party risks of UAV operation are not necessarily proportional to the
weight or size of the UAV.

Another challenge is that leisure-use small UAVs everywhere are flown by two rather
dissimilar types of operators. The established group of model aircraft enthusiasts are mostly
members of, or at least are content to take guidance from, a national body which oversees the
safe and 'reasonable' conduct of their activity in liaison with the National Aviation Authority
(NAA) and/or directly from the NAA. This group of people have long demonstrated that their
enthusiasm for what they do is almost always associated with their receptivity to guidance.

By contrast, it has become clear that the recent and rapidly growing number of other leisure
users of small UAVs are interested as much in what they can do with a UAV - often fitted
with a camera - as in the safe and 'reasonable' use of it and will have usually have no previous
experience of aviation.

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A situation similar to the new leisure users applies to the majority of commercial users of
small UAVs, but this has so far generally been directly regulated with appropriate risk
mitigation requiring at least the completion of sufficient operator training to be able to
demonstrate a minimum level of competence.

The Future

Other than established model aircraft enthusiasts flying their planes in the knowledge of what
is permitted (VLOS operation) and what is not (generic restrictions on when and where flying
can take place), the extremely rapid growth of leisure use of similar sized and smaller UAS
by persons unfamiliar with that hobby is currently seen as the main 'public interest' issue, but
in the main it is arguably not the greatest operational safety risk to manned aviation.

This is because even the smallest UAS operated commercially under a permit or an
exemption are rapidly coming under a regulatory regime which requires at least some UAV
operator training and are beginning to also require a form of standardized competency
certification for the specific UAV to be flown such as the "Basic National UAS Certificate"
(BNUC™)

the "Basic National UAS Certificate for Small Unmanned Aircraft (BNUC-S™) which are
available through training organizations approved by the UK CAA and are currently being
widely recognized outside the UK in the absence of any comparable alternative.

Safety Regulation of civil UAS in Europe is likely to change to the risk-based approach
outlined in the September 2015 EASA document 'Proposal to create common rules for
operating drones in Europe'.

In the USA, the FAA has already regulated the civil use of small UAS by publishing in
August 2016 CFR 14 part 107 - Small unmanned aircraft systems. Since December 21st 2015
an UAS must be registered if it weighs more than 0.55 pounds and less than 55 pounds.

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The development of the new approach to airborne collision avoidance (currently known as
ACAS X) includes variants extending collision avoidance protection to situations and user
classes that currently do not benefit from TCAS. The ACAS XU is being designed for UAS.

Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) promise to dramatically change the face of commercial
aviation, enabling whole new markets, and potentially spurring economic growth and job
creation. According to industry forecasts, UAS operations will increase exponentially once
they are fully integrated within the national airspace system.

Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) promise to dramatically change the face of commercial
aviation, enabling whole new markets, and potentially spurring economic growth and job
creation. According to industry forecasts, UAS operations will increase exponentially once
they are fully integrated within the national airspace system. Today, in the United States,
there are about 50 companies, universities, and government organizations developing more
than 150 different unmanned aircraft designs.

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MANUFACTURER OF UAV

GENERAL ATOMICS

Founded in 1955, General Atomics offers products in various

categories like power reactor systems, electromagnetic systems, unmanned aerial vehicles,
airborne sensors, nuclear instrumentation, aircraft platforms, and ground control stations as
well as provides information technology services.

The Company has its geographic presence in North America. Some of the major subsidiaries
of General Atomics are General Atomics Aeronautical Systems (U.S), General Atomics
Systems Integration (U.S), Diazyme Laboratories, Inc. (U.S), ConverDyn (U.S), Cotter
Corporation (U.S), and others.

MQ-9 REAPER

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Northrop Grumman Corporation

Northrop Grumman Corporation offers products in various

categories such as military aircraft & unmanned aerial vehicles, military vessels, missiles &
missile defense systems, autocannons, chain guns & munitions, satellites & space,
information technology, electronic sensors and systems, and rocket launch systems. The
Company operates through four business segments, namely, Aerospace Systems, Innovation
Systems, Mission Systems, and Technology Services.

The Company has its geographic presence in North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, and the
Middle East and Africa and Rest of World. Some of the major subsidiaries of Northrop
Grumman Corporation are Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems (U.S), Northrop
Grumman Federal Credit Union (U.S), Scaled Composites (U.S.), Litton Industries (U.S.),
Northrop Grumman Mission Systems, Inc. (U.S), and others.

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X-47B COMBAT

THE BOEING COMPANY

The Boeing Company designs, manufacture, and sells airplanes,

rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, telecommunications equipment, and missiles worldwide. The
Company also provides leasing and product support services. The Company offers products
in various categories such as commercial aircraft, military aircraft, satellites, space vehicles,
and launchers. The Company operates through four business segments, namely, Commercial
Airplanes, Defense, Space & Security, Global Services, and Boeing Capital. The Company
operates in an unmanned aerial vehicle market through its Defense, Space & Security
segment.

With all its subsidiaries, the Company has its geographic presence in North America, Europe,
Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and the Middle East and Africa.

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 MQ-25 STRINGRAY

BAE Systems plc

BAE Systems plc develops, delivers, and supports advanced defense and
aerospace systems. The group manufactures military aircraft, surface ships, submarines,
radar, avionics, communications, electronics, and guided weapon systems. The Company
operates through six business segments, namely, Electronic Systems, Cyber & Intelligence,
Platforms & Services (US), Air, Maritime, and HQ. The Company operates in unmanned
aerial vehicle market through its Air segment.

The Company has its geographic presence in North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin
America and the Middle East and Africa. Some of the major subsidiaries of BAE Systems plc
are BAE Systems Inc. (U.S.), BAE Systems Australia Limited (Australia), and BAE Systems
Applied Intelligence (U.K.).

ELECTRO LAB II

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Israel Aerospace Industries Ltd.

Israel Aerospace Industries Ltd. (IAI) is a government owned corporation.

The Company is specializing in developing and manufacturing advanced state-of-the-art
systems for air, space, sea, land, cyber, and homeland security. The Company provides
advanced technology solutions to government and commercial customers worldwide
including satellites, missiles, weapon systems and munitions, unmanned and robotic systems,
radars, C4ISR, and more. The Company operates through four business segments, namely,
ELTA Systems, Aviation Group, Military Aircraft, and Systems Missiles & Space.

The MALAT group is engaged in providing UAV commercial solution for precision
agriculture, oil & gas, and first response. The Company has its geographic presence across
the North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Middle East and Africa and rest of world. Some of
the major subsidiaries of IAI are ELTA Systems Ltd. (Israel), TSG IT Advanced Systems
Ltd. (TSG) (Israel), TAMAM Division (Israel), IAI North America Inc. (U.S.), Bedek
Aviation Group (Israel) and others

HERON MK II

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Lockheed Martin Corporation

Lockheed Martin Corporation is a global security and aerospace

company primarily involved in the research, design, development, manufacture, integration,
and sustainment of advanced technology systems, products, and services. It also provides a
wide range of services including management, engineering, technological, science, logistics,
system integration, and cybersecurity. The Company operates through four business
segments, namely Aeronautics, Missiles and Fire Control, Rotary and Mission Systems, and
Space.

The Company has its geographic presence in North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, and the
Middle East and Africa and other countries. Some of the major subsidiaries of Lockheed
Martin Corporation are Sikorsky Aircraft (U.S.), Skunk Works (U.S.), United Space Alliance
(U.S.), PZL Mielec (Poland), KAPL, Inc. (U.S.), and others.

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 LOCKHEED MARTIN X-56

Raytheon Company

Raytheon Technologies Corporation researches, develops, and

manufactures advanced technology products in the aerospace and defense industry, including
aircraft engines, avionics, aero structures, cyber security, missiles, air defense systems, and
UAVs. The Company operates through five business segments, namely, Integrated Defense
Systems, Intelligence, Information and Services, Missile Systems, Space and Airborne
Systems, and Force point.

The Company has its geographic presence in North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin
America, and the Middle East and Africa. Some of the major subsidiaries of Raytheon
Technologies Corporation are Collins Aerospace (U.S), Pratt & Whitney (U.S), Raytheon
Intelligence & Space (U.S), and Raytheon Missiles & Defense (U.S).

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MQ 1 C GRAY

Textron Inc.

Textron Inc. is one of the world’s best-known multi-industry companies,

recognized for its powerful brands such as Bell, Cessna, Beechcraft, E-Z-GO, Arctic Cat, and
many more. The Company offers products in various categories such as aviation, defense,
and industrial. The Company operates through five business segments, namely Textron
Aviation, Bell, Textron Systems, Industrial, and Finance. The Company operates in the
unmanned aerial vehicle market through its Textron aviation segment.

The Company has its geographic presence in North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin
America, and the Middle East and Africa. Some of the major subsidiaries Textron Inc. are
Arctic Cat (U.S), Bell Textron Inc. (U.S.), Textron Aviation Inc. (U.S.), and Lycoming
Engine (U.S.).

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Elbit Systems Ltd

Elbit Systems Ltd. offers products in various categories such as military

aircraft and helicopter systems, training & simulation, electro-optics systems, communication
systems, intelligence surveillance, and reconnaissance, homeland security systems, helmet-
mounted systems, commercial aviation, land systems, artillery systems, naval systems, UAS,
aero structures, artillery systems, EW and SIGINT. The Company operates through five
business segments, namely, Airborne Systems, C4isr Systems, Land Systems, Electro-Optic
Systems, and Other (mainly non-defense engineering and production services).

The Company has its geographic presence in North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin
America and the Middle East and Africa. Some of the major subsidiaries of Elbit Systems Ltd
are Elbit Systems of America, LLC (U.S), Elbit Systems Electro-Optics ELOP Ltd. (Israel),

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Elbit Systems Land and C4I (Israel), and Elbit Systems EW and SIGINT – Elisra Ltd.
(Israel).

Turkish Aerospace Industries

Founded in 2005, and headquartered at Ankara, Turkey; Turkish Aerospace

Industries manufactures fixed and rotary-wing aircraft. The Company produces military and
civilian aircraft and aerospace components. Turkish Aerospace also offers maintenance,
repair, and overhaul services.

Popular Mentions: AeroVironment, Inc. (U.S.), Parrot S.A.(France), Microdrones GmbH

(Germany), Precision Hawk Inc. (U.S.), SZ DJI Technology Co., Ltd (China), 3D Robotics
(U.S.), Aeronautics (Israel), Saab AB (Sweden), EHang (china), Yuneec (China), and
Primoco UAV SE (Czech Republic)

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