Unit C Membrane Function

and Structure
Unit learning objectives 38
• Let us turn to this page in our text to review our learning outcomes
• It is important to keep these in mind as we go through the unit
• We will do a 3-2-1 process with these items at the end of this unit as
we did for unit B
Section C.1 PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL
NATURE OF MEMBRANES 39
• The cell membrane of each cell is in contact with its watery surroundings,
known as extracellular fluid.
• The ability of cells and membranous organelles to regulate the inward and
outward passage of materials is vital to cell function
• The most abundant component of membranes are phospholipids, which
have hydrophilic (polar) and hydrophobic (nonpolar) regions.
• These molecules are arranged in a double layer with their hydrophilic ends
oriented away from each other-toward the cytoplasm and toward their
extracellular fluid.
• This bilayer arrangement creates an oil-like layer in the middle region of
membranes where the non polar hydrophobic parts of the phospholipids
are.
Membrane structure and function
• The interior region (middle layer) of membranes is non polar, and
repels water molecules that try to cross the membrane
• The outer surfaces of membranes with the abundance of
phospholipids heads are polar
• Therefore membrane surfaces are compatible with both the
extracellular fluids as well as their cytoplasm.
• several types of proteins can penetrate through the membrane,
acting like gates the cell can use to control what enters and leaves the
cell
Proteins in the membrane
• The protein structures in the phospholipid bilayer may be either as
surface molecules, known as peripheral proteins, or
• within the bilayer, extending through the membrane thus
interconnecting the cytoplasm to the extracellular fluid.
• These proteins are referred to as integral or transmembrane
proteins.
• Peripheral proteins can be found on either the inner or outer surface
of the membrane
Peripheral proteins
• Hemoglobin is a well-known example of a peripheral protein in the
membranes of red blood cells.
• Hemoglobin combines with and transports oxygen. The oxygen does not
cross the red blood cell membrane it is held on the outside of the red blood
cell
• surface proteins can act as receptor sites where they temporarily combine
with environmental molecules.
• Snare proteins are protein complexes on the surfaces of cells that facilitate
the fusion of membrane structures By fusion we mean they can connect
with other parts of the membrane and "fuse"together
• They may have enzymatic functions and catalyze reactions in the cell's
environment.
• Peripheral proteins on the inner membrane surface are known as
cytoskeletal anchors and are attached to organelles by protein
microfilaments. to hold them in place in the cell
integral or transmembrane proteins.

• Water enters or leaves cells by moving through spaces in the 3-dimensional

structure of some integral proteins.
• Using these passageways, which are lined with polar amino acids, water
molecules avoid the oily interior of a membrane.
• Proteins with these features are referred to as channel proteins.
• Substances such as ions, amino acids and glucose associate with other
integral proteins, known as gated channels, which move them to the other
side of the membrane.
• The analogy to a gate refers to the requirement that these proteins open
and close depending on the conditions or the presence of specific
substances.
• Proteins can act as ligands and "unlocks" the protein that transports a
substance like glucose through a membrane.
Fluid Mosaic Model
• The proteins form a mosaic pattern within the phospholipids,
• the phospholipids allow flexibility and movement.
• Membranes of animal cells have cholesterol molecules embedded
between the phospholipids.
• The cholesterol (steroid) molecules help maintain the integrity of the
membrane structure by dampening its fluid nature. (makes it act less
like a fluid)
• Too little cholesterol causes membranes to become too fluid; too
much cholesterol will hamper the dynamic nature of membrane
function.
 Fluid
Mosaic
Model
Animal cells are different 41
• Animal cell membranes also have oligosaccharide attachments on
their outer surfaces, another feature absent in plant cell membranes
• . These short carbohydrate chains are either attached to
phospholipids (and called glycolipids) or to proteins (and called
glyco-proteins).
• they function as markers for the interaction and identification of cell
types.
• By way of example, the differences between blood types result from
specific glycoproteins called antigens on the surfaces of red blood
cells.
Section C-1 CONCEPT CHECK-UP QUESTIONS
• 1. Describe the types of molecular traffic that occurs through
membranes.
• 2. Why aren't all cell membranes the same?
• 3. Explain why cells are able to mix freely with water, but not with oils
• 4. a. What are the molecular components of membranes?
• b. How do these components differ between animal and plant cell
membranes?
• 5. What are the two categories of proteins in membranes? Name two
examples of each category and suggest a probable function for each one.
• 6. a. What is the source and function of cholesterol in membranes?
• b. What is the source and function of oligosaccharides in membranes?
• 7. Which membrane component provides the fluid nature and which
provides the mosaic described by the Fluid Mosaic Model?
Vocabulary words for Section C-1
• Cell membrane snare proteins
• Extracellular fluid cytoskeletal anchors
• Hydrophilic Fluid Mosaic model
• Hydrophobic cholesterol
• Bilayer glycolipids
• Peripheral proteins glycoproteins
• Transmembrane (integral) proteins antigens
• Channel proteins
• Ligands
• Receptor sites
C.2 TRANSPORT CAPABILITIES OF
MEMBRANES 41
• the fundamental structure (the phospholipid bilayer) is shared by
all membranes
• the differences in their permeability of membranes is due to the
tremendous variations of specific combination of phospholipids,
proteins and oligosaccharides they are made of.
• The term selectively permeable is used to describe membranes,
implying that they can select (or deselect) substances that are able to
move through them.
• SPM is the acronym for selectively permeable membrane.
Diffusion
• The cytoplasm of cells as well as the extracellular fluids surrounding
cells are solutions.
• These mixtures of particles are considered in two parts: the solvent,
having the greater number of particles, and solutes, whose particles
are dissolved in the solvent
• Any difference in the concentration of a solute within a solvent causes
the movement of particles from the area of high concentration to
areas of lower concentration
• This process is known as diffusion or the Law of Diffusion
Gradients
• Differences in concentration that give rise to diffusion are known as
gradients.
• If the solute particles are ionic or dissolved solids, this difference is a
concentration gradient.
• For gaseous solutes such as oxygen or carbon dioxide, such
differences are referred to as pressure gradients.
• The greater the difference (i.e., the steeper the gradient), the faster
the movement of particles.
Diffusion is passive
• Diffusion is a passive process, meaning energy (ATP) is not required.
• Some small substances diffuse through membranes moving in or out of
cells as if the membrane wasn't even there.
• 02, C02 and NH3 are examples of molecules that have this ability to pass
easily through the membrane
• some lipids to pass through because they are non polar and able to slip
past the hydrophilic heads to mix with the interior layer before slipping
through to the other side of the membrane.
• A number of factors affect the rate of diffusion. Increasing the temperature
of a solution increases diffusion.
• The shape and size of the particles also plays a role.
• Smaller, more streamlined substances diffuse more rapidly
Other factors affecting diffusion
• another feature of solutions affecting the rate of diffusion is the
viscosity (fluid density) ( the rate at which a fluid can flow,) of the
solution.
• The lower the viscosity (flows more quickly) of a solution, the more
quickly particles can move (diffuse) through it.
• movements in any solution (such as stirring) will agitate the particles
and aid diffusion.
• In the air, wind may help disperse molecules.
• In cells, a phenomenon called cytoplasmic streaming (constant
movement of the cytoplasm) does the same thing.
OSMOSIS 43
• water molecules will diffuse to areas with greater solute
concentrations (greater solute means less water).
• This movement equalizes the water concentrations on both sides of
the membrane and reduces the concentration gradient thus satisfying
the Law of Diffusion.
• The diffusion of water across a membrane from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration is called osmosis.
• Concentration gradients (of solutes) and osmotic gradients (of water)
are, by definition, opposites.
Gradients and osmotic presssure
• a solution that the same concentrations throughout, called isotonic ("iso"
means same; "tonic" refers to concentration).
• concentration and osmotic gradients exist in cells because the solutions on
each side of the membranes have different chemistries.
• The Law of Diffusion predicts that the net movement of water will be down
the osmotic gradient, equalizing concentration differences.
• Osmotic pressure is a measure of the number of collisions water molecules
have against the membrane surface.
• A higher solute concentration on one side of a membrane will cause more
collisions of water against the other side of the membrane,
• This increases osmotic pressure and auses the movement of water through
the membrane
 Effects of
tonicity on cells
(osmosis)
Plasmolysis 44
• When a cell is exposed to an environment with a greater solute
concentration (called a hypertonic environment), water will leave the cell
by osmosis,
• This water movement dilutes the solute in its surroundings.
• As the volume of the cell decreases, the solutes in the cytoplasm become
more concentrated.
• This process is called plasmolysis,and it decreases the osmotic gradient,
• The collisions of the water molecules against the inside of the cell
membrane lessen as there are less water molecules left inside the cell..
Turgor pressure
• Turgor pressure (or turgidity) refers to the osmotic pressure against
the inside of the membrane that normally maintains cell shape and
integrity.
• Plasmolysis causes a decrease in turgidity and results in the shriveling
(or shrinking) of animal cells and the protoplasm of plant cells.
• Some cells, such as red blood cells, undergo crenation during
plasmolysis, they change shape taking on a notched appearance
Crenated
and
normal
red blood
cells
Deplasmolysis
• The opposite situation exists when a cell is subjected to a hypotonic
environment (one with a lesser concentration of solutes).
• The osmotic gradient forces water to enter the cell, diluting the greater
solute concentration in the cytoplasm, a process known as deplasmolysis.
• Animal cells swell as a result of increased turgor pressure.
• putting red blood cells in distilled water can cause their membranes to
rupture due to the rapid inflow of water.
• This bursting of the cell is known as hemolysis.
• In the case of plant cells, the inward osmosis increases the turgor pressure,
helping the leave keep their shape.
• This can be seen when plants dry out, their leaves wilt and shrivel
Hemolysi
s in red
blood
cells
PROTEIN-ASSISTED TRANSPORT 45
• Some integral proteins in the phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane are
involved in the movement of substances other than water.
• These transport proteins have three-dimensional shapes with surface
regions that are sensitive to specific solute particles such as ions and small
molecules.
• The specificity of these proteins contributes to the selective nature of the
membrane.
• When matching solute particles attach to the integral protein, they
temporarily cause it to change shape in a manner similar to the Induced Fit
Hypothesis
• This allows the particles to pass through the membrane.
• The proteins and the particles do not bond together-
• Most likely, their close proximity causes enough of a change in the shape of
the protein to allow the substance to move through the membrane.
Two types of diffusion 45
• This facilitated diffusion is how glucose enters cells.
• In facilitated diffusion the transport follows the concentration gradient from high
to low concentration.
• The transported materials would have moved by simple diffusion, but facilitated
diffusion helps the process to occur more quickly
• No energy is required for this type of transport.
• active transport requires the expenditure of energy as it moves against the
concentraiton gradient from low to high concentration.
• The energy for active transport comes from the hydrolysis of ATP.
• nerve cell membranes have specific proteins that actively transport Na1+ and K1+
in different directions across their membrane surfaces.
• These proteins are known as Na/K pumps, a name that recognizes their energy
requirements.
• Production of the hormone thyroxin by the thyroid gland requires a high
concentration of iodine ions, which the thyroid accumulates from blood by active
transport.
TRANSPORT INVOLVING VESICLES 46
• The largest substances that enter or leave cells do so through the use
of vesicles, which are membrane bound containers.
• This type of process is called exocytosis and requires the expenditure
of ATP energy.
• vesicles containing products to be released from the cell move
towards the cell membrane
• snare proteins allow them to fuse onto the cell membrane and open
its surface, thus spilling their contents to the outside.
• This is what happens when nerve impulses are transmitted between
cells,
Endocytosis
• Endocytosis appears similar to exocytosis only in reverse.
• Clathrin is a surface protein on both the cell membrane as well as some
cytoplasmic vesicles.
• When endocytosis occurs, vesicles are formed from sections of the cell
membrane that have clathrin, which chemically identifies (or marks) them.
• An example of endocytosis is that of an amoeba ingesting food by
phagocytosis.
• This ingestion results in the formation of a food vacuole marked by clathrin.
• Lysosomes digest its contents of the food vacuole.
• Pinocytosis is a smaller version of phagocytosis where smaller objects or
fluids are ingested and a vesicle is immediately formed.
Endo and
exocytosis
C.2 CONCEPT CHECK-UP QUESTIONS
• 1. a. Define SPM.
• b. Which molecular component of a membrane determines its selectively
permeable nature.
• 2. a. Describe the parts of a solution.
• b. What 1s the difference between a hypertonic and a hypotonic
solution?
• 3. What is the Law of Diffusion?
• 4. List four ways to increase the rate of diffusion 1n a system.
• 5. What causes osmotic pressure?
• 6. How are diffusion and osmosis similar? Different?
• 7. Why might particles be unable to enter or leave a cell even though a
significant difference in concentration exists?
• 8. Why does watering a wilted plant make it "perk up"?
Concept Questions cont'd
• 9 Compare and contrast each of the following pairs:
• a Concentration gradient and pressure gradient
• b. Osmotic gradient and concentration gradient
• c. Plasmolysis and deplasmolysis Relate this answer to turgidity.
• d. Facilitated diffusion and active transport
• e. Endocytosis and exocytosis
• f. Pinocytosis and phagocytosis
• 10. What would be the difference in appearance of plasmolysis in a plant cell vs. in a red blood cell?
• 11. a. Are cell membranes permeable to Na1+? By what mechanism does Na1+ cross cell membranes?
• b. Animal cells use glucose for cellular respiration.
• How does the glucose get into cells? Is the Law of Diffusion relevant to your answer?
• 12. List three types of processes by which substances cross membranes. Which of these require energy?
C-2 Vocabulary There is a lot.....:(
• Permeability cytoplasmic streaming
• Phospholipid bilayer osmosis
• Selectively permeable membrane (SPM) osmotic pressure
• Diffusion isotonic
• Solution hypertonic
• Solvent hypotonic
• Solute plasmolysis
• Law of Diffusion deplasmolysis
• Gradient turgor pressure (turgidity)
• Concentration gradient protoplasm
• Pressure gradient hemolysis
• Passive process crenation
• Viscosity exocytosis
• Active transport endocytosis
• Na/K pump lysosome
• thyroxin facilitated diffusion
• Thyroid gland food vacuole
• Vesicle phagocytosis
• clatharin pinocytosis
 C.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR CELLS
• Cells exist individually or in clusters forming tissues, organs and eventually
organisms.
• All materials entering or leaving a cell must cross the cell membrane
• The concentrations of various substances in cytoplasm and extracellular
fluid are very important to cell turgidity and function.
• If too much water enters the cell it swells up and the normal SA/V ratio
(surface area/volume ratio) is changed
• Mathematically, volume increases faster than surface area (cubed function
vs. squared function).
• As a cell swells, the SA/V ratio decreases and the surface area becomes the
limiting factor in its ability to survive.
• a swollen cell may produce more wastes than it can get rid of effectively or
quickly
• The opposite also happens. Plasmolysis results in the dehydration of cells
(SA/V ratio increases).
Deplasmolysis, good and bad...
• Deplasmolysis (increased cell volume) may lead to cell division by
mitosis.
• Dividing the increased volume of cytoplasm into two cells increases
the SA/V ratio. The daughter cells regain the homeostasis
• Cells that are involved with the growth of organisms or cell
replacement divide over and over again
• Deplasmolysis never really impairs the cell function due to an altered
SA/V ratio.
• Many cells in organisms, such as nerve and muscle cells, are too
specialized to divide and can be harmed by deplasmolysis
C.3 CONCEPT CHECK-UP QUESTIONS 47
• 1. How does plasmolysis affect the SA/V ratio? Explain.
• 2. Why does changing the SA/V ratio of a cell impact
its metabolism?
• 3. Since endocytosis produces vesicles from cell membranes,
suggest why cells that conduct endocytosis do not get smaller.
• 4. Why does doubling the side length of a cubo1dal cell not double its
volume? Relate this concept to cell metabolism.
Check your understanding of concepts Unit
Review
• Try to take this test for homework
• Try to do the test without using the answer key. You can use your
book, notes or the power points to help you
• You need to understand and be able to explain why you chose that
answer during class discussion
• We will review it tomorrow as a class
3-2-1 Pause and reflect
• Look at the unit objectives listed on page 38 that we reviewed at
the beginning of this unit.
• 3. a. Choose the three objectives you most fully understand in this unit
• b. Arrange them in order from the ones you understand best to
a lesser amount
• c. Describe how what you have learned has helped you to meet these obj
• 2. a. Pick the 2 objectives that you feel you have not met as well in
order from least understood to a little better understood.
• b. Explain your difficulty, and what you need to know or
do to understand these concepts more fully
• 1. Pick the objective that you think was the most important idea in
this unit. Explain why you think this was the most important idea
Unit Review questions Assignment
• 1. Would you expect a more metabolically active cell be larger or smaller? Explain.
• 2. Theoretically, a cell could decrease its metabolism to accommodate a decreased SA/V
ratio. Why is this not a viable (good) solution?
• 3. Explain the acronym SPM. Why is this description accurate? When is this description
inaccurate?
• 4. Describe the effect of putting a plant cell in a hypertonic environment. How does this
differ from putting an animal cell in the same environment? Repeat for a hypotonic
environment.
• 5. Identify when ATP is required to move substances across cell membranes and when it is
not. How is it used in each case?
• 6.. a. Explain why putting salt on a slug will kill it. (a slug is like a worm)
• b. Suggest what might happen to a slug placed in distilled water?
• 7. Visualize putting a drop of phospholipids in water. How would these molecules
arrange themselves?
• 8. Small gas molecules like 02 and C02 can pass through membranes without restriction
a. Consider an animal cell; in which direction would these molecules travel? Why?
b. Would the same be true for a photosynthetic plant cell? What about a
non-photosynthetic plant cell?