Choral Music Methods and Materials (Grades 5-12) - Brinson-Demorest

Choral
Barbara A. Brinson Steven M. Demorest
Music
Brinson • Demorest
Choral Music
METHODS AND MATERIALS
(Grades 5 to 12)
METHODS AND MATERIALS

(Grades 5 to 12)
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Second Edition
Choral Music
Methods and Materials
Choral Music
Methods and Materials
Developing Successful Choral
Programs (Grades 5 to 12)
BARBARA A. BRINSON
State University of New York at Fredonia
S t e v e n m . D e mor e s t
University of Washington
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Choral Music: Methods © 2014, 1996 Schirmer, Cengage Learning
and Materials, 2nd Edition
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Barbara A. Brinson,
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Steven M. Demorest
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Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13
The authors would like to dedicate the second edition
of Choral Music: Methods and Materials to all of our students over
the years. Your success has been our greatest reward.
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
1 The Meaning and Value of Choral Music 1

What Do You Believe? 1
Creating Your Philosophy of Choral Music Education 4
Important Questions to Ask 5
Communicating the Value of Music Education 12
Summary 17
Mini-Projects 17
References 18
Additional Reading 19
2 Recruitment and Retention of Singers 21

Motivation to Sing 21
Recruitment Strategies 23
Recruiting Boys for Choral Ensembles 27
Retention Strategies 31
Summary 34
Mini-Projects 35
References 36
3 Designing Your Choral Program 37

Which Choirs Should Be Offered? 38
Scheduling Choir 43
vii
viii Contents
Auditions and Vocal Evaluations 47

Seating Arrangements and Voice Placement 59
Summary 70
Mini-Projects 70
References 71
4 Choral Curriculum and Assessment 72

Developing a Choral Curriculum 72
The National Standards for Arts Education 73
Assessment 81
Grading 84
Summary 89
Mini-Projects 90
References 90
5 Repertoire 92
Selection of Repertoire 92
Balancing Your Repertoire Choices 93
Where to Find Music 106
When to Order Music 110
Summary 111
Mini-Projects 112
References 113
6 Programming and Producing Concerts 114

Tips for Balanced Programming 115
Programming Ideas 119
Sample Programs 120
Producing a Concert 128
Summary 139
Mini-Projects 139
Contents ix
7 Group Vocal Techniques 141

The Choir Director as Group Vocal Instructor 142
The Vocal Warm-up 143
Customizing Exercises 160
Presenting Warm-ups to Your Choir 167
Good Vocal Hygiene 171
Summary 172
Mini-Projects 172
8 The Changing Voice 174

Signs of Change 176
Female Voice Change 176
Male Voice Change 178
Voice Classification 181
Quick Placement Procedure for Boys 183
Training the Changing Voice 183
Choosing Music for Changing Voices 186
Sample Music 188
Summary 198
Mini-Projects 199
References 201
9 Building Musicianship Skills 204

Sight-singing 204
Sight-singing Materials 208
The Sight-singing Curriculum 211
Assessing Sight-singing 218
Integrating Sight-singing Into the Rehearsal 224
Additional Choral Musicianship Skills 229
Summary 233
Mini-Projects 233
References 234
x Contents
10 Analyzing and Preparing the Score 236

Preparing the Music 237
Score Analysis 239
Marking the Score 245
Refining Your Vision 249
Summary 252
Mini-Projects 252
Books on Diction 253
11 Planning the Rehearsal 255

Studying the Music 256
Shaping a Rehearsal 256
Sample Rehearsal Plan 259
Summary 272
Mini-Projects 273
References 273
12 Rehearsing the Choir 275

A Rehearsal, Step by Step 275
Effective Rehearsal Techniques 285
Summary 294
Mini-Projects 295
References 295
13 Managing the Choral Classroom 297

Whom Are You Teaching? 298
Preventive Discipline 302
Techniques to Create a Positive Environment 309
Bullying 311
Summary 314
Mini-Projects 315
References 317
Contents xi
14 Small Ensembles and Musical Theater 319

Small Ensembles 319
Musical Theater 333
Summary 345
Mini-Projects 346
References 347
15 Administering the Choral Program 348

Teacher Burnout 349
Parent Organizations 349
Student Leadership 353
Budget 355
Choral Library 357
Classroom Equipment 364
Technology in the Classroom 365
Performance Attire 368
Fund-Raising 372
Tours and Travel 373
Awards 376
Summary 377
Mini-Projects 377
References 378
16 Building Your Career 380

Preparation to Student Teach 380
Your First Teaching Job 385
The Job Search 387
On the Job 394
Continuing Your Education for a Lifetime 397
Final Thoughts 398
Reference 398
Index 401
Preface
The first edition of Choral Music: Methods and Materials was written to address
issues at the heart of being a choral director in a middle or high school setting. An
attempt was made to achieve a healthy balance between the practical aspects of
teaching choral music and the artistic components of beautiful music making.
Sixteen years have passed since the first edition was published. During that
time, society has changed a great deal, and the field of choral music has been
exposed to many new ideas, new repertoire, and new tools for teaching. This
edition brings the book up to date by incorporating many of these new ideas
throughout its chapters. We have also sought to update the textbook format
itself by incorporating online video and web resources to enhance and expand
the examples given in the book.
We have greatly expanded the topics in the book to reflect the many and var-
ied responsibilities of today’s choral teacher. Group vocal techniques and teach-
ing musicianship now have their own chapters. An extensive number of vocalises
are provided to help new teachers achieve healthy, beautiful singing from their
future choirs. These vocalises appear predominately in the chapters on group
vocal techniques and on classifying and training the changing voice. A greatly
expanded chapter on building musicianship skills will help the reader learn how
to teach sight-singing in the group setting and how to assess it both in groups
and with individual singers.
The sections on classroom assessment, programming and producing concerts,
small ensembles, and musical theater have been expanded, as have the chapters
dealing with rehearsal planning, rehearsal execution, and classroom management.
The opening chapter on philosophical foundations has been extensively revised
xiii
xiv Preface
to reflect contemporary issues in music teaching and includes tools and ideas to
advocate for the choral program, should it come under fire. The final chapter is
brand new and offers valuable information on how to prepare for student teach-
ing, the process of getting a job, and tips for the first year of teaching. The chapter
focuses particularly on developing professional behaviors and habits.
Due to all the changes and expansions, the second edition is, in many ways,
a brand new text. The book still strives for a balance of musical and practical is-
sues, and we have attempted to retain the concise and readable style that made
the first edition so popular. Each chapter begins with a real-life scenario that sets
the stage for the information presented. We hope this helps students put the
chapter’s information into context and underscore its relevance. Mini-projects
are included at the end of each chapter so that readers can actually use the in-
formation in a practical way to further their understanding. Several videos and
additional materials are presented on the premium website for the book. The
videos especially will help illustrate those aspects of teaching that are so difficult
for words to capture.
The organization of the book moves from developing a choral program
(Chapters 1–3); to the content of the curriculum (Chapters 4–9); to in-
structional techniques (Chapters 10–13); to other duties, both musical and
non-musical, for which teachers are often responsible (Chapters 14–16).
The book may be used in other sequences, of course, and the authors trust
that choral methods teachers who choose this book for their classes will find
creative ways to teach using its resources. You will notice that many of the
mini-projects at the end of chapters involve classroom observation. We rec-
ommend that such observation be a regular feature of any choral methods
course. An ideal setting for testing the ideas presented here is to locate a site
where students not only observe but also help to teach adolescents in choir
as well as in individual vocal training.
The book also asks students to choose, analyze, and prepare secondary choral
literature. To facilitate this endeavor, we have included excerpts of music in the
text as well as a few additional scores on the text website. Students may find it
helpful to have a packet of quality choral literature for middle and high school
singers, chosen by their teacher, as a supplement to the text. We encourage
methods teachers to customize the ideas presented in this text in accordance
with the particular priorities and needs of your program and your region.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Clark Baxter, Ian Lague, Chris Schoedel,
Elizabeth Newell, Mandy Grozko, and the rest of the Cengage team for all of
their work and patience in helping the second edition come together. Steven
Demorest’s work on the book was made possible in part by the support of the
Ruth Sutton Waters Endowed Professorship in Music from the University of
Washington. He is grateful to Barbara Brinson for inviting him to work on
this project. Her patience, openness, and trust have been much appreciated.
Barbara Brinson’s work was made possible in part by support from the State
University of New York at Fredonia. She is deeply grateful to Steve Demorest
for his willing collaboration on the second edition, and for the opportunity to
really explore issues and ideas together for this project.
We would also like to thank all of our colleagues, students, and former stu-
dents who helped us, including Ryan Kaminiski and the choral students at Fre-
donia High School; Nancy Duck Jefferson and the choral students of Kamiak
High School; George Davis and the choral students from Buffalo Academy of
the Visual and Performing Arts; and Marjorie Bohn, Artistic Director of the
Chautauqua Children’s Chorale. Special thanks to Lori Deemer for the beau-
tiful photographs throughout the book (with the exception of Figures 15.2,
15.3, and 15.4 by Thom Ewing) and Courtney Rowley and the Ballard High
School drama department for the Bye Bye Birdie photo. Thanks to Matthew
Wilson, Evan Westenberger, and Anthony Barresi (Barresi on Adolescent Voice)
for the videos on the text website. We appreciate the important contributions of
Larry Mitchell, David Cross, Geoffrey Boers, Giselle Wyers, Mary Jane Phillips,
Carol Whitworth, Karen Howard, and Marshall Kelkenburg. For suggestions
and support, we thank Amanda Pearo, Lindy Anderson, Laura Dornberger,
xv
xvi Acknowledgments
Bryan Nichols, Trina Elliot, Brad Pierson, Bryan Winnie, Amanda Huntleigh,
Johann van Niekirk, and Melissa Thorne. Thanks to the crew at Café Javasti and
to the Helen Riaboff Whiteley Center for providing a quiet and beautiful place
for us to collaborate and get this project off the ground. Finally, a very special
thanks is extended to our families and friends for their support and encourage-
ment during this process.
CHAPTER 1
The Meaning and Value
of Choral Music
Any great work of art is great because it creates a special world of its own. It revives
and readapts time and space, and the measure of its success is the extent to which it
invites you in and lets you breathe its strange, special air.
Leonard Bernstein
Mr. Turner is starting his second semester as the choral director at Jackson High School
when the president of the Parent-Teacher-Student Association (PTSA), who is also a choir
parent, asks him if he will speak at the next meeting. She explains that the PTSA is in-
terested in making sure all students in the school are receiving an arts education, so the
association would like to hear from all of the arts teachers in the building. She hopes that
the PTSA can create a better support system for arts education at Jackson High. She asks
Mr. Turner to present his vision for the choral program over the next three years. What
is his plan for getting more students involved, how does choir contribute to a well-rounded
education, and what will students learn about music and themselves from being in the
choral program?
What Do You Believe?

What would you say at the PTSA meeting if you were in Mr. Turner’s position?
Can you put into words the value of choral music in the public schools and how
it can make a huge impact on students’ lives? How will your beliefs and values
guide your talk as well as your decisions and actions on behalf of the choral pro-
gram at Jackson High School?
1
2 THE MEANING AND VALUE OF CHORAL MUSIC
The balance of this book deals with pragmatic issues designed to help
choral directors develop and maintain a successful choral program. However
important and necessary this pedagogical information is, it will be most ef-
fective if grounded in your own thoughts and feelings about the value of
choral music education. Whether you know it or not, you already have a
philosophy that will guide your choices as a music teacher. This philosophy
is based on your own experiences in music education thus far and the value
you have placed on them. As a future teacher and choral director, you will
need to broaden your views to include the meaning and value of musical
experiences for all the students who will experience your program and be
affected by it.
Although no one can make philosophical choices for you, engagement with
pivotal ideas and issues may help you clarify your own perspective. Through
talking with professors, public school music teachers, and your fellow music
students, by reading research studies and philosophical work in the arts, and
through your own quiet reflections, a broader and more explicit philosophy of
choral music education will emerge. Your personal philosophy is an excellent
foundation on which to build years of successful teaching. As you have new
experiences and grow as a teacher, your belief system will change and grow
as well.
Your thoughts and feelings will guide almost all facets of the choral
program that you direct, for how you act is directly related to what you be-
lieve. In the opening scenario of this chapter, for example, Mr. Turner has
a chance to consider where his choir program has been and has more than
likely formed some solid ideas about the changes he would like to make in
the Jackson High School choral curriculum. He may need to spend some
time thinking about the students his program is designed to serve. Does he
focus on developing the “top end” of the program to serve gifted students
and bring attention and accolades to the school? How can he ensure that
all students in the school will feel welcome in his program? These ques-
tions lead to a larger one of what role music education plays in a compre-
hensive education: How can participation in music benefit all students?
Mr. Turner is fortunate that the PTSA appears to value the arts, and he
can certainly use its support as he dreams big.
THE MEANING AND VALUE OF CHORAL MUSIC 3
Charles Leonhard and Robert W. House, in their classic text Foundations and
Principles of Music Education (1972, 85–86), cite three reasons why music edu-
cators should have a sound philosophical foundation:
1. A sound philosophy can provide inspiration to the work of the music teacher. To
be the teacher in charge of revealing music’s power and beauty to your students
is an important responsibility and can be an exhilarating experience. Watching
a student totally abandon himself as he moves expressively to music, seeing an
adolescent’s face light up as she grasps for the first time the musical form of a
listening example, or sensing the emotion in an audience’s silence at the comple-
tion of a performance too beautiful to applaud—these are all examples of how
rewarding teaching choral music can be.
Of course, not every moment of teaching yields such peak experiences. Some
days the students aren’t cooperative, the parents are unhappy, the school board
is cutting costs, the administration adds more paperwork, and after-school re-
hearsals are making the school day very long indeed. At times like these, having a
sound music education philosophy can lighten the load and can serve as a major
source of inspiration between “mountaintop experiences.” Knowing why music is
an important subject in the school curriculum and why you have chosen to teach
music in the schools can provide that extra burst of energy required to weather
the less rewarding times.
2. A sound philosophy of music education can give direction to the teaching
process. As part of a graduate course, a young teacher was asked for the first time
in her career to write down her philosophy of music education. She was puzzled
about how to begin until she made the connection between actions and beliefs.
As she read and studied various philosophical stances, and recalled her actions
over a period of ten years of public school teaching, she was able to formulate her
philosophy of music education. In the decisions and choices she had made for
her students and the choral program, she saw what she believed.
Sometimes, in addition to guiding actions, having a philosophy in place can
be a time-saver. Because you have already thought deeply about what you believe,
decisions or choices may come more easily—you will simply apply your belief
system to the situation in question. How often choirs perform, which choirs are
offered, and the choice of music are examples of decisions that may be guided by
your philosophy.
3. A sound philosophy equips the music teacher to explain the importance of

music to colleagues and to the public in general. When money is tight and budgets
begin to shrink, music and other arts are often considered first for cuts in the
school curriculum. Music teachers, students, and their parents may find them-
selves at school board meetings defending the inclusion of music in the school
curriculum. Having thought deeply about music’s importance in the education
of all young people can improve your communication with those who don’t grasp
the worth of music in schools. A substantial part of your teaching load may be
educating your school administrators and the general public about the value of
a musical education for all children. Don’t wait for a crisis to begin this work.
Music gives a soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight

to the imagination, and life to everything.
Plato
Creating Your Philosophy of Choral

Music Education
Gerald Custer (2005) provides a series of guidelines for creating your phi-
losophy of choral music education. He recommends pursuing the following
six activities in your personal and professional life as your philosophy of music
education emerges and changes: (1) listen carefully to professors, conductors,
convention speakers, colleagues, and others, to hear what they have to say about
choirs, rehearsals, teaching, the voice; (2) reflect on what you see and hear,
observe whether it worked or not, and, most important, understand why it
worked or not; (3) read widely and sharpen your ideas by engaging with oth-
ers’ thoughts (reading in music as well as general reading); (4) think deeply
about issues that make your life meaningful and why music is important in life;
(5) analyze what actions are required to make your beliefs come alive; and finally
(6) seek feedback to discover whether your beliefs and values match what other
people see in your professional and personal life.
Formulating a philosophy of music education requires time, effort, and care-
ful thought. What you actually believe will guide your actions as your philoso-
phy comes alive in your rehearsal room, on the concert stage, or even in your
recruitment and audition process. Be willing to revisit your philosophy over the
years as you gain greater experience and perspective. Reevaluate your beliefs and
be flexible as a lifelong learner. Students, and the music education profession in
general, need and deserve teachers who give careful thought and consideration
to this important endeavor.
Music expresses that which cannot be said and on

which it is impossible to be silent.
Victor Hugo
Important Questions to Ask

Beginning to articulate a personal philosophy of music education can be a very
daunting task. Think of your philosophy as your answer to a series of ques-
tions about music teaching and learning, such as whom you should teach, what
you should teach, and perhaps most importantly, why music should be part of a
comprehensive education.
Whom Should You Teach?

Participation in music can provide enjoyment and enrichment for all human-
kind. In Issues in Music Education (1991, 1), the National Association for Music
Education (NAfME) states that “although formal instruction in music is very
important in the development of those students who are gifted and talented in
music, the primary purpose of music instruction in the schools is to improve
the quality of life for all students through the development of their capacities to
participate fully in their musical culture.”
Because education is a preparation for living as well as for making a living,
music has an important place in the education of all students. In its Strategic
Plan, approved in November 2007, NAfME emphasized this tenet by en-
couraging the study and making of music by all. Further, the very first goal of
the Strategic Plan refers to the study of music as part of the core curriculum.
A study by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (Boyer
1983) concluded that the arts are not a frill, and should be included in the
core of common learning for every high school student. The foundation’s view
of the arts is in agreement with NAfME’s argument that the arts constitute
one of the five fundamental components that should be at the core of every
child’s education.
If you believe that music should be part of every child’s education, then your
program should reflect that belief by offering the opportunity for a choral ex-
perience to learners of all ages and ability levels. Although the success of more
advanced ensembles will often generate positive attention and draw students to
your program, teachers who believe in music for every child must provide a place
for everyone who wants to sing.
What Should You Teach?

It is tempting to think of the choral curriculum as equivalent to the reper-
toire chosen each year. Certainly repertoire is an important component of
your philosophy. If you choose to perform only classical or pop or gospel
music, it makes a statement about the kinds of musical experiences you be-
lieve are most valuable (or by omission, it reveals those you think are not as
important). Your choices also limit the number of students who, by virtue
of their own musical backgrounds, might be interested in performing that
repertoire.
The choral curriculum, however, is much more than repertoire. As you will
read in Chapter 4, the curriculum includes your vision for what an educated
musician should know and be able to do. Because of the limited number of elec-
tives in many secondary schools, students can often take only one music class
each term. This means that you are not just the students’ choir teacher—you are
their music teacher and must offer the kind of comprehensive training that will
prepare them to become independent musicians.
Who Should Teach?

Because public school music may be the final opportunity for many students
to have regular musical experiences, this process must be guided by quali-
fied teachers. Strong and dedicated music teachers help create dynamic and
memorable experiences with their students, and these experiences often lead
to continued music participation by their students after graduation. This im-
portant task requires that music teachers be good musicians first. Then, to
their musicianship they should add the skills and techniques necessary for
working effectively with children and young adults. This preparation includes
knowledge of child development, techniques for behavior management, and
interpersonal skills for building good relationships with students, parents, col-
leagues, and administrators, among others. The old adage “Those who can, do.
Those who can’t, teach” should be changed to “Those who can, do. Those who
can do more, teach.”
Why Should Music Be in the Schools?

In his book High School: A Report of Secondary Education in America (1983, 98),
Ernest L. Boyer reports the findings of a revealing study conducted in the early
1980s by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Although
written many years ago, this information is still of vital importance to music
educators today. One conclusion of the study was that “the arts not only give
expression to the profound urgings of the human spirit; they also validate our
feelings in a world that deadens feeling. Now, more than ever, all people need to
see clearly, hear acutely, and feel sensitively through the arts. These skills are no
longer just desirable. They are essential if we are to survive together with civil-
ity and joy.” Failure to expose all students to this profound connection between
music and the emotional life is, according to the National Commission on
Music Education, “a form of dehumanization by default” (Growing Up Complete
1991, 7).
Despite such arguments for the value of arts education, teachers still face
tough questions. What is the role of music in a comprehensive education?
Won’t music classes take time and money away from the core subjects that
students need to succeed in the world? These are the kinds of questions that
music teachers and other arts educators must be prepared to answer. The an-
swers start with your own beliefs about the meaning and value of a musical
education.
WHY MUSIC? Participation in a choral ensemble can help teach a wide range
of extramusical skills. The time from rehearsal to concert is often many months.
Students learn to work together toward a common goal, to take turns, to work
hard and persevere in tough times, to make mistakes and practice harder to get
© 2014 Lori Deemer/Cengage Learning

it right, to be punctual and dependable, to take risks, to understand the value
of failure, to respect other people and their abilities, to manage time well, and
to learn about and appreciate other cultures and peoples of the world. This
process is carried out in an environment that can engender trust, respect, and
tolerance.
These all-important skills for living and working together in the twenty-
first century can be learned thoroughly and reliably through participation in
a choral ensemble. These skills will be needed by your students regardless of
what path they choose in life and work, and should not be considered light
or frivolous. The ability to persist in the face of adversity and think long-
term about goals and objectives is a hallmark of successful people everywhere.
However, most of these skills can also be learned by taking part in other
school endeavors such as drama club or team sports. The music education
profession needs to keep in mind that music is worthy of study for its own
sake, and therefore should maintain its integrity in the curriculum as a viable
curricular subject.
What makes music so unique, so important—so vital in people’s lives? The

composer Dominick Argento (1977) writes:
I do believe we all possess some untapped secret spring within us—it may even be
synonymous with “soul.” And I also believe that under normal circumstances we
are unaware of this treasure or unable to utilize it, but in the presence of certain
works of art we re-discover it temporarily—not in the work of art: in ourselves.
Art itself merely unlocks the door or puts us in a proper mood to make the
discovery. That, it seems to me, is the mystery and magic of music—music of
all kinds, of all times.
Elliot W. Eisner writes in a similar vein, in a thought-provoking article titled,

“What can education learn from the arts about the practice of education?”(2004).
His overall premise is that many aspects of artistic thinking are actually ben-
eficial in a number of domains and can best be taught through the arts. For
example, artists need to see (experience) qualitative relationships in their work
and make judgments about them. “The arts teach students to act and to judge in
the absence of rule, to rely on feel, to pay attention to nuance, to act and appraise
the consequences of one’s choices and to revise and then to make other choices.”
(p. 5); Eisner argues that this creative, process-oriented approach is crucial to
success in a rapidly changing world.
Eisner also suggests that the degree of engagement required in the arts is
another important lesson. Often the artistic process is so engrossing that one
loses all sense of time, and to some degree the work and worker become one.
Psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1997) coined the term “flow” to describe
this highly engaged state of being. Students involved in choral rehearsals and
performances often describe such flow experiences. Along with flow experiences,
participation in the arts provides the possibility of peak aesthetic experiences
that can serve as a powerful motivator. Often people attempt to describe a cer-
tain feeling they had during a performance and find no adequate words to do it
justice. Sometimes even speaking about the experience seems to diminish it, or
at least render it less profound.
THE HUMAN CONNECTION. In an increasingly technological world, people

are constantly interacting with machines: texting rather than speaking to each
other; emailing rather than sitting on a bench to have a face-to-face discussion;
pushing keys on the computer or phone and receiving instant gratification or in-
stant answers; playing computer or video games; or just “zoning out” in front of
the television. Although technology has many benefits and can help people do
things that were not even conceivable 20 years ago, many have come to depend
on it and even to take it for granted. Using technology so much and so often may
lead to the loss of basic human communication skills. These include picking up
nonverbal cues from facial expressions, tone of voice, or body language, and
learning patience through working side-by-side—over a long stretch of time—
toward a shared goal. It is important to find a balance between connecting with
other people as human beings and the efficient, enlightening, and entertaining
use of technology. Making music in a group setting requires a level of human en-
gagement that cannot be experienced in a “virtual” environment. Choral music
can help students connect to each other on a daily basis in a profound way.
EDUCATING FEELINGS. Other advantages of participating in music include

learning a creative and socially acceptable manner in which to express and share
emotions in community with fellow human beings. Now, more than ever, provi-
sion must be made in education for developing students’ feelings as well as their
minds and bodies. This may be one of the most important reasons why music
is necessary in every school’s curriculum. Music teaches the whole child and
can address all three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
Bennett Reimer (1999) states “we have learned that musical doing, thinking,
and feeling are essential ways in which humans make contact with, internalize,
express, critique, and influence their cultural contexts” (p. 40). The focus on a
limited number of core subjects creates fewer opportunities for student growth
in the emotional and social spheres. Young people are too often receiving an
incomplete—or, at least, a lopsided—education.
Daniel Goleman (Sadker and Zittleman 2009) suggests that emotional in-
telligence (EQ) taps into the heart as well as the head, and introduces a new
gateway for measuring intelligence. He goes on to say that EQ may be a better
predictor of success in life than the more traditional intelligence quotient (IQ).
EQ is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor your own
emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use the infor-
mation to guide your thinking and actions. Meaningful musical experiences can

certainly involve feelings, as well as the mind and the body, and can assist your
students as they grow emotionally, socially, and academically.
A CULTURE OF ITS OWN. The history and culture of any group can be trans-
mitted from generation to generation through the study of music and the arts,
and opportunities abound in music for critical thinking and creativity. Morri-
son (2001) argues that in addition to being an agent for cultural transmission,
music ensembles are cultures unto themselves with their own value systems,
rituals, and shared knowledge. This view of ensembles as unique cultures was
confirmed in a study by Adderley, Kennedy, and Berz (2003). They found that
students in music ensembles thought of them not as classes so much as a “home
away from home.”
For students who do not experience success in other areas of schooling, a
musical organization may be the primary reason they come to school. For such
students, musical involvement may actually help them complete their educa-
tion. Choral teachers also have the opportunity, in their classes, to get to know
students over many years and thus can be sensitive to changes in a student’s
behavior that might indicate problems. In addition, administrators are always
pleased when the music program contributes to the larger culture of school spirit
or serves as a good public relations tool in the community.
The life of the arts, far from being an interruption, a distraction,

in the life of a nation, is very close to the center of a nation’s purpose,
and is a test of the quality of a nation’s civilization.
John F. Kennedy
Communicating the Value of Music Education

Because music is an elective subject at the secondary level, the majority of stu-
dents will graduate from high school without having participated in a music class
of any kind. Although most students do take part in music at the elementary
level, those experiences are often forgotten by the time they graduate from high
school or are seen as something “little kids” do. This does not mean that students
outside the school music program don’t value music. Ample data suggest that
music plays an important role in young people’s lives as a consumer product and
as regular accompaniment to daily activities, such as driving, studying, going to
religious services, and so on. But enjoying music as a consumer is a very different
experience from performing it, and it is easy to forget the importance of such in-
teractive experiences in the lives of young people. Although the value of a music
program is often clear to those who participate in it, the value is less evident to
those looking in from the outside, to whom it seems to be primarily a source of
entertainment rather than a serious educational endeavor. For this reason, the
music education profession must be able to communicate the meaning and value
of music participation to those who may not have experienced it directly.
Advocacy means articulating what you believe and recommending that others
support it as well. You know how important your work is because of your own
meaningful experiences in music, as well as your commitment to offering young
people a similar sense of meaning. Educating your advocates, or potential advo-
cates, is also extremely important.
What are the best ways for choral music educators to communicate the value
of their program? The answer depends in part on your personal philosophy and
in part on the community in which you live and work. What follows are some
general suggestions for effective advocacy that have worked for others.

Demonstrate Musical Excellence
Whether you inherit a choral program that needs serious reconstruction or
whether you move into a program that has been a powerful force for years and
simply needs continuing care, make sure that you demand musical excellence
from yourself and your students. Nothing will advocate better for the value of
music education than a successful program. If you have only 35 students in your
program, show these students you expect great things of them. Although the so-
cial dimension of a choral program is very important to success, the integrity of
the music making is equally important: students want to be a part of something
good. Work hard with them so they will be the best singers they can possibly be.
Strive to make choir a positive and enjoyable experience for those 35 students,
and, at the same time, work toward building the program.
Demonstrate Musical Learning

Much of what administrators, parents, students, and others see and hear is
your finished product: the performance. Many people have no idea about the
educational process that goes on for months before that. Choral directors might
be wise to hold demonstration concerts or “informances” earlier in the year, at
which parents and administrators can witness a rehearsal-like setting (Demorest
and Taylor 1990). Giving students and parents a chance to see the progression
of skills in your program is a powerful tool for gaining their support and en-
gagement. Share your goals and objectives as well as the curriculum you follow,
so that parents and administrators can see in print what you teach. If potential
advocates really know what you do and understand the value of an education in
music, then they will be able to advocate with you and for you more effectively.
In addition to “informances,” occasionally invite administrators, parents, and
other interested parties into your rehearsals, allowing them to see first-hand, on a
day-to-day basis, what happens as students experience choral music. Choose days
when they can observe vocal training, sight-singing instruction, learning about
different cultures, learning to pronounce and understand different languages, the
expression of deeply felt emotions, creative musicality, self-evaluation through
listening and constructive criticism, along with more basic rehearsal activities.
Few of your visitors would deny that this range of activities can play an impor-
tant role in a young person’s education. But first they need to know about it!
Participate in School and Community Endeavors

Be visible in your school as well as in the community. Have the choir sing at
school assemblies or special meetings that may occur on your campus. Because
music programs often require a lot of resources, it is important to “give back” to
the school community whenever possible. Be part of the community by singing
in places such as the mall, or at civic club meetings or community festivals. You
are serving as an ambassador of sorts, so represent your school and city well
when your choir performs at music conventions or takes a tour. When such
activities occur, make sure others in your school and community know about
them. Spread the word that choral music is alive and well where you live!
Be Aware of Your Resources

Chorus America has published “The Chorus Impact Study: How Children,
Adults, and Communities Benefit from Choruses” ( June 2009). This is the second
survey they have published that reports how many people in the United States
actively participate in choral music at all age levels. Also available from
Chorus America is a parents’ guide for advocating for choruses in their child’s
school, Chorus Impact Study talking points, and a press release for educators
(http://www.chorusamerica.org/advocacy-research). All of these materials will
help inspire and educate those charged with advocating for music as a vital part
of the core curriculum.
A recent article in Teaching Music (Block 2011) discusses three strategies mu-
sic teachers in Oregon are using to communicate with each other and with policy
makers about the value of music education. They are (1) using social media to
communicate with one another about the status of music education in the state;
(2) making videos of teachers, parents, and students, addressing questions about
why music is important in the schools; and (3) putting together a strategic plan
(through the Oregon Music Educators Association) to lobby legislators, in order
to ensure that they understand and take action on music education issues. Per-
haps Oregon’s model can be used by other states and organizations to fight for
music education in the schools.
NAfME also has a number of resources for advocacy on its website (http://
www.nafme.org/resources/view/music-education-advocacy-central). All of the
resources presented in this section were designed to fit a variety of needs and
may not reflect your personal views on the meaning and value of a musical edu-
cation. You will need to be discriminating in your use of advocacy resources so
that any statements you make are aligned with your personal beliefs about the
importance of music in education.
Be Politically Aware
Political awareness in this context does not mean becoming active in local party
politics, although that may not be a bad idea. Instead, it means knowing who
the decision makers are at different levels of your district and community, and
keeping them informed about music and the arts. No doubt you will have par-
ents in your program who are engaged in the school and community in impor-
tant ways. Advocacy is most effective when it comes from someone other than
the music teacher because you have a vested interest in the program’s survival.
Like any political message, arts advocacy works best when the message is co-
herent, consistent, and derived from multiple sources. Politically aware music
teachers know who their stakeholders are and keep them informed of the music
program’s successes, community contributions, and potential challenges. As
mentioned before, some of your most important advocates are administrators
and colleagues in your building, so being a good colleague and supporting initia-
tives that benefit the whole school are essential to advancing music education.
Music and Intelligence

Intelligence is admired, desirable, and worthy of nurturing and developing in
all students. Howard Gardner (1983), a noted psychologist and educational
theorist, suggests that intelligence doesn’t come in just one form, but rather in
many forms, including linguistic, visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, inter- and
intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, and musical. Gardner suggests that the path to
success may travel many different routes, and isn’t based solely on reading, writ-
ing, and arithmetic—or only those subjects included on state tests and college
entrance exams. He argues that each of these intelligences has its own unique
value and is worthy of study and development for its own sake.
Much has been written about the potential benefits of music listening and mu-
sic participation for general intelligence. Although research has been conducted
on possible connections between music and spatial reasoning, academic achieve-
ment, and reading readiness, none of the findings support a generic statement
like “music makes you smarter.” Music educators must be careful not to use this
rationale to substantiate music’s inclusion in the school curriculum. A wealth of
research is available to suggest that the study of music does make you smarter—
in music. In any event, studies linking music to other forms of achievement might
be seen to suggest that music’s primary purpose is to support learning in other
domains. This is not exactly the message you want to send! Music may or may
not increase general intelligence, but many studies have demonstrated that cur-
ricular time devoted to music education, including pull-out programs in elemen-
tary school, do not interfere in any way with a student’s learning in other areas.
In fact, considerable data suggest that music students are among the most aca-
demically capable students in any school (Demorest and Morrison 2000).
Stay Positive
Although advocacy issues often arise in a climate of budget cutting or threats
to the program, that is not how your communication should begin. Taking a
proactive and positive approach to communicating about your program’s suc-

cess and its benefits is much better than a reactive approach that communicates
only when something negative is about to happen. Effective communication is
a daily activity that keeps your program in the consciousness of the school and
community.
Music was my refuge. I could crawl into the space

between the notes and curl my back to loneliness.
Maya Angelou
Summary
A philosophy of music education will guide your actions in virtually every facet
of your job as a choral director. Addressing issues such as who your students
are, what you want them to learn, and why music should be in the schools
provides a solid foundation on which to build a dynamic and successful choral
program. Being explicit about your philosophy also encourages you to be sure
that your choral curriculum and instructional approach stay consistent with
your beliefs.
In addition, knowing what you believe can inspire you during the difficult
times, and help educate colleagues, parents, and administrators about the impor-
tance of music for every child. Being articulate about the meaning and value of
music education will make you an effective ambassador for your choral program
and music education in general. Educate your advocates about what actually goes
on in the rehearsal room so that they can truly understand the value of what you
do for the young people you teach.
Mini-Projects
1. Recall those teachers with whom you have studied in the past who
have greatly influenced you and for whom you have the utmost admiration
and respect. What characteristics do these teachers possess? During your
preparation for teaching, what characteristics have you discovered to be
important for teachers to have? Use the answers to these questions to
help formulate your ideal teacher model. Include personal traits, musical
characteristics, and teaching skills.
2. Write down your philosophy of music education. Issues to consider

include: Whom your program will serve, what students will learn from being
in your program, what skills you need to be an effective leader, and why music
is an important part of every child’s education.
3. In small groups, prepare a presentation to a fictitious board of
education that is experiencing great financial difficulty, and is discussing
cutbacks on the choral programs in all secondary schools in the district. Give a
brief presentation to your methods class, taking the stance that this would be
a mistake and explaining why. Your work on Mini-Project 2 should feed right
into this assignment. Bear in mind that such presentations are most effective
when they offer solutions or demonstrate how cutting music might actually
cost more in the long run. Remember, school boards and administrators often
have to make cuts somewhere—it’s often not a choice between music and no
music, but between music and having (for example) a school nurse, physical
education, or visual art.
References
Adderley, Cecil, Mary Kennedy, and William Berz. 2003. “A home
away from home”: The world of the high school music classroom. Journal of
Research in Music Education 51:190–205.
Argento, Dominick. 1977. The composer and the singer. NATS Bulletin
13 (4): 18–31.
Block, Debbie G. 2011. Music educators prepare to fight budget cuts in
Oregon. Teaching Music 18 (4): 22.
Boyer, Ernest L. 1983. High school: A report of secondary education in
America. New York: Harper and Row.
Chorus America. 2009. The Chorus Impact study: How children, adults,
and communities benefit from choruses. Washington, DC: Chorus America.
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1997. Finding flow: The psychology of
engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books.
Custer, Gerald. 2005. Philosophy—who needs it? Choral Journal 45 (8): 43–49.
Demorest, Steven M., and Steven J. Morrison. 2000. Does music

make you smarter? Music Educators Journal 87 (2): 33–39, 58.
Demorest, Steven M., and Ouida Taylor. 1990. Demonstration
concerts: Informing the community about choral music education. Choral
Journal 31 (3): 27–31.
Eisner, Elliot W. 2004. What can education learn from the arts about
the practice of education? International Journal of Education & the Arts 5
(4): 1–12.
Gardner, Howard. 1983. Frames of mind: The theory of multiple
intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Growing up complete: The imperative for music education. 1991. Reston, VA:
Music Educators National Conference.
Issues in music education. 1991. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
Leonard, Charles, and Robert W. House. 1972. Foundations and
principles of music education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Morrison, Steven J. 2001. The school ensemble: A culture of our own.
Music Educators Journal 88 (2): 24–28.
Reimer, Bennett. 1999. Facing the risks of the “Mozart effect.” Music
Educators Journal 86 (1): 37–43.
Sadker, David M., and Karen R. Zittleman. 2009. Teachers, Schools,
and Society, 2nd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Additional Reading
Benham, John L. 2010. Music advocacy: Moving from survival to vision.
Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield with Music Educators National
Conference.
Burton, Suzanne L. 2004. Educate our advocates! Music Educators
Journal 90 (5): 17–21.
Elliott, David. 1995. Music matters: A new philosophy of music education.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Jorgensen, Estelle R. 1997. In search of music education. Urbana:

University of Illinois Press.
Parker, Elizabeth C. 2007. Intrapersonal and interpersonal growth in
the school chorus. Choral Journal 48 (2): 26–31.
Reimer, Bennett. 2003. A philosophy of music education: Advancing the
vision, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rideout, Roger. 2005. Whose music? Music education and cultural
issues. Music Educators Journal 91 (4): 39–41.
Tutt, Kevin, and Marc Townley. 2011. Philosophy + advocacy =
success. Music Educators Journal 97 (4): 60–63.
CHAPTER 2
Recruitment and
Retention of Singers
A group of middle school students are sitting at lunch, discussing whether or not to join choir
for the upcoming year. Ann has decided she will audition because her sister was in choir and
they got to sing at the mall and travel to an out-of-state festival. Donna agrees about the travel,
and adds that she really liked the outfits they wore at the last concert. Drew mentions that
two of his best friends are in choir, and have convinced him to audition. Manuel has been in
choir for one year, and announces that he is going to join again simply because he loves to sing.
Motivation to Sing
Extrinsic Motivation
When students join choir for reasons like those cited by Ann, Drew, and Donna
in the scenario above, they are motivated extrinsically. The travel, the perfor-
mance outfits, being with good friends, or even because the teacher is regarded
as fun are all examples of extrinsic motivation. For adolescents, peer pressure
can serve as an extrinsic motivator as well. The need to belong to a successful
group, to be seen as really good at something, is a powerful force at this age.
Extrinsic motivation comes “from without,” or, in this case, from attractions
not directly related to the actual making of music. Until students have had a
positive musical experience, their motivation for participating in choir may be
almost totally extrinsic. The enterprising choral director can capitalize on this
situation to attract new singers to the choir by making sure that such activities
are available and are regularly communicated to the school at large. However, it
21
22 RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION OF SINGERS
is important to remember that extrinsic factors alone will not ultimately build a
successful program.
Intrinsic Motivation
Manuel chooses to be in choir because he is drawn by the sheer joy of singing
and making music with a group. Therefore, he is motivated intrinsically, or “from
within.” This type of motivation is the ultimate goal, and one that is the most
meaningful and pervasive. As singers grow older and mature musically, they
will likely become more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated to participate
in musical activities. Research on singing participation indicates that for those
singers who continue the longest, the intrinsic musical motivators are what drive
their choices. The choral director’s job is one of creating consistent opportuni-
ties for music-making to become the motivating force. The initial motivators
(tours, outfits, awards, evening rehearsals) will remain, but shift to a less impor-
tant, peripheral position.
Nothing Succeeds like Success

A successful choir is the most important and effective aspect of recruitment and
retention for a choral program. If students sing a variety of quality music and
sing it well, are happy to be in choir, and share positive comments with their
friends, teachers, and family, a major portion of the recruitment effort is ad-
dressed. If the choral program is perceived as an attractive activity in which to
be involved, prospective singers will always want to join, and once they join, they
will want to continue their participation.
The opposite is also true. If the choral program is perceived as an activity that
is not fun, or if the teacher is difficult to get along with or is unfair, students will
not want to participate. Nor will they wish to be members if the choir’s per-
formances are an embarrassment. No amount of extramusical enticement can
overcome a program that is unsuccessful at its very foundation.
What are the components that make up a successful choral program? Obvi-
ously, one of the most important is a choral director who has the necessary musi-
cal knowledge and skills for success. Without solid musicianship, knowledge of
quality repertoire, techniques to encourage vocal and musical development, and
positive and engaging rehearsal techniques, the director will be operating at a
RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION OF SINGERS 23
distinct disadvantage and the entire choral program will suffer. No one comes
into the job with all these skills equal in strength, but understanding your
strengths and weaknesses and working to grow throughout your career will do
much to ensure your success.
An understanding of the age group with which the director is working is vital
to a successful program. Students will sense immediately a caring and under-
standing attitude toward them as individuals and as a group. Word will spread
quickly that choir is a place where students belong and feel important, and where
their membership is valued. This does not mean that the director should attempt
to be “one of the gang” by getting too close to the students, but rather suggests the
value of a warm, caring, but professional approach.
In addition to the necessary musical knowledge and skills, a positive attitude
on the part of the director will do much to create a successful program. Singers
will want to join and remain in such a group. “When life gives you lemons, make
lemonade,” is a good philosophy to adopt when you find yourself in charge of a
program that needs building or requires major changes. Don’t waste time and
energy complaining about what you don’t have. Get busy and make something
out of what you do have while working toward a stronger choral program. And
always remember, change takes time. Things are not going to be exactly the
way you want them to be within six months or even one year. Keep working
toward your goals, and be patient and positive in your approach. Celebrate small
victories!
Recruitment Strategies
An active recruitment campaign for your choral program needs to be in opera-
tion at all times. You are always on the job to find potential singers! Many activi-
ties and organizations compete for students’ time at the middle school/junior
high and senior high school levels. This situation, coupled with the increasing
number of credits required for high school graduation and the fact that a num-
ber of students are employed part-time suggests that smart choral directors
must constantly explore ways to attract new students.
Highlighted below are several in-school recruitment strategies that might
be helpful, as well as several suggestions that can be used for off-campus
recruitment.
On-Campus Recruitment
SCHEDULING. Flexibility in scheduling is essential for choral ensembles, but
may be difficult, given increased academic requirements and available extracur-
ricular activities. Whenever possible, schedule choir classes and activities so
they don’t conflict with sports, work, other musical groups, and required aca-
demic courses. If students have schedule conflicts, then no amount of recruiting
will get them into your group. (More on scheduling follows in Chapter 3.)
SCHOOL ACTIVITIES. Involve yourself in school activities and projects out-

side the choral area. If students (and other faculty) see you not as a person holed
up in the choir room, who does nothing but music all day, but rather as an ac-
tive member of the school community and its various activities, this may change
their perceptions of choral music as exclusive or elitist. Students know which
teachers engage with the broader school community. Showing up to school
sporting events, taking tickets for the school play, and getting involved in other
activities at school can be an important way to make connections and have fun
outside of choir.
WORKING WITH SCHOOL COUNSELORS. School counselors or advisors

are often the first to see students who are new to your school and are frequently
in charge of planning their schedules. If counselors are knowledgeable about
the choral program, they are more likely to send new students your way. The
choral director should inform the counselors about those choirs that require an
audition, helping them understand that the choral program is grouped by abil-
ity much the same as math and English classes. Just as they would not place a
student into advanced trigonometry who is weak in math and doesn’t have the
prerequisite skills to succeed in such a class, they must avoid placing beginning
music students into the advanced choir. Equally important, choir directors must
be sure they offer a choir for every student interested in singing.
WORKING WITH COACHES. By attending athletic events and showing genu-

ine interest in the athletic program in general, the choral director can build a con-
structive rapport with the school’s coaches. Athletics is another area that requires
students to make evening and weekend commitments. As a result, scheduling
conflicts between the two areas will inevitably arise. By being supportive of
athletics and flexible about how you handle scheduling conflicts, you can build
a good relationship with most coaches. Coaches often serve as powerful role
models, who, by showing support for the choral program, may encourage ath-
letes to participate in choir. By urging students to join, several “key” students
may be recruited. Through their own participation in choir, these students may
bring others with them. For example, athletes who join choir may encourage
teammates to join, and before you know it, a variety of students will be eager to
come along as well—because they will want to be involved in the same activities
as their perceived leaders. Peer pressure is the key issue here, so capitalize on it.
THE SCHOOL MUSICAL. Whether once a year or every few years, most high
schools and many middle schools will produce some sort of musical event that
involves costumes, lighting, staging, sound, programs, and advertisement. Rather
than limiting participation to the music department, you should involve the
entire school in various ways. For instance, students or staff who don’t sing
or perform may be able to help with costumes, programs, and posters for the
advertising campaign, and some students or parents may have experience with
stage makeup and hair styling. Still others may be skilled in lighting and sound
techniques and should be given the opportunity for involvement in the produc-
tion. Students doing these important nonmusical jobs will have an opportunity
to observe you and the singers in rehearsal and, in this way, may find themselves
interested in joining choir.
Likewise, auditions for the musical portion of the production should be open
to the entire school. For those students not currently involved in the choral pro-
gram, participation in a one-time event will allow them a chance to perform
without a long-term commitment. Their experiences may lead them to decide
they would enjoy being part of choir on a regular basis.
BAND AND ORCHESTRA STUDENTS. If their schedules allow it, band and
orchestra students are a wonderful addition to a choir program. Their musical
skills and understanding of rehearsal and performance make them good choral
citizens. In addition, you will have the option of having students in the choir
who can provide instrumental accompaniments or an obbligato when needed
and appropriate. Research has found that a combination of instrumental and
vocal training leads to superior musicianship skills (Demorest 2001). This situ-
ation will enhance everyone’s musical experience, especially those who choose to
continue their music education during college.
STUDY HALL. Locate all study halls that meet at the same time as a choir
rehearsal and arrange with the teachers in charge to allow those interested stu-
dents to observe a rehearsal during study hall. Depending on the number of
students who come, try mixing the visitors in with the choir members and have
them sing.
FRIENDS OF CHOIR MEMBERS. When current choir members are excited

to be in choir, they will respond positively to the challenge to recruit one ad-
ditional singer. After a successful semester, therefore, send out the call to your
choir members to do just that and you could potentially double the enrollment
of your choral ensembles! Offer an incentive by awarding a prize to the student
who recruits the most new members, or to the choir that is most successful in
this project.
OTHER MUSIC CLASSES. If approached correctly, general music classes (e.g.,

piano, guitar, drumming, music appreciation) at any level can cultivate in stu-
dents a positive attitude toward singing and introduce them to the basics of note
reading and proper vocal technique. General music is also an excellent place for
the choir director to discover those students who have a special talent or interest
in singing. Personally invite those students to audition for choir.
Off-Campus Recruitment
VISITING FEEDER SCHOOLS. Wise choral directors are aware that their
particular school (at whatever level) is part of a school system; in other words,
everything they do is related to where their students came from as well as where
they will be going. Therefore, establishing a good rapport with choral directors
and students at your feeder schools is critical for recruitment. Visit their cam-
puses frequently, offer to take sectionals or do a clinic, invite their choirs to share
a concert at your school, and take your choirs to their schools to perform. Hold
a “choir day” at your school on a Saturday and invite students (and their parents)
from the feeder schools to come visit the choir room, observe rehearsals of the
various choirs, have lunch or some sort of refreshments, and generally get to
know one another. When it is time for auditions for the coming year, contact
the choral directors at the feeder schools and arrange the best time to visit their
campuses to conduct auditions. Auditions should be scheduled to coincide with
preregistration in the spring.
RELIGIOUS AND COMMUNITY CHOIRS. Contact the youth choir direc-

tors at local churches, synagogues, and other religious congregations, as well
as directors of any community youth choirs, to determine whether any of their
choir members attend your school. Personally contact any choir members who
are not currently singing at school and return the favor by informing eligible and
interested students about the various religious/community choirs. Frequently,
this interaction between school, congregation, and community will strengthen
all music programs. This type of cooperation may lead to a joint performance
of all groups that could open up possibilities for new repertoire and good social
interaction.
PRIVATE PIANO TEACHERS. Piano students often make excellent choir

members because their music-reading skills are being developed through their
piano training as well as their choral experiences. To locate these students, you
might contact local piano teachers and ask them which of their students attend
your school. You can also ask students who you know play piano to help identify
peers who also play.
Using all these strategies, you can reach out to good candidates for choir who
attend your school and who are not yet involved in the choral program.
Recruiting Boys for Choral Ensembles

As stated previously, recruitment is an ongoing activity that will continue
throughout your career. Because the bulk of choral music is written for
mixed voices, it is important to attract equal numbers of boys and girls to
your program whenever possible. Girls are often more willing to enroll in
choir than boys, so a brief look at the challenges of recruiting boys into choir
is warranted.

The Issues
THE MYTH: SINGING IS ONLY FOR GIRLS. The idea that “singing is only
for girls” emerged from a long history of societal beliefs and practices regard-
ing gender and identifying behaviors that are “appropriate” for men and women
(Koza 1993). These gender attitudes are often very powerful, if not always logi-
cal. For example, although it is often considered “feminine” for men to sing, his-
torically the most successful pop soloists and groups have been predominantly
male and generally seen as very attractive. Harrison (2004) surveyed primary
school students in Australia and asked what ‘instrument’ they would most like
to play. Of the students who chose singing, 84 percent were female. In a simi-
lar study of secondary students, 92 percent of those who chose singing were
female. Singing seems to be perceived as a predominantly feminine activity by
these students. An informal Question of the Month survey by Music Educators
National Conference (MENC) in 2007 found similar attitudes in the United
States. They asked members if they noticed a drop in boys’ participation in
chorus during grades 6 through 9. They reported “of 468 responses, 69% replied
they had seen a drop in boys’ participation in chorus in these grades” (Music
Educators National Conference 2009).
These attitudes are not limited to vocal music. Research on gender identity in
instrumental music (Hallam, Rogers, and Creech 2008) has shown a continuum
of instruments on a scale from those perceived to be more masculine (trombone,
guitar, percussion) to those perceived as feminine (flute, violin, and voice). So, in
band or orchestra, if boys choose those instruments that are generally thought of
as masculine, they may avoid social scrutiny. In choir, however, the only available
option is the voice, a changing instrument housed within their changing bodies.
Gender stereotypes ultimately hurt children because they limit the ability of
both boys and girls to pursue interests when those interests clash with main-
stream expectations. Fortunately, since schools are cultures of their own, teach-
ers can use strategies to encourage young people to feel safe in making independ-
ent choices.
VOICE CHANGE AND REPERTOIRE. A very important issue for boys

during puberty is the voice change. Your best chance of having boys sing in a
high school choir is to be sure they participate in a middle school choir. Un-
fortunately, the middle school years is a time when boys voices become unpre-
dictable, unreliable, and difficult to control. This can lead to periods of time
when boys have a very limited vocal range and problems making a good sound,
including the well-known “cracking” of the voice. Dealing with the effects of
voice change and its potential embarrassments—along with the possibility of
having to relearn vocal techniques with the “new” voices—may cause anxiety
and frustration for some males. The best solution is a teacher who is well versed
in the complexities of the changing voice and has techniques to help young men
navigate the musical and social challenges associated with it.
Repertoire selection is important for instilling feelings of success and engage-
ment in boys going through the voice change. The music that you choose should
feature flexible voicing. Three-part mixed, or music written for Part I, Part II,
and Part III, can be useful when boys have a limited range or they suddenly
need to sing a lower part. Another issue is the level of musical difficulty. Keeping
in mind that the boys’ voices are in the process of change, or have only recently
changed, you should choose music that is accessible in range and tessitura as well
in dynamics and vocal flexibility. (See Chapter 8 for more information on work-
ing with changing voices.)
NEED FOR PEER APPROVAL. At this age, both boys and girls have a strong
need for approval from their peer group, so if being in a choir threatens students’
popularity or acceptance by their peers, you will have difficulty recruiting them.
The best solution to this problem is to have a successful program with lots of stu-
dents so that choir is seen as an acceptable activity. Unfortunately, in some com-
munities larger social issues that are tied up with choir participation could keep
boys from joining even a good choir program. College students conducting a field
experiment in one small community found that the whole culture surrounding
the school held the view that singing was for girls. Being aware of the culture in
the surrounding community can make you more sensitive to the particular chal-
lenges of your situation and help you create the most effective recruiting strategy.
MALE ROLE MODELS. One way that children can identify with an activity
is to see someone who is like them, or like the type of person they want to be,
engaging in that activity. If we want boys to find singing acceptable, they need to
see examples of men singing. That does not mean that all boys are going to join
choir if they see a football player singing in choir (though some might). Most im-
portant is that boys see a variety of men engaging in singing. In fact, one of the
most successful models for middle school boys can be a high school boy, because
they can more easily identify with him. Freer (2009) suggests that some male
singers are more comfortable with a male teacher. However, Freer also found
that, regardless of the gender of the teacher, boys need camaraderie, a sensitivity
to the musical and emotional needs of adolescent males, and male role models in
their lives. If you are a female choral director, it might be helpful to bring in male
clinicians regularly or plan a workshop just for the boys.
BUILDING IDENTITY. Identity is an important issue for all adolescents (both

boys and girls), but if the boys are a minority in the choir and experience more
negative input from peers, a sense of identity becomes particularly important
for them. One way to help foster a positive sense of identity is by programming
some male-only and female-only repertoire. Another strategy is to send the boys
to a male choir festival where they can experience the power of singing with a
large group of young men (Demorest 2000). Such festivals are becoming more
common and often feature slogans such as “Real men SING!” This opportunity
can help foster in your young men an entirely new attitude about singing. Some
districts have organized male-only and female-only choral festivals that bring
together choir students in grades 6 through 12. These often feature a shared
concert with great benefits for recruitment and retention. No matter what strat-
egies you use, be sure that the social events you plan for the choir include some
activities that appeal to both boys and girls.
SINGLE-SEX ENSEMBLES. Many writers have suggested that the best way
to improve the singing experience in middle school for both boys and girls is to
offer single-sex choral ensembles (Demorest 2000; Jorgensen and Pfeiler 2008).
Outside of music, single-sex classes have been proposed most often to benefit
girls, by allowing greater class participation and freedom to demonstrate compe-
tence. This usually occurs in certain stereotypically male subjects, such as math.
Because of their minority position in choral music, boys may also benefit from
the enhanced security and identity of single-sex classes. Conversely, too much at-
tention on the boys in a mixed setting can often be disheartening to the girls who
have chosen to be there as well. Both boys and girls at the middle school level
may benefit from separation because of their different musical and social needs.
Ultimately, rethinking our society’s gender-based perceptions of singing may
do much to change attitudes, because these attitudes are solely a product of cul-
ture. For example, because of strikingly different cultural attitudes, boys in South
Africa, Samoa, and Estonia participate in singing because it is part of the mas-
culine identity there. Change comes slowly, but if you can create a choir in which
boys and young men feel safe to express themselves through singing, they will ex-
perience the powerful benefits of creating music and then encourage their friends
to join. When these students graduate and move on, they may become fathers who
will understand and encourage their sons (and daughters) to participate in choirs.
Retention Strategies
Getting students into your choir is important, but the ultimate barometer of
success is retention. Once singers have been recruited, do they continue to
participate through the years? Some of the same barriers that inhibit recruit-
ment, such as scheduling conflicts or peer pressure, also operate in retention.
Directors have to be available constantly to help students overcome these bar-
riers to their continued participation. You will also need to be flexible and un-
derstanding about conflicts with students’ other responsibilities. Ultimately, the
director is the primary agent for shaping the culture of the school ensemble by
creating a welcoming yet rigorous musical environment.
Choral directors are group leaders and must recognize the need to nurture an
esprit de corps among their singers. Morrison (2001) describes music ensembles as
cultures with shared language, beliefs, and values. He writes, “Students take math.
Students enroll in science class. But students become members of the choir; they
join the band; they are in the orchestra. Students take ownership of the ensemble
experience in a unique and personal way” (p. 25). The following suggestions can
help cultivate students’ pride in their choir, rebuild a failing choral program, en-
hance a successful choral program, and aid in recruitment and retention.
1. Organize a retreat at the beginning of the year. Whether it is held on a Satur-
day or is planned for an entire weekend, a retreat is an excellent way for students to
get to know one another—and you—in a more casual atmosphere. Activities can
include volleyball or softball games, field-day competitions between choirs, electing
choir officers, planning for the year, and of course, rehearsals. If funds are limited,
plan a short Saturday rehearsal at school followed by a picnic in a local park.
2. Plan an end-of-the-year activity. Having a supper together at a local pizza
parlor or a trip to a bowling alley, skating rink, swimming pool, or amusement
park can serve as a reward for hard work during the school year.
3. Have an awards banquet. This activity can be a good culminating experi-
ence for the students—and for their parents as well. Although not every student
will be selected for All-State Choir or earn an outstanding choir student award, all
students should be recognized for continued participation. Some schools give out
“letters” for choir just as for sports, or offer badges or pins to denote years of partici-
pation. The banquet is also an excellent opportunity to honor publicly the parents
and administrators who have contributed to the successes of the year. An inexpen-
sive way to hold an awards banquet is to have a potluck dinner in the school cafeteria.
4. Sell products that appeal to students. Middle school and high school
students generally like to display group affiliations and will welcome the
opportunity to wear or use something that signifies they are a part of the choral
program. Consider selling water bottles, T-shirts, key chains, hats, and so forth,
and feature the choir’s name and school insignia on each item. This type of activ-
ity can dramatically increase the choir’s visibility within the school. Items that
feature only the school’s name or mascot can be sold to all students and serve as
a fund-raiser for the choir.
5. Create a website for the choral program at your school, or you may want
to have a site for the music program with a section for each individual area. Keep
records of each year’s activities and post lots of pictures. Scan in all concert pro-
grams, important correspondence, and news releases, and offer links to concert
recordings. Include pictures of all student leaders and students selected for All-
State Choir or who earn any other musical honors. Students enjoy public par-
ticipation in an organization and will take pride in showing family and friends
all their choir’s activities and achievements.
6. Organize a choral parent organization. Parents can assist with fund-
raising activities, make contacts by email or phone, work on publicity needs, serve
as chaperones, and provide transportation to events. In addition, when parents
are involved, students become more invested in the choral program and are likely
to engage themselves more deeply and for a longer time than those students
whose parents are not involved. (More details about parental involvement are
provided in Chapter 15.)
7. Involve students in leadership positions. Elect officers in each choir and
give these students special responsibilities. Not only does this free the director
to focus on the musical rather than nonmusical details of managing a choral
program, but it also helps young people develop leadership skills and experience
responsibility firsthand. Students who contribute in this way feel more involved
in the organization, and they also sense that the director values and trusts them
as individuals. Leadership positions also provide an excellent opportunity for
those really committed students who may not lead the choir in musical skill to
make an important contribution to the group.
8. Perform away from the school campus. These events can help develop
a choir’s esprit de corps and school pride, and are important for recruitment and
retention. Not only is it fun for the students to leave campus to sing, but it also gives
them a sense of who they are as a musical organization, especially if other choirs
are participating in the event. When singers hear other choral ensembles, they gain
perspective on their own skills and commitment. Opportunities such as choral fes-
tivals, singing at the mall, or singing for community organizations provide great
goals for students and cultivate a sense of positive momentum in the choir program.
9. Perform on the school’s campus. These performances are equally impor-
tant, but the director must be careful to choose an occasion at which the choir
will be heard and appreciated. School assemblies and evening concerts are better
choices than performing at a pep rally or singing during lunch in the cafeteria.
The selection of music for these on-campus performances is as critical as the oc-
casion chosen. Make sure to pick a variety of music that will appeal to as well as
educate the student audience. Because peer pressure is a critical factor in middle
school and senior high school, it is important that the choir is well received by
their friends, fellow students, and teachers.
10. Advertise the choral program. Advertisement means not only informing
students about upcoming auditions, but also telling the entire school about the
various accomplishments of the choral program during the year. Ways to dis-
seminate important information include: (a) congratulatory messages during the
morning announcements; (b) articles in the school newspaper as well as the city
newspaper; (c) notices on social media and the school’s website; and (d) colorful
posters in the halls or on bulletin boards.
11. Find out when your students’ birthdays are. On those days, sing “Happy
Birthday” at the beginning of rehearsal. Encourage harmonic experimentation,
but the most important thing is to make them feel important on their special day.
12. Start a faculty and staff choral ensemble. Watching classroom teachers
as well as staff and administrators singing and enjoying themselves sends a pow-
erful message: music is a fun and meaningful activity worthy of your time and
energy. Have the faculty/staff choir perform at concerts, and perhaps include a
combined piece so that students, faculty, and staff can sing together.
Summary
Recruiting as well as retaining students for the choral program is an ongoing
process. The use of extrinsic motivators may be necessary to attract new singers,
perhaps even necessary for the overall retention of choir members. Once the
students are in the choir, however, directors must create opportunities for music
making to become the motivating force.
A successful choral program is your most powerful tool in the recruitment
and retention of students. If the singers are proud to be in choir and enjoy the
experience, they are likely to return year after year. Often, their pleasure will be
so apparent that it will draw additional students into the program. Extra effort
may be necessary to attract boys into choir, but a sensitive choral director who
understands the issues young men experience in middle and high school will
successfully recruit them. Offer male role models and flexible scheduling, and
work hard to create a safe place for all of your students.
Establishing a strong rapport with your feeder schools is an extremely impor-
tant aspect of recruitment. Go regularly to these schools to visit and perform,
and invite them to your campus as well. Get to know the guidance counselors
and coaches at your school, and plan a musical production every year or two that
is open to involvement by the entire student body and faculty. Contact local pi-
ano teachers and church choir directors for recommendations for potential choir
members. Be alert for good singers and musicians in general music classes and
study halls, and challenge current choir members to recruit their friends. Start a
faculty/staff choir!
Mini-Projects
1. Suppose that you have been hired as the choral director of Mid-
America High School, where the choral program has suffered for many years.
Specifically, the program has a total enrollment of fifty-six singers, and only
twelve of them are boys. In addition, the overall morale is extremely low. The
principal has offered both moral and financial support and has challenged you
to build the choral program over the next few years. What steps would you take
to accomplish this task? Be specific.
2. Create a website template for your future choir program. What kinds of
information should be available to prospective students and parents?
3. What are five ideas or activities that would serve as extrinsic motivators
for potential singers in a middle school/junior high school choral program?
A high school program?
References
Demorest, Steven M. 2000. Encouraging male participation in chorus.
Demorest, Steven M. 2001. Building choral excellence: Teaching sight-
singing in the choral rehearsal. New York: Oxford University Press.
Freer, Patrick K. 2009. Boys’ descriptions of their experiences in choral
music. Research Studies in Music Education 31: 142–60.
Hallam, Susan, Lynne Rogers, and Andrea Creech. 2008. Gender
differences in musical instrument choice. International Journal of Music
Education 26 (1): 38–41.
Harrison, Scott D. 2004. Engaging boys—overcoming stereotypes: Another
look at the missing males in vocal programs. Choral Journal 45 (2): 24–29.
Jorgensen, Nancy S., and Catherine Pfeiler. 2008. Successful single-sex
choral offerings in the choral program. Music Educators Journal 94 (5): 36–40.
Koza, Julia E. 1993. The “missing males” and other gender issues in music
education: Evidence from the “Music Supervisors’ Journal,” 1914–1924.
Journal of Research in Music Education 41: 212–32.
Music Educators National Conference. 2009. Guys in the middle:
To sing or not to sing? http://www.menc.org/v/chorus/guys-in-the-
middle-to-sing-or-not-to-sing/. Accessed on May 29, 2012.
Additional Reading
Freer, Patrick K. 2009. I’ll sing with my buddies: Fostering the possible selves
of male choral singers. International Journal of Music Education 27: 341–55.
Harrison, Scott. 2008. Masculinities and music: Engaging men and boys
in making music. Newcastle, United Kingdom: Cambridge Scholars.
O’Toole, Patricia. 1998. A missing chapter from choral methods books:
How choirs neglect girls. Choral Journal 39 (5): 9–32.
CHAPTER 3
Designing Your Choral
Program
Megan is just completing her first year of teaching choir at Robinson Middle School, a large
school with a tradition of strong band and orchestra programs. The choral program, however,
has only three choirs, and they are organized by grade level: 6, 7, and 8. Currently, there
are 47 singers (30 girls and 17 boys). Through her strong recruitment efforts, she has added
120 singers to the program for next year, most of them sixth graders from her feeder schools
(75 girls and 45 boys). This means that she can add a fourth choir. She believes that her pro-
gram offerings need to be changed from a grade-level organization to an ability-grouped model
like that of the band and orchestra. Her administrator has agreed to the addition of a fourth
choir, provided she can determine how to fit it into the master schedule.
Megan is considering two models: Model 1 has an advanced mixed choir (mostly
eighth graders), an intermediate mixed choir, and two beginning mixed choirs (one con-
sisting of all sixth graders and one for beginners in all grades). Model 2 has a girls’ select
choir as the most advanced group, as well as a large mixed choir, and two beginning choirs,
separated by gender, for students who are new to choir. She is trying to decide which model
will work better, given her numbers and her goal of building the program even more.
When you accept your first job, you will most likely inherit, as Megan did, a
choral program that was developed by someone else. As you go through your
first year, you may see aspects of the scheduling or the types of choral offerings
that don’t fit with your vision for what a choral program ought to be. You have
to consider many variables when designing a program, such as what choirs to
offer, when to schedule them, and which choirs should require an audition.
37
38 DESIGNING YOUR CHORAL PROGRAM
All of these decisions will have an impact on the overall quality of your pro-
gram. Choral teachers must look at the unique variables in their situation and
try to design a program that will meet the needs of as many students as possible.
Which Choirs Should Be Offered?

The configuration of choirs will be fairly easy to predict from year to year once a
choral program has become established. For the first choral program you inherit,
however, you will need to examine the program already in place, and will most
likely need to live with the situation for a year before you make any major changes.
You must keep in mind that it will take time, sometimes several years, before you
have the program that you envision for your school. As you work toward your
goals, remember that the number and types of choirs offered should be based not
on preconceived notions, but on the reality of the number of students you have,
the distribution of boys and girls, their ages, and the range of experience, ability,
and commitment that become apparent through the audition process.
This idea that change will take time is especially true when your first job is at
a school where the choir program has been struggling. For example, if the entire
choral program that you inherited has a total of 60 singers registered (only 8 of
them are boys, and they are all freshmen and new singers), you obviously won’t
be able to have a mixed choir as your most advanced ensemble. You will also need
to decide if the boys would work well in a less experienced mixed chorus or if
their abilities are such that they would benefit from singing in a choir of their
own for a year to learn the basics. Your decision would obviously affect what type
of choirs you would offer for the girls.
An ideal choral program functions as a system that can begin as early as the
elementary level. Through their general music classes and opportunities to sing
in an elementary school choir, students experience the joy of singing as well as
learn basic musical knowledge, skills, and vocal techniques. These experiences, if
positive, can lay a good foundation for the more focused and sequential choral
training that begins at the middle school/junior high level.
Middle School/Junior High School

The middle school/junior high school choral program should include several
choirs geared toward the new and inexperienced singer. The students in such
DESIGNING YOUR CHORAL PROGRAM 39
groups will have had little or no vocal training, and are unlikely to be skilled
in sight-singing. Because performance schedules will be less strenuous for
these choirs, the choral director will have the opportunity to teach the ba-
sics of good vocal production and music reading skills, as well as introduce
or refine the ability to sing in parts. You may want to make these beginning
choirs available, without a formal audition, to any interested student. Having
all students sing for you at some point is always a good idea, even if it is not
considered an “audition” in the strictest sense. This way, you can place the sing-
ers into the correct section of the choir and gain some idea of their vocal and
musical abilities.
Consider offering these beginning choirs as groups of all girls or all boys,
especially at the middle school/junior high level. At this age, the boys’ voices will
likely have begun to change, and progress can be slow and, at times, embarrassing.
Without girls in the choir, the boys may be less inhibited as they learn to use and
control their emerging voices. Remember, puberty will be an issue at this age,
and everything possible must be done to encourage young boys to remain in
the choral program! To satisfy social needs at this age and to expand the range
of literature that you rehearse and perform, you may consider having the boys’
and girls’ groups combine from time to time to sing literature written for young
mixed voices. Depending on the number of singers in your program, you may
want to offer one or two intermediate-ability choirs in addition to the beginning
choirs and an advanced group.
An advanced mixed choir at the middle school/junior high level is certainly
desirable and appropriate. You may want to limit membership not only by ability
but also by grade level, allowing only those students who are in the oldest grade
in the school to audition. The oldest grade will vary by the configuration of
grades in your school system, but is likely to be the eighth or ninth grade. An
advanced girls’ choir may be desirable and necessary at this age to accommodate
the typically larger numbers of girls who participate in choir and to give your
most advanced girls a challenging choral experience (see Figure 3.1).
Many choral directors believe very strongly in keeping all of their junior
high/middle school choirs as single-gender groups. They suggest that it helps in
dealing with the distinctive social and musical needs of the two genders as well
as in recruitment and retention. Other directors are comfortable attending to
Advanced Mixed Advanced Girls

Choir Choir
Intermediate Level
Mixed Choir
Beginning Boys Beginning Girls

Choir Choir
Elementary School Elementary

General Music School Choir
Figure 3.1 Possible offerings at the middle school/jr. high level. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Note: The designation by ability level of the choirs listed here is for your information. You may want to choose other
names for the choirs to avoid setting up a “self-fulfilling prophecy.”
the varying vocal needs of this age group within a mixed choir setting and enjoy
doing mixed literature.
High School
Even at the high school level, you will need to offer at least one beginning choir
that teaches the basics of sight-singing technique and good vocal production
because, unfortunately, not all of your singers will have come through an
elementary and middle school/junior high choral program. These beginning
groups will also be a place for those students who decide to join choir for the first
time during their sophomore, junior, or senior year. You may consider keeping
these beginning choirs as all-girls or all-boys, with an occasional opportunity to
sing together.
At the next step, and if you have the male participation to do so, you may want
to offer a large mixed chorus consisting of singers with intermediate ability. These
students have learned the basics of good vocal production and sight-singing
technique, but, for various reasons, they are not yet ready for an advanced choir.
The advanced mixed choir is often smaller than the intermediate mixed
chorus and consists of a very select group of singers who are musically talented
and knowledgeable, and who have shown strong commitment and loyalty
to the choral program. Whether you decide on a large or small group as your
most advanced ensemble, you should probably consider these singers, with few
exceptions, as having earned the right to sing in the advanced group by working
their way through the ranks of the beginning choirs and/or the intermediate
choirs. The majority of these singers should be relatively independent, both
musically and as individuals. Depending on the size of your program, you may
want to have your advanced group meet before or after school so that you keep
their vocal leadership in the large ensemble that meets during the school day.
In addition to the groups you designate, students should be encouraged to
form various small ensembles that rehearse before or after school. Possibilities
for smaller groups include a barbershop quartet, a contemporary a cappella
group, a girl’s trio, or a small chamber group that sings literature from various
periods with one or two singers on a part. These groups can often be run entirely
by the students with musical coaching and repertoire support from you.
To accommodate the larger number of girls than boys often found in choral
programs, girls’ choirs may be desirable at all levels (beginning, intermediate,
and advanced) in addition to the corresponding mixed choirs. In some schools, a
girls’ choir has the unfortunate reputation (sometimes even before the girls have
sung) of being “less than.” That does not need to be the case at all! Some of the
finest choirs are female, from the elementary level through college and beyond.
However, a place must be found to accommodate all students, male or female,
who want to sing (see Figure 3.2).
In addition to the traditional choirs discussed previously, some schools offer
specialty choirs, such as a gospel group (check your district’s policy on religiously
focused groups) or a choir that performs music of other cultures. A more
common offering at the high school and sometimes middle school level is a choir
that specializes in popular music or jazz. Students in this type of choir need to
be advanced singers as well as good musicians because this type of music can be
quite difficult. Since choreography is often part of the musical production of a
pop ensemble, a portion of the audition needs to focus on movement. For more
detailed information on pop ensembles, see Chapter 14.
Pop Trios Pop Trios

ble ble
Ensem Ensem
Quar Quar
Chamber tets Chamber tets
Ensemble Ensemble
Advanced Mixed Advanced Girls

Choir Choir
Intermediate Level
Mixed Choir
Beginning Boys Beginning Girls

Choir Choir
Elementary School
Middle School/
General Music
Jr. High School Choir
and Choir
Figure 3.2 Possible offerings at the high school level. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Note: The designation by ability level of the choirs listed here is for your information. You may want to choose other
names for the choirs.
Other Models
While everyone may hope to end up in a job where they direct five choirs
of varying ability levels, your first choir job may not have sufficient numbers
of students to be considered a full-time position. In a situation such as this,
you should think about other kinds of courses you are qualified to teach and
how such courses could positively affect the growth of the choir program. For
example, you may be hired to teach choir at the high school and at one of
the middle schools that feed the high school. Although such a job may seem
daunting at first, it is ideal for growing the program in the direction you choose.
Because you are teaching in your own feeder school, you know what skills your
singers will have coming into the high school choir, and they can hit the ground
running in ninth grade because they know your expectations and rehearsal style.
In this situation, however, students need to feel that the high school choir is
different, even though the director is the same. They will respond well to higher
expectations due to their greater maturity and achievement. In such a position
you may be able to increase your numbers more quickly, to the point where you
have created the need for a full-time position at one or both levels. Think about
what structure will allow a successor to continue building the program once you
move full-time to one school. One disadvantage of teaching at both levels is that
it is difficult to spend enough time at either school to get to know students you
may wish to recruit. Be creative about ways to participate in events outside of
music that can draw kids into your program in both teaching locations.
Another common model for a teacher with two or three choirs is to offer
other music courses designed for the general school population, such as music
appreciation, guitar, or keyboard class. Depending on your particular skill set,
you could expand this list to include classes such as music technology, song writ-
ing, or history of popular music. These courses are often useful in identifying
students who might not be drawn to choir initially but have the ability and inter-
est to benefit from a choral experience if invited to join. When you are building
a program, it is important to be flexible, creative, and positive so that students
and parents will see your program as something worthy of their time and energy.
Scheduling Choir
A good, workable schedule is vital for a successful choral program. No matter
how many students want to join choir, if it is always in direct conflict with
required classes, membership will suffer and little growth will be realized.
Bargaining for an improved schedule should take place at the same time you
accept the new position, but do some research before making suggestions for
improvement (if any are needed). Ask for a copy of the master schedule for the
entire school, as well as the current schedule for the choral department.
Scheduling Models
The traditional scheduling model is the six-period day in which teachers offer
five 50-minute class periods and have one planning period. Over the years, other
scheduling models have become popular in certain districts. Many of these

schedules are grouped under the term “block” schedule, to denote longer blocks
of time for teaching experiential courses, such as science labs or writing courses.
The straight block schedule or four-period day is the most extreme example of
this type of schedule. In the straight block, students take four courses a semester,
but each course covers a year’s worth of material. This works well for certain sci-
ence, language arts, history, and even mathematics courses, but is less desirable
for courses such as music or foreign language where the goal is to build skills over
longer periods of time with more frequent repetition. The straight block sched-
ule is also challenging for music programs because college-bound students who
want to participate in music have to devote 25 percent of their entire high school
education to a music elective. This makes it very difficult for them to schedule all
their required courses and excludes other elective opportunities.
Fortunately, most districts that use block scheduling have adopted a modified
block schedule that combines longer periods with rotating shorter periods to
accommodate music and foreign languages, or they alternate three or four longer
periods every other day to create a six- to eight-period day (see Figures 3.3 to 3.5).
Although the alternating schedule may disrupt the continuity of daily rehearsals,
longer rehearsal periods can provide opportunities for chamber music and skills
instruction; some schedules allow even more electives than the traditional six-
period day. If your school is thinking about changing its schedule, regardless of
Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Period 1
8:00-9:50 Period 1 Period 4 Period 1 Period 4
Period 2
Period 2 Period 5 Period 2 Period 5 Period 3

10:00-12:20 (110) (110) (110) (110)
Lunch (30) Lunch (30) Lunch (30) Lunch (30) Period 4
Period 5
Period 6
Figure 3.3 A 3 × 3 block schedule: six-period day. © Cengage Learning 2014.

Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
Period 4
Period 3 (80) Period 7 (80) Period 3 (80) Period 7 (80) Period 5
11:00-12:50
Lunch (30) Lunch (30) Lunch (30) Lunch (30) Period 6
Period 7
Period 8
Figure 3.4 A 4 × 4 block schedule: eight-period day. © Cengage Learning 2014.

8:00-9:20 Period 1 Period 2 Period 1 Period 2 Period 1
Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading
10:50-11:50 Period (20) Period (20) Period (20) Period (20) Period (20)
Lunch (40) Lunch (40) Lunch (40) Lunch (40) Lunch (40)
Figure 3.5 Modified block schedule: six-period day. © Cengage Learning 2014.
the model, offer to serve on the scheduling committee so that the needs of your
program, as well as those of other arts electives, will be considered.
At the very least, make sure that all choirs, with the possible exception of the
select chamber/pop ensemble, are scheduled to meet daily during regular school
hours. The National Association for Music Education (NAfME) strongly
suggests that music be taught during the school day and that the curriculum
have sufficient time and flexibility to allow students a chance to elect courses in
music. If you want to give students the opportunity to participate in more than
one musical organization, check when band and orchestra meet. And be sure
to locate any singletons, such as advanced trigonometry or physics (a singleton
is a required class that meets for one section only). If, for example, you have
college-bound students in a choral ensemble that meets opposite these advanced,
required classes, these students will have to be out of that choir (or out of choir
entirely) for one semester or perhaps one year. You will also need to coordinate
with regularly-scheduled activities after school (such as sports) when planning
after-school rehearsals. This way, a student who wants to be in both activities
won’t have to choose one over the other.
The periods just before and after lunch are often popular for scheduling choirs.
Because middle school students’ naturally high energy level may be augmented
by the sugar and starch that many of them eat at lunchtime, scheduling the
advanced mixed choir right after lunch may not be a good idea. On the other
hand, if you are equal to the challenge and prefer to calm students down rather
than to motivate them, the period after lunch may work fine.
The period before and during lunch may work better than the period after
lunch. Placing a choir in one of these spots usually gives you three segments
of time (one for lunch and two for class); with this flexibility, you will be able
to have sectional rehearsals if desired. For example, during the first segment,
let one group go to lunch while you work with the other group. Reverse it for
the second segment of time, and have everyone come together for the third
segment. This model can also allow you to have boys-only and girls-only time
as part of a larger mixed choir offering. The extended amount of time can also
be helpful when you schedule an off-campus performance during rehearsal
time and you need a few extra minutes to get back to school for the next class
period.
Most teachers at the secondary school level have one period per day designated
for planning. Many teachers prefer this period to be the first hour of the school
day to allow them to get organized and to plan for their upcoming classes. Other
teachers prefer their planning period to be the last period of the day so they can
plan for the next day’s rehearsals while the current day’s successes and challenges
are fresh on their minds. Some teachers use these periods not for planning, but
for making and returning phone calls, for reading and sending emails, or for
running errands related to work. If this is the case for you, request a planning
period during the day, when places of business are open and people will be
available to receive you, your phone calls, or emails.
Often, you will have to educate the administration about the necessity of
grouping students in the various choral ensembles by ability. Don’t assume that
students will be placed into the appropriate choirs unless you have specified this
information. As soon as possible, therefore, make an appointment to talk with
the person or persons responsible for making student schedules and provide
lists of students who have been selected or assigned to the various choirs for
the following year. Help them understand that choir is taught in a sequential
manner much the same as English or math, and that beginning choral students
would be lost in an advanced choir just as ninth-grade English students would
be lost in a senior-level advanced English class.
Auditions and Vocal Evaluations

If you inherit a program like Megan’s, in which students register for choir by
grade level with no consideration of prior experience, then auditions won’t be
necessary for your program, but you will still need to have some form of vocal
evaluation. If, however, you choose to group your courses by ability, then at
least some of your classes will require students to audition. As you are building
a program, be aware that some students, even those with singing ability, may
not join choir because of anxiety over the audition process. For that reason, it
is important to offer at least one choir for which students can simply register
if interested. Once you have them in class, you can evaluate their skills and
encourage them to sign up for a more advanced group in the future.
The sample audition form in Figure 3.6 illustrates some of the skills teachers
might wish to evaluate during a vocal audition. This form will serve as a template
for the discussion of audition content and procedures. It is only a guide. Each
teacher will have to determine which skills he or she values most in forming
choirs and then evaluate accordingly.
Components of the Audition

One of the most important aspects of the audition/evaluation is to determine the
student’s functional vocal range and tessitura. Because such exercises don’t lend
themselves to showing artistry, you may also include a prepared solo or a familiar
song as part of the auditions so you can assess the singer’s expressiveness as well
CHOIR AUDITON FORM
Name: _________________
Total range: Tessitura:

Tone: 1 2 3 4 5
Expressiveness: 1 2 3 4 5
Sight-singing: 1 2 3 4 5
Tonal memory: 1 2 3 4 5
Voice part assigned: S A T B
Musicianship level: I II III IV
Choir assignment:______________
General comments:
Figure 3.6 Sample Choral Auditon Form. © Cengage Learning 2014.
as breathing technique, posture, diction, and phrasing. Sight-singing and/or tonal

memory tests can help determine the student’s level of prior musical training and
auditory memory skills and allow you to assign a preliminary musicianship level.
(See Chapter 4 for more information about musicianship levels.)
RANGE AND TESSITURA. The range and tessitura of all singers must be
determined so that they may be placed in the correct section of the choir. By
greeting students as they enter the audition room, and listening to the speak-
ing voice of each singer, you can choose an appropriate pitch on which to be-
gin the exercises. This is especially true for young men whose voices might be
changing. A series of vocalises such as those shown in Figure 3.7 can aid in de-
termining the singers’ range and tessitura. When starting to vocalize, support
the singers with piano or even your voice, if they are unsure. They must be
comfortable singing out so that you can hear the full instrument. Once they
are more comfortable, let them attempt to sing the exercise a cappella, with
& 44 œ œ œ œ
Ó
˙
Loo
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
Ó
Vee Veh Vah
& 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.
Œ.
Yah
Figure 3.7 Sample vocalises for determining range and tessitura. © Cengage Learning 2014.
the piano playing only when moving up or down by a half step. This practice
allows you to hear the vocal quality better and to assess students’ ability to
sing in tune.
To find the outermost limits of the voice in question (the range), the exercises
should be performed ascending and descending by half steps. At the same time,
the choral director must listen for where the beauty of the voice lies, where the
singer becomes uncomfortable and perhaps lapses into poor vocal habits, and
where the break in the voice occurs. This information will yield the tessitura of
the voice and will suggest the section of the choir into which each singer should
be placed. (Note: In the case of boys whose voices are changing, choral directors
will want to check periodically for range and tessitura throughout the school
year, not just at audition time.)
TONE AND EXPRESSIVENESS. Unless the singers study voice privately, a pre-
pared solo may be a difficult requirement for auditions. In addition, if a solo is
required, an accompanist will be necessary unless you are able to provide this
service for the students. Even if you are an adequate pianist, however, playing
the piano while the student is singing makes it difficult to listen attentively.
Often just as revealing as a prepared solo is having the students sing a familiar
song such as “America, the Beautiful.” Many students will be familiar with the
melody of this patriotic song. If the words present a problem, either provide stu-
dents with the lyrics of the song or have them sing on a neutral syllable. Another
option is to give students a choice of several folk melodies that can be handed
out ahead of time, with sample recordings available to help them learn. A third
option is to ask students to sing something they typically listen to or sing along
with on the radio. Although you may not know the song they choose, you can
get a sense of their musicality from such an example. Whatever you select, have
students perform the song a cappella, perhaps after they have sung it one time
with the piano. This will reveal the consistency of the singer’s orientation to the
tonal center, and will provide an opportunity to hear the voice without accom-
paniment. It is striking how much more you can hear in a voice when a student
sings a cappella.
SIGHT-SINGING. If students have had little or no formal musical training,

asking them to sight-sing during the audition will only serve to prove the obvi-
ous, and may cause them to feel defeated. Those feelings can affect the remain-
der of the audition in a negative way, preventing the choral director from getting
a true picture of students’ abilities. For these beginners, the tonal memory tests
shown in Figure 3.12 can be a better indicator of sight-singing potential. Ask-
ing them to echo clap or chant various rhythmic patterns may yield additional
information. For those students who have received instruction in sight-singing
or who play (or have played) an instrument, a test of their sight-singing ability is
strongly recommended.
There are various ways to test for sight-singing; however, if choral directors
compose their own musical examples for this portion of the audition, they can
tailor these examples to meet the needs of their own particular situation. To
allow for varying ability levels among students, locate or compose six to nine
examples, ranging from very simple to very difficult (two or three examples
for each difficulty level). Write clearly the single vocal lines (or use a notation
program on the computer) so students will not be confused by vague notation,
and be sure to have the same examples in both the treble and bass clefs.
When writing easy examples, make sure that the music begins on the first
beat as well as on the tonic; use predominantly stepwise motion; use 2/4 or
4/4 meter; and limit the rhythmic activity to whole notes, half notes, and
& 44 œ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ œ
œ ˙ ˙
& 44 ˙ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙
˙
& 44 œ ˙ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ ˙
Figure 3.8 Easy sight-singing examples. © Cengage Learning 2014.
quarter notes. These examples should be written in the keys of C, F, or G Major,

depending on the range of your singers. Examples of easy sight-singing exercises
are shown in Figure 3.8.
For the moderate difficulty level, compose several examples that begin on a
note other than the tonic and introduce simple skips (predominantly triadic).
Include more difficult key signatures, but avoid minor keys at this level. To make
the examples more demanding rhythmically, write several in 3/4 meter, and
introduce eighth notes as well as dotted quarter notes followed by an eighth note.
You may wish to divide the moderate sight-singing into two levels to further
differentiate the singer’s skills. Examples of moderate sight-singing exercises are
shown in Figure 3.9.
& b 43 œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ. œ
J ˙ œ ˙.
# j
& 43 œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ.
œ œ œ œ ˙
& 44 œ œ œ.
j
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ ˙ ˙ w
Figure 3.9 Moderate sight-singing examples. © Cengage Learning 2014.

For the difficult sight-singing examples, write several in a minor key, and in-
clude a number of discriminating intervallic skips in the melody. Increase the
rhythmic difficulty by using sixteenth notes as well as dotted eighth notes fol-
lowed by a sixteenth note, and locate or compose several examples that begin on
an anacrusis. Meters for the difficult examples might include compound meters
as well as asymmetrical meters. Examples of difficult sight-singing exercises are
A quick way to assess a student’s sight-singing level is to take melodies from
different levels of difficulty and put together a sheet like the one in Figure 3.11.
j
3
&b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ. œ #œ œ
J
œ
˙
## j œ
& # 44 œ œ. œ œ œ œœ œ˙ œ. œ œ
œ œ. J œ œ œ
j
& b 44 ˙ . œ. œ œ œ
œ J ˙ œ œ #œ. œ œ. œ
œ ˙
Figure 3.10 Difficult sight-singing examples. © Cengage Learning 2014.
1. & 4
4
œ ˙ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ
œ w
2. & b 4 œ
3 ˙ œ œ. œ ˙ œ
œ œ œ J ˙.
bb 6
3. & b b 8 œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ nœ. nœ œ œ.
# ## 4 j j
4. & # 4 œ . j œ #œ. œ œ . n Jœ œ . œ œ œ œ. j
3
œ œ. J œ œ œ ˙
Figure 3.11 Sight-singing sheet for auditions. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Each melody on the sheet represents a different level of difficulty numbered

from 1 (easy) to 4 (advanced). The melodies at each level should represent
the scope of abilities typical for the age group you are teaching. All students
start by singing example one to build their confidence (hopefully) and proceed
until they reach a melody they cannot sight-sing. You can give students time
to study each example and either have them set the key, or provide the tonic
chord and starting pitch for each attempt. The number of the last melody they
read correctly becomes their score. For example, if someone can sing numbers
one and two but falters partway through number three you might score them as
a 2+ or 3- for the sight-singing portion of the audition. A person who cannot
read example one might be scored a “pre-reader”.
TONAL MEMORY. Like the sight-singing portion of the audition, the tonal
memory test works best when a series of examples are played in order of
difficulty. If students fare well on the first few examples, they may have greater
success on the more difficult examples that come later, simply because they
have gained a certain degree of confidence. Suggestions for composing the tonal
memory examples include:
1. If a tonal center is suggested by the notes in the example, the example will
probably be easier.
2. Beginning and ending on the same note is usually easier than having different
starting and ending pitches.
3. The tempo at which the examples are played is important. Research in
melodic perception (Tunks, Bowers, and Eagle 1994) suggests that very
slow tempi (below 𝅘𝅥 = 100 M.M.) or very fast tempi (above 𝅘𝅥 = 260 M.M.)
can affect a student’s memory performance in a negative way, so slowing
down the example will not necessarily help a student who is having trouble.
4. The number of notes used in each exercise may affect student success.
Generally, use examples containing five to seven notes. After choosing the
number of pitches, use the same number for all of the exercises so that they are
all the same length.
5. To have a “purer” test for tonal memory, write the musical examples without
the use of rhythm. To test rhythmic abilities, have the student echo-clap several
rhythmic examples or clap several written rhythms.
Especially important for the tonal memory portion is the use of a recently-
tuned piano. Students will have difficulty singing in tune when the instrument
to which they are listening is not in tune. Equally important is holding the audi-
tion in a place where the tonal memory test cannot be heard by those students
waiting to audition. These students would obviously gain an unfair advantage
by hearing repeatedly the examples before they have their audition. Examples of
tonal memory exercises are shown in Figure 3.12.
& œ #œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ bœ #œ œ œ œ nœ
œ œ
Figure 3.12 5-note tonal memory examples. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Student Information Form

As students are waiting to audition for choir, have them fill out a sheet such
as the one in Figure 3.13. This form can be printed on the reverse side of
the audition sheet shown in Figure 3.6. This way, all information about each
student may be considered when it comes time to make decisions. Accurate
contact information is crucial for communication once the singers are selected
for choir. For future reference, the sheets should be kept until the information
is entered into the computer database. In case of important messages or
mailings, home address, phone number(s), and email address are needed; the
names of parents or guardians (especially if different from the student’s name)
can be used to seek participation in the choral parent organization. Knowing
whether students have regular conflicts before and after school will be helpful
as the choral director determines the choir in which each student will be
placed.
Musical information such as prior choral experience (religious, commu-
nity, and school choirs), the voice part usually sung (if known), and whether
the student plays an instrument can be helpful, not only as a means to initiate
conversation at the beginning of the audition but also to give the director some
idea of how to structure the audition. At this point, students with piano
background can be identified as potential accompanists for the choir. You can
even add information about dance experience or other skills that you think
would be useful. Use the forms in Figures 3.6 and 3.13 as a guide for composing
your own audition form that will suit your particular teaching situation. The
information gathered can easily be transferred into the computer database for
choir personnel. Word templates for both audition forms are available on the
text website.
Student Information Form

Student: Please fill out this side completely before your audition.
Student’s name: _________________________ Grade: ____
Student’s Phone: ( ) Cell_Home_(check one)
Parent’s/Guardian’s name: _____________________________
Address: ________________________________________
Home number: ( ) Cell Number: ( )
Email: ______________________________
Background
Have you ever sung in a choir? Yes________ No________
If yes, for how long? __________________________
What voice part did you sing? _____________________
Have you ever studied voice privately? Yes________ No________
If yes, for how long? __________
Have you played in an instrumental ensemble? Yes________ No________
If yes, for how long? ___________
What instrument did you play? ___________________
Have you ever studied an instrument in private lessons? Yes________No________
If yes, for how long? ___________
If yes, which instrument(s) did you play? ____________________________
Do you have any conflicts before or after school? Yes________ No________
If yes, what days/times do you have a conflict?
Figure 3.13 Student information form. © Cengage Learning 2014.

Audition Procedures
You will develop a sense of the best way to structure auditions for your students.
Following are a few general rules that might help the audition start off on the
right foot. Whether you are doing auditions or informal evaluations to place
singers in the correct section of the choir, you will want to get as accurate a
picture of the student’s ability as possible, without the interference of anxiety or
other factors.
VISIT. Start with a brief visit to put the singer at ease. Most students are
going to be nervous, so by visiting with them briefly (thirty seconds to one
minute) at the beginning of the audition, you may help them relax and thus
give a better audition. Answers to questions on their personal data sheet
can provide a place to begin the conversation. Listen carefully as they speak
to get an idea of what voice part they may sing. A voice in the process of
change may be detectable during this visiting time and will yield valuable
information.
VOCALISES. Next, you should have the student sing several vocalises to
warm up the voice and enable you to hear the range and tessitura. Initially,
play the exercises as the student sings, but be careful to play the piano at a
reasonable dynamic level so the voice can be heard accurately. Eventually try
to remove the piano support and see how the student does a cappella. Have
the student stand where the piano keyboard cannot be seen. This practice will
alleviate any potential vocal problems caused by knowing how high or low the
pitches are.
SOLO. After vocalizing, have the student sing a prepared solo or a familiar
song. Provide words and/or music as necessary for a song you choose. It is often
helpful to have students sing the song a second time, a cappella, perhaps at a
higher or lower pitch level based on what you heard the first time. This is the
time to note the singer’s breathing techniques, phrasing tendencies, diction, and
general musicality.
SIGHT-SINGING. For the sight-singing portion of the audition, give the singer
a copy of the sight-singing exercises and communicate which example you
would like to hear. Let the singer choose among solfège syllables, numbers, letter
names, or a neutral syllable for singing the example. Then establish the key of
the example by playing a cadence and/or arpeggio, and give the starting pitch.
Provide a maximum of thirty seconds for study. After thirty seconds, reestablish
the key, give the starting pitch, and either ask the singer to set a tempo or count
off a full measure to establish a tempo.
The degree of success achieved on the first example will determine the direction
for the remainder of the sight-singing portion of the audition. For instance, if the
first example was easy for the student, you might move directly to a moderate
or difficult example. To obtain an accurate picture of students’ sight-singing

abilities, however, you must ask them to sing examples of increasing difficulty
until you determine that they have reached the limits of their current skill. If you
have the time, work with students on something with which they had difficulty.
This will not only help students but will also give you an idea of how quickly
they can learn.
If the student experiences real difficulty with the first easy example, you might
try a second easy example or go straight to tonal memory. However, if the student
is fairly successful with the first example, despite some mistakes, you may want
to provide an opportunity to try it again. Perhaps the student’s performance was
affected by nervousness, and success will come as composure is regained and a
second chance is provided. A slight reduction in the student’s total sight-singing
score can be used to reflect this situation.
TONAL MEMORY. To carry out the tonal memory portion of the audition,
have students stand where the piano keyboard cannot be seen. This will avoid
potential vocal problems caused by knowing how high or low the pitches are,
and, in addition, students will not be able to see the contour of the pitches as
they are played. Tell them you will be playing a series of pitches and they are to
sing these pitches back to you, like an echo. Suggest the use of a neutral syllable
such as “loo” and encourage careful listening. Give students an opportunity to
try again if they are unsuccessful on their first attempt. Again, the student’s
performance may have been affected by nervousness, and may improve after
composure is regained. A slight reduction in the total tonal memory score can
be used to reflect this situation.
ENDING THE AUDITION. At the conclusion of the audition, be sure to choose

your parting words carefully to avoid creating false hope or an overly negative
response in the student’s mind. Comments such as “nice job” or “you did
well today” can be misconstrued by a student who is nervous or eager to
be accepted into a particular group. Simply smile, thank students for their
interest in choir, and let them know when and where the results will be
posted. This will help avoid a myriad of potential problems with students as
well as parents.
The entire audition process should be restricted to approximately ten

minutes per student. This forces the choir director to be as efficient as
possible and also allows adequate time for everyone who is interested in
choir to be heard. Be careful, however, to give each student a fair and similar
audition. You want all students to feel as though they were given an equal
chance to join choir. A video example of a choral audition is available on the
text website.
Seating Arrangements and Voice Placement

A choir director once had a bass section that quite frequently sang under pitch. One day dur-
ing rehearsal, he changed the seating arrangement of the section and, much to everyone’s sur-
prise, the basses’ pitch problem improved dramatically. This same director had a singer with a
lovely soprano voice, but a very distinctive tone quality made it difficult for her voice to blend
with the others. After days of frustration, the director finally decided to try various seating
arrangements during rehearsal. He found a place for this soprano to sit so that her distinctive
voice made a positive contribution to the choir, blending well with the other sopranos while
allowing her to still sing in a healthy manner.
Placing Individual Voices

If singers are asked, they will frequently say that it is easier and more comfortable
for them to sing beside some singers than others. This preference has less
to do with how good or bad a voice is and more to do with the tone quality
of each voice. The placement of individual voices within a choir can often
make a tremendous difference in the way the entire choir will sound as well as
improving the comfort level of individual singers.
The scenario above illustrates that some voices have a very distinctive tone
quality. Others can be classified as “buffer voices”: singers without solo qualities,
but who are solid musicians with good voices that blend easily. Surrounding
distinctive voices with buffer voices will often make blending techniques more
effective. In addition to improving the sound of the choir, careful placement of
voices can improve sight-singing abilities and confidence levels. Spreading strong
readers throughout the section and pairing each one with a weaker reader will
often strengthen the overall sight-reading ability of the section. Pairing more
confident singers with those who are not quite as confident can help the latter
feel secure enough to make a more positive musical contribution. Some teachers
even have one seating arrangement for learning music, based on sight-singing
ability, and a different formation for performing, based more on matching the
tone of the voices.
Careful placement of voices can make the rehearsal experience more positive
for students as well as help the teacher get to know individual voices. One
procedure for placing voices, based loosely on the techniques used by Weston
Noble (2005), is described below.
VOICE MATCHING PROCEDURE. Voice matching begins by having all the

students in the section sing a well-known song together. “My Country ’Tis of
Thee” is a good choice because it is short and well known, has a moderate range,
and features the third and seventh scale degrees prominently. This will help
the teacher evaluate intonation. Choose a key that is comfortable for the voice
part you are listening to, for example, G–A Major for sopranos; D–E Major
for altos; F–G Major for tenors; and B♭ or C Major for basses. After the singers
have all been placed, you can try shifting the key up or down to see if the blend
continues.
While the section of students is singing the melody together, listen carefully
for individual voices. You might even walk up and down the section as they
sing. After everyone has been through the melody at least once, start with two
voices that you think will blend well together. Hear the singers as they stand
first on one side and then on the other side of each other. The blend of even
two voices will be different in each of these situations. Once your initial pair is
set, add more singers, one at a time, and have them sing down the row in pairs.
When you aren’t sure what pairing or order is best, try hearing them in trios or
quartets.
Decisions for voice placement are ultimately based on the individual director’s
ideal sound, but a few general rules can guide your choices. First, it is generally a
good idea to put lighter, well-tuned voices at the ends of the section to support
section intonation. Larger, more distinctive voices often work best nearer the
middle of the section, where their voices can add power to the sound but
not overwhelm the section blend. You will find that some singers blend with
everybody. These “buffer” voices may not be your strongest singers, but they are
very valuable for developing a unified section sound. Be sure that your singers
aren’t trying to blend during the procedure but are using their natural voices so
that placement is accurate. A final option after everyone is placed is to simply
flip-flop the order, with the center person staying put and everyone else moving
to the mirror image of his or her current position. Surprisingly, this flip-flop
arrangement can sometimes sound better than the placement you have just
developed.
This procedure will work best if done early in the year, though many directors
will “tune up” the placement as the year progresses and as voices change (especially
with young voices). One benefit of voice placement is that the students become
interested in the process as they begin to hear distinct differences in the way
individual voices blend. This awareness can translate into a greater consciousness
during rehearsal about blend issues in general.
Some directors actually include voice placement as part of their audition
process. After an initial solo audition, they bring potential choir members in
as a section and place them to see which voices fit together best. If you choose
this approach, be careful not to give any indication of singers you want in or
out of choir during the procedure. Voice placement can serve as the foundation
for exploring a variety of seating arrangements that are discussed in the next
section.
Seating/Standing Arrangements
As with individuals, experimenting with placement of the various sections of
the choir can also be used to solve persistent problems or to achieve a certain
sound. These arrangements can be altered just for rehearsal, or they can carry
over to the concert as different standing arrangements for performance. For
instance, if tuning continues to be a problem in your mixed choir rehearsal,
try placing the soprano section near the bass section, so the outer voices will
be in close proximity and better able to hear each other, as in Figures 3.14
and 3.15.
If you have fewer men than women in the choir, or if the men are the weaker
sections, try placing tenors and basses in the front and center of the ensemble, as
seen in Figures 3.16 through 3.18.
TEN
SS OR
BA
© Cengage Learning 2014.

O
RAN
ALT
O
SOP
Figure 3.14
TE
SS N
BA
O
R
NO AL
RA
TO
P
SO
Figure 3.15
For advanced choirs, singing in mixed position (quartets, trios, quintets,

and so forth) will sometimes improve tuning, and will usually have a positive
effect on blend as well. In addition, singing in mixed position presents a chal-
lenge that strengthens each singer musically and, therefore, the entire choir (see
Figures 3.19–3.22). When singing in mixed formation, as shown in Figure 3.19,
you can preserve some of your sectional blend by having the singers stand in the
same order vertically that they were horizontally.
BASS
TENOR

O
AN
ALT
SOPR
O
Figure 3.16
TENOR
BASS

O
AN
ALT
SOPR
Figure 3.17
NO AL
RA R BAS
NO S
TO
TE
P
SO
Figure 3.18
SATB
SA
TB TB
SA
SATB
SA
TB TB
SA

B
SAT
SAT
SAT
B
SAT
B
Figure 3.19
TB TB
TB
TB
B SA SA T
SA
SA
B
T
A S
S
A
TB
TB

SA
SA
TB
TB
SA
SA
Figure 3.20
SB SB
SB
SB
B AT AT S
AT
AT
S
T A
A
T
SB
SB

AT
AT
SB
SB
AT
AT
Figure 3.21
B SATB
SAT
SA
TB BTA
S BTAS
SA
TB
BT
AS
BT
AS

SATB
SAT
BTAS
BTA
B
S
Figure 3.22
For mixed choirs containing boys whose voices haven’t changed and whose voice
part is either alto or soprano, consider the following arrangement of sections.
Place the boys with the unchanged voices on the outside of either the bass section
or the tenor section, so that they are standing beside the part they sing but are
also standing beside the other boys in the choir. Most boys at this age find it em-
barrassing to be placed in the middle of a girls’ section (see Figures 3.23 and 3.24).
For treble choirs, try the arrangements shown in Figures 3.25 through 3.29.
Figures 3.25 and 3.26 are widely used in choirs that have a strong and secure
Soprano II section. Figures 3.27 and 3.28 help a weak Soprano II section
BASS
TENOR
So Bo y
pr y
an Bo tos
os Al
O
AN
ALT
SOPR
Figure 3.23
OR BAS
TEN S
So Bo y
pr y
an Bo tos
os Al

O
AN
ALT
SOPR
O
Figure 3.24
SOPRANO II
I
O
AN
AL

PR
TO
SO
Figure 3.25
II ALT
ANO OI
OPR
S
I

NO
AL
RA
TO
SOP
II
Figure 3.26
SOPRANO I
II
O
AN
AL

TO
PR
SO
Figure 3.27
OI ALT
PRAN OI
I
SO
II

O
AL
RAN
TO
SOP
Figure 3.28
because they are removed from the alto part and are free to harmonize with the
Soprano I section, the most usual harmonization. Figure 3.29, like Figure 3.28,
places the outer voice parts (Soprano I and Alto II) beside one another, which
may promote better intonation.
For male choirs, try the arrangements shown in Figures 3.30 through 3.33.
As in the treble choirs, the arrangements in Figures 3.30 and 3.31 are widely
used in choirs with stronger interior parts (Tenor II and Baritone). Figure 3.32
places these interior parts on the outside so they have to deal directly with only
one nearby voice part. This arrangement, like Figure 3.33, places the outer voices
next to one another and may improve intonation.
I
O AL
AN T
PR
O
II
SO
II
O AL
AN
TO
PR

SO
I
Figure 3.29
TENOR II
I
OR
BA

TEN
SS
Figure 3.30
R II BAR
NO ITO
TE NE
I
OR
BA
TEN
SS
Figure 3.31
TEN
SS OR
BA I
NE

TE
ITO
NO
BAR
R II
Figure 3.32
II BA
R RI
O
TO
N
TE
I BA
NE
R
O
N
SS
TE
Figure 3.33
The preceding list of seating arrangements is certainly not definitive. Every

choir is different, and many possible variations are available for considera-
tion. The important concept is that changing the seating position of your
choir is a possible solution to various musical problems, and each arrange-
ment can produce an entirely different sound. Be creative and experiment!
The results are often well worth the time and effort required. In addition,
changing seating positions can also keep your singers flexible and constantly
challenged.
Summary
Designing a top-notch choral program is an exciting and important challenge. To meet
your needs and those of your students in the best way possible, you should revisit the
structure of your program over the years and modify as your circumstances change.
The ultimate goal is to provide the best and most appropriate choral experience for all
levels of singers in your program, and to make the program attractive to prospective
students. The better you know the ins and outs of your school’s master schedule,
the better you will be able to craft a schedule that makes choir available to as many
students as possible. Although the focus here has been on designing the teacher-led
offerings that are part of the curriculum, one sign of a vibrant choral program is a
number of active student-led ensembles. Be flexible and creative about other courses
you can teach to help secure your position and start to grow the program.
During a ten-minute audition, choral directors can discover information
necessary for placing singers in the appropriate choral ensemble. In addition to
facilitating section and choir placement, auditions can serve as the initial evaluation
of each student’s level of musicianship, which can help guide curricular choices
and develop an individualized program of assessment. (See more on assessment
in Chapter 4.) By collecting individual contact information and background data
during the audition, you can get a head start on a communication plan and also
identify special skills that may help in developing your program for the year.
Experimenting with seating arrangements for the various sections of the choir,
as well as placing individual voices, can affect the overall sound of your choral
ensembles in such areas as balance, blend, and intonation. The shape and acoustics
of your performance space may also dictate different standing arrangements.
Directors can sometimes get into a rut with their seating arrangements in
rehearsal. Experimenting with different formations can provide an important
musical challenge for your singers and allow you to discover a new arrangement
that enhances the sound of your choir.
Mini-Projects
1. Using the guidelines proposed in this chapter, locate or compose easy,
moderate, and difficult sight-singing exercises for use in an audition. Use these
exercises in Mini-Project 3.
2. Using the guidelines proposed in this chapter, compose your own tonal
memory examples to be used in an audition. Use these examples in Mini-Project 3.
3. Hold a mock audition. Prepare an information form, audition form,
vocalises, sight-singing exercises, tonal memory exercises, and a copy of a
familiar song. Then carry out your audition, using classmates as prospective
choir members. The singers should act as though they are in the age group
being auditioned (middle school/junior high or senior high). Hold your
audition in front of the entire class so that classmates can observe and offer
constructive feedback.
4. Select a group of five to eight singers of the same voice part from class
or a choir. Choose a familiar song, and use it to determine the best sitting/
standing arrangement for that particular group of singers. As they sing and
change positions, pay close attention to the slight variations in their sound.
Follow the steps outlined in the chapter.
References
Noble, Weston. 2005. Achieving choral blend through standing position
[DVD]. Chicago: GIA.
Tunks, Thomas, Dennis Bowers, and Charles Eagle. 1994. The effect of
stimulus tempo on memory for short melodies. Psychomusicology 12 (1): 41–51.
Additional Reading
Daugherty, James F. 1999. Spacing, formation, and choral sound:
Preferences and perceptions of auditors and choristers. Journal of Research
in Music Education 47: 224–238.
Killian, Janice, and Lynn Basinger. 2007. Perception of choral blend
among choral, instrumental, and nonmusic majors using the continuous
response digital interface. Journal of Research in Music Education 55: 313–25.
Michelson, Steven K. 1994. Getting started with high school choir.
Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
Zemek, Michael D. 2010. Where’s the evidence? Finding support for
separating middle and junior high school choirs by gender. Update 29 (1): 15–21.
CHAPTER 4
Choral Curriculum
and Assessment
Joel enjoyed participating in choir during his freshman year, so he decided to sign up again
and count it as his sophomore elective. His guidance counselor is unsure about the value of
taking choir for more than one year, and asks him questions such as “What more is there to be
learned?” and “Wouldn’t you just be doing the same things all over again?” Although Joel feels
that learning about music through singing and participating in performances is a worthwhile
activity, he is not sure how to explain what he is learning by participating in choir and how
much it means to him and the other choral students.
Developing a Choral Curriculum

Choir directors work to prepare their students for outstanding performances in
which the power of music can be felt deeply by singers and audiences alike. This
is no small matter, because these peak experiences are always significant and
may be the reason many students continue to participate in choir. In their quest
for excellence in performance, however, novice choral directors may resort to a
drill-and-practice rehearsal style, often neglecting the very foundation of these
peak musical experiences. Because this approach compromises the develop-
ment of skills for musical independence, their students must endure this drill-
and-practice regimen over and over again as they prepare for each concert. The
curriculum in this approach is narrowly focused on preparing repertoire to the
exclusion of musical skills.
If directors broaden their focus to include a systematic study of skills such
as music reading, vocal technique, choral style, aural skills, basic theory, music
history, and the cultural context of music, students will gradually gain skills and
knowledge necessary for independent musicianship. When the preparation for
72
CHORAL CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT 73
performance is enhanced by this broader instructional focus, and when it is

placed within a sequential design of beginning-, intermediate-, and advanced-
level choral ensembles, then students like Joel are able to articulate that they
won’t “just be doing the same things all over again” by continuing in choir, and
guidance counselors will come to understand how skill development in sing-
ing and learning about music continues and builds over time through successive
years of study. More important, students will be receiving a substantive, rich, and
meaningful music education that will serve them now as well as in the future.
The National Standards for Arts Education

Published in 1994, the content and achievement standards found in National
Standards for Arts Education: What Every Young American Should Know and Be
Able to Do in the Arts describe the cumulative skills and knowledge expected of
students at the completion of grades K through 4, 5 through 8, and 9 through 12.1
All nine of the content standards can be taught in middle school and high
school choral ensembles and suggest a wide range of musical experiences and
learning. These standards are as follows:
1. Singing alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music

2. Playing alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music
3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments
4. Composing and arranging within specified guidelines
5. Reading and notating music
6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music
7. Evaluating music and music performances
8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines
outside the arts
9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture
1
The National Standards for Arts Education were developed jointly by the American Alliance for Theatre
& Education, the National Association for Music Education (formerly the Music Educators National
Conference), the National Art Education Association, and the National Dance Association, under the guidance
of the National Committee for Standards in the Arts. The U.S. Department of Education, the National
Endowment for the Arts, and the National Endowment for the Humanities provided the grant that allowed
these standards to be prepared. They are available from the Music Educators National Conference, Reston, VA
and can be found at http://www.nafme.org/resources/view/national-standards-for-music-education.
74 CHORAL CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT
Although this list of standards does not represent a curriculum and does not
suggest specific instructional activities to achieve them, the list can be used as
a guide for both important endeavors. The standards suggest that not only is
it important to sing a wide variety of repertoire; it is also important to develop
skills in music reading, improvisation, listening and evaluating music, knowledge
about music history and culture, and other forms of art in relation to music.
Although the National Standards represent the important components of a
comprehensive music education, choral directors must remember that their
choir class is primarily a performing ensemble, not a general music class. There-
fore, learning in these areas should be accomplished through association with
the choral repertoire that is rehearsed and performed.
Content and Sequence of a Choral Curriculum

The curriculum of a choral program includes both the content of the instruc-
tion and its sequencing. This principle applies not only to the choir in which
the student is currently enrolled, but also to the system of choirs in place within
that particular school district. Content introduced at the elementary level will
be revisited throughout a student’s music education, forming a spiral curriculum
(Bruner 1960).
A spiral curriculum presents similar skills and knowledge at various stages
of a child’s education, and each time around they are revisited at a higher, more
complex level. In this way, skills and techniques will be extended and refined,
and students’ knowledge will grow cumulatively. Through years of rehearsal
and study, good musicians will emerge, provided that their instruction has been
properly organized, structured, and sequenced.
For example, Joel’s basic musicianship training in performing, creating, and
listening to music began in general music classes at the elementary school level.
In the fifth grade, he decided to join the elementary school choir that met
after school, twice a week. This performing ensemble experience built on the
skills in singing and musicianship acquired in his general music classes. His
knowledge and skills were expanded and refined further when he participated
in choir during his middle school years. Exposure to increasingly difficult choral
repertoire, as well as continuing development in the areas of vocal technique
and musicianship, facilitated his musical growth. By the time Joel reached high
school and enrolled in freshman choir, he had a strong foundation of musical

knowledge and vocal skills, which will continue to develop throughout his high
school years.
With a system functioning as well as the one described above, students will
have opportunities to develop Joel’s impressive level of musicianship and musical
knowledge. Unfortunately, in many situations, students like Joel are an exception
to the rule. The music education system cannot function as it should when, for
instance, a student moves from one school system to another, the district decides
to eliminate general music for grades 1 through 3, the district has weak music
teachers at a particular grade level, or the student decides to join choir for the
first time in her junior year of high school. In situations such as these, students
will likely arrive in your classes without the entry-level skills necessary for suc-
cess. For this reason, beginning, intermediate, and advanced choirs should be
offered at both the middle school/junior high and high school levels.
Sample Curricula
BEGINNING CHOIR. A choir at the beginning level will have students who,
for the most part, have not had any formal choral experience, although they may
have sung frequently for enjoyment outside of school, and may have learned
basic vocal technique as part of their general music training. Such students have
generally had very little instruction in sight-singing, and most of their singing
experiences have been in unison. The beginning choir, therefore, must teach
correct vocal technique and introductory sight-singing skills, and offer choral
literature that moves from singing in unison to two- and three-part music. (The
latter must occur very quickly if the choir contains boys whose voices are chang-
ing. Due to limited range and tessitura at this time in a boy’s vocal development,
unison music is usually not a good choice. More information about changing
voices can be found in Chapter 8.)
At the conclusion of the school year, students in a beginning choir should be
able to:
1. Demonstrate good choral habits, such as being in their seat ready to sing,
with their folder and a pencil.
2. Demonstrate the use of correct posture while singing.
3. Demonstrate the use of correct breathing technique while singing.

4. Sing a major scale and arpeggio with good tone and intonation on
any vowel.
5. Be able to sing their part from the repertoire and maintain good intonation
and sense of key.
6. Sight-sing music in major keys; with melodic motion that is
predominantly stepwise but that may contain an occasional triadic leap;
with rhythmic patterns comprising whole, half, quarter, and eighth notes;
using meter signatures of 4/4, 3/4, and 2/4.
7. At least twice a year, perform expressively a well-prepared concert of a
variety of choral repertoire.
8. Use correct musical terminology when describing the music they have
studied and performed.
9. Identify one or two facts about the composers, the cultural context, and
the period of music history for the pieces they perform.
10. Maintain their part alone while singing music written in two-part and
three-part contexts.
INTERMEDIATE CHOIR. At this level, students will refine those skills learned
previously as they develop new skills in sight-singing and vocal technique, and
rehearse and perform more difficult music literature. New music terminology
and music history as it relates to the curriculum will be introduced, and previ-
ously taught material will be revisited and refined.
At the conclusion of the school year, students in an intermediate-level choir
should be able to do the following with increasing skill and finesse:
2. Demonstrate the use of correct posture and breathing technique when
singing.
3. Using correct music terminology, describe the music they have studied and
performed.
4. Identify or two facts about the composers, the cultural context, and the
period of music history for the pieces they perform.
In addition, students should be able to:

1. Sing with a consistent tone and intonation throughout their vocal
range.
2. Demonstrate the ability to correctly mark scores as indicated in
rehearsal.
3. Sight-sing music in major and minor keys, containing triadic leaps as well
as leaps of a fourth and sixth; with rhythmic patterns comprising whole
notes, half notes, quarter notes, eighth notes (and their corresponding
rests), as well as the dotted quarter followed by an eighth note and
sixteenth notes; using meter signatures of 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
4. At least three times a year, perform expressively a well-prepared concert of
a variety of choral repertoire.
5. Sing, with success, music written in four or five parts.
6. Sing, with success, several selections written in a language other than
English with the choir.
7. Perform at one choral festival with adjudication.
ADVANCED CHOIR. Membership in the advanced choir requires singers who

are well on the way to musical independence. Their independence will be de-
veloped further through experience with challenging choral literature that re-
quires excellent vocal technique and sight-singing skills. While they continue
to refine skills learned previously, these advanced students will learn additional
music terminology and history, develop a real sense of musical style, and begin
to demonstrate greater musical leadership and independence. The performance
schedule for this group will be more demanding than that of the beginning- and
intermediate-level choirs. Singers might choose to audition for the All-State
Choir, and participate in the Solo and Ensemble Festival, both of which require
excellent musicianship and solid vocal training.
At the conclusion of the school year, students in an advanced-level choir
should be able to do the following with increasing skill and finesse:
2. Use correct posture and breathing technique while singing.
3. Use correct musical terminology when describing the music they have
studied and performed.
4. Provide in-depth information about the composers, the cultural context,
and the period of music history for the pieces they perform.
In addition, students should be able to:
1. Learn their parts independently and come to rehearsal prepared.

2. Navigate different registers of the voice while maintaining a relaxed tone
and good intonation.
3. Evaluate choral performances and identify their strengths and
weaknesses.
4. Sight-sing music in major and minor keys containing some modulations,
with a variety of rhythmic patterns, using meter signatures of 4/4, 3/4,
2/4, 6/8, and asymmetrical meters.
5. Perform a variety of concerts throughout the year for both the school and
the community.
6. Perform at one or two choral festivals with adjudication, including both
large group and solo experiences.
7. Perform repertoire that includes compositions in a wide variety of
languages.
8. Define and demonstrate various musical terms found in a choral score.
9. Sing in small groups (such as trios, quartets, and octets) to encourage
musical independence and sensitivity.
10. Rehearse and perform in a variety of seating arrangements, including
mixed position, to encourage musical independence and sensitivity.
Standard Curriculum
The sample curricula shown in this chapter represent a rather traditional ap-
proach to designing a curriculum for choir. This approach is linear; in other
words, you set goals and objectives; choose materials; and then plan what
your students will learn, when they will learn it, and how you will assess their
progress. This works especially well with development of sight-singing skills,
vocal technique, and musical terminology. You will assess students’ learning
when they demonstrate it through a test or a performance of some sort (in-

dividual, small group, or entire ensemble). Janet Barrett (2005) describes this
approach as follows: “If we use the common metaphor of curriculum [docu-
ments] as a journey, these documents resemble the itinerary. They give us a
general sense of the major destinations, the time frame in which the journey
will occur, and the order in which we will travel from one location to another.”
(p. 22)
Learning from the Repertoire

Anyone who has taken a trip of any sort knows that unexpected things happen
(some good, some not so good). You miscalculate the time it will take to get
from A to B, there are no vacant hotels, you might choose to stay an extra day
somewhere because it is such a beautiful place, or you decide to take a side road
simply because it looks interesting. A curriculum that resembles this more var-
ied type of travel is what Standerfer and Hunter (2010) call a “standards- and
repertoire-based curriculum model.” This model builds on the natural connec-
tions of the music to the National Standards, and is based on learning through
the repertoire. A plan is still in place, and structure is certainly apparent, but who
knows what you might discover about a piece of music after you spontaneously
decide to work on it in quartets? Or students might get really excited about
exploring Cuban musical customs and dances related to a piece the choir is
learning for the spring concert. One musical choice may offer opportunities for
experimenting with improvisation, while another selection may lead both direc-
tor and singers into the musical world of the Georgia Sea Islands. Yet another
selection may introduce singers to the articulation necessary to bring Baroque
music alive.
In choir, the National Standards should be used to enhance musical learn-
ing and performance. This approach definitely underscores the importance
of careful music selection, not only for its appropriateness to your singers
but also for a varied range of musical experiences and learning opportunities.
After all, the repertoire you choose makes your curriculum come alive.
The standard, linear curriculum and one that draws on the National Stand-
ards and learning from the repertoire are not mutually exclusive approaches. Al-
though learning from the repertoire suggests a more flexible learning experience, a
linear approach to sight-singing and vocal technique certainly can work beautifully
alongside the knowledge and techniques learned from the musical selections.
The Time Factor

Teaching sight-singing skills, vocal technique, style, improvisation, history, aural
skills, basic theory, and music terminology is time-intensive, and can impact the
time available for the rehearsal and performance of music. If choral directors
maintain a reasonable performance schedule, however, time will be available for
this broader base of instruction. Music terminology, history, and style can be
taught as it relates to the music in rehearsal, and a portion of the sight-singing
exercises and aural skills can be designed to address potential trouble spots in
the music. In this way, performance remains a primary focus of the choir, and
rehearsal time is structured efficiently. In addition, varying the content of re-
hearsals may actually make students more consistently motivated and engaged.
Because students are increasing their musical independence over time, perfor-
mances should take less and less preparation time. Perhaps most important,
however, is that your choral program is providing students with a substantive
and comprehensive music education.

Assessment
Group Assessment
Successful choir directors are experts at group assessment. In rehearsal, when the
choir sings a section of the music, the director gives immediate feedback and ap-
plies different techniques until a certain level of performance is realized. When
choirs go to festivals or contests their performance is meticulously analyzed and
rated on a variety of criteria from tone quality and intonation to phrasing and
musical expression. Clinicians give the choir very specific feedback on what was
successful and where they can improve their performance. This type of collective,
group assessment requires teachers to have a clear vision of the finished musical
product toward which they and their students are working. Such a vision is de-
veloped through careful score study and preparation as outlined in later chapters.
Individual Assessment
Successful choral teachers need to master an additional type of assessment, one
that tracks the individual achievement of their students as they move through the
program year after year. Research has demonstrated that group achievement is
not a reliable indicator of individual learning (Broomhead 2000; Demorest 2001;
Demorest & May 1995; Henry & Demorest 1994). An experimental study
found that the simple act of assessing a student’s sight-singing individually actu-
ally increased their achievement with no other changes in instruction (Demorest
1998). This type of assessment includes offering feedback at the individual level
and tailoring instruction to meet each student’s needs. Individual assessment also
requires a vision—one of each student as an independent and capable musician.
Individual assessment of students is a necessary and important part of the
choral curriculum for several reasons. First, assessment provides feedback to stu-
dents and parents about the quality of students’ performance and in what areas
they need improvement. Second, most school systems require that a grade be
given for each course a student takes in middle school/junior high and senior
high school, which should be based on individual assessments. Third, assess-
ment helps guide the teacher’s instructional approach and can provide data to
implement improvements to the program. Finally, a clear and consistent system
of student assessment ensures that choir is an educational endeavor.
Identifying learning goals for students at various levels of instruction is the

first step in effective assessment. Earlier in the chapter, three sample curricula
were presented for students in beginning, intermediate, and advanced choirs.
These learning goals represent the vision for what students at those levels should
know and be able to do. Once you have identified learning goals and stated them
in terms of the students’ observable behavior, as in, “The student will demonstrate
good singing posture,” then the next step is planning your instruction. At this
point, the most important thing to remember is that any skill or knowledge you
wish to assess must be part of your instruction. If you say, “The student will be
able to sight-sing a 4-measure melody in a major key,” then you must devote
instructional time to teaching music reading and choose materials that facilitate
this outcome.
After setting learning goals and planning instruction to achieve your goals,
you must design ways to record student performance and give feedback. As men-
tioned before, assessment at the group level is a natural part of the rehearsal
process. At the individual level, teachers must identify efficient ways for stu-
dents to demonstrate their learning. Such assessment happens in every other
class students take, but assessment of music performance requires some special
considerations.
One consideration is that choral class sizes are typically larger than those in
other courses, so individual assessment is no small task. Fortunately, techno-
logical advances have made performance-based assessment much more feasible.
For example, behaviors like proper posture and breathing can be assessed dur-
ing rehearsal or through student videos taken at school or at home and trans-
ferred to the teacher electronically. Depending on the technological resources
available, singing tests can be done during rehearsal with a head-mounted mi-
crophone, in a practice room with some kind of digital recorder, or at home,
where students record themselves and email or upload the results to a course
website for assessment.
Sample Assessment Forms

Figure 4.1 shows sample assessments for singing performance on three different
forms: a checklist, a rating scale, and a rubric. Each approach has its advantages,
depending on the nature of the skill being assessed. Once you have constructed
(A) Performance Assessment

______ 1. Demonstrated good singing posture and supported breath.
______ 2. Tone was full and consistent throughout range.
______ 3. Pitches were accurate and in tune.
______ 4. Rhythms were accurate and in tempo.
______ 5. Singer observed all expressive markings in the score.
Comments:
(B) Performance Assessment

Never Sometimes Always
1. Demonstrated good singing posture and breath. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Tone was full and consistent throughout range. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Pitches were accurate and in tune. 1 2 3 4 5
4. Rhythms were accurate and in tempo. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Singer observed all expressive markings in the score. 1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
(C) Performance Assessment

SCORE
_____ 1. Some issues with basic singing posture and breath. Tone not well
supported and pitches and/or rhythms not accurate.
_____ 2. Good singing posture and breath. Tone was not consistent. Some
problems with pitch and rhythm accuracy. Lacked expressive qualities.
_____ 3. Good singing posture and breath. Sang with full tone but not consistent in some
registers. Mostly accurate pitches and rhythms. Lacked expressive qualities.
_____ 4. Good singing posture and breath. Sang with full tone throughout range
with mostly accurate pitches and rhythms and limited expression.
_____ 5. Good singing posture and breath. Sang with full tone throughout range
with accurate pitches and rhythms and observed all expressive markings.
Comments:
Figure 4.1 Models of different types of assessment systems, as applied to a performance
assessment. (A) Checklist. (B) Rating scale. (C) Rubric. These three assessment templates are
available in editable form on the text website. © Cengage Learning 2014.
these forms, they can be used to provide feedback with any level of materials. In
addition to being an efficient way to evaluate student performance, these tools
also provide students with a clear set of expectations they must meet in order to
master each skill.
Grading
Assessment is an ongoing process that provides both students and teachers with
important information about student progress. Grading, on the other hand, is
an evaluation of student performance in relation to some kind of standard. The
choral experience is made up of a variety of important competencies that could
be evaluated. The list of objectives can be organized into several categories for
evaluation: (1) preparation and participation, (2) singing skills, (3) musician-
ship skills, and (4) musical knowledge. How can these competencies be included
in the calculation of an accurate and meaningful grade for each student?
Preparation and Participation

Because singing in a choral ensemble is a group effort, students need to be
prepared for rehearsal and participate actively. This component gives choir di-
rectors an opportunity to teach their students what it means to be good choir
members and how to demonstrate their preparation before rehearsal and their
participation during rehearsal. The first objective listed for the beginning choir
deals directly with expectations for students’ rehearsal behavior, and their suc-
cess in this area should be part of their grade. Paying attention, having all
necessary music and a pencil at each rehearsal, coming to rehearsals and perfor-
mances on time, following directions, and not talking during rehearsal would
certainly provide evidence of good preparation and participation. One method
for keeping records of such behaviors is to have a system of evaluation in which
a subset of students is marked each day or each week, so that by the end of the
term everyone’s rehearsal behavior has been assessed.
Students not only need to attend rehearsals and performances, but they also
need to be on time. To encourage punctuality in students, you should put in
place a system for dealing with tardies. Perhaps a predetermined number of tar-
dies will equal one absence, or a notice goes home to the parents, or students
have some sort of after-school duties to perform. Whatever the system, students
should know that they are expected to be on time to rehearsals and perfor-
mances, and that if they are not, they must deal with the consequences.
Encourage students who know of an upcoming absence to notify you in ad-
vance, and make sure you distinguish between excused and unexcused absences.
You may want to consider having a more stringent consequence for a student’s
absence from a performance than for missing a rehearsal.
(Note: Increasingly, school districts are moving away from “attendance” as a
component of grading and toward performance-based measures; therefore, in
situations such as this, a citizenship grade is often given in addition to the grade
for academic achievement. Make sure you understand fully the policy of your
school system before you assign grades for your singers.)
Singing Skills
The goals and objectives stated earlier in the chapter identify the singing skills that
students should learn in choir. Chapters 7 and 8 will focus on the techniques for
teaching those skills to students of different ages. Teachers also need strategies for
assessing students’ development in this important area. Certain aspects of singing
skills can be measured during a dedicated assessment time that occurs either dur-
ing rehearsal, during lunch, or after school. In this scenario the students come to
you when they are ready to demonstrate a particular skill, such as singing an arpeg-
gio on five vowels with a supported tone that stays consistent in different registers.
Video recording can also be used for such assessments, but both assessment and
feedback on these skills may happen more efficiently in a one-on-one situation.
TESTING PARTS. When students know they will be held accountable for
knowing their vocal part for each piece of music in rehearsal, they will likely be
motivated to learn it more accurately and quickly. Because testing every student
on every piece would be impractical, you may want to consider testing only one
piece (your choice at the time of the test) or small portions of several pieces
(again, your choice at the time of the test). Modified in this way, the test will not
be too lengthy, but students will still need to be prepared on all music.
Another approach is to test in groups such as a mixed quartet of singers, but
this creates problems because one student’s mistake may throw off the others.
A different approach is to have singers record themselves singing along with

a digital recording or notation program playback of the music with their part
turned off. If you want to have solo testing, consider a system in which students
rotate through a practice room. Their starting pitches are prerecorded on a file
that they can play back and then record themselves singing. Such systems require
some start-up time to train your singers on the procedure, but once in place,
individual assessment can be accomplished even as you continue to rehearse the
full group.
Development of Musicianship Skills and Musical Knowledge

Singers should not only be able to sing quality music correctly and beautifully,
but should also be able to read music, participate in musical decision making,
and speak intelligently about musical style using correct terminology. In addi-
tion to the performance component, therefore, the choral experience should
include the development of musical knowledge and skills. Tests on sight-singing
technique, skill at rhythmic and melodic dictation, knowledge of musical terms,
and historical and cultural knowledge of the repertoire being rehearsed should
all be part of the curriculum and should be assessed in some way, providing tan-
gible evidence of student progress. Chapter 9 provides detailed information on
teaching and assessing musicianship skills in the choral classroom.
The Right Percentage

After deciding which set of competencies will make up your students’ grades,
you will need to decide what percentage of the grade each area will be worth.
For example:
Preparation and participation 30 percent
Singing skills 30 percent
Musicianship skills 20 percent
Musical knowledge 20 percent
Information on how grades are determined should be a part of your choral

handbook and posted on the choir webpage. In addition, expectations for com-
pleting assessments as well as the type and number of assessments per term should
be addressed. Informing everyone, before the grading period begins, about how
grades will be calculated allows students (and their parents/guardians) to know

what is expected of them.
Multiple Levels of Achievement

As the scenario at the beginning of the chapter illustrates, choir programs
typically feature students taking the same “class” for three to four years. Con-
sequently, teachers cannot use a “one size fits all” approach to assessment, and
instruction must be tailored to meet multiple levels of competency. You must
vary not only your repertoire but also the materials used to teach and assess
musicianship and group vocal techniques. One way to address multiple levels of
achievement in a single group is to offer multiple levels of assessment, sequenced
to reflect different degrees of skill over time. This approach allows students to
continue to demonstrate achievement, but at a level appropriate to their abili-
ties. Grades can be based not on aptitude but on achievement measured as pro-
gress through the various levels of musicianship.
MUSICIANSHIP LEVEL 1
______ 1. Demonstrate a positive attitude and a willingness to work.

______ 2. Demonstrate the proper breathing technique for singing.
______ 3. Demonstrate the proper posture for good singing.
______ 4. Sing a major scale and arpeggio with good tone and intonation.
______ 5. Sing your part correctly from any song currently in rehearsal (director’s choice).
______ 6. Perform with no errors any two of the eight rhythmic exercises from the
Level 1 rhythm reading sheet (director’s choice).
______ 7. Perform with no errors the first ten interval patterns of the intervals handout.
______ 8. Sight-sing a simple melody from the Level 1 melody sheet (director’s choice).
______ 9. Define with 100 percent accuracy the following terms:
soprano, alto, tenor, bass, sharp, flat, treble clef, bass clef, time signature,
measure, interval, double bar line, a cappella, accompaniment, unison.
STUDENT’S NAME:_________________________________________
DATE COMPLETED:_________________________________________
Congratulations!
Figure 4.2 Sample musicianship levels for assessment. © Cengage Learning 2014. (continued)
MUSICIANSHIP LEVEL 3
______ 1. Attain Musicianship Levels 1 and 2.

______ 2. Demonstrate a positive attitude and a willingness to work.
______ 3. Successfully lead one sectional or warm-up period.
______ 4. Sing your part correctly from any foreign language song currently in
rehearsal, and demonstrate proper diction (director’s choice).
______ 5. Correctly complete rhythmic dictation Level 1.
______ 6. Demonstrate conducting patterns for 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4 meters.
______ 7. Sing any major, natural minor, or harmonic minor scale on solfège.
______ 8. Sight-sing a melody from the melody sheet for Level 3 (director’s choice).
______ 9. Sight-sing your part correctly for a simple chorale with a small group
(SATB).
_____ 10. Demonstrate your knowledge of and ability to perform the following:
a. Crescendo and decrescendo
b. Staccato and legato
c. Accent
d. Sforzando
e. p, mp, mf, f
STUDENT’S NAME:_________________________________________
DATE COMPLETED:_________________________________________
Congratulations!
Figure 4.2 Continued
Figure 4.2 illustrates two sample musicianship sheets that could be used with
high school students. Notice that although similar types of skills are evaluated
at each level, in keeping with your curricular goals, the difficulty level increases
(spiral curriculum), as does the expectation for musical independence and lead-
ership. The curriculum can be set up to start everyone on Level 1, knowing that
some students will progress rapidly through the early levels, whereas others will
move more slowly. Another option is to assign levels, based on each student’s
performance at the time of auditions or vocal evaluations. By individualizing as-
sessment in this way, students can track their own progress and take the initiative
to advance at their own rate. This system can serve as a powerful motivator,
and may encourage your students to work harder, both inside and outside
class. It also identifies clearly your “vision” for the success of students in your
program.
Working this closely with individual singers will certainly keep you informed
of their progress as well as their struggles, but like any assessment system it in-
volves a great deal of time. As your advanced students progress to higher levels,
however, they can help you by assisting in the preparation and assessment of stu-
dents at the first and second levels as they attempt to demonstrate various skills.
The blank in front of each activity is for your initials (or those of an advanced
student who is serving in your place). When everything has been performed cor-
rectly at each particular level, you may want to present those students with a
certificate of achievement.
Notice that students must demonstrate a positive attitude and a willingness
to work on each level. If they have been successful at all other activities on the
sheet but have an uncooperative attitude or cause problems during rehearsal,
they cannot achieve that level until this problem is corrected. The musical skills
and cognitive information tested at each level are competencies that must be
taught and reinforced in class.
Summary
Developed in 1994, the National Standards for Arts Education have gradually
changed the way courses in the arts are taught, challenging all arts teachers to in-
clude a wider variety of experiences and learning opportunities. In response to these
standards, choral directors at every level must broaden the focus on performance
to include a systematic study of sight-singing skills, vocal technique, style, history,
aural skills, basic theory, and music terminology. When the preparation for perfor-
mance is enhanced in this way, students who graduate from choral programs at the
secondary level will be independent musicians with a broad base of knowledge, skill,
and experience. Hopefully, this achievement will motivate them to continue singing
throughout their lifetime.
Choir directors must find ways to assess the individual achievement of their stu-
dents in efficient and meaningful ways. The benefit of a clear assessment system is
that it clarifies the educational goals of the choir program and can actually increase
student achievement. Assessment provides communication to students, parents,
and administrators as to the student’s successes as well as areas that need improve-
ment. It also holds the teacher accountable for student learning, and provides data
to guide improvements to the program. The evaluation process must be systematic
and objective, not only to ensure that students’ grades are an accurate reflection of
their learning, but also that the grades can be justified to parents and administrators.
Students’ grades should be a reflection of what has taken place in the classroom.
Mini-Projects
1. Visit your local school district offices and request copies of their
curriculum guides for choral music at the middle school/junior high and high
school levels. Discuss the contents with your classmates.
2. Compare and contrast the curriculum guides from your local school
district with the National Standards for Arts Education found in the booklet
National Standards for Arts Education: What Every Young American Should
Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts.
3. Compare and contrast the National Standards for Arts Education
(music) with the music education standards for your state.
4. Ask several area choral directors to share with you their method of
assessment and grading. Compare the various methods, and decide which
aspects of each would be effective, appropriate, and fair.
5. Design an assessment to measure some aspect of choral performance.
Make sure that you are clear about the specific objective you are measuring and
that the form is easy to use and understand. How would you implement this in
a rehearsal setting?
References
Barrett, Janet R. 2005. Planning for understanding: A reconceptualized
view of the music curriculum. Music Educators Journal 91 (4): 21–27.
Broomhead, Paul. 2001. Individual expressive performance: Its
relationship to ensemble achievement, technical achievement, and musical
background. Journal of Research in Music Education 49: 71–84.
Bruner, Jerome. 1960. The process of education. Cambridge: Harvard

University Press.
Demorest, Steven M. 1998. Improving sight-singing performance in
the choral ensemble: The effect of individual testing. Journal of Research in
Music Education 46: 182–92.
———. 2001. Building choral excellence: Teaching sight-singing in the choral
rehearsal. New York: Oxford University Press.
Demorest, Steven M., and William V. May. 1995. Sight-singing
instruction in the choral ensemble: Factors related to individual sight-
singing performance. Journal of Research in Music Education 43: 156–67.
Henry, Michele, and Steven M. Demorest. 1994. Individual sight-
singing achievement in successful choral ensembles: A preliminary study.
Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 13 (1): 4–8.
Standerfer, Stephanie, and Lisa R. Hunter. 2010. Square peg for a
square hole: A standards- and repertoire-based curriculum model. Music
Additional Reading
Dunbar-Hall, Peter. 2005. Colliding perspectives? Music curriculum as
cultural studies. Music Educators Journal 91 (4): 33–37.
Handley, Betty, and Janet Montgomery. 2005. Challenges to music
education: Curriculum reconceptualized. Music Educators Journal 91 (4): 17–20.
Keenan-Takagi, Kathleen. 2000. Embedding assessment in choral
teaching. Music Educators Journal 86 (4): 42–46, 63.
Kerchner, Jody L. 2001. Incorporating the National Standards in
performance classes. Teaching Music 9 (1): 41–44.
National Standards for Arts Education: What every young American should
know and be able to do in the arts. 1994. Reston, VA: Music Educators
National Conference.
Reimer, Bennett. 2004. Reconceiving the standards and the school music
program. Music Educators Journal 91 (1): 33–37.
CHAPTER 5
Repertoire
Otis has just been hired as the choral director at Shaw High School, and it is time to order
music for fall. Even though he is a first-year teacher, he isn’t worried about choosing music
because he has kept a list of the quality repertoire performed by his university choirs. He has
been eagerly anticipating the day when he could direct this music with his own choirs, and that
time has finally arrived. Otis finds his list, chooses and orders music, spends many hours in
preparation for the first rehearsal, and introduces each piece with enthusiasm to his advanced
choir. Otis is surprised to find the singers struggling with sight-singing, the sopranos and
tenors are having great difficulty reaching their extreme notes, and two singers on a part is
proving to be a problem. In addition, the text isn’t resonating with the choir. After just one re-
hearsal, Otis begins wondering whether his selections are wise choices for his high school choir.
Selection of Repertoire
The choice of repertoire is critical to the success of your choral program. It is
not an overstatement to say that it may be the most important element for your
success. The music to be rehearsed and performed constitutes the core of the
choral curriculum, and because the choice of music has the potential to affect all
else that transpires during an entire year of choir, decisions must be made care-
fully. Just as people “are what they eat,” choirs essentially “are what they sing.” In
the opening scenario for this chapter, Otis ordered quality music that he loves,
carefully prepared it for his high school choir, and presented it with enthusiasm.
However, it became apparent very quickly that these pieces were inappropriate,
because they were selected without considering such factors as the ability level
and size of the choir, as well as the singers’ ages, ranges, and vocal abilities and
limitations.
92
REPERTOIRE 93
So what should guide a teacher’s repertoire choices? The number and types of
concerts (holiday, themed, spring, pops) planned for the year can help shape music
selection. Lists of choral music by voicing and difficulty level are provided by many
state music organizations as guidelines for contest and festival participation. With
the huge variety and quantity of music available to choral directors, choosing rep-
ertoire is a challenging, time-consuming, yet extremely important task.
In addition to keeping your choir’s abilities and experiences in mind, you must
strive to balance many competing priorities. For example, you want repertoire that
appeals to students and engages them in learning while challenging them in new
ways. You want to offer concerts that are entertaining to audiences yet have educa-
tional substance for your students. You want to give students a variety of musical
selections while providing opportunities to understand the music in depth. You
also have to think about how many different concerts you will present as that
decision will affect the amount of time you have to adequately rehearse the music.
Balancing Your Repertoire Choices

As you select music for your choirs to rehearse and perform, you will face many
choices, and you will make many important decisions as you seek to find balance
in your repertoire. One of the most fundamental issues to address is balancing
the goal of education with that of student engagement. Students will learn about
music through the repertoire you choose, so it is always important to choose
high-quality repertoire that represents its particular genre with integrity, be it
Baroque or Broadway. Equally important, the music must also have the poten-
tial to make an emotional impact on them. Such emotions provide the primary
motivation in performing ensembles, and will draw students back to choir year
after year. This is one of the unique features of participating in a music ensem-
ble: the opportunity to experience deeply-felt emotions as part of an art form.
Balancing Difficulty
Choral directors must also strike a balance between challenging the students yet
not exceeding their comfort level. To help your choir members grow as musicians
and singers, you will want to choose several selections that will stretch their abil-
ities. Students will respond to a challenge, but they may also be overwhelmed
and frustrated by goals that are too ambitious at that time. A good balance will
94REPERTOIRE
feature a majority of music right at or very slightly above the choir’s ability level,
one or two selections that are difficult (for that choir), and one or two easier se-
lections that can be perfected with relative ease. The fulcrum ideas in Figure 5.1
are a good visual aid for showing the balance of difficulty in your program. If
you choose a piece that is on the technically difficult side of the balance, you
should counterbalance it with a correspondingly easy piece. If you always choose
repertoire that is technically difficult, you will spend all your rehearsal time
teaching only the basics (pitches and rhythms), with little time to consider the
more advanced musical aspects of the choral art. Remember, it is better to do a
more musical performance of a technically simple piece than to do a mediocre
performance of a more difficult one. As the saying goes, sometimes less is more!
Technically Easy Technically Difficult
Figure 5.1 Visualizing the balance of repertoire difficulty. © Cengage Learning 2014.
REPERTOIRE 95
Choose a Variety of Music

A different kind of balance must be found between the many styles of music
available for rehearsal and performance. Because you may be the sole person
directing your students’ exposure to choral music, you must accept the respon-
sibility of helping them to experience the “big picture” of choral literature. In a
single year, it is impossible to sing all styles of music, but over two, three, or four
years in choir, students should have the opportunity to rehearse and perform a
balanced repertoire representative of the broad range of choral music traditions.
This balanced repertoire should include music from various periods of music
history, sometimes called the musical “canon,” as well as contemporary choral
music, vocal jazz, music from other cultures, and good arrangements of folk,
spiritual, Broadway, pop, and gospel music. How you achieve that balance is up
to you, but make sure your choices represent a wide variety of styles. Directors
sometimes assume that pieces from the historical canon are “too difficult” for
middle school or high school students, but a conscientious search of the reper-
toire reveals a variety of difficulty levels (see for example, Anderson 2002). In
fact, the harmony and voice leading of traditional repertoire is often easier to
grasp than that of contemporary music or jazz.
Repertoire in languages other than English should be explored for several
reasons. First, it may be some students’ first encounter with a foreign language,
whereas other students will feel a sense of pride when they hear their first lan-
guage spoken or sung in school. Second, choosing languages such as Italian or
Latin can provide important opportunities for developing choral tone and dic-
tion, free from the habits of one’s first language. Finally, using foreign languages
opens up a greater variety of repertoire from which to choose. A word of caution,
however; foreign language texts require approximately 20 percent more rehearsal
time for a choir to master a piece, so select and plan accordingly.
A balance should be struck between a cappella and accompanied selections,
and, whenever possible and appropriate, instrumental accompaniments other
than piano should be used. The skills required to sustain one’s part a cappella
cannot be learned in any other way, whereas singing with an orchestra, pipe
organ, or chamber ensemble introduces yet another set of musical challenges and
rewards. In addition, choir members should experience music suitable for small
ensembles as well as for large choral groups. Singing with a small group provides
96REPERTOIRE
opportunity to develop musical independence and sensitivity to other singers in

an intimate musical setting. On the other hand, if the choral program has the
resources (both musical and financial), consider combining all choirs at a concert
to perform a major work, with members of the school orchestra or band provid-
ing accompaniment. Performing in this combination will provide a large-group
experience for those singers in smaller choirs, as well as an opportunity for all
choir members to perform with an instrumental ensemble (and for the instru-
mental ensemble to perform with a choral group). School music may be the only
chance some students will have to experience such a special performance. This
experience can also contribute to a feeling of solidarity and cooperation across
the entire music department. Such a unified spirit often spills over into musical
performance, and in this way, becomes a musical benefit as well.
Choose Music That Excites You

A large dose of enthusiasm is often necessary to “sell” choir members on a par-
ticular piece of music. Even with enthusiasm, this task may at times feel insur-
mountable. Imagine attempting it when you yourself aren’t sold on the music!
Students will sense your lack of excitement and will respond (or rather, not
respond) accordingly. If you aren’t excited about the music, the choir rarely will
be. This is not to suggest that if you do not particularly enjoy Baroque or Broad-
way music, that you should avoid all contact with selections from these genres.
Directors should strive continually to broaden their tastes to include a variety of
styles, cultures, languages, eras, and composers.
Sometimes a choir won’t respond positively to a particular selection even
when the director is rehearsing it with enthusiasm. If this happens often, the
novice choral director may become concerned enough to put the piece aside. At
this point, the choir, not the director, is choosing the repertoire. Students will
learn that if they don’t like a particular selection, all they have to do is let you
know (often in rather creative ways!), and the music will be dropped. Although
it is important to consider student requests for music (and you certainly don’t
want to choose music that students actively dislike), the director is the one with
the education and experience required to make these decisions.
A great technique for motivating and engaging students in musical learning is
to involve them in the music selection process. One way of doing this is to choose
REPERTOIRE 97
several selections of quality music that are appropriate for the choir. Then, after
sight-singing each piece or listening to recordings, the students can vote on
which of the pieces they would like to learn and perform. In this way, students
will understand that they have a stake in the choice of music. This activity is a
great opportunity for students to learn about evaluating music and music per-
formance, especially if you have the choir discuss the various selections and why
they prefer one piece over another. As students become more skilled or more
interested, the director could choose to “unlock” the choral library and involve
students even more actively in repertoire selection. This is also a great way to
start students thinking about appropriate repertoire for small ensembles they
may create on their own.
Ranges and Tessituras of Each Voice Part

The range of a particular voice part may be defined as the compass of its music
from the lowest to the highest note. Tessitura may be defined as the area within
the range where most of the notes occur for that voice part. Therefore, tessitura
is concerned with the part of the range most used and not with any extreme
notes that define the range of a voice part.
For example, the lowest note in the soprano part of a particular musical selec-
tion is c1, and the highest note is g2. Therefore, the range for the soprano is c1
to g2, or an octave and a fifth. Closer inspection of the music reveals that the
majority of notes sung by the sopranos fall between e1 and e2. This octave is the
tessitura for the soprano part1.
Obviously, your choir will sound its best when singing music with a tessitura
that falls within the singers’ comfortable range, but not all music falls neatly
within these prescribed parameters. In searching for repertoire, you may find a
piece (or section of a piece) that falls outside the ranges or tessituras appropriate
1
The system for notating pitch registers used in this book is as follows:
w w
? w w
&
w w
C c c1 c1 c2 c3
98REPERTOIRE
for the various sections of your choir. Should this music be put aside? Perhaps,
but first ask yourself several questions:
1. What vowel is sung on the extreme note(s)? If the answer is an open vowel
(such as “ah”), you may still want to consider the selection. In general, it is
much more difficult to sing in extremely high registers on closed vowels.
2. What is the duration of the extreme notes? Do the sopranos sing a2 for
four measures on a closed vowel sound? Such a situation may present
problems for an inexperienced choir.
3. How are the extreme notes approached? If these notes are preceded by a
wide and awkward leap, singers may have difficulty executing the notes
with the proper vocal technique. If, however, a stepwise motion leads
naturally to the extreme notes, the choir may not experience a problem.
4. What is the dynamic level of the notes in question? Extreme dynamics (pp
or ff) coupled with notes outside a comfortable range may cause difficulty.
5. Are the notes in question exposed, or are they supported by other sections
of the choir? If the tenor section has a limited range and the music in
question features several g1’s in an unaccompanied tenor solo passage
(which also serves as the emotional climax of the piece), you may want to
put this piece aside for another year.
Considering the Text

The textual component of choral music sets it apart from many other musical
arts and should thus be carefully considered when choosing music. In writing
choral music, a composer usually selects the words before writing the music. In
fact, text alone will often suggest to the composer such factors as the form, char-
acter, style, texture, harmonic language, and melodic structure of a musical com-
position. Because text plays such an important role in the choral art, you must
look carefully at the words of a composition as well as the composer’s setting of
them as you select repertoire. Questions to be asked include:
1. Is the text of such value that it can stand alone as a selection of quality
literature? (One helpful rule of thumb is to see if the words and music
are by the same person. If that person is Cole Porter, you’re still on safe
ground, but most people specialize in one or the other of those tasks.)
REPERTOIRE 99
A quality piece of choral literature will not likely emerge from an

inferior text.
2. Did the composer do justice to the text in the musical setting, or does the
musical setting move contrary to the intent of the text? In other words,
does the composition feature a thoughtful wedding of text and music?
3. Was the composer sensitive to word stress? Do musical and textual accents fall
simultaneously, or do they work against one another? (Note: Certain well-known
composers purposely chose to disregard or confound textual stress as a
compositional technique.)
4. If the original language is not used, does the translation retain enough
meaning, character, and word stress of the original? When a translation is
used, the music can lose its unique cultural flavor.
5. If the choir has the musical ability to perform the piece, does it also
have the emotional maturity to understand the text and deliver it in a
convincing manner? Young choir members may have difficulty relating to a
text simply because they don’t have relevant life experiences.
6. Will the text appeal to choir members? This is a critical issue, especially with
young choirs. Adolescent boys and girls can be very sensitive to the texts that
they perform. Teachers must build in time for discussion of the poetry itself
and its possible meanings, as well as how the composer interpreted it. Be
careful not to limit boys to sea chanteys and cowboy songs and girls to songs
about flowers, lest you reinforce the very gender stereotypes that cause so
much difficulty in choir and beyond. Yet you must be sure that the content is
such that your singers can understand and identify with the message.
Balancing Sacred and Secular Music

One important balancing act of choral music in particular involves the choice of
secular and sacred music. Does music with a sacred text have a place in public
schools? Both the American Choral Directors Association (ACDA) and The
National Association for Music Education (NAfME) say yes. Each of these
national music organizations gives good reasons, explanations, and guidelines to
help in this matter. You can review these discussions as well as summaries of the
legal history of this important and often controversial issue at http://acda.org/
and http://www.NAfME.org/.
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All public school educators should familiarize themselves with the two clauses
in the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States regarding free-
dom of religion and separation of church and state: “Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”
These clauses do not say that sacred music cannot be performed in schools;
in fact, numerous court decisions have upheld the use of sacred music in the
schools when the music has a clear historical and educational benefit (Kasparian
1997). These clauses do mean that government (public schools) should neither
advance nor inhibit a particular religion or religions in general. NAfME suggests
that music teachers use the following criteria to ensure conformity with the con-
stitutional standards of religious neutrality:
1. Is the music selected on the basis of its musical and educational value
rather than its religious context?
2. Does the teaching of music with sacred text focus on musical and artistic
considerations?
3. Are the traditions of different people shared and respected?
4. Is the role of sacred music one of neutrality, neither promoting nor
inhibiting religious views?
5. Are all local and school policies regarding religious holidays and the use of
sacred music observed?
6. Is the use of sacred music and religious symbols or scenery avoided? Is
performance in devotional settings avoided?
7. Is sensitivity to the various religious beliefs represented by the students
and parents observed?2
Imagine a course in art or architecture without studying the great master-

pieces of sacred subjects or the great cathedrals of Europe. A great deal of
music literature in general, and choral music in particular, comes from reli-
gious traditions and holds a substantial place in music history. To be compre-
hensive in nature, choral music set to religious texts must be included in your
repertoire choices. Whenever possible, however, a variety of faiths should be
represented in your sacred programming, to honor the great multiplicity of
2
Source: http://musiced.nafme.org/about/position-statements/sacred-music-in-schools.
REPERTOIRE 101
traditions in the world. Select your music, both sacred and secular, for musi-
cal reasons and for the educational value of studying and performing such
literature.
Inclusion of sacred music is a critical and difficult balancing act. Knowledge
of the First Amendment, awareness of relevant policies in your own district, and
working with parents and administrators to ensure that the policy is consistently
and fairly applied are all extremely important. Failure to comply may cause legal
problems—or worse, the loss of your job.
Accompaniment
When choosing music, keep in mind the resources for accompaniment in
rehearsal and performance. If an accomplished pianist from the community
or a fellow faculty member is willing and able to serve as accompanist, this
fortunate situation can facilitate the performance of literature with more dif-
ficult piano accompaniments. More than likely, however, a student (or several)
will serve as an accompanist, so make an accurate appraisal of their abilities
and choose music accordingly. The accompanist is a critical part of the choral
program—both in rehearsal and in performance. Even a choral director who is
a strong pianist and who perhaps accompanies his or her choirs in rehearsals
should plan on using an accompanist for performances (and include several
rehearsals with the accompanist prior to the performance). Nothing can sub-
stitute for having your full attention on the singers and their full attention on
you as their conductor.
When considering performance of a larger work that calls for instrumental
accompaniment, check with the band and/or orchestra director at your school
to see if players are available both for rehearsals and performance(s), and if they
are able to perform the parts in question. If the budget allows, fill in crucial or
missing parts with players from outside the school, while filling a majority of the
parts with school band or orchestra players.
If a larger work is chosen and the piano reduction of the orchestral parts is
to be used as accompaniment, look carefully at the reduction. Does it retain the
character of the music? Is it written awkwardly so that the pianist will have dif-
ficulty playing it? Many reductions prove nearly unplayable, so review several
editions of the music (when available).
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Likewise, when considering choral music originally written for organ accompa-
niment for which piano will be substituted, look carefully at the accompaniment.
Is it adaptable to the piano? Is the organ’s wide variety of timbre essential? Does too
much of the piece feature long, sustained sections that would better be performed
on the organ? Unless the basic nature of the piece is retained and the accompani-
ment is easily adaptable to the piano, put the music aside until you have opportu-
nity to perform it with an organ.
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Arrangements and Transcriptions

In choosing choral arrangements or transcriptions for choirs, ask the following
questions:
1. Does the arrangement remain true to the intent of the original

composition? For example, spirituals can often be overly arranged, and
some arrangements of popular music can prove frustrating when the
choral arrangement is different enough from the rendition the students
know to cause confusion. You will be able to judge better the quality of the
arrangement if you know the style and form of the original.
2. When a piece is transcribed or rearranged from one choir voicing to
another (SATB to SSA, for example), does the transcription change the
essential nature of the piece? Does the text still work? Is the harmonic
structure still intact when one voice part is deleted? Often the best
transcriptions don’t simply remove a part, but rewrite the new parts to
maintain the characteristic sound of the original. For example, although
SSA arrangements can have the bottom two voices scored in close
proximity, the register of TBB music makes such scoring difficult to hear.
3. Sometimes teachers feel compelled to arrange or “rearrange” a piece of
music to fit the specific vocal needs of their group, especially in middle
school. This can be as simple as switching the tenor and alto parts for five
measures and as complicated as resetting the music for a different part
configuration, such as SSA to SAB or SATB to three-part mixed. As with
the choice of arrangements and transcriptions, you need to be sure that the
character of the original is maintained as much as possible. If your version
is just a revoicing or reassigning of parts, the original arranger should be
credited. It is your arrangement only if you started from scratch with the
original melody.
Choosing Music from a Variety of Cultures

Many music publishers today are eager to profit from the trend toward multicul-
tural music. (After all, music publishing is a business like any other.) However, in
an effort to produce a wide range of products, publishers sometimes fail to evaluate
how well a particular selection actually represents the original culture. For example,
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performing a pop piece written by an American composer in Japanese doesn’t re-

sult in authentic Japanese music, just as adding a ukulele to a jazz standard arrange-
ment doesn’t produce Hawaiian music. Although directors cannot be expected to
be well-versed in all musical cultures, some features in published music from un-
familiar cultures can help steer you in the right direction. Good editions of world
music usually come with detailed information about the music and its origins, as
well as suggestions for performance practice (such as instrumentation, improvisa-
tion, or movement). In addition, try to find music accompanied by a pronuncia-
tion guide, so that the original language (so often not found in traditional diction
books) can be sung. Questions you might ask yourself are: (1) Was this piece
arranged by someone from the original culture? (2) Can I find a recording of addi-
tional music from this culture or cultural style to use as a guide? (3) Is there some-
one in the community who knows this musical culture and could help the choir
prepare? Make sure you are performing selections that represent as authentically as
possible the style and character of the culture of origin. Do your homework!
Size of Choir
You should consider the size of your various choirs when selecting repertoire.
Small ensembles (12–24 singers), by their very nature, will exhibit a more
transparent sound than ensembles of larger size; therefore, the selection of
Verdi’s Requiem would certainly be inappropriate for your chamber choir, even
if they have the ability to perform it vocally. The nature of the piece requires
larger forces to do it justice. Likewise, the lightness and intimate nature of Eng-
lish madrigals will suffer if performed by a choir of large proportions. Consider
the circumstances in which the piece was originally written. This will serve as a
guide in selecting appropriate music for a particular choir.
Vocal Maturity of Choir

Just as the text must be appropriate for the emotional maturity of the choir, the
music must suit the vocal maturity of the singers. The selected music should allow
the students’ voices to develop naturally without putting potentially harmful de-
mands upon them. Extreme dynamics, extreme ranges over a long period of time,
and excessive length of a selection are examples of characteristics that should often
be avoided when choosing music appropriate to the vocal maturity of your choir.
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Texture
Especially for those choirs just learning to sing in parts, the texture of the music
may be an important consideration. Unison literature is one of the best tools for
building choral tone and blend as well as providing immediate opportunities to
explore expressive singing. However, unison singing in octaves may prove to be
nearly impossible for choirs with boys whose voices are changing. If the range of
the entire melody is too great, choose an excerpt with a more limited range for
unison practice. In simple polyphonic music, the melodic nature of the imitative
vocal lines may be easier to grasp for young, inexperienced singers, more than
the often unmelodic, block harmonies found in homophonic music. A melodic
part gives singers something to hold onto as their ears hear the other parts sing-
ing something different at the same time.
Potential Audiences
Remember that the listener is an integral part of the choral experience, along
with the composer, the director, and the choir. When you are selecting music
for the year, keep in mind the potential audiences who will hear the perfor-
mances. This is an area often neglected. In any given audience on any given
occasion, a wide variety of listeners will be present, and each will come to
the concert with different expectations. In addition to entertaining them,
you want to educate your audience and broaden their musical experiences, so
they will leave the concert feeling comfortable with a wider range of choral
styles.
Although both serious and light selections have their place in most concert
programs, the occasion itself can guide selection of the type of music that should
predominate. A performance for an ACDA convention suggests a very differ-
ent focus from that of a performance for a local civic club luncheon. The former
is a formal concert on a stage and should feature more music of a more seri-
ous nature. This audience will be predominantly choral directors hoping to hear
choirs singing at their very best, as well as to hear new repertoire that they might
use with their own choirs. The latter is an after-dinner performance at which
the audience is sipping coffee and finishing dessert. This audience will probably
expect and enjoy a program that emphasizes light and entertaining music. Both
concerts will require strong preparation and quality music, but the genres and
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styles will certainly be different. Such considerations will be covered in more
detail in the next chapter on programming concerts.
Where to Find Music

Teachers are constantly bombarded with notices from publishers advertising mu-
sical “showstoppers that can’t miss.” Remember that the publishers are trying to
provide you with what they think you want— and, more importantly, will pay for—
but they can’t know the needs of your curriculum or your students. In addition,
it is often less profitable for them to recommend older established pieces, since
those can often be acquired for free. However, many publishers provide a good
representation of different styles and periods of music in the full catalogue avail-
able on their websites. Conscientious choral directors constantly have their eyes
and ears open for new and interesting music for their choirs, as well as older
pieces they may not know. Just where can you look and listen for new repertoire?
Concerts
One of the best ways to find new literature is to attend as many choral concerts
as possible. Not only listen carefully, but also write notes about the music di-
rectly on the programs and keep them for future reference. This process gives
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you the benefit of hearing the music live, performed by a choir. Even a less-than-
impressive choral performance can give you a more accurate idea about a choral
piece than a run-through at the piano.
In addition to live concerts, the Internet in general and YouTube in particu-
lar are wonderful resources for accessing and evaluating choral performances of
various pieces. Although you may go to a site in search of one piece, you will have
the opportunity to hear various choral groups perform the same piece, and other
pieces by the same composer may be featured. This may lead you down a time-
intensive path in your music search. But, again, this is one of your best resources
for actually hearing the music performed, often by singers the same age as those
in your choir, and that is invaluable! More and more choirs are making their per-
formances available on YouTube, in podcasts, and in other publically accessible
formats. These opportunities will only increase as technology makes it easier for
choirs to record and share their performances.
Colleagues
Make friends with fellow choral directors who may have a teaching assignment
similar to yours, and schedule time to share literature with each another. This
sharing should include music that has worked successfully with your choirs as well
as those pieces that have presented problems. Knowing what hasn’t worked with
other groups is as valuable as knowing what has. For new choir teachers, it is vital
to make connections with experienced teachers in your area. They can offer in-
sights on repertoire choices and even lend you music to help keep your costs down.
Conventions
A music convention often seems like one continuous, glorious concert and can
offer a wealth of music to consider for your choir. In addition, the convention
presents a chance to hear performances by some of the best state, national and
international choirs in each age group. As you evaluate each group’s repertoire,
however, keep in mind potential disparities between the group’s abilities and
those of your own singers. Try to remain realistic within your inspiration!
The wealth of music at conventions isn’t limited to the concert stage. Make
sure to attend reading sessions of new music, interest sessions, and workshops
on various aspects of the choral art. Often a packet of free music is provided for
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all those in attendance. In between the concerts and interest sessions, be sure to
visit the exhibit hall, where you can put your name on publishers’ mailing lists,
peruse the music on display, and often gather free single copies for your files.
Note that publisher-sponsored reading sessions usually feature newly published
works, which can be valuable but limiting. Other offerings, such as “tried and
proven” sessions in which teachers put together packets for each other, often
contain a better balance of old and new.
Music Retailers and Publishers

Many local music stores are willing to supply single copies of choral music for
review if asked. Larger music stores may offer music reading sessions several
times a year. These provide a good opportunity to sing the music with your col-
leagues rather than having to play it on the piano. In addition, a reading session
gives you a chance to confer with your colleagues about choral literature that
works. Paying the fee for the reading session often means that you get a large
packet of music to take home and add to your single-copy files.
Many music retailers have replaced their printed catalogues with online
resources. Publishers’ websites are great resources for searching music by type
and voicing, though you are limited by what their catalogues list. Publishers are
also increasingly offering sample recordings and PDF excerpts of scores online.
For example, J. W. Pepper (www.jwpepper.com), Walton (www.waltonmusic.
com), and earthsongs (www.earthsongschoralmusic.com) provide sound clips
(sometimes of entire pieces) as well as copies of the music for you to see. Often
the visual copies include only the first two pages of the score, so be sure to order
a single copy and evaluate the entire piece before committing to a larger order.
You may be in for some unexpected surprises if you don’t!
Choral Public Domain Library

A wonderful Internet resource for free choral music is the Choral Public Do-
main Library (CPDL, at http://www1.cpdl.org/wiki/). Music and lyrics pub-
lished in 1922 or earlier are in the public domain, meaning that no individual can
claim ownership of them. Much of the historical choral music is old enough that
it is not protected by copyright (though modern editions of the music are). Con-
sequently, anyone can create an original edition of an older piece of music and
REPERTOIRE 109
share it without violating copyright law. At the time of this writing, the CPDL
featured more than 800 contributors from around the world who had posted over
13,000 scores representing almost 2000 composers. Because CPDL is a “wiki”
resource, there is no editorial control over the quality of the scores other than
the community comments regarding mistakes for any particular score. For this
reason, CPDL works best as a resource for finding music you already know you
need (for example, the oratorios of Handel, the masses of Mozart and Haydn,
Bach motets and cantatas, and hundreds of Renaissance motets, chansons,
and so on). This resource is particularly valuable because of the high fees pub-
lishers charge for many of these larger works, as well as the dearth of early music
in the catalogues of many contemporary publishers.
The easiest way to use CPDL is to search for a particular title or composer
you know you want. (The site also offers the option of searching by style period,
genre, and voicing for those who wish to browse.) Although CPDL contains
many editions of historical choral music, anyone can post personal compositions
there—so it helps to know what you are looking for. Here is one additional note
of caution: If you find a score you need on CPDL, it is important to check it for
accuracy against a reputable published edition. Although many of the editions
posted are quite good, some of the amateur editors are not as careful as one
would hope and mistakes are common.
Contest and Festival Lists

Many states print lists of choral music for use in their annual choral festivals or
contests. These lists are extremely helpful because the music is listed by voicing
and often by difficulty level, and publication information is included as well.
Check to see if your state has such a list or look online for the well-established
lists offered by other states, such as Wisconsin, New York, and Texas.
Recordings
Listen continuously to good recordings of choral music and begin to create your
own “listening library.” In addition to building your repertoire list, this practice
will continually surround you with performances by different choral ensembles.
Such listening habits may help to shape and refine your concept of choral tone
and will often present varying interpretations of music to consider. Occasionally,
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you may want to play one of your past choir’s recordings for your current choir,
to illustrate a certain interpretation or tone quality.
Professional Journals
Publishers often advertise in professional journals, announcing seasonal offer-
ings or the latest music from specific composers. Especially helpful is the sec-
tion of the Choral Journal devoted to reviews of new music and new recordings.
Choral directors study new releases and review recordings of choral music to
help readers make wise purchases. In addition, ACDA publishes articles about
repertoire and repertoire-focused monographs. Some of these are included in
the Additional Readings section at the end of this chapter.
When to Order Music

Auditions, when they happen, often occur during preregistration in the spring.
This timetable allows students to create their schedules for the next year. It also
allows the choir director to gain a sense of the ability level and size of next year’s
groups so as to make wise repertoire decisions. This practice usually allows
enough time for music to be ordered and received well in advance of the follow-
ing school year.
For example, if an unusually large number of beginning choral students have
auditioned for choir, you may safely assume you will have at least one beginning
choir whose sight-singing ability and vocal technique may be minimal. In this
case, choose music at an easy to moderate difficulty level and take into account
the ranges and tessituras identified for each student during the audition. The
number of selections ordered for this choir will probably be fewer than those
for more advanced choirs, simply because it will take more time for beginners to
learn and perfect each piece, and learning basic skills will constitute a larger part
of rehearsal time.
In a different scenario, an adequate number of advanced sopranos, altos, and
basses have auditioned for choir, but the tenor section, although not lacking in
quality, is lacking in numbers compared with the other sections. In this case,
avoid music that calls for the tenor part to divide. Likewise, if the alto section is
deficient in substantial voices and depth, choose music that does not feature the
alto section in its lower range.
REPERTOIRE 111
If you secure a new position in the spring before you actually begin teaching,
you may even have the luxury of attending auditions for the upcoming year.
After hearing each student, you should have enough information to help you
place singers in appropriate groups. In addition, you may get clues as to each
group’s strengths and weaknesses. This information should guide the choice
of repertoire for the year. If you are unable to attend auditions in the spring,
information about the choirs you will direct must be obtained from other
sources.
If the former choral director is available, make an appointment with him or her
to discuss ability levels and past repertoire. If this is not possible, secure programs
and recordings of the choirs’ performances during the past several years and lis-
ten carefully to determine the strengths and weaknesses of each group. Peruse
the choral library at the school, or the music files on the department computer
to get an idea of the type and difficulty level of music that the choirs have sung
in years past. Any information gleaned from these suggestions will help in mak-
ing wise repertoire choices for your choral groups. First-year teachers might also
consider ordering only the repertoire they need to begin the teaching year, so
that they have time to work with the students and get to know them before com-
mitting resources for the entire year.
If music has been ordered too late to be in the students’ hands on the first day
of class, consider beginning the year with several selections of music already in
the choral library that haven’t been sung in several years. Although you should
continually challenge yourself and your choirs with new and different music,
revisiting literature that has been performed in years past has value. Fortunately,
the longer the director is at a school, the larger the choral library will become.
This resource can provide quality literature when time (or money) prohibits you
from ordering new music.
Summary
Because you may be the sole person responsible for the music your students study
and perform each year, you must take this responsibility seriously and spend the
time required to choose wisely. The learning that takes place as a result of your
students’ contact with these musical selections forms the basis of their education in
choral music. A variety of quality music can help students become better singers and
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more intelligent musicians. By keeping in mind the balance of competing priorities

for repertoire selection, you can provide a comprehensive and meaningful choral
experience for your students.
Searching for quality literature for your choirs should continue throughout
your teaching career. Through the process of identifying and performing good
repertoire, both you and your students will grow musically. As you gather quality
music for your program, begin and maintain a single-copy file of all of your choral
music and organize it well. Keeping a choral music file on your computer or in “the
cloud” will place pertinent information on each piece at your fingertips, whenever
you need it. You can find more on organizing your choral library in Chapter 15.
Mini-Projects
1. Using any music available to you (such as music from your school’s
choral library, any single copies you may have collected, and any anthologies),
choose three or four selections that would be appropriate literature for the
choir described below. Give specific reasons for your choices.
The Park Manor High School Concert Choir consists of forty singers who are
either juniors or seniors. Their ability level is moderate, and their accompanist
is quite good. The sopranos are strong in number (thirteen) and ability; the
altos are not as strong in ability and smaller in number (nine); the tenors are
the weakest section, both in ability and number (five); the basses do good work
and consist of thirteen singers.
2. Obtain a current issue of Choral Journal and read several reviews of

new music. Using these journal reviews as a guide, write a review of one or
two pieces you chose in Mini-Project 1, as though you were writing for Choral
Journal. Include in your review: ranges and tessituras; vocal demands; difficulty
level; text; appropriate age group; and so on. This project will help you work
through a process similar to that you will use to select appropriate music for
your choirs.
3. Select two pieces that would be appropriate literature for a mixed
chamber choir of twenty-four voices and two pieces that would be appropriate
for a mixed choir of seventy-five singers.
REPERTOIRE 113
References
Anderson, Linda A. 2002. The foundation of artistry: An annotated
bibliography of distinctive choral literature for high school mixed choirs.
Monograph no. 11. Lawton, OK: American Choral Directors Association.
Kasparian, Faith D. 1997. The constitutionality of teaching and performing
sacred choral music in public schools. Duke Law Review 46: 1111–68.
Additional Reading
Buchanan, Heather, J., and Matthew W. Mehaffey, eds. 2005.
Teaching music through performance in choir. Vol. 1. Chicago: GIA
Publications.
———. 2007. Teaching music through performance in choir. Vol. 2. Chicago:
GIA Publications.
Jacobson, Joshua R., Robert P. Eaton, Catherine Connor-Moen,
Anthony Leach, and Thomas Lloyd. 2007. Approaches to teaching
sacred music in a secular context. Choral Journal 47 (9): 40–47.
Perry, Pamela. 2007. The selection of choral repertoire by high school
choral directors, Part I. Choral Journal 47 (9): 57–58.
Reames, Rebecca. 2001. High school choral directors’ description of
appropriate literature for beginning high school choirs. Journal of Research
CHAPTER 6
Programming and
Producing Concerts
Mr. Mitchell, a local high school choral director, is puzzled. At a local festival this week, he attended
three concerts by three outstanding choirs. All three groups sang interesting music that was care-
fully prepared, and the singers performed with finesse and enthusiasm. Why then, Mr. Mitchell
wonders, did only one of these three concerts prove to be a musically satisfying experience?
Taking a closer look at the programs for the three performances helps him understand
his reaction. He discovers that all the music performed by Choir No. 1 featured slow
tempi and a homophonic texture. In addition, several successive selections were written
in the same key. No wonder he began to nod off after the first few pieces!
Mr. Mitchell left the concert for Choir No. 2 feeling restless and unsettled. On closer
inspection, he finds no real continuity in the program order for this concert. The first
portion of the program was in the following order: a pop arrangement of a familiar tune;
a Renaissance motet; a rollicking gospel number; a very quiet, contemporary piece; and
finally, a selection from the Bach Magnificat in E♭. Listening to this program was like
riding on a roller coaster!
The answer to Mr. Mitchell’s question is even clearer when he looks at the program for
Choir No. 3. The director obviously gave careful consideration to the placement of every
selection on the concert program. Variety was certainly present, but the contrasting selec-
tions were placed in a musical sequence that made sense from beginning to end. Rather
than jumping from one point to another, the audience felt as though they had “traveled”
with the singers among the concert’s various points of interest.
114
PROGRAMMING AND PRODUCING CONCERTS 115
Now Mr. Mitchell understands. What created the difference in these three concerts
wasn’t the quality of music offered, the choir’s abilities and preparation, or the enthu-
siasm with which each choir performed. The difference was in the programming—the
order of music for each concert—that made the concert for Choir No. 3 an outstanding
performance and a musically satisfying experience.
Obviously, this scenario portrays two rather drastic examples of poor program-
ming. Although the quality of music and performance in all three concerts was
excellent, two of the three programs were out of balance in some way. This sce-
nario illustrates an issue that you may have experienced as an audience member
and that you will confront as a choral director. Thoughtful and artistic program-
ming can significantly affect the success of a concert performance. One of the
keys to artistic programming is the idea of balance.
Tips for Balanced Programming

The important job of choosing appropriate music for your choirs from a musical
and pedagogical standpoint has been discussed at length in Chapter 5. Deciding
how this music will be presented in concert is an important step in this process.
You should begin planning the performance order of pieces at the same time
you select the year’s music. When planning in this manner, you won’t find your-
self, two weeks before the concert, needing just “one more piece” to complete a
program. This way, you can consider the keys of the music, the tempi, and the
languages, and balance the difficulty, the styles, and the character of the pieces.
Balance is an important issue, especially when your choral budget may not be
large enough to accommodate any unwise purchases. Spending adequate time
to create a meaningful, balanced program will have a positive impact on the
quality of your students’ performance and will help ensure the audience’s enjoy-
ment of your concerts.
Balancing Styles and Genres

Choosing a variety of music is certainly a worthy goal for any concert and can
help sustain audience interest if programmed properly. Variety can be achieved
in a number of ways, including the selection of music from different cultures or
periods of music history that illustrate various styles and textures, or of music
116 PROGRAMMING AND PRODUCING CONCERTS
from the same period that illustrates different genres. For example, a concert
focusing on the madrigal or motet form and showing how different periods and
traditions have developed this form.
Balancing Keys and Tempi

Several selections sung in the same key can become monotonous for an audi-
ence and can affect the pitch accuracy and enthusiasm of the choir. Too many
successive pieces in a similar tempo may have the same effect. The impact on the
concert may be so subtle that the audience does not realize why they are losing
interest or becoming restless, and the singers (and you) may be puzzled about
why things aren’t going well musically. Careful attention to balancing keys and
tempi may help to avoid these problems.
The issue of balancing keys takes on an even more important role in an a cap-
pella concert. When performing several a cappella pieces in a row, the starting
pitch of the subsequent numbers can interact with the key used in the previ-
ous number. For example, if the key of a second piece is a half step below the
current piece (e.g., E followed by E♭), the second piece may sound flat to the
listener’s ears and the choir may be inclined to sharp it to compensate. This
isn’t as big a problem when the key moves up a half step, except for the choir’s
tendency to flat if they are still referencing the old key. The best choice is to
move at least a whole step in either direction between a cappella pieces. This
helps clearly establish the new key for singers and listeners alike. Key relation-
ships are important, but less of an issue with accompanied pieces, though one
relationship to avoid is the tritone. Musically the pairing of the lively “Simple
Gifts” followed by the reflective “Annie Laurie” makes a lot of sense, but the key
relationship from a final cadence in G to beginning “Annie Laurie” in D♭ is quite
jarring to the ear.
Balancing the Difficulty Level

Careful programming helps singers maintain a more consistent level of performance
throughout the concert, and balancing difficulty in your music choices can help.
After several pieces with demanding tessituras and dynamics, for example, insert a
composition that gives the choir an opportunity to recuperate. In addition to help-
ing the choir, the audience will appreciate a piece that requires less intense listening.
Choose the First and Last Selections Carefully

The first selection on any program is critical, for it not only captures the audi-
ence’s attention but also provides an opportunity for the singers to gain confi-
dence as they adjust to the acoustics of the performance area, to the lights, and
to the presence of the audience. For these reasons, the first slot in the program
is not the place to put the most difficult or demanding music. The first selection
should be a piece in which the choir feels extremely secure, and one in which the
difficulty level, dynamics, and ranges/tessituras are moderate. Relatively short
compositions featuring a moderately fast tempo are often good choices for the
opening selection.
The final selection of the concert can remain with the audience long after
the concert has ended. In choosing this piece, you should remember that at this
point in the program, the singers are becoming vocally, mentally, and emotionally
fatigued. For a closing piece, you may wish to choose an easier piece or one with
which your choir feels very confident. In fact, directors will often program one of
the choir’s favorite pieces as a closer. It gives the choir that extra energy and spar-
kle they need to finish strongly. Concerts typically end with a dramatic, showy,
or fun piece, but a quiet, peaceful selection can also bring a beautiful concert to
a powerful close.
Transitional Pieces
The term “transitional piece” is not a reflection on the quality of the music,
but rather refers to a composition chosen to fulfill an important function in
programming—that of helping the concert move from one point to another.
Therefore, a selection that serves as a transitional piece in one concert will not
necessarily have the same function in another concert.
Suppose a set of sacred a cappella pieces are programmed at the beginning,
and the remainder of the concert consists of a variety of folk-song arrange-
ments. To bridge the gap between the two contrasting sets of music, one
or two compositions might be necessary for transitioning to the lighter
focus. In a long concert featuring only one or two performing ensembles, the
transition can be made with a well-placed intermission and/or the use of
Roman numerals in the printed program to designate a new set of musical
selections.
Carefully Place Any Unusual Compositions

Concerts will often contain one or two selections that are outstanding in some
way. For example, suppose you selected a twentieth-century composition con-
taining atonal harmonies or a variety of avant-garde vocal techniques. The com-
positions that surround this piece can make a real difference in the flow of the
program. Right after intermission may be a good time to present an avant-garde
piece, when the ears of both the singers and the audience are fresh. After this
unusual piece, performing a selection that is both easier to sing and to hear will
be welcomed by the singers as well as the audience.
Sacred to Secular and Serious to Light

Moving from sacred to secular music is a good, general rule. However, when the
secular music selected is of a serious nature, you will have more freedom to mix
sacred and secular within the program. Moving from serious to light is often a
good idea, as audience energy and attention become more limited as a concert
progresses. Singing a medley of Broadway tunes right before a Renaissance
motet can be a jarring stylistic transition. However, artful programming always
allows the possibility of breaking the “rules” to achieve a desired effect.
Plan with Care When Each Choir Performs

When more than one choir will be performing in the same concert, attention
must focus on the order in which each group performs. You must consider
issues such as the ability levels of the choirs involved and the logistics of
the entire concert program. Programming the beginning-level choirs first
and moving to the more advanced groups is usually a good idea. This way,
each group will be shown to its best advantage, and no group will feel
embarrassed by sensing that their choir is not as good as the one that sang
before them. This is especially important when you invite a younger, less-
experienced choir from a middle school to join your high school choir(s) in
a concert.
Logistical challenges of a concert may include such things as processionals
and recessionals, instrumental accompaniments needing advance set-up time,
changing the arrangement of the risers, and selections sung by a combination of
choirs. A good rule to follow is to arrange the choirs in an order that requires a
minimum of time to move from one group to the next.
Logistics are especially challenging when planning a concert program for both
an instrumental ensemble and a choir. If your school has an auditorium, use
the pit area or the area on the floor in front of the stage to place the choral ris-
ers and piano. The band or orchestra can then be set up on the stage. This way,
almost everything is in place before the beginning of the concert, thus avoiding
dead time when moving from one ensemble to another. This strategy works well
with multiple choirs and multiple instrumental groups as well. If you don’t have
an auditorium, wisely use whatever space you have so that equipment, chairs,
stands, conducting podiums, and risers can be in place to the extent possible
before the concert begins.
Including an Intermission
If the entire program will last more than an hour, plan to include an intermis-
sion. In addition to providing a rest for both the audience and singers, this
time can be used to solve a large number of logistical problems. For example,
programming a show choir or vocal jazz ensemble after intermission is optimal.
Advance set-up time is often necessary to change the configuration of the risers
(or to remove them altogether) or to set up an instrumental combo or micro-
phones. Singers need time to change performance outfits as well. If the concert
features both choral and instrumental groups, an intermission can allow for
changes in set-up that aren’t possible prior to the beginning of the concert.
Programming Ideas
Listed below are several different approaches to programming a concert. These
ideas are not intended to be definitive, but merely to serve as examples and sug-
gestions. A performance, a YouTube video, or something you read may spark a
different, original idea for your choir’s next concert.
Arrange the Music in Chronological Order

When representative music from various periods of music history has
been selected, arranging the program in chronological order can offer the
audience and singers a vivid illustration of the differences among periods. A

variation on this approach is to program pieces with identical text, but from
different times in history or in widely different styles, as a chronological
juxtaposition. For example, pairing Victoria’s iconic setting of “O Mag-
num Mysterium” with the equally haunting setting of the same text by
Poulenc will offer an interesting and creative comparison of these two
selections.
Plan the Concert like Planning a Dinner

If a larger work is planned, a sensible program order places the highlight of the
concert toward the middle. Begin the concert with music that serves as an “appe-
tizer,” and then present the larger work as the “main course.” The audience will
have been led to this point in the program, and the singers will be comfortable
and warmed up by this time. After the larger work, give the audience music that
will serve as “dessert” by moving gradually to a lighter focus. An after-dinner
mint might even be offered (an encore, or a very brief, catchy selection that the
singers enjoy).
Plan a Concert Around a Theme

A variety of music set to texts by Shakespeare, music with a common textual
theme (love songs or songs of nature, for example), a holiday concert, and even a
program featuring music by one composer or one period of music history are all
examples of concerts planned around a theme. If a text is the common element,
take care to choose selections on the basis of their musical merit as well as tex-
tual appropriateness. In concerts of music by one composer or from one period
of music history, program unity will be already achieved by similarities in the
composing style. In these cases, the bigger challenge is usually ensuring that the
program has sufficient variety.
Sample Programs
The following mini-concert programs and accompanying comments illustrate
several of the suggestions discussed in this chapter.
Advanced High School Choir

Venite, exultemus Domino Jan P. Sweelinck
In the Midst of Life Henry Purcell
Notre Père Maurice Duruflé
My spirit sang all day Gerald Finzi
Embraceable You George Gershwin, arr. Zegree
Muié Rendêra arr. C.A. Pinto Fonseca
Figure 6.1 Advanced high school choir program. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Explanation of Program Order

1. Venite, exultemus Domino, Jan P. Sweelinck, ed. Colton (SSATB, Concor-
dia No. 98-1938).
Starting with this moderately fast, exuberant, and joyful song will capture
the audience’s attention. In addition, the ranges and difficulty level are suffi-
ciently moderate to allow the singers to warm up and adjust to the performance
setting. The key is C Major.
2. In the Midst of Life, Henry Purcell, ed. Boepple (SATB, Mercury Music
Corp., 352-00034).
Written in C minor, this piece will contrast effectively with the first selection
on the program. The tempo is slow, and the music creates a high level of tension
through the use of chromaticism with several cross-relations. The English text
contrasts with the Latin of the first piece, and a continuo accompaniment offers
further variety. This beautiful selection is a challenge for singers as well as listeners.
3. Notre Père, Maurice Duruflé (SATB, Durand S.A., 362-03307).
After the intensity and chromaticism of the Purcell piece, this selection is a
respite for singers and audience. This selection, written in F Major, features very
moderate ranges, a moderately slow tempo, and warm, lush harmonies. In addi-
tion, the homophonic texture and the French language provide variety. Because
of its placement within the program, this selection may be the highlight of the
evening as well as the final sacred piece of the concert.
4. My spirit sang all day, Gerald Finzi (SATB, Boosey and Hawkes).
Highly lyrical and featuring unusual harmonies and fast tempi in the key of
G Major, this secular selection will function as the transitional piece between the
serious, sacred portion of the concert and the lighter selections that follow. After
the Duruflé piece, the choir will be ready for the technical and range demands as
well as the energy required for delivering the text and mood of this delightful song.
5. Embraceable You, George Gershwin, arr. Steve Zegree (SATB, Warner
Bros., 43509052).
This vocal jazz piece will quiet things down and allow the singers to conserve
energy for the final piece. “Embraceable You” is mellow, a cappella, moderately
slow, and features the key of E♭.
6. Muié Rendêra, arr. C.A. Pinto Fonseca (SATB, earthsongs).
This lively piece, written in the key of E Major, sets two well-known Brazilian
folk songs with choral accompaniments involving nonsense syllables of accented “la’s”
and a percussive “tum xtum” in a dotted rhythm. The Portuguese language and Latin
American rhythms add a nice flavor to the concert and bring it to an exciting close.
SUMMARY OF CONCERT PROGRAM. Featuring music from three historical
periods, this particular concert works well when placed in chronological order,
and moving from sacred to secular as well as from serious to light. Attention was
given to choosing keys, tempi, languages, moods, cultures, and styles. In addition,
a transitional piece is employed to ensure a smooth flow from beginning to end.
The audience at this mini-concert will feel as though they have “traveled” with
the choir from one musical point to the next without any abrupt shifts in their
itinerary. The singers in this concert will have ample opportunity to warm up
and adjust with the first selection, and to recuperate before songs with the most
difficult ranges and technical demands.
Middle School/Junior High Treble Choir

Sound the Trumpet (from Come Ye Sons of Art) Henry Purcell
Kikkehihi Johann H. Schein
Schön BlÜmelein Robert Schumann
Margaret has a milking pail Gerald Finzi
Four White Horses Caribbean Folk Song, arr. Miller
Bandicoot (from A Menagerie of Songs) Carolyn Jennings
Figure 6.2 Middle school/junior high treble choir program. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Explanation of Program Order

1. Sound the Trumpet, Henry Purcell, ed. James Erb (SA, Lawson-Gould,
No. 787).
This festive setting is a vivacious duet from the Birthday Ode, Come Ye Sons
of Art, and will capture the audience’s attention as well as allow the singers to
adjust to the performance environment. This selection features moderate ranges,
a moderate tempo, and keyboard accompaniment. The key is D Major.
2. Kikkehihi, Johann Hermann Schein, ed. William D. Hall (SSA, Boosey &
Hawkes, No. 6103).
This Renaissance madrigal will appeal to young singers and audiences with
its imitation of a hen’s and rooster’s morning cries. Written in three parts and
performed a cappella, the music will present a challenge to the singers. The tex-
ture is polyphonic, and in the B section, the tessitura for soprano I is rather
demanding. Aspects of the composition that will provide contrast with the first
selection include tempo (marked “spirited”), key (A♭ Major), language (German),
and length (very brief ).
3. Schön Blümelein, Robert Schumann, ed. William D. Hall (SA, National
Music Publishers, WHC 61).
This duet is written in strophic form with a codetta; the repeating vocal lines
coupled with moderate ranges/tessituras will offer the singers a rest following
the challenging second selection. The German language, however, will present a
challenge to the singers. Contrast with the preceding piece can be found in the
style of composition, the two-part homophonic texture, the key of C Major, and
the moderate tempo.
4. Margaret has a milking pail, Gerald Finzi (SS, Oxford University Press).
This delightful song for two equal voices and piano accompaniment is very
brief, taking approximately twenty to thirty seconds to perform. The tempo is
quick and the key is F minor. Interesting and worthwhile in its own right, this
selection will also help set the stage for the final numbers on the program.
5. Four White Horses, arr. Miller (two-part, Hal Leonard—08551574).
Written in a calypso style, this Caribbean folk song adds unique flavor to
this program. The piece is accompanied by piano and has parts for several per-
cussion instruments to add interest. It begins in F Major and ends in B Major,
and the tempo is brisk but feels laid back at the same time.
6. Bandicoot, Carolyn Jennings (unison, G. Schirmer).

This song, which describes an animal from Australia, is the first of seven
imaginative musical settings of poetry by Maryann Hoberman. The choir will
need to invest a great deal of energy to deliver this fast-tempo text, but the piece
is fun to sing. With three opportunities within the piece for the singers to whistle
a portion of the melody, this selection will end the concert on a happy note.
SUMMARY OF CONCERT PROGRAM. This program for a middle school/
junior high school treble choir illustrates that a nonchronological order can cre-
ate a satisfying concert. The program begins with a selection from the Baroque
period, moves back to the Renaissance period, and then skips to the Romantic
era for the third selection. The remainder of the music is from the twentieth
century. All music for this concert is secular. Featuring an upbeat, flashy com-
position to complete the program, the selections move from serious to light.
Attention was given to choosing different keys as well as different tempi, and
the difficulty levels were varied to help the choir maintain a consistent quality of
performance throughout the concert.
High School Choral Concert—Multiple Choirs
I. Men’s Glee Club

Tshotsholoza trad. South African arr. Ames
Sally Gardens trad. Irish arr. Rutter
Blue Moon Rogers and Hart arr. Funk
II. Advanced Girls Ensemble

Lift Thine Eyes (from Elijah) Felix Mendelssohn
Nigra Sum Pablo Casals
Three Selections from Winter Cantata Vincent Persichetti
So Deep
Gentlest Fall of Snow
Fallen Leaves
(flute and marimba accompaniment)
The Storm Is Passing Over Tindley, arr. Barbara Baker
Figure 6.3 High school choral concert—multiple choirs. © Cengage Learning 2014. (continued)
III. Chamber Choir

Fire, Fire, My Heart Thomas Morley
Weep, O Mine Eyes John Bennet
Il est el et bon Passereau
*** INTERMISSION ***
IV. Concert Choir

Sicut locutus est (from Magnificat) J.S. Bach
Laudate Dominum W.A. Mozart
Anna Robinson, soprano solo
Chanson on “Dessus le marché d’Arras” Willaert, ed. Erb
Water Night Eric Whitacre
Abide With Me Monk, arr. Moses Hogan
Ching-A-Ring Chaw Aaron Copland/Irving Fine
The four choirs presented in this concert are listed in order by ability level.
The Male Choir is the least advanced, so they sing first. After the first three
groups perform, it will be time for a brief intermission. During this break, the
marimba and music stands used on the Persichetti selections will be removed
from the stage (they should be in place before the concert started). The risers will
not have to be changed because the number of sections needed for the largest
choir will be set up before the concert begins.
The most advanced choir will sing after intermission. Because several members
of the Chamber Choir are also in the Concert Choir, the intermission will pro-
vide adequate time for them to change outfits and reassemble with the advanced
choir before the program continues. The Concert Choir will sing Mozart’s “Lau-
date Dominum,” which features one of the community’s voice teachers as the
soprano soloist.
In addition to details regarding when each choir will perform, this concert
exemplifies good programming techniques for each group’s presentation. For
example, the first selection for each choir features moderate demands, keys and
tempi are varied, and the music moves from serious to light.
High School Choirs with Middle School Guest Choir
I
Guest Middle School Mixed Choir
Psallite Michael Praetorius
Sail the Waters, Beautiful Julietta anon., ed. John Haberlen
Recorder consort and percussion accompanying
Hush! Somebody’s Callin’ My Name Traditional, arr. Dennard
Bonse Aba Trad. Zambian song, arr. Fischer
II
High School Jazz Choir

They Can’t Take That Away From Me arr. Strommen
When I Fall in Love arr. Russell Robinson
Over the Rainbow arr. Teena Chinn
Blue Skies arr. Steve Zegree
III
High School Concert Choir
Hark, I Hear the Harps Eternal arr. Alice Parker
Ubi caritas Ola Gjeilo
Sure on This Shining Night Samuel Barber
Wana Baraka arr. Shawn Kirchner
I Got a Home in-a Dat Rock arr. Moses Hogan
IV
Combined Groups
Yemaya Asesu arr. Brian Tate
Buffalo Gals arr. Bob Chilcott
Figure 6.4 High school choirs with middle school guest choir. © Cengage Learning 2014.
The length of this program probably suggests an intermission. Rather than

a bona fide intermission, however, you might consider speaking to the audience
right before the combined choirs sing. (This can take place while the middle
school and jazz choirs are joining the Concert Choir). Invite the middle school
director and accompanist to the stage at this time for special acknowledgment
and say what a pleasure it is to have the middle school choir sing on this concert.
Be sure to thank all the parents for being supportive. Announcements can be
made at this time and the audience can be invited to stand and stretch before
hearing the final set of music. You might even remind the middle school parents
of when and where auditions for the high school choirs will be held. This com-
bined concert can serve as an important recruitment venture. (Note: Arrange-
ments should be made for the middle school choir to sit in the audience, rather
than in the choir room, where they will miss the concert. Singers of all ages and
abilities can benefit from hearing and supporting one another.)
Regarding logistics for this concert, enough risers for the largest group (com-
bined choirs) will be set up before the concert begins. In addition, chairs and
stands for the recorder players and the percussionists will either already be in place
or will be back stage, ready to be put into position quickly. The Concert Choir will
already be on stage prior to the combined groups, so they remain in place as the
middle school and jazz choir singers join them for the final set of pieces.
As for the order of choirs, the guest choir is a middle school group that obvi-
ously will have less experience than the high school singers. They will be nervous
and excited, so placing them first will show them off in the best light, as well as keep
their energy from becoming a negative force. The most advanced and largest high
school choir should sing last, followed by the much-anticipated combined choirs.
Keys, tempi, styles, and vocal demands have all been considered in placing the
individual choir’s selections. Notice the wide variety of music, including pieces
from the traditional canon of choral literature, multicultural selections, sacred
and secular music, folk music, and spirituals. What a wealth of music is pro-
grammed on this concert!
Finally, the last two pieces should be the highlight of the concert. Both selec-
tions are accessible to a middle school choir, especially with the assistance of
high school singers. The performance will be a great experience (and motivator)
for the middle school choir members, and will build camaraderie through music
between the two schools. The combined set of pieces will generate (and keep) a
large audience, and the performance could have a positive impact on recruitment
for the high school choral program.
Producing a Concert
Deciding on the order of music for your programs, considering when each
group will perform, and determining whether or not there will be an intermis-
sion make up only part of the story! The remainder of this chapter will deal with
issues involved in producing a concert. And although the following scenario
may seem rather drastic, such a situation can easily happen, especially to new
teachers who aren’t aware of all the planning that goes into making a concert
run smoothly. Musicians are usually good at preparing the musical portion of
the concert. Lurking off the stage of the performance venue, however, are other
parts of a concert that often get neglected—or are handled haphazardly: the
logistical arrangements that help a concert actually take place. Although perhaps
not your strongest set of skills, these administrative and planning duties must be
attended to in detail or they have the potential to detract from the musical suc-
cess of each choir and the enjoyment of the audience members. Mr. Kelkenberg’s
concert, in the upcoming scenario, is moving quickly in that direction.
Mr. Kelkenberg and his choral ensembles have been preparing for tonight’s spring concert for
several months. Since taking his first teaching job at San Juan High School this year, he has
seen wonderful progress in his students’ musical ability, and he is eager to share their successes
and growth. A middle school choir has been invited to sing as guest performers, and this con-
cert will feature, for the first time, the new pop ensemble Mr. Kelkenberg organized in the fall.
Everyone is very excited about tonight’s concert.
Things start taking a turn for the worse when all four choirs end up jammed into the
choral room and Mr. Kelkenberg has difficulties sorting everyone out so that they can
line up properly. Next, a student informs him that the auditorium doors are locked and
that parents and friends are packed into the lobby, waiting to get in. The programs are
ready, but Mr. Kelkenberg suddenly realizes he forgot to ask anyone to pass them out.
Can he pull off tonight’s concert when everything around him (except the music itself )
seems to be falling apart?
What needs to be done to create a well-run concert? How do you know what
all those nonmusical details are, and how and when do you attend to them?
Whom do you contact? The following information will help you avoid some of
those pitfalls.
First Things First

CONCERT DATE, TIME, AND PLACE. If you have taken a new job with an
existing choral program, you may discover that your concert dates for the school
year have already been selected. This might not be exactly to your liking, but you
may have to live with it for the first year unless you can lobby for some quick
rescheduling. However, if you are starting a new choral program or instituting
new traditions in an existing program, probably the first thing you will do is set
a concert date or dates. You must consult the master calendar of your school
as well as your colleagues in the music program, so that your choice of date
and time will not conflict with your singers’ other commitments and activities.
Events such as an athletic competition, a play performance, or a community
festival can dramatically affect student participation and audience attendance.
You also need to check whether your preferred performance venue is free on the
night of the concert and at the times of your dress rehearsal(s).
PAPERWORK. Once the date and time have been selected and placed on the
master calendar, and your performance venue has been selected, you must make
sure all the necessary paperwork has been filled out and delivered to the right
person(s). Every school will have a different system for doing all of these things,
so ask questions when in doubt. You may want to check with the band and/or
orchestra director for advice so that you can avoid pitfalls they may have already
encountered.
COMMUNICATE. Don’t forget to communicate the concert information to

your students and their parents/guardians as soon as possible so that they can
put it on their calendars as well. Because people are so busy, they will appreciate
knowing your plans for the choir in advance. If possible, the schedule for the
year, or at least the semester, should be in the choir handbook, posted on the
department webpage, and sent home in a letter to parents. Since concerts hap-
pen outside the regular school day, some directors wisely ask parents to sign a
permission slip allowing their children to attend concerts on those dates. That
way, any conflicts the students have can be resolved or excused as needed in the
first two weeks of school, not a week before the concert. Verbal reminders dur-
ing class and a reminder email to parents in the days preceding the concert and
dress rehearsals will help keep this information in the forefront of their minds.
Frequent and clear communication is key.
CONCERT ACCOMPANIST. When setting the concert dates and dress

rehearsals, you must also secure an accompanist or accompanists if they will be
different from your regular classroom accompanist. Let all accompanists know
the dates and times that you will need them, how much you can pay them (if
they are not volunteers), and what they are to wear. Of course, you must pro-
vide them with the music that each choir will be performing and any additional
information they might need well in advance.
PIANO TUNING. Once the performance dates are set, make an appointment to
have the piano tuned in the concert venue. This tuning should happen as close
to the concert as possible so that the tuning will remain fresh and accurate.
Check with administration about whether the cost of tuning will come out of
your budget or out of the school’s equipment and maintenance budget and plan
accordingly.
Closer to the Concert

LOGISTICS. As you begin planning your concert, you need to consider logistics
as you decide when each choir will perform. Avoiding dead time—such as hav-
ing the audience sit and watch while a mass choir of 150 singers moves onto the
stage—is important to the overall flow of your concert. Other matters to address
are changes of outfits from one group to another, different riser configurations,
instrumentalists setting up on stage, or a guest choir singing in the concert. In
addition, planning where these different choirs will gather before and sit during
the concert is important, if you are to avoid the problems Mr. Kelkenberg faced.
If at all possible, plan so that all choirs may hear each other perform. This is vital
to the overall education of your singers, and can foster unity among the entire
choral department as they root for each other to do well. It also reminds your
developing choirs what they are striving for and your advanced group how much
they have grown.
CONCERT PROGRAMS. After the logistics have been thought out in detail,
the physical program for the concert must be created. Find out how your
school prepares programs for events and abide by their procedures. You will
need to inquire about such matters as the printer’s deadlines, the preferred
format, what kind of paper to use, how the program can be folded or stapled,
and the number of copies required. It is always ideal to have a program for
each singer to keep (or for their parents to add to a scrapbook), so include this
number in the final count. See Figures 6.5, 6.6, and 6.7 for an example of a
concert program. Of special note is the inside front cover, where the director
reminds the audience about appropriate behavior during a concert. The pro-
gram also allows you to provide special thanks to people who helped organize
and present the evening’s performance. Not only is it a considerate thing to
do, but it is a smart political move as well. Arts programs need all the support
they can get, so thank those who offer their time and money to boost your
efforts!
CHECK PERFORMANCE ATTIRE. Prior to the concert, have the students

bring their performance attire to school for you to inspect and fix any problems
as needed. This is especially important before the first concert, or when a new
outfit has been purchased. Make sure everyone has the right components for
concert attire and that everything fits. You don’t want to discover problems on
the night of the concert when nothing can be done to address them. You may
ask several parents to come help with this process, so that you can continue to
rehearse the choirs as students leave the room in small groups to have their out-
fits checked.
PROMOTE YOUR CONCERT. Obviously, promotion is an important aspect

of planning your concert. You may have a student who is skilled with computer
graphics and who would be pleased to create a poster to be placed around the
school and the community. In addition, write an announcement to be read dur-
ing school, perhaps by a choir member or members. You may even have a strong
quartet of students sing a portion of a piece to be performed and include an
Westfield High School

presents
An Evening
of Choral Music
featuring
Choraliers, Chamber Singers, and Westfield Jazz!
Friday, March 23, 2013

7:00 p.m.
Westfield High School Auditiorium
Figure 6.5 Cover of program. © Cengage Learning 2014.

Welcome to tonight’s concert! We are so pleased to have you here.

The choral students have worked very hard to present you with an
educational and entertaining evening. To provide you with the best
possible performance, the students and music faculty ask you to please
remember:
•• All electronic equipment should be in the “off” position.

•• Each choir will remain on stage for pictures following their
performance. Please use flash photography only during these
times.
•• If young children become restless or start to cry, please take
them out into the lobby.
•• If you have to leave the auditorium, please do so between and
not during pieces, if possible.
•• Each choir has something special to offer, and all singers can
learn from the other choirs’ performances, so please plan to stay
for the entire concert.
So many people are responsible for the success of tonight’s concert:

Principal Marsha Herford, the Choral Parent Organization, dance
instructor Deena Loflin, and custodian Mark Parker. We want to thank
the Stanfolk Recorder Consort for their work with the Chamber Singers
and for sharing their talents so graciously with us.
The Westfield Choral Parent Organization invites you and your family
to stay for refreshments following tonight’s performance.
NEXT CONCERT:
June 1, 2012, Westfield Auditorium. Mark your calendars now!
Figure 6.6 Inside front cover. © Cengage Learning 2014.

Program
Hark, I Hear the Harps Eternal arr. Alice Parker
Ubi caritas Ola Gjeilo
Wana Baraka arr. Shawn Kirchner
George Davis, soloist
Hope for Resolution Caldwell and Ivory

Becky Pierce, Rick Johnson, Emily James, Brad Wallis, percussion
Westfield Choraliers
Greg Anderson, Conductor
Ellery Ford, Pianist
In the Midst of Life Henry Purcell

Sail the Waters, Beautiful Julietta anon., ed. Haberlen
Standfolk Recorder Consort
Fair Phyllis John Farmer

Fire, Fire My Heart Thomas Morley
Westfield Chamber Singers

Andrew Anderson, Conductor
Timothy Stein, Pianist
They Can’t Take That Away From Me arr. Carl Strommen

When I Fall in Love arr. Russell Robinson
Over the Rainbow arr. Teena Chinn
Blue Skies arr. Steve Zegree
Westfield Jazz!
Jill Brownstone, Conductor
Jerry Malowski, Pianist
Deana Loflin, Choreographer
Figure 6.7 Sample concert program. © Cengage Learning 2014.

Note: You may want to provide a personnel list as well as program notes for the music in the concert.
Because of budget constraints, some schools may limit you to one sheet of paper, single-folded, for a
concert program. The personnel list and the program notes would have to be an insert, and the choral
parents organization may have to pay for the paper and printing.
invitation to the concert. School and community newspaper announcements

are helpful in getting the word out. The Internet can be an important tool for
communicating with parents, alumni, and students, through concert announce-
ments on your website, “evites” to concerts, and postings on social media sites.
Use your imagination. (Note: Start the advertising in time for people to plan to
come, but not too early that the announcements become “stale” and no longer
noticed because they have been up too long.)
DOOR MONITORS AND USHERS. Students (or perhaps parents) should hand
out programs at the doors to the auditorium and welcome all who come. In
addition, if the doors are noisy and will disturb the singers’ concentration
during a performance, you may want to assign a monitor to each door after
the concert has started, to keep people from coming in and going out at inap-
propriate times. Sometimes, it is necessary to educate an audience about
etiquette at concerts, as opposed to other large gatherings such as sporting
events.

OTHER FACTORS TO CONSIDER. If singers or soloists will need a micro-

phone, you should locate one yourself or put in a request with your school.
Then you must find out where to plug it into the sound system, how to
control the volume, and how to turn it on and off (each microphone is dif-
ferent). Communicate your lighting needs to the staff person who manages
the performance space, or find out how to do it yourself. Check the risers to
ensure that all parts are in working order and that you have enough sections
to hold the largest ensemble on the program. If you are planning a final piece
in which everyone comes on stage to sing together, you should set up a suf-
ficient number of risers for this before the concert starts. Sometimes different
risers are compatible, and sections can be borrowed from another school for
a particular concert. Decide on the best configuration for your concert, and if
you have an acoustical shell, check to make sure all sections are in place and
working before the dress rehearsal. Confirm that you have the correct number
of stands and chairs ready, or even set up ahead of time, for any instrumental
accompaniments.
If the choirs are not singing from memory, they will need some version of
identical folders to hold the music, and they must practice using them—turning
pages quietly, changing pieces within the folder, and watching the director’s cues
while holding the folders. Young choirs in particular must develop these skills, or
music may end up flying all over the stage!
DRESS REHEARSAL. You should decide whether or not performance attire

should be worn at the dress rehearsal. This could be the time to check the
outfits rather than having the singers bring them to school, as discussed
before. If you decide not to have students wear their outfits at the dress
rehearsal, make sure you announce that to your choirs. The mere title “dress
rehearsal” suggests that attire will be worn, and some student will inevitably
arrive in a tuxedo or a formal gown when everyone else is in jeans and tennis
shoes. Making your wishes clear will help avoid some major embarrassment
for your singers.
It is important that your students model for other students (and even par-
ents) proper concert demeanor. Review with students your expectations for
their behavior on the night of the concert. Expectations may include such
things as: sitting quietly while other groups perform, clapping (but not yelling
out) after each group finishes, being careful to clap at the end of a piece and not
between movements or pieces in a set, and never (unless it is an emergency)
entering or leaving in the middle of a piece. Bear in mind the characteristics of
adolescent energy and try to build in opportunities for them to let off a little
steam before going on stage.
One detail that helps make choirs look professional and confident is the way
they move onto the stage. Some directors prefer to have the first row go onto the
risers first so they can hide all the climbing up of the rows farther back. Other
directors like choirs to go on stage from the back row to the front row. How
students mount the risers will in some ways depend on the size of your choir
and the limitations of their performance space. To save time, some directors have
every other row coming from the opposite direction and meeting in the middle.
Whatever you decide, plan time in the dress rehearsal to practice entering and
exiting the stage in a smooth and orderly way.
You should let students know (1) which hand they should use to hold their
music folder, (2) to be silent once the choir has begun to mount the risers, and
(3) to hold their folders at their sides until you give the signal for the entire choir
to raise them and prepare to sing the first selection. If no printed music is used
during the concert, you have to decide where the singers’ hands should be held.
Probably the most pedagogically sound position is for the arms to hang loosely
at the singers’ sides. This avoids tension caused by holding the hands to the front
or back of the body.
More important than the way in which your choir assembles on stage,
whether or not they use music, and where they hold their hands, is that you
think about these issues from a logistical standpoint and that you communi-
cate and practice the chosen procedures with your students. These choices can
really make a big difference in the audience’s perception of the choir in front
of them.
ACTIVITIES AT INTERMISSION. Check with the administration about

school policy if you plan to sell such things as CDs or baked goods during inter-
mission. To do so, you must secure tables, chairs, and a cash box that locks, with
enough cash to give change. In addition, parents or students must be available
to discharge this important duty and to keep the cash box secure until after the
performance. You may have a basket raffle for a fund-raiser or you may be sell-
ing advance tickets to the musical for next month. Make sure you plan for this
part of the concert.
YOUR FRIEND, THE CUSTODIAN. Unlike most teachers in the building,

music teachers have a lot of events after school and in the evening that require
extra set-up and draw lots of people (and the mess they can make) to the
school. All of these aspects of your choral program make a lot of extra work
for your school’s custodial staff. It is important to be friendly to, and respect-
ful and considerate of, your custodians. When you are hosting an event, try to
communicate well ahead of time any custodial assistance you may need. Assign
some students to set up and tear down risers before and after the concert and
others to straighten up the choir room before you leave for the evening. If you
want to delay these tasks until school the next morning, then make sure the
custodian knows you will attend to it and follow through. Be sure you thank
your custodians publicly for their assistance and write your thanks in the con-
cert program.
DELEGATE RESPONSIBILITIES. Attending to the myriad details involved in

planning even one school concert, let alone a year’s worth, may seem over-
whelming. You can see that adding all these responsibilities to the musical
requirements of your job is a recipe for teacher burnout! Fortunately, once
you’ve presented a few concerts, many of these tasks will be more automatic.
Still, it is important to learn to delegate authority on nonmusical details, such
as the ones discussed in this portion of the chapter. Students and parents, and
perhaps even other faculty members, are often eager to help, and should be
asked to participate. This will help the overall production move smoothly and
allow you to concentrate on the musical preparation. Be aware, however, that
you will have to accept (within reason) what these volunteers do, even if it is
not exactly how you would have done it. Make sure you communicate your
wishes clearly, learn to pick your battles, and “don’t sweat the small stuff.” This
can make a big difference for you, but it may take time to really learn to let go of
some things. Keep trying. It will become easier, and is certainly worth the effort
required.
Summary
Taking the time to carefully and artfully construct your concerts for the year will
pay great dividends down the road. Thoughtful programming can help show
your students’ skills to the best advantage and make the concert a powerful
experience for singers and audience. Although many samples and guidelines
have been provided in this chapter, the key to effective programming is your own
creativity. Programming is a great place to think outside the box; just be sure to
consider your singers’ concentration levels and vocal health, and put yourself in
the audience’s shoes (or seats) before finalizing any concert program. Don’t over-
program your concerts. A good rule of thumb is: “Leave them wanting more.”
Producing your concerts and anticipating logistical, equipment, and person-
nel needs is as important as the music itself. Ignoring the nonmusical aspects
of your concerts will inevitably affect the musical aspects of the performance.
As a musician, you may be uncomfortable or uninterested in performing these
more mundane logistical tasks, but without handling or delegating them you
will fail to fulfill your responsibilities! Be sure to thank everyone who provided
special services for each concert and, if possible, list their names in the program.
Encourage future collaboration!
Mini-Projects
1. Attend a middle school or high school choral concert. What aspects
of the programming or logistics worked particularly well? Think about any
changes you would make in the order of the music or the order of the choirs
(if the concert featured several groups) and why. Prepare a brief report to share
with the class.
2. Choose five to seven pieces of music; using the suggestions discussed in
this chapter, place them in an appealing order for a mini-concert.
3. Choose five to seven pieces for a program to be planned around a
theme. Using the suggestions discussed in this chapter, place the selections in
an appealing order for a concert.
4. You have invited the Mixed Choir from a nearby middle school to
perform in your spring concert. Consisting of thirty-six singers, this advanced
group will sing music requiring only one piano for accompaniment. The three
high school choirs that you direct will also perform in the concert:
a. Chamber Singers (advanced group, twenty-one singers). All the music
for this group is sung a cappella.
b. Treble Choir (beginning, forty-three singers). This ensemble is singing a
group of pieces that require a flutist and a clarinetist.
c. Concert Choir (intermediate group, sixty-eight singers). This choir needs
two pianos for one of their selections.
Plan the order in which these four choirs will perform in the concert. Your
decision should be based not only on the ages and ability levels of each choir,
but also on the logistical challenges posed by each group and its music. These
may include (but are not limited to) the number of riser sections and any instru-
ments needed for accompaniment. Your plan should include exactly when these
items will be moved on and off the stage. If necessary, you may have a ten-minute
intermission. Be specific.
Additional Reading
Brunner, David L. 1994. Choral program design: Structure and
symmetry. Music Educators Journal 80 (6): 46–49.
Mayhall, Bruce. 1994. The quest for high-quality repertoire. Choral
Journal 35 (2): 9–15.
CHAPTER 7
Group Vocal Techniques
Mr. Rucker is rehearsing a piece for a contest that features some challenging ranges for his
singers. He notices that the basses’ sound is thinning out in the upper register, so he says,
“Basses, we need a much darker tone there. I want you to sound as though you are 40-year-
old singers.” As a result, he gets a much bigger and darker tone. In contrast, the sopranos are
sounding a little strong in a pianissimo section in their upper register, so he suggests, “That
needs to be much softer, sopranos. Try to sound like boy sopranos and float the notes softly
like a balloon.” They immediately sing more softly, and Mr. Rucker is able to move on with
the rehearsal.
In the scenario above, Mr. Rucker is listening closely to the sound of the
choir and solving problems by identifying the end result he wants to hear
rather than teaching students how to sing the music in a vocally healthy way.
This approach will often yield quick results that, on the surface, appear to
solve the problem. However, without guidance, the singers will try to meet
Mr. Rucker’s demands in their own way—for example, by pulling the tongue
back or hyperextending the jaw to sound more mature, or reducing breath
support and tightening the throat to sound softer. Ultimately, many of
Mr. Rucker’s singers may begin to experience vocal problems associated with
poor singing technique.
In many choir programs, especially at the middle school level, the choral direc-
tor will be the only voice teacher that students have, and their only instruction
in vocal technique will occur during the choir rehearsal itself. In addition to the
preparation of music for performance, therefore, choral directors need to provide
regular and systematic opportunities within the context of the daily rehearsal for
141
142 GROUP VOCAL TECHNIQUES
young singers to develop their voices. Unlike private vocal instruction, during
which exercises and feedback can be tailored to individual needs, the choir direc-
tor must teach everyone the basic tools of correct vocal production, while moni-
toring individual differences. In addition, the choral repertoire can sometimes
feature extremes of register or dynamics that are difficult for beginning singers to
manage. If directors such as Mr. Rucker focus only on the “sound” they want for a
particular piece and neglect the vocal technique used to achieve that sound, they
will quickly reach a point at which the students cannot perform what they ask,
or worse, students will injure their voices in an attempt to meet the demands.
The Choir Director as Group Vocal Instructor

Group vocal techniques, or teaching voice within the context of the choir, is
absolutely essential to a strong choral program. Choral conductors should know
the techniques of good vocal production and how to teach them, even if they
are not great singers themselves. One advantage choir directors have over their
instrumental colleagues is that, regardless of vocal part, the fundamentals of
good vocal production rooted in posture, breath support, resonance, vowel for-
mation, register development, and flexibility are similar for all singers.
Understanding the Voice

Most musical instruments possess a generator, a vibrator, and a resonator. The
generator provides the force to set the vibrator in motion, the vibrator responds
to the force in a way that establishes a pattern of vibration usually at multiple
frequencies, and the resonator reinforces or multiplies the frequencies that are
compatible with the resonating space. In vocal production, the exhaled breath
acts as the generator, the vocal folds serve as the vibrator, and the resonators
include the throat, the mouth, and the nasal cavities.
The voice is perhaps the most personal of all instruments because it is housed
within the body. The color and volume of an individual voice are influenced by the
vocal mechanism and by the resonating cavities through which the sound passes
before leaving the body. Because each person’s physical characteristics are differ-
ent, no two singing voices will sound alike, just as no two speaking voices sound
exactly alike. However, the fundamentals of good vocal technique, the process
by which the sound is produced, are the same for everyone. Choral conductors
GROUP VOCAL TECHNIQUES 143
should strive to know as much as possible about the basics of vocal physiol-
ogy, healthy vocal production, age-related changes in the voice, and good vocal
hygiene, so that the young voices in their care are not misused.
In addition to this expert knowledge, choir directors need to be familiar with
their own voices and to study technique with an experienced teacher. Just as
singers need to develop keyboard skills to be effective in the choral rehearsal,
pianists and other instrumentalists should study voice to become familiar with
the challenges of resonance, relaxation, support, and consistent tone throughout
the register. A number of good resources are available to help the choral director
understand the voice, from textbooks about vocal pedagogy and voice science to
books of exercises that help build the foundations of good technique. Several of
these resources are listed at the end of this chapter.
When teaching technique to a group of singers, the biggest challenge is to
be on the lookout for visual signs as well as sounds of vocal tension or injury
that may result from misuse of the voice. These symptoms can appear in either
the singing or the speaking voice. Singers who frequently lose their voice, speak
with a vocal production that causes hoarseness, or experience severe limitations
to their singing range may all be exhibiting vocal injury and must be given indi-
vidual attention by a professional. The conductor’s goal is to reinforce good vocal
technique by helping students experience the sensations of supported, relaxed,
and resonant singing. This approach is based as much on how it “feels” to sing as
on what it sounds like, because it is almost impossible for people to judge accu-
rately the sound of their own voice while singing. The primary setting for this
training is in the vocal warm-up.
The Vocal Warm-up

Choral directors use two main approaches in training voices during the warm-
up period. The first approach focuses on offering a set of exercises that deal
with the fundamentals of good vocal production, encompassing posture, breath
support, resonance, range extension, and flexibility. These exercises are used on a
regular basis to help the choir prepare to sing in a vocally healthy way. The sec-
ond approach uses exercises customized to meet particular musical demands of
the repertoire being rehearsed. These exercises prepare the singers for a particu-
lar musical context, such as triple meter or minor mode, or solve challenges in
the literature in a vocally healthy manner. The warm-up period should include a
combination of exercises designed to develop the fundamentals of good singing
and those tailored to the demands of the repertoire being rehearsed that day.
The sequence of the warm-up can vary, depending on the needs of the group,
but most warm-up periods should include exercises that deal with the following
aspects of healthy singing:
•• Posture
•• Breath support
•• Resonance and tone
•• Range
•• Flexibility
•• Intonation
•• Musical preparation
(Note: Most sung exercises in this chapter are written in the key of C and, in
most cases, do not contain any repetitions of the exercise at higher or lower
pitches. This should in no way suggest that the key of C is the pitch level on
which you should begin; rather, it is a way to present the exercises in a simple
format. The individual director should decide the starting key for each exercise
and determine whether repetitions of the exercises should ascend or descend, or
both. See suggestions at the end of this chapter and in Chapter 8 for good start-
ing keys for exercises.)
Correct Posture and Physical Preparation for Singing

Good posture is the most basic tool for correct singing. Because the body serves
as a musical instrument, students should be taught that the manner in which they
hold their bodies will affect the sound they can produce. In addition to teaching
your students the correct posture for singing, you should emphasize the concept
that singing is a physical activity. Alertness and intensity (never tension) must be
present for effective singing, but the body should be relaxed at the same time!
If singers are seated during rehearsal, they should sit with their weight shifted
forward in such a way that they can move easily to a standing position. Feet
are flat on the floor, shoulders are back, and the head and chest are up. When
using music during rehearsal or performance, students should hold their music
Figure 7.1 Correct position for singing while seated.
up and out so that the head is in correct alignment with the body, freeing the
vocal mechanism to work properly. The back should lean slightly forward and
away from the back of the chair. (Some chairs promote good posture for singing,
whereas others do not. If you are fortunate to have chairs specifically designed to
aid posture, your singers can simply sit up straight with their backs against the
back of their chairs—see Figure 7.1).
When singing in a standing position, students should distribute their body
weight evenly on both feet, perhaps placing one foot slightly in front of the other
for better balance. The knees are never locked or stiff, but slightly flexed, and the
Figure 7.2 Correct position for singing while standing.
chest is comfortably up. Ask students to imagine their upper torso being held
up by an invisible thread connected to their breastbone. (A reminder during
rehearsal to pull up on that “thread” can improve posture immediately.) The head
should never jut forward, but rather should be up and in line with the spine, and
the ears should line up with the shoulders. As shown in Figure 7.2, the resulting
stance is one of reaching out to the listeners with alertness and confidence.
The following exercises can be helpful for relaxation as well as for promoting
physical involvement in the singing process. They can be presented as a part
of warm-ups or at any time during rehearsal when tension has become a

problem:
1. Stretching (with arms extended) upward, downward, and to either side
2. Shoulder rolls
3. Lifting both shoulders, trying to touch the ears, and then relaxing
4. Neck rolls (careful not to let the head fall too far backwards)
5. Stretching upward on tiptoe, trying to touch the ceiling, and then going
limp like a rag doll as you drop from the waist
6. Massaging your own cheekbones, forehead, back of the ears, temples, and
back of the neck
7. Massaging your neighbor’s shoulders and neck
8. Bending over at the waist, then slowly standing up by straightening the
spine one vertebra at a time
Breathing Fundamentals
To produce a good tone, students must be taught to breathe correctly and man-
age their breath. Even when singing correctly, however, younger adolescent sing-
ers may have a certain amount of breathiness to their voices. This is normal and
should be accepted. The same amount of breathiness in a more mature singer,
however, may indicate myriad problems.
Before students have had vocal training, they often breathe “backwards.” When
they take a deep breath, their chests and shoulders will rise and their abdomi-
nal area will pull in. To teach the correct concept of breathing, ask students to
picture a balloon growing larger as air is blown into it. The same should be true
when a singer inhales correctly. As air fills the lungs, the abdominal area as well
as the back should expand like a balloon, the chest should not rise but remain
comfortably up, and the shoulders should remain stationary.
The following exercise helps with breathing as well as good singing posture.
Students begin by slowly raising their arms above their head as they inhale; then,
without exhaling, they bring their arms and shoulders down slowly until they
rest at their sides. At this point the air in their lungs is keeping the chest cavity
elevated in a way that promotes good singing posture. Now have the students
put one hand on their chest and the other on their abdomen and exhale without
allowing the hand on their chest to move. As a result, the students’ chests are high,
their shoulders should be relaxed, and their abdomens should be contracted from
pushing out air. The next inhalation can be accomplished by simply relaxing the
abdominal muscles while opening the throat for a quick, quiet, and effortless
full breath. In addition to this exercise, simply asking students to exhale before
beginning a breath exercise can help reinforce the idea of relaxing to let air in
rather than “pulling” it in.
A foolproof way for students to experience the proper activity of the diaphragm
is to have some students lie down on the floor or a table. Being in this position
forces the students to use their breathing muscles in the correct way. Place a book
in the area immediately below the rib cage and then ask the students to inhale and
exhale. Those students who are watching can actually see the breathing muscles
in action as the book moves up and down, while those lying on the floor can feel
it. After experiencing this correct sensation, they can recall it as they are singing.
Another way to help students experience the expansion of the back and abdomen
is to give them a piece of string long enough to wrap around their waist, with about
a foot of extra length on either end. Have them stand in good singing posture and
exhale. Mark the spot where the two ends of the string cross and then ask them
to inhale. The goal is to see how far they can spread the two marks on the string.
The following exercises will assist in the development of correct breathing
technique (see also the web video on posture and breathing exercises):
1. Panting like a dog—focusing on activity in the abdominal area.

2. Echoing a short rhythmic pattern using consonants such as “f,” “s,” “ch,”
and “sh.” (Watch for activity in the abdominal area and make sure the
jaw stays relaxed.)
3. Taking in a big breath as though sipping air through a straw. (Remind students
that a balloon expands as air is blown into it.) Ask students to let the air out
slowly, with a hissing sound. Have a contest to see who can last the longest, but
watch for tongue and jaw tension. Another variation is to have students sip air in
four, eight, or sixteen even breaths to make them aware of their full lung capacity.
As they experience the activity of their diaphragms, students should be

taught that the breath is the only power propelling the voice. Help from the jaw,
the eyebrows, the tongue, the neck, or the shoulders is not only unnecessary but
also detrimental to a pleasant, well-produced tone. This is difficult for young

singers to achieve, but with persistence and patience, they can achieve success
over time.
Exercises that enable singers to feel the breath support propelling the tone
include the following:
1. Bubble exercise (lip trill). While singing a musical line, students feed an
even flow of air through closed lips, causing the lips to vibrate (and the nose
and face to itch!). If the lips do not vibrate continuously, the column of air
is not consistent. For those who have difficulty relaxing their lips for this
exercise, placing the thumb and index finger at the corners of the mouth
will help.
2. Tongue trill. Singers sing a musical line while trilling the tongue. Again, a
consistent flow of air is necessary for success.
3. Students sing syllables such as “ha,” “ho,” or “he” in a staccato articulation,
making quick pushes from their diaphragms on each note of the exercise.
& 42 œ œ. œ. œ. œ.
Œ
.
ha ha ha ha ha
4. A variation is to move from staccato to legato to help establish support in both

articulations.
4 Œ
&4 œ œ. œ. œ. œ œ œ œ ˙.
.
Ha ha ha ha ha
Resonance and Tone

To assist students in making the most beautiful sounds possible, the concepts
of resonance and placement of the voice should be introduced and reinforced
consistently during choir rehearsals. Because each student’s physical character-
istics are different, however, the end results will vary from singer to singer. Stu-
dents should learn to use their own physical characteristics to full advantage
by activating the possibilities for resonance in their voices. The exercises that
follow will help students understand and experience the resonant potential in
their voices:
1. Ask singers to hold the back of one hand over their mouth while humming
a pitch. Tell them to make sure the lips are closed and the teeth are apart.
Then they should slowly move the hand away as they change to “ah” or “oh,”
while trying to keep the humming quality in the sound. Have them put
their hand back over their mouth on an open vowel to feel the buzz of the
resonance.
2. Sing a familiar song such as “Happy Birthday” on “zing,” “ming,” or “mom”
and close quickly to the final consonant each time the word is sung.
3. Start with a “dropped jaw” hum and emphasize maintaining the softer
dynamic as they open to the “ee.”
p
4
&4 œ œ œ œ
Ó
˙
Mm mee
4. Make sure the singers’ jaws are relaxed on the “nn” hum and then try to
maintain the feeling of the “nn” as they open to “ee” and then” oo”.
p
4
&4 œ œ œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ ˙.
nn ee oo
5. Sing the first measure on a very forward nasal “a” vowel and sing a pure “ah” in
the second measure.
& 44 œ œ ˙ œ œ œ
Œ
nya nya nya nah
6. Use the “m’s” to maintain forward placement and resonance.
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Œ
Ma - ma made me mash my M & M's
7. Close immediately to the “ng.”

4
&4 œ œ œ œ Ó
˙
ming ming ming ming ming
8.
F
j j
& 68 œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ
zing a zing a zoo zing a zing a zoo zing a zing a zoo zing a zing a zoo zing a zing a zing a zing a zoo
9.
f
& 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.
Œ.
See Ah
10. Sing a ringing “ng” on the first note opening to “ah” to work resonance in
the upper register.
& 44 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
Ó
Hung - ah
Initially, exercises for developing resonance should be located primarily in the

singers’ comfortable range, until good placement has been established and they
know what a resonant, well-placed vowel feels like. Many of these exercises fea-
ture voiced consonants to help singers place and maintain resonance. Conso-
nants can be used this way in many other exercises to help set the resonance and
color of the vowel, and in rehearsal, when the language of the text is interfering
with a good sound. Experiment with different consonants in your own voice to
understand what it feels like to sing “m,” “n,” “v,” “z,” “ng” and where it sends your
voice in terms of placement and resonance.
Closed vowels are usually easier to place and match between singers,
whereas open vowels have more variation. Conversely, open vowels are often
easier to maintain in the upper registers of singing. Try moving from closed to
open vowels in various exercises such as Exercise 9 above. Encourage students
to keep the focus of the closed vowels while singing the open vowels, and
(when moving from open to closed) to keep the space of the open vowels
while singing the closed vowels. Working opposites like this can really help
singers develop a consistent approach to placing their vowels and maintaining
a relaxed, open tone throughout the range.
(Note: Many of the exercises in this chapter have a dynamic level indicated.
Specifying a dynamic level in any warm-up can help singers to think more care-
fully and musically about their singing as well as add a specific challenge to cer-
tain exercises. In general, exercises focused on tuning and blend are easier when
begun in a soft dynamic, whereas those focused on intensity and support are
easier in a louder dynamic, but it is fun to mix it up.)
Range
Because they often imitate singers heard on the radio and in recordings, many
untrained singers will unknowingly exhibit bad vocal habits. The problem encoun-
tered most frequently, especially by girls, is an almost exclusive use of the chest
voice. Consequently, students are often fearful of singing anything “high” because
they lack the skills necessary to sing in this range. Good vocal training, using exer-
cises like those presented below, will assist students in discovering the head voice
and then in blending it with the chest voice so the two registers can function as a
single unit. These exercises will help beginners to find and use their head voice:
1. With the lips in an “oo” position, sigh from high to low; repeat, beginning on
increasingly higher pitches. (Caution: Be certain that the sound is supported
with a low breath and the throat is relaxed to avoid closing off the vocal tract.)
2. Make a siren noise with the lips in an “oo” position; move up and down in
pitch within a gradually expanding range.
3. Laugh like a tiny, thin witch on “hee hee hee,” and gradually move down to
the “ha ha ha” of a 300-pound man.
4. Make “hooting” sounds like an owl.
After students have discovered and experienced this upper register, help them
blend it with their chest voice by using exercises that descend from their mid-
dle or upper-middle range, moving down by half steps until they have crossed
over their break. This will assist singers in carrying the head voice down, rather
than allowing the chest voice to be brought up. Generally, as pitch goes down,
the singing should become softer and lighter. In addition, having students slowly
lift their hands from their sides as the vocal line descends may help them make
a smoother transition between registers. These exercises will help students to
travel smoothly throughout their entire range:
1. Start this exercise in the upper part of the range, and then as the pitch gets
lower and lower, change to “bloo” to avoid breaking into chest voice.
f
& 44 œ œ œ œ ˙
Ó
Bloh Bloh Bloh Bloh Bloh
2. Sing at a very fast tempo.
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j ‰
blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah
3. Start with the women singing downward “sol-fa-mi-re-do” in A Major on

an open “oh” (e2). As they descend by half-step repetitions, have the men
join in singing falsetto where they are comfortable and at least by E♭ Major
(b♭1). Continue singing downward, listening for the women to blend the
upper register into their lower range until they have to drop out. Have the
men continue down through their break and into the bass register. As the
basses descend, they tend to pull back into a “darker” tone. Remind them to
place the vowels more forward as they get lower so that the tone rings more
with less effort.
For women, the head register is a normal part of their singing voice and
should be developed thoroughly, enabling them to sing across a wide range. For
men, the falsetto register in these exercises is used occasionally in singing certain
repertoire, but in warm-ups is more of a tool to prompt men to sing in their
upper register with a supported, focused tone. Men should sing a falsetto exer-
cise every day to help them learn not to strain or to carry too much weight up
from their lower voice. Although they may have difficulty accessing the register
at first, eventually it will become second nature and will give them a means to
place their voice in the upper register without tension. The four exercises below
can be used to work with the men in their falsetto register.
1. This exercise employs the familiar opening sequence from “Lion Sleeps
Tonight” as a fun way to introduce falsetto singing to your guys. (Note: Sing
this exercise in the octave written and swing the eighth notes.)
4 j j j j j
&b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j
œ œ
wee dee dee dee dee dee dee dee dee dee wee um bum ba weh
2. This exercise starts on the d above middle c and ascends. Note that unlike
women’s head voice, men’s falsetto is often easier to access through closed
vowels like “ee” and “oo.”
#
& # 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.
Œ
oo
3. Start this in the key of D or E♭ above middle c and descend. Challenge

them to carry their falsetto tone down as far as possible. This will be easier
for the basses than the tenors.
b 4
&bb 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
Ó
wee oh ee oh ee oh ee oh ee
4. With all singers (both boys and girls) starting in unison on c2, sing the
following exercise. Descend by half steps until the boys have crossed
successfully over their break, bringing their falsetto downward. Hand
motions for this exercise can be seen in the web video example.
P
& b 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ
ee eh ah oh oo
When working to extend range upward, create exercises to be sung staccato

and fast, so that singers won’t have time to panic and close off the vocal mecha-
nism. Although staccato helps develop a more open production, you will find
that students often have more difficulty singing in tune when singing staccato.
It might be helpful to use the piano to double their notes or provide harmonic
support. Several examples are shown below:
5.
& 44 œ œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ.
j ‰
. œ
da ba da ba da ba da ba da ba da
6. Vary vowels and, as they approach the top note, have students bend over
slightly at the waist. This physical movement will take their minds off
the fact that the notes are “high” and will also force them to use their
diaphragms correctly.
& 44 œ.
3
œ. œ. Œ
3
œ. œ. œ. œ
yah hah hah hah hah hah hah
7. The exercise can be also performed legato with different vowels to focus
the tone.
f
& 44 œ
3
œ œ Œ
3
œ œ œ œ
vi ah
8. Divide the choir in half, and have one group sing 8a and the other group
sing 8b. Be careful to tune the octaves!
(a) (b)
& 44 œ œ
œ Œ & 44
œ
œ
œ
Œ
ah ah
Range exercises most often focus on the challenges of maintaining good pro-
duction in the upper part of students’ ranges, but it is equally important for
students to develop a healthy approach to their lower register. Have students
sing a simple five-tone exercise like the one shown below, starting in C Major
and then descending by half steps. As men move into their lower register, their
voices tend to become too “covered” or muddy. Encourage them to keep a more
forward placement. Syllables like “peh” or “buy” can help maintain a forward
placement for the tone. Women who descend into their lower register are likely
to move to a more heavily chest-dominated tone. For them it is important to
keep the tone more rounded—using “oo” or “oh” vowels can help with this.
9. Sing a five-tone descending exercise on forward vowels to work lower

register.
& 44 œ œ œ œ
Œ
˙.
peh peh peh peh peh
buy buy buy buy buy
loo
lo
Flexibility
After students begin to use and blend their head and chest voices with some
ease, you will want to devise exercises that continue to encourage flexibility.
Flexibility is a skill that enables singers to execute fast runs and leaps as well
as to maneuver easily between registers. If you see tension during the exercises
shown below, suggest that singers roll their heads slowly and gently in a circular
motion. See the text website to view an exercise focused on achieving flexibility
(Note: Don’t roll the head back).
1. For this exercise, the eighth notes are bounced but still connected to the
sixteenths.
F
4 Œ
&4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
dee ee ee ee ee
2. Without stopping the breath or inserting an “h,” restate a new vowel on

every pitch.
2 Œ
&4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
dee
3. If students begin to “slide” between the pitches, insert a consonant like “l”
or “d” between each vowel to clean up the intonation, then remove again.
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ Ó
œ œ œ œ ˙
ah
4. The teacher can gradually increase tempo to develop smooth, flexible legato.
p
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Ó
œ œ œ œ ˙
ee eh ah oh oo
Intonation
Choral directors will often say, “You are flat, basses!” or “Sopranos, your notes
are sharp!” or “Choir, you are a half step lower now than you were at the begin-
ning of the piece. Why can’t you sing in tune?” Choirs need feedback during
rehearsal, but the feedback should be more informative than these comments.
Why are the basses flat? Why are the sopranos sharp? Why is the choir slipping
in pitch and what can be done to fix the problems? Not only should the choir be
taught to hear when they are out of tune but they must also understand what
can be done to correct intonation problems—or, even better, to prevent them
from happening at all.
Intonation problems most often result from poor vocal production. Singers are
often unprepared for the amount of effort it takes to sustain a well-produced tone
through an entire phrase. As soon as their support relaxes, often as they are run-
ning out of air, then flatting is inevitable. Tension in production can cause both
flatting and sharping as students try to push the voice to make a particular sound
rather than letting themselves sing. A few techniques that contribute to accurate
intonation include proper posture and breathing, correct alignment of the head
and body, a relaxed jaw, resonant vowels, and a healthy blending of the head and
chest voices. No matter what the purpose of a given exercise, always watch and
listen for solid and relaxed vocal production. When in doubt about an intona-
tion issue, focus on proper breath support and relaxation and see if that solves the
problem.
Singers must confront two types of intonation problems. The first is melodic
intonation, the ability to stay in tune with themselves by singing accurate
intervals in a melodic line. The tendency is for students to sing descending
intervals too large and ascending intervals too small, leading to an overall
flatting of the melodic line. The second is harmonic intonation, or staying
in tune with other voice parts in harmony. The challenge with harmonic
intonation is that singers can be maintaining a steady pitch, but as the notes
around them change, their pitch changes function and must be retuned. The
techniques and exercises below can help with both melodic and harmonic
intonation challenges.
1. A metaphor that works well for ascending and descending melodic intonation
is that of the staircase. Have students visualize the following: When you go
up a set of steps, you lift your foot above the step and then put your weight
on it—you go higher as you ascend. When you descend, you touch the step
lightly before putting your weight on it, so you don’t overshoot the step going
down.
2. One way to help melodic intonation is to add a drone. For example, sing a
standard five-tone descending line but have one voice part hold the first note so
that the other parts can tune to the fifth as they descend.
Œ
& c wœ œ œ œ ˙˙. Œ
.
noo noh noo
Ó
& c wœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙˙ Ó
noo noh noo noh noo
3. The next three exercises are helpful for melodic intonation because they
focus on tuning descending thirds and because they can be sung in a canon
to reinforce harmonic tuning as well. For 3a and 3b have voices start two
beats apart, and a lovely canon is formed. The leading voice can either
hold the tonic as a drone or alternate between “do” and “ti” until other
voices finish. Exercise 3c is a canon with the voices entering one beat apart.
Singers must maintain intensity as the line descends.
a.
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.
Œ
œ
i oo i oo i
b.
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
loo i oo i oo i oo i
c.
& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Œ Ó
oo
4. Chord warm-ups are a great way to help harmonic intonation. This exercise
builds a chord from a descending line.
U U
&c œ œ œ œ w wœ œ ˙
U
Mee Meh Mah Moh Moo Moo
?c œ œ œ œ wœ œ œ œ w
w
u
5. In this exercise, first build the chord by having the altos and basses sing
their notes on “oo” and tune the octave; while they continue singing add
the tenors on the fifth, and finally the sopranos on the third until the full
chord is sounding. By building the chord this way singers become sensitive
to harmonic relationships by following the natural overtones. Once the

chord is tuned, take a breath and sing the exercise as written. Listen for the
maintenance of tuning despite the change in vowel sounds.
b
& b b c ˙˙ ˙˙ ˙˙ ˙˙ ww
? b c ˙˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ww
noo noh nah neh nee
bb ˙ ˙ ˙
6. To help singers understand the way chord function affects tuning, start
with an E Major chord and then move voices by half step (⇑⇓), as shown
below ending on a D7 chord. As other voices move, students will have
to adjust their note to maintain good intonation. This exercise also helps
students realize how “big” an ascending half step is and how “small” a
descending half step should be.
S G#
A E
T B
B E
“oo”
Customizing Exercises
Choral teachers work on basic vocal technique every day, but sometimes it
can be difficult to transfer that learning to the context of a given piece of
music. One way to help with that transfer is to alter or customize the stand-
ard exercises to reflect certain characteristics of the music being rehearsed.
Customized exercises are most effective when targeted to the first piece being
rehearsed after warm-ups, though exercises can be introduced throughout
rehearsal to help solve particular vocal problems. This practice helps singers
see a real connection between the warm-ups and the literature they are
rehearsing.
Customizing Breath Exercises

Because the breath forms the foundation of a good choral sound, teachers
should think about the breath-management demands of particular pieces and
create exercises to help students meet those demands. For example, challeng-
ing rhythmic patterns from the repertoire can be turned into exercises using an
“s” or “ch,” to perform the pattern accurately and connect it to the breath. (See
Exercise 1 below.) Most warm-ups are written in duple meter, but it makes more
sense to create breath exercises in the meter of the piece you will be performing,
such as 3/4 or 7/8 as in Exercises 2a and 2b. For pieces that require long legato
phrases, it is logical to warm up with an exercise that emphasizes a deep breath
and sustained output, such as Exercise 3.
1. Hiss the rhythm pattern from the opening section of “Riu Riu Chiu.”
Original Melody
&C œ œ œ œ œ 32 ˙ ˙ Ó
˙ œ œ œ œ œ
Ri - u ri - u chi - u la guar - da ri - ber - ra
Breath Exercise
3 ˙
&C œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ 2 ˙ Ó
ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss
2. Exercises in 3/4 and 7/8.

a.
3 ˙.
&4 œ œ œ ˙ œ
ss ss ss ss ss ss
b.
7 > > > > > >
& 8 œJ œ
J
œ
J
œ
J
œ
J
œ
J
œ
J
œ
J
œ
J
œ
J
œ œ
ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss ss
3. Exercise to build up to long phrases with steady support.

•• Have students exhale all of their air while maintaining an elevated chest.
•• Breathe in for 4 beats, sipping through a straw, and out for 8 on
a steady “ss.”
•• Breathe in for 8 beats, sipping through a straw, and out for 16 on
a steady “ss.”
•• Breathe in for 12 beats and out for 24 beats and hold—don’t breathe
in right away—check posture, and chest position. Then…
•• Breathe in, in one open relaxed breath and steadily out for 24 on “ss.”
Try to keep the air flowing at a consistent rate and volume.
Customizing Resonance and Placement

Although it is important to establish resonant production on the basic vowel
sounds, such as the five Latin vowels, we often ask students to sing in languages
with different vowel sounds, such as nasal or closed vowels. One way to help
prepare them without compromising technique is to incorporate these vowels
into vocal exercises such as the following:
1. Sing an exercise with a French nasal on “jouin” (IPA: ʒuɛ̃) and “bon”
(IPA: bɔ̃) shifting to pure “ee” and “oo.”
& 44 ˙ œ œ œ œ
Ó
˙
Jouin jee
Bon bu
2. To prepare German diction, try this exercise alternating an “ee” vowel with
an umlaut “ü” by changing lips while maintaining tongue position. For
“Nu-o,” sing with open and closed German “o” vowels or on an umlaut “ö”.
p
2
&4 œ Œ
œ œ œ œ
Nee ü ee ü ee
Nu o u o u
Another helpful way to customize resonance exercises is to place them in

different meters and tonalities so that singers become comfortable maintaining
good technique in a variety of musical contexts. An unfamiliar tonality or meter

will often cause students to tense up in their production and lose resonance.
Below are some standard resonance exercises with slight modifications to intro-
duce a different musical context. (Note: The students may need more support
from the keyboard when introducing a new tonality.)
3. Use standard five-tone exercises in minor and in triple meter. To help

tune the minor, try having one part hold the first pitch throughout the
exercise, or try the variation in Exercise 3c that adds the lowered sixth
scale degree.
a.
p
bb 2 Œ
& b 4 œ œ œ œ œ
Nee oo ee oo ee
Noo oh oo oh oo
b.
P
bb 3 Œ
& b 4 ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙
Nee nee nee
c.
p
bb 2 Œ
& b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Nee oo ee oo ee
Vee veh vah voh voo
Customizing Range
Exercises for range can be customized in several ways. One way is to use
rhythms or meters from the piece; for example, if you are doing a piece in 6/8 or
another triple meter, then you can use Exercise 1 below to give students a sense
of that rhythm. Exercise 2 can be used to familiarize students with duple meter.
Another way to customize range exercises is to consider the type of melodic
movement featured in the piece. Are high notes approached by step or leap? Are
there octave leaps in the piece? Exercises 3 and 4 are designed to prepare singers
to approach their top register in different ways.
1.
6 œ ‰
& 8 œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ
Al le lu ia
2.
F
& Œ
C œ. œ ˙ œ Ó
œ ˙
Al - le - lu - ia
3. Approach upper register by steps.
& 42 œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ
Œ
vi ah
4. Approach upper register by skips.

a.
F
4
&4 œ ˙ œ Œ
œ ˙
Vi - ah
b.
f
4
&4 œ œ œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ ˙.
doo doh daw doh doo
Customizing Intonation
Although working on general intonation skills is important, it can also be help-
ful to sensitize singers to the harmonic language of a particular piece. The two
exercises below are extractions of specific chord progressions from repertoire. In
the original pieces, the progression is sung very quickly with detached articula-
tion. By separating out the progression, you can help students tune the chords
better before trying them in context. These exercises can be introduced first as
sight-singing opportunities, as discussed in Chapter 9, and then sung as written
or with different rhythms and articulations.
1. Sing a chord progression exercise from the opening chorus of Keith

Hampton’s “Praise His Holy Name” (earthsongs).
b ˙
& b c ˙˙˙ # ˙˙˙ ˙˙ ˙˙˙ ˙˙ ˙˙
˙ n ˙˙˙ b ˙˙
˙ ˙
2. Sing a chord progression from the chorus of “Vive l’Amour,” arr. Parker/
Shaw (Alfred)
b ˙
Tenor 1 V b 44 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
b 4 ˙
Tenor 2 Vb 4 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
Baritone
? b b 44 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
? b b 44 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
Bass ˙ ˙
Creating Your Own Exercises

Many of the “customized” exercises presented thus far are just standard scale and
arpeggio exercises in which the meter, rhythm, tonality, or vowels have been altered
to fit the characteristics of the repertoire. Occasionally, the director may wish to
create exercises to address more specifically the challenges found in the reper-
toire. To accomplish this, a potentially troublesome pattern is extracted from the
piece and turned into a warm-up exercise. For example, the harmonic intonation
exercises in the previous section were taken from specific pieces and simplified to
function as warm-ups. Below are two excerpts from pieces that have been changed
into melodic exercises. Notice that in each case the exercise modifies the original
pattern somewhat so that it can be easily moved up or down by half steps (because
it ends on “sol” or “do”) and is short enough to be taught by rote. Although cus-
tomizing isn’t necessary in every warm-up period, creative customization can help
singers address certain problems in the repertoire in a vocally healthy way and can
be referred to later in the rehearsal if the problem recurs. Customizing warm-ups
is a fun and creative way to prepare singers for musical challenges in the repertoire
as well as maintain their interest from day to day.
1. Create an “Il est bel et bon” exercise.

a. Original score is shown.
Passereau
&C œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Ó
Il est bel et bon, bon, bon, bon, bon, com - me - re,
&C
œ œ œ
œIl estœ bel
œ œ œ œ œ
et bon, bon, bon, bon, bon, com
VC Ó œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ ˙
?C œ œ œ œ
Il est bel et bon, bon, bon, bon, bon, com - me -
Ó œ œ œ œ
Il est bel et bon, bon, bon, com
b. Sing the created exercise.

b 4
&bb 4 œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ
Œ
doo doo doo doo doo doo doo doo doo
2. Create a “Hodie Christus Natus Est” exercise.

a. Original score is shown.
J. P. Sweelinck
b 3 ˙. œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ c w
Soprano 1 &b 2
Ho - di - e, ho - di - e, Chri -
b
Soprano 2 & b 23 ˙. œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ c w
b
& b 23 ˙. ˙ c w
œ ˙ ˙. œ
Alto
b 3 œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ ˙
Tenor V b 2 ˙. c Ó
œ
? b b 23 ˙. œ ˙ ˙. ˙
Bass c w
ho - di - e, ho - di - e, Chri -
b. Sing the created exercise.

f
3
& 2 ˙. ˙. Ó
œ ˙ œ œ œ w
daw dee daw daw dee daw
Ho - di - e! Ho - di - e!
Presenting Warm-ups to Your Choir

The warm-up period is an important opportunity to focus singers’ attention
on the fundamentals of good technique and prepare them for the musical chal-
lenges of the day’s rehearsal. As discussed before, warm-ups can be organized
and presented in different ways. Some directors choose the same exercises every
day to build vocal fundamentals through repetition. Others constantly change
exercises to meet the perceived needs of the singers on a given day. A hybrid
approach—in which certain fundamental exercises are used repeatedly, whereas
others are customized—may be a good compromise.
Teaching Exercises
A number of decisions need to be made about how warm-ups will be pre-
sented to your students; for example, how to teach a new exercise, whether
to double on piano, what key to start in, and other specifics. One important
feature of most warm-up exercises is that they are short enough to teach
easily by rote. The most direct way to present an exercise is to sing it for
the students and have them echo you. By singing the exercise, you present
not only the desired pitch and rhythm, but also the tone color, vowel shape,
and dynamic of the exercise. Showing, not saying, can save time by avoiding
long verbal explanations such as, “I want you to sing an arpeggio starting on
an ‘ee’ vowel and then moving to an ‘ah’ vowel at the top.” If you maintain a
continuous rhythmic flow between your vocal demonstration and the choir’s
responses, the pacing of the rehearsal and students’ breathing technique will
be facilitated.
The model/echo approach works well for an initial presentation of the exer-
cise. Once the singers have had chance to sing through the exercise two or three
times, you should provide specific feedback, either positive or corrective, on their
sound. Students need to know that you are listening and you should correct
any vocal faults before they ascend too far in their range. Avoid the temptation
to “fix” something before it becomes a problem. Comments such as, “watch out
for the descending line and be careful not to go flat on the open vowel” are not
effective until the singers have had a chance to try the exercise because they won’t
understand what you are trying to correct. If you give them a clear vocal model
and they echo well, it is possible that the problem will never occur! (See also the
web video of a warm-up sequence.)
Use of Piano
One important decision is how much and in what ways the piano will be used
during warm-ups and rehearsal. The piano can be a wonderful tool that pro-
vides a clear tonal context for exercises and (sometimes) a harmonic foundation
to help singers stay in tune. One of the least effective ways to use the piano in
warm-ups is to have it doubling the same pattern the students are singing. Such
doubling is problematic for several reasons: (1) the choral director will have dif-
ficulty hearing the singers well; (2) the percussiveness of the piano makes it a
poor model for legato singing; and (3) the students will learn to depend on the
keyboard for maintaining their intonation.
The piano, however, can be extremely helpful in many ways. For example,
the piano can provide the new tonality when singers are moving up or down
by half steps as they sing an exercise. Eventually, students should be able to
make this transition on their own, but the piano can provide a solid founda-
tion at the start. The piano can also provide a harmonic foundation or accom-
paniment that can help support musical and in-tune singing. The exercise
below was presented earlier in the chapter, but here it appears with a possible
accompaniment that makes the exercise more musical. Those teachers who are
talented pianists can improvise different harmonic contexts for common exer-
cises to “stretch” the students’ ears and make simple scales and arpeggios more
interesting.
j j
& 68 œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ
zing a zing a zoozing a zing a zoo zing a zing a zoo zing a zing a zoo zing a zing a zing a zing a zoo
6 j
& 8 ‰ œœœ œœœ ‰ œœœ œœœ ‰ œœ œœ ‰ œ œ 44 ‰ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ œœœ # # # œœœ
œ œ œœ œœ œ œ
Piano
? 68 œ . œ. œ. œ. 44 œ œ #œ
œ
Conducting and Kinesthetic Techniques

Gesture can be used in a number of ways in the warm-up period. When modeling an
exercise for students, your conducting gestures can provide a clear, rhythmic frame-
work, as well as indicate where the preparatory breath should occur. Beyond the
conducting gestures, teachers often develop a repertoire of other gestural signals to
remind singers about jaw position, posture, relaxation, and other fundamentals of
good singing. Using gestures to communicate rather than taking time to talk about the
issue is a good way to maintain the flow of the rehearsal and keep the singers on task.
Gesture can also be used by the singers to reinforce aspects of good technique.
Having singers move their bodies in various ways can help them experience the “feeling”
of what you are trying to achieve with the choir. The following ideas may prove helpful:
1. Have the singers move their arms down as they leap to a high note, to
emphasize keeping solid low support.
2. Have the singers move their hands from left to right or back to front in an arc
to reinforce an open throat.
3. Gliding or bouncing gestures with the hand and arm can help reinforce articulation.
Bouncing to the beat on the balls of the feet can achieve similar results.
4. Larger body movement can aid students in feeling different patterns of metrical
stress, such as swaying from side to side to sense the two main pulses in 6/8 meter.
5. Ask the singers to throw an imaginary baseball as they sing the highest note.
This gesture will enhance the amount of energy they use (or illustrate for them
how much energy is necessary).
6. While singers are standing, ask them to bend their knees on the highest note
of an exercise.
7. If flatting on descending passages is a problem, have the singers raise their arms
slowly or move a pointed finger up and out from their body as they sing the
notes that descend.
8. To enhance nasal resonance and the feeling of sound coming out from the top
of the head, have students point upward with the index finger, starting at the
nose and moving up and out as they sing an ascending exercise.
9. To energize the breath for a phrase or long-held notes, have students
quickly spin their hands around in front of their bodies. This can help keep
the note or phrase alive.
The preceding suggestions are only the beginning. There are a wide range of
possible gestures and movements for warm-ups, so use your creativity to enhance
the musical learning and understanding of your choir. (See also the web video of
a warm-up sequence for examples of kinesthetic techniques.)
Choosing the Key of an Exercise

Choosing the proper starting key for an exercise can be very important. When
working with high school singers, you can begin with a standard five-tone
descending scale (“sol-do”) or arpeggio (“do-mi-sol-do”) exercise that starts in B♭
and then moves up by half step. If the exercise features a note below “do,” then
the key is determined by the lowest note of an exercise—so an exercise with a
low “sol” would begin in E♭, making B♭ the lowest pitch.
When working with middle school voices, the teacher needs to keep in mind
the different comfortable ranges of the various voice parts. Exercises in the key
of C or B♭ could work for middle school girls’ voices, but would be either too low
or too high for the boys. For mixed choirs, start with exercises in E or F Major
and then move up and down by half steps to touch on the high and low extremes
of different voice parts. Due to the specific vocal register issues of middle school
singers, multi-part exercises can often be effective with this age group. Several
such exercises are shown in Chapter 8.
When choosing keys for women’s head voice exercises that start on “sol,” the
keys of either G or A Major (starting with the notes d2 or e2 and descending by
half steps) are about as high as you want to begin so that voices don’t get too tight
on the top note. Make sure to use an open vowel such as “oh” on top. For men’s
falsetto, a key of either D or E♭ sung above middle C is usually a good starting
place. Here, a closed vowel such as “oo” or even “ee” is often easiest to sing.
Range of the Exercise

Warm-up exercises can span a variety of ranges, but it is important to think
about the sequence of exercises as well. In general, the first sung exercises should
be in a narrower range and start in a comfortable key, to promote a relaxed and
resonant tone. As the voices warm up, the registers can expand accordingly. It is
also important to remember that different ages have different limitations with
regard to registers, and one size does not fit all.
Setting Dynamics
Setting dynamic levels for warm-ups can help focus students’ attention on the
quality of their sound; by singing at varying dynamic levels, students are more
inclined to listen carefully to each other. In addition, different dynamic levels
naturally promote different qualities of good singing. For example, students find
it easier to sing with good breath support at forte dynamics than at piano, so
alternating between the two while maintaining good breath support can be very
instructive. Ask students to think forte or breathe forte as they sing piano. By the
same token, piano dynamics tend to promote better blend and more focused
tone, so by moving from piano to forte, students can maintain a blended sound
and keep the vowels from spreading too much.
Good Vocal Hygiene

One final aspect of vocal training that is crucial for both students and conductor
is that of good vocal hygiene. The term hygiene in this context refers to proper
use and care of the voice. You can obtain advice on good vocal hygiene from
numerous sources, including speech pathologists, voice teachers, and local hos-
pitals. A few basic principles of good vocal hygiene are presented here:
1. Stay hydrated. Doctors recommend drinking 32 to 64 oz of water per day for

adequate hydration.
2. Don’t clear your throat. Throat clearing can actually damage the vocal folds.
When you feel the need to clear your throat, swallow instead and perhaps take
a drink of fluids.
3. Try to avoid yelling and talking over loud backgrounds. For choral teachers this
means not talking over the class. For students it means avoiding conversations
in rooms where loud music is playing.
4. Always use your breath support. Singers are often conscious of their breath
support when singing but less so when speaking. Support is important in both
situations.
5. Get plenty of rest. Fatigue is a common cause of vocal problems.
The guidelines for good vocal hygiene apply to teachers as well as students.
Many choral teachers think that because of their extensive vocal training, they
understand good hygiene and are less likely to experience vocal injury or fatigue.
But music teachers may actually be more likely to experience vocal problems
because they (a) teach in loud environments where they often talk over students;
(b) use their voices to model extreme registers; and (c) often fail to talk with the
same level of breath support they use when singing. Increasingly, music teachers
are using amplification systems to avoid stressing their voices. Both teachers and
students need to become sensitive to signs of vocal strain caused by improper
voice production or injury and deal with them immediately in consultation with
an otolaryngologist or speech pathologist.
Summary
Much of this chapter has focused on how to teach group vocal techniques during
the warm-up period of rehearsal. Remember that good vocal fundamentals should
be reinforced throughout the rehearsal. Many of the exercises presented here as
warm-ups can also remind singers of a certain ideal sound or feeling of relaxation
that may have been achieved in warm-ups but lost while rehearsing the repertoire.
By the same token, a piece that the singers perform with exceptionally good tone
and technique can be used as a warm-up to remind them of that sound and feeling.
Regardless of your personal musical background as a singer or instrumentalist,
you must learn vocal pedagogy to be an effective choral teacher. Often, directors
whose own vocal technique came with some difficulty may be more sensitive to
the needs of singers in a choral setting. The goal of group vocal training is to be
sure that the singers in your ensemble are producing the most resonant, relaxed,
and supported tone they can. Teachers should also be familiar with good vocal
hygiene so that they may help themselves and their students maintain a healthy
instrument. The resources at the end of this chapter can provide much more
detailed information on the training and maintenance of the voice.
Mini-Projects
1. Customize a standard warm-up exercise to reflect some aspect (tonality,
rhythm) of a piece from the repertoire.
2. Try to lead an entire vocal warm-up without speaking—use modeling
with your singing voice, conducting gestures, and facial expressions to
communicate what you want and to indicate approval. How much can you
achieve without words?
3. Choose a potentially problematic spot from a piece that you think will
be difficult for the choir. Design an exercise to address the problem. Remember,
to function as an exercise, it should be easy to sing when moving up or down by
half steps.
Additional Reading
Chase, Constance, and Shirlee Emmons. 2006. Prescriptions for choral
excellence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cookman, Starr. 2010. Voice savers for music teachers: A voice pathologist
offers 10 tips to prevent hoarseness, throat pain, and vocal fatigue. Teaching
Music, 19 (4): 28–31.
Demorest, Steven M. 1993. Customizing choral warm ups. Choral Journal
33 (7): 25–28.
DeVore, Kate, and Starr Cookman. 2009. The voice book: Caring for
protecting, and improving your voice. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.
Ehmann, Wilhelm, and Frauke Haaseman. 1982. Voice building for choirs.
Chapel Hill, NC: Hinshaw Music.
Haasemann, Frauke, and James Jordan. 1991. Group vocal technique.
Chapel Hill, NC: Hinshaw Music.
McKinney, J. 2005. The diagnosis and correction of vocal faults: A manual for
teachers of singing and for choir directors (with accompanying CD of sample vocal
faults). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Miller, Richard. 1986. The structure of singing: System and art in vocal
technique. New York: Schirmer Books.
Phillips, Kenneth H. 1992. Teaching kids to sing. New York: Schirmer
Books.
CHAPTER 8
The Changing Voice
As Ms. Newhall’s fifth-period middle school choir races into the choir room, several students
run over to the piano to find out if their voices have dropped in pitch since the last time they
checked. Ms. Newhall finds that Ken, an eighth grader, has gained a few lower notes and
will probably be moving to the baritone section. Juan, a seventh grader, is extremely excited
to discover that he will finally be moving into the cambiata section. Because the high notes
of the soprano part have become difficult to sing comfortably, Ann asks if she can try singing
alto for a while.
After making the appropriate changes, Ms. Newhall wonders what she is going to do
about the music the choir has been preparing for the spring concert, now only one week
away. Ann and Ken have served as strong leaders in their respective choir sections, and
very little time is left for these singers to learn the notes for their new voice parts. Oh, the
joys of teaching at the middle school level!
No issue in choral music education is so unsettling and so exciting for students as

the changing voice. Because it is an important rite of passage, most boys eagerly
anticipate their voice change, yet the process of changing can be filled with many
frustrating and embarrassing moments. Girls’ voices change, too, and the process
they experience can fill the young female singer with confusion and self-doubt.
Choral directors and voice teachers who work with singers whose voices are
changing encounter many challenges and learn quickly that the only thing on
which they can count with any confidence is change! Singers at this stage of
development are sometimes called “vocal chameleons,” due to the unpredictabil-
ity of their vocal ranges and capacities. Teachers of this age group must therefore
174
THE CHANGING VOICE 175

be flexible, and must possess detailed knowledge about what is happening to
their singers during the transition from childhood to adulthood. This knowledge
and flexibility can make a real difference in the musical success of individual sing-
ers and choral ensembles, as well as to singers’ continued interest in singing and
music during their adult lives.
Middle school/junior high school can serve as a pivotal point at which
students, assessing their experiences, will decide whether or not to continue
in choral music. If singers have successful and fulfilling musical experiences
facilitated by a knowledgeable and understanding director, they will eagerly
anticipate choir membership in high school and beyond. If, on the other hand,
they are met with a well-meaning director who has limited knowledge, not only
of adolescent development but also adolescent vocal development, students are
likely to experience frustration and limited musical success, and may decide
against continued participation in choir. Therefore, teachers of adolescent singers
have a responsibility to gain an understanding of this age group in general and of
the care and development of changing voices in particular.
176 THE CHANGING VOICE
Signs of Change
Vocal mutation, or voice change, is directly related to the many developments
that occur during the period of adolescence called puberty. In middle school/
junior high school, but sometimes earlier or later, adolescents experience many
physical changes, including rapid growth spurts in both height and weight and
the maturation of primary sex organs. This process also triggers the appear-
ance of such secondary sex characteristics as growth of facial hair in boys and a
broadening of the hips and breast development in girls. The boy’s larynx grows
both in length and in the anteroposterior direction (front to back), resulting in
the appearance of the “Adam’s apple.” Their vocal cords lengthen by approxi-
mately 1 centimeter and become much thicker than the girl’s, allowing for a
lower, fuller sound. The girl’s larynx also grows in length but not so much in
width, and their vocal cords grow longer by 3 to 4 millimeters (Barresi 1986).
To determine whether their singers are experiencing vocal mutation, choral
directors need to look for signs of physical maturity, listen for changes in range and
tessitura, and look and listen for any evidence of vocal strain in their students. In
his research, John Paul Johnson (1981) found that an exclusively aural determina-
tion of tessitura range may not be as effective as a visual and aural determination,
because the eye can detect signs of tension and strain that may not be so apparent
in the sound. Tightening the muscles in the neck, raising the chin and jutting the
jaw forward to reach higher notes, and dropping the head down in an attempt
to sing lower notes just outside the singer’s range all indicate that vocal strain is
present. These singers need immediate attention so that they can be evaluated and
possibly reassigned to another section of the choir. In addition, they will need to be
reminded and encouraged to practice healthy vocal habits.
Female Voice Change

Lynn Gackle (1991), a researcher in the area of changing voices, has focused
her study on the adolescent female voice. She notes the dearth of information
and research in this area, possibly because the changing process for girls is not
nearly so noticeable as it is for boys. Although less obvious, a voice change does
occur and can impact girls’ voices significantly. Gackle describes the female vocal
mutation as “shades of change,” suggesting that the overall sound of a treble
voice remains intact, but the richness, depth, and warmth will change. She cau-
tions choral directors and voice teachers against classifying girls’ voices at this
age as sopranos or altos, but instead recommends more specific terms such as
“light soprano” or “rich soprano.” Equal-voiced music, or music in which the
ranges for all voice parts are similar, is a wise repertoire choice for changing
female voices. In addition, Gackle suggests that girls be encouraged to alternate
parts as long as the ranges are comfortable. This practice may have the added
benefit of increased musical independence.
Characteristics that may indicate female voice change during adolescence
include voice cracking, hoarseness, increased breathiness and huskiness in the
sound, and uncomfortable singing or difficulty in phonation. In addition, a low-
ering of the fundamental frequency in speaking, the development of noticeable
registers, and a fluctuating tessitura may cause an adolescent girl to become
uncomfortable with a voice part she has sung with ease and pleasure in the past
(Gackle 1991). Because the fluctuations are sporadic and unpredictable, Gackle
suggests that a change in voice part can be helpful, but may be necessary only for
a short time. In addition, she advocates continuing vocalization throughout the
singer’s range, avoiding strain in both the upper and lower portions.
w (w ) w (w) w (w ) w (w ) œ
œ œ œ
& œ œ
bw w w œ w (w ) œ
Stage I Stage IIA Stage IIB Stage III
Pre-Pubertal Pre-Menarchael Post-Menarchael Young Adult Female
Figure 8.1 Adolescent female vocal ranges and tessituras (Gackle). © Cengage Learning 2014.
w #w] w #w
& w w] w w]
(w )
none and
Stage I Stage IIA Stage IIB Stage III

Pre-Pubertal Pre-Menarchael Post-Menarchael Young Adult Female
Figure 8.2 Adolescent female lift points (Gackle). © Cengage Learning 2014.
Figure 8.1 shows adolescent female voice ranges and tessituras, and Figure 8.2
shows the lift points found at various stages of the female voice during adoles-
cence. These figures are based on research reported by Gackle (1991, 23–24).
w œ w œ
& œ œ
w w
Stage I Stage II
Figure 8.3 Adolescent female vocal ranges and tessituras (Barresi). © Cengage Learning 2014.
According to Anthony Barresi’s research, the voice change for girls occurs in
two stages (Figure 8.3). In Stage 1, “the vocal range narrows slightly and the tone
quality becomes rather thin, somewhat colorless, and husky or breathy” (Barresi
1986). In Stage 2, the chest voice emerges due to the growth and strengthening
of the laryngeal muscles and cartilage. As the process continues for girls, the
huskiness gradually disappears and vocal agility improves; by the eleventh grade,
lift points appear. For sopranos, the lift point occurs at approximately e2, while
for altos, the lift point is approximately b1.
Barresi agrees with Gackle that the voice change for girls is mainly one of
quality; therefore, referring to these young singers as “treble 1” and “treble 2”
makes more sense than as sopranos and altos. For all girls, regardless of voice
classification, vocalization throughout their entire range should continue. By
taking this approach, the middle school director can avoid creating the high
school alto with a powerful chest register that turns to a whisper above her
break.
Male Voice Change

Boys have a much more dramatic experience when their voices change, and,
possibly for this reason, research on the changing male voice is quite extensive.
The knowledge is varied, however, and experts often disagree. In fact, in the lat-
ter part of the nineteenth century, a major controversy arose over whether boys’
voices should be exercised at all during their voice change (Cooksey 1977, Part I).
After much discussion over the years, this dispute was resolved in favor of sing-
ing through puberty under the guidance of competent teachers who encourage
healthy vocal production and who are knowledgeable about the changing voice.
John Cooksey, an influential researcher in the area of the male changing
voice, concludes that vocal mutation is directly related to the physiological and
psychological changes that occur in the adolescent male. He maintains that boys
should be fully informed so that their voice change can become for them more
of an adventure than a nightmare. He believes that vocal mutation occurs most
dramatically in the eighth grade for a majority of boys and tapers off considerably
by the middle of the ninth grade—though, increasingly, teachers are finding that
boys’ voices are changing earlier than the ages suggested by Cooksey’s earlier
research (Killian 1999; Killian and Wayman 2010). The male voice changes
in specific developmental stages, but the rate of change for each boy will vary.
For example, in any one middle school grade level, you can often find boys in
any of the first four stages of vocal mutation. Regardless of which stage he is
in, however, work with a boy’s changing voice should always begin with his
comfortable, middle singing range. Cooksey (1992) divides the process of vocal
mutation into six different stages, the ranges and tessituras of which are shown
in Figure 8.4.
w w
& #œ œ w œ #w
w # œ bw œ œ
#w w
? w #œ w #œ
w # # œœ w
#œ
œ
a. Unchanged b. Stage I c. Stage II d. Stage III e. Stage IV f. Stage V
Midvoice I Midvoice II Midvoice IIA New Baritone Developing
Baritone
Figure 8.4 Vocal ranges and tessituras (Cooksey). © Cengage Learning 2014.
Cooksey finds that a prepubescent boy’s speaking pitch averages about two
to three semitones above the lowest pitch of his singing voice range, and gradu-
ally changes to four to six semitones above it in the postmutational stage. This
information can be helpful in classifying voices correctly. Ideally, individual voice
testing should be done every six to eight weeks so that the choir director will be
aware of each boy’s range and tessitura, as well as other factors, including pos-
ture, breath control, dynamic capabilities, and pitch agility.
Cooksey believes that voice types are not produced by increased training but
are instead predetermined genetically—so he warns against trying to “create” a
tenor, baritone, or bass voice. He also argues that boys should not have intensive
private voice training until their voices have “settled.” This view is supported by
laryngologists and speech pathologists (Cooksey 1977, Part II).
In their brief but informative book, The Boy’s Changing Voice: New Solutions
for Today’s Choral Teacher (1991), Terry J. Barham and Darolyne L. Nelson
base many of their approaches on Cooksey’s research. From their own extensive
testing and experience with changing voices, however, the authors have reduced
Cooksey’s six categories of the changing voice to four, with slightly different
ranges. These categories are shown in Figure 8.5.
œ œ
& œ œ
? œ œ bœ
œ
Treble Cambiata I Cambiata II Baritone
Figure 8.5 Vocal ranges (Barham and Nelson). © Cengage Learning 2014.
Figure 8.6 shows the various stages of male vocal mutation as well as the range
and tessitura for each stage suggested by Anthony Barresi (1986). Stage 1 is
often called “boy alto,” and Stage 2 is comparable to the cambiata category or the
alto-tenor voice. Stage 2A is a brief stopping place between Stages 2 and 3, and
Stage 3 is the postmutational period from which adult tenors and basses will
eventually emerge.
w w œ w w
&
( )
œ w œ w
œ œ œ
( )
w w
œ w œœ
? w w œ w
Unchanged Male Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2A Stage 3
"Boy Alto" High Mutation Transitional Post-mutation
Period Mutation Period
"cambiata" Period
"alto-tenor"
Figure 8.6 Vocal ranges and tessituras (Barresi). © Cengage Learning 2014.
Barresi defines the process of vocal mutation as the transformation of a child’s

voice into a voice approximating that of an adult. He agrees with other experts
that the stages of change for both boys and girls are predictable, but the age at
which the change begins and the rate of change will vary for each student. Vocal
mutation happens most often between the ages of eleven and thirteen as puber-
tal changes become visibly apparent. Evidence that a boy’s voice is beginning to
change first appears in his speaking voice; sometimes, the lowering of the speak-
ing voice can precede an alteration in the singing voice by three months.
In 1986, Barresi created an informative videotape titled Barresi on Adolescent
Voice. Included in this presentation is an overview of the process of vocal mutation,
vocal changes associated with puberty, Barresi’s stages of voice change, and tips on
vocal training for voices in the process of change. A real highlight of the video is
the demonstration, by seven young singers (two female and five male), of various
characteristics and difficulties encountered during each stage of vocal mutation.
To hear the vocal problems that occur when singers are asked to sing outside their
comfortable singing range is especially enlightening. Excerpts from Barresi’s video
are available on the text website. Choral directors of singers with changing voices
can certainly benefit from viewing these demonstrations.
Voice Classification
One of the challenges of middle school choral music is to quickly and accurately
identify the comfortable range of your singers so that you can properly assign
them to a voice part. At times, accomplishing this task can feel like trying to hit a
moving target. In addition to the rapid physical changes associated with this age,
there are the social ramifications of being a boy soprano or, for girls, of singing alto
or “second” soprano instead of the melody. Teachers must have a clear set of age-
appropriate expectations for the sounds their singers are making and always be
watching and listening for signs that a child’s voice is beginning to change.
Barham and Nelson advocate the testing of all boys’ voices individually at least every
six to eight weeks during the school year, and suggest the following method of testing:
1. Before testing the boys, separate them from the girls in their own room.
2. Have each boy say “Hello,” and notate his spoken pitch on a chalkboard. Make
sure these pitches are labeled with each boy’s name. (Their spoken pitches will
lie near the bottom of their singing range and will help in deciding their
voice category.)
3. Give each boy a handout with the four categories of the changing voice, so
he will know where he fits into the process of vocal mutation.
4. Using each boy’s speaking pitch as the tonic, have him sing the exercise in
Figure 8.7. Move up by half steps until signs of vocal strain indicate that
the upper limits have been reached. For each boy, notate this pitch above
his speaking pitch on the chalkboard.
5. Beginning with the speaking pitch of each boy, have him sing the exercise in
Figure 8.8 and descend by half steps to locate his lower limits. Notate this
pitch. Praise him on some aspect of his singing that you heard during the
testing procedure (Barham and Nelson 1991, 9–10).
#
& 44 Œ
œ œ œ œ œ ˙
Hel - lo
Figure 8.7 Ascend on “Hello” to find upper limits. © Cengage Learning 2014.
? bb 4 œ œ œ œ œ ˙ Œ
b 4
Hel - lo
Figure 8.8 Descend on “Hello” to find lower limits. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Barham and Nelson also advocate creating a safe environment for boys
with changing voices. To help develop a positive self-image, boys should be
informed about the process of vocal mutation. Girls can provide moral sup-
port for their male peers if they, too, are informed. Keeping a wall chart so that
each boy’s progress is visible may encourage male camaraderie and support.
In a mixed choir, be sensitive to the terminology you use for unchanged male
voices. “Treble I” and “treble II” may be more easily received than “soprano I”
and “soprano II,” because the boys know that the soprano part is sung by girls.
Where you physically place your unchanged male voices can make a big dif-
ference in morale as well. Boys who are still singing treble parts should never
be placed in the middle of a section of girls, but rather at the edge, right next
to a boys’ section, where they will feel more comfortable. See Chapter 3 for
suggested seating and standing arrangements for boys with unchanged voices
within a mixed chorus.
Quick Placement Procedure for Boys

Although individual voice placement is necessary over the long term, the
choir director with a nonauditioned middle school choir often wants to start
the year with singing. A quick way to identify the general stage of change for
your male singers is given here. This procedure should take about five minutes
and is meant only as an initial step to be followed by individual testing later
in the year.
Review with the boys a simple, familiar piece with the range of a fifth or sixth,
such as “My Country ‘Tis of Thee.” After singing the piece in unison in a mod-
erate key such as F Major, all of the boys should stand up. Instruct them to sit
down when you tap their shoulders. Have everyone sing through the piece in
C Major while you walk in front of the boys. Tap the shoulders of those boys
singing clearly down the octave. Move these boys off to the side. They are your
middle school basses. Have the remaining singers sing the piece again, this time
in E or F Major, and walk in front of them again. This time, tap those who are
singing up the octave or trying to sing down the octave but can’t. These are your
unchanged voices. Those boys who are still standing are your cambiatas, or mid-
dle school tenors.
Training the Changing Voice

Choral directors need to realize that some aspects of an adolescent singer’s
tone and register are limited by physiological factors rather than vocal tech-
nique. The adolescent female who has a breathy upper register may be sup-
porting her sound well, but encountering limitations due to changes in her
vocal mechanism. Therefore, vocal training must focus on the fundamentals of
good production and the feeling of supported and relaxed singing—rather than
the resulting sound. As with any choir, training in middle school ensembles
should focus on posture, breath, resonance, flexibility, and musical preparation.
The difference comes in how these exercises are constructed with regard to
range and tessitura, with an emphasis on feeling rather than sound. Because
the vocal ranges of your singers are more limited, the keys in which you begin
and the total range of an individual exercise are affected. For example, exer-
cises that cover an octave are often less successful with this age group because
they limit which voices can participate at any given time. For this reason, take
the time to provide separate exercises for boys and girls, concentrating on the
particular register and flexibility challenges of each group. However, some
exercises are suitable for the entire choir to sing together. Figure 8.9 gives a
few examples.
a. Singing through the five vowels on a single pitch focusing on a consist-

ent mouth shape for each different vowel. You can add on a five tone
descending scale at the end of this exercise once the vowel shapes are
consistent.
& b 44 œ œ œ œ ˙ Œ Œ
mee meh mah moh moo
b. Singing through the same five vowels on a single chord provides a

comfortable range for each voice part and helps clarify the role of vowel
uniformity in intonation.
& b 44 œœ œœ œœ œœ ˙˙ .. Œ
œ œœ œœ œœ ˙˙ ..
mee meh mah moh moo
? b 44 œ Œ
c. This exercise is good for energizing the voice and for flexibility. The
limited range allows you to move quite a few half steps in either direction
while still fitting in your singers’ ranges. You can vary the vowel used as
desired though the closed vowels can help in tuning the Major 3rd.
# ##
& # 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.
Œ
noo noh nah neh nee
d. The “z” and “ng” sounds of this exercise help the singers focus on
resonance and good forward placement as they move from closed to
open vowels. The limited range also allows for a lot of movement up
and down. This exercise is often performed accompanied to provide
more harmonic interest.
## j j j
& # 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. Œ.
zing - ee zing - eh zing - ah
Figure 8.9a–d Vocal exercises for a middle school mixed choir. © Cengage Learning 2014.
These exercises are similar in many ways to those presented in Chapter 7,

but feature ranges of a fifth or less and different starting keys. With many older
or younger choirs the conductor can start exercises in B♭ or C and work from
the bottom up or work top down from the upper register. For middle school
mixed choir warm-ups, the easiest way to structure the warm-up is from the
center out to maintain a common register. By starting in E or F, as indicated
in Figure 8.9, and working both up and down from that point, the teacher can
keep everyone singing as long as possible. Starting exercises in the key of E or
F keeps the initial singing range between E and C in the appropriate octave.
This sixth is the “sweet spot” where almost all of your middle school singers
can sing along.
Multi-part exercises such as the example in Figure 8.10 also work well because
they allow singers to work within their comfortable ranges and practice part sing-
ing. Such exercises require a little more initial time to teach and prepare but can
help “set” the sound of your choir going into rehearsal. Some directors advocate
using pieces from the repertoire as warm-ups with this age group. If you discover
that the choir has an unusually good sound on a particular piece, that can be
used to build consistency and remind them of their ideal sound.
4 œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ
Soprano &b 4 œ œ œ œ w
ba da da da da da da da ba da da da da da
4
Alto &b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
ba da da da da ba da da da da ba da da da da ba da da da da
4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j
Tenor Vb 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ J œ œ œ
œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ
ba da da da da da ba da da da da da ba da da da da da da da da da da
? 44 œ . œ. œ. œ
Bass b
Ba da da ba da da ba da da ba da da da da
œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
&b œ œ w
ba da da da da da da da ba da da da da da
&b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
Œ
œ œ ˙
œ œ œ œ
ba da da da da ba da da da da ba da da da da cha cha cha
Vb œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ ˙
œ
ba da da da da da ba da da da da da ba da da da da da cha cha cha
? b œ. œ. œ. œ. œ œ. œ. œ œ ˙
œ Œ
Ba da da ba da da ba da da cha cha cha
Figure 8.10 Multi-part exercise. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Choosing Music for Changing Voices

Keeping in mind the characteristics of vocal change described in this chapter,
choral directors must choose carefully the literature their singers will rehearse
and perform. By choosing appropriate repertoire, myriad problems will be solved
before the first rehearsal even begins. Conversely, if music is selected carelessly
for adolescent choirs, no amount of hard work and dedication on the part of the
singers or the director can create musical success. The choice of music is critical.
A high degree of musical success can be achieved at the middle school/junior
high school level if the music falls within range parameters that accommodate
boys’ and girls’ changing voices. First and foremost, examine closely the range and
especially the tessitura of the music. Check carefully when considering music
written for adult voices (SATB). The range for adult tenors is almost always too
low for cambiatas, and even if the men’s ranges are appropriate, the tessitura may

be too high or, more likely, too low. And if the piece you are considering falls into
the broad category of music written for adolescent choirs, don’t stop there. Look
more closely to see if the selections meet the requirements of your adolescent
choir at that particular time. Remember that frequent change is something you
should expect when teaching this age group.
Singers whose voices are changing lose flexibility and control, so music with frequent
and sudden register changes, as well as melismatic passages at very fast tempi, should
be avoided. Music that requires either very soft or very loud singing over long periods
should be avoided as well, especially if the dynamic demands occur during passages in
which the singers find themselves in the outermost limits of their range.
The phrasing of potential repertoire should also be examined closely with
regard to breath support and control. Young singers whose voices are changing
have a tendency to expend too much breath too soon, thus making extremely
long phrases difficult to complete successfully. Much Renaissance music has
appropriate ranges and tessituras for young singers (especially adolescent
boys), but long phrases requiring intense breath support can make Renaissance
selections inappropriate for this age group. Not all Renaissance music will be
problematic for choirs with changing voices; just remember to consider breath-
support requirements in addition to range and tessitura when choosing music
from this period. One possible solution to the issue of breath support is to double
Renaissance selections with instruments—a common practice of the time in
secular music—to support the voices and allow more flexibility in breathing.
Because singers at this age are not only struggling with voice change but also
learning to sing securely in parts, choosing music with interesting vocal lines for
all voice parts will be appreciated. A part that supplies only harmony to support
the melody may be less interesting and more difficult to execute than a harmony
part that is more melodic in nature.
A quality text that will appeal to adolescent singers is a must. Remember,
these singers are no longer children, so avoid music with words that might sound
childish. Adolescent singers are interested in and capable of understanding much
more sophisticated repertoire. Music with foreign language texts is certainly
suitable for this age, and working in a foreign language can help develop good
vocal resonance and tone. Because many students begin learning another language
in middle school, coordinating with foreign language teachers may provide a nice
curricular connection. Although some students may initially resist, they will
ultimately be proud of their accomplishment.
After reading what to avoid, you may be asking yourself if any appropriate music
exists for junior high/middle school students. The answer is a resounding “yes!”
During the past thirty years in particular, contemporary composers have begun to
write and arrange music specifically for this age group and all of its challenges. We
add one note of caution: a number of pieces out there “fit” middle school singers in
terms of register, but their musical quality is questionable. To find quality pieces
requires a great deal of time, but the reward is well worth the effort. One positive
trend is the rearrangement of classical pieces by Mozart, Haydn, and others to
accommodate middle school registers while retaining the overall character of the
piece. Some examples of those pieces are included in the repertoire list at the end
of this chapter.
Sample Music
The following two pieces illustrate music that could work well for many middle
school/junior high school choirs with boys whose voices are changing. The first
piece, “Boatmen Stomp” by Michael A. Gray (Figure 8.11), is written for young
Figure 8.11 “Boatmen Stomp,” by Michael Gray. Copyright © 1980 (renewed) by G. Schirmer, Inc.
(ASCAP) International copyright secured. All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission. (continued)






voices in three parts and has been tested successfully on several choirs to deter-
mine its suitability for changing voices. This piece fits well with a middle school
boys’ group. To provide versatility without any stigma attached, the voice parts
are labeled high voice, middle voice, and low voice.
The range and tessitura requirements for “Boatmen Stomp” are certainly
appropriate for most middle school boys’ groups. For the low voice, the range is
A to b. The tessitura for the verses is B to e, and for the choruses, it is d to a. For the
medium voice, which is sung an octave lower than written, the range is g# to f#1. The
tessitura for the verses is b to e1, and for the choruses, it is a to d. The High Voice,
which sings only during the choruses, has a range and tessitura of e1 to a1. For all
parts, the melodic movement is predominantly diatonic within a moderate tempo,
so the flexibility demands are appropriate. The text and sea chantey style will likely
appeal to boys, and the dynamic demands are moderate. As you can see, rather than
resembling a TTBB arrangement, this piece has ranges closer to ATB. Depending on
the range of your cambiatas and basses, there are SAT, three-part mixed, and SAB
arrangements with low alto parts that can be sung by a boys’ ensemble.
Music for a middle school girls’ choir is typically much easier to find than that for
boys. Unlike the boys’ repertoire, which needs to differentiate between registers as
much as possible, music for the girls should feature comparable ranges among the
voice parts. To create variation and interesting harmonies, some SSA pieces feature
alto parts that have a low and limited range. While older singers can handle this
register more easily, adolescent altos can become stuck in their chest register and
fail to develop the range and flexibility their voice needs. Try to choose repertoire
that allows all of the girls’ parts to explore a wide range.
Figure 8.12 provides an example of an SATB piece appropriate for choirs with
changing voices. This short, strophic setting of a German folk song by Brahms
features a beautiful melody and interesting harmonies. While the piece is short, it
offers many opportunities for building choral tone, blend, intonation and sensitive
phrasing. The vocal lines in all parts are in moderate ranges that fit middle school
singers well. This piece could be paired with another Brahms folk song setting enti-
tled Erlaube mir (I’d Enter Your Garden). The themes of love in these texts are very
relevant to adolescent singers. Both pieces can be found in the original German on
cpdl.org and are also available set to English translations in a collection entitled Six
Folk Songs published by Edward B. Marks Music (HL7913).
Figure 8.12 Da unten im tale (How Sad Flow the Streams), No. 6 from Deutsche Volkslieder
by Brahms.
Summary
Although the period of the voice change can pose a challenge for students and
teachers alike, it is also a time of great excitement and rapid growth. Students’ vocal
capabilities and musical sophistication increase exponentially at this age. The dif-
ference between a sixth-grade singer and an eighth- or ninth-grade singer is greater
than at any other 3-year point in their development. Talented teachers capitalize on
this period of growth and keep students focused forward on the long-term goals and
positive aspects of the changes they are experiencing.
Although the rate of change between voices will vary, and experts differ on
the number of stages as well as the actual range and tessitura designations,
adolescent voices will pass through a fairly predictable process of change on
their way to adult voices. At each stage, the voice has definite characteristics
due to the physiological changes that occur during puberty. The onset of
puberty cannot be predicted with any degree of accuracy, but children’s voices
typically begin to change during the seventh or eighth grade year (ages twelve
to thirteen), with some singers beginning as early as fifth grade (ages ten to
eleven) or as late as ninth grade (ages fourteen to fifteen). Remember, however,
that age and grade level are not fully reliable indicators of voice change but
serve only as guides.
Choral directors must listen carefully and frequently (ideally every six to
eight weeks) for changes in the voices of their young singers. By listening, they
can become aware of unhealthy vocal habits, and can more accurately assign
voice parts based on singers’ comfortable ranges. In addition to listening, choral
directors must look for signs of physical maturity and vocal strain. These aural
and visual cues should be recognized and dealt with on a consistent basis to
prevent formation of poor habits. At all times, insist on good vocal technique
and foster its development.
Several experts suggest that directors may want to offer separate choirs
for boys and girls at the middle school/junior high level. This way, boys can
receive the added vocal attention they may require as their voices change.
In addition, the absence of girls in choir may make this often embarrassing
time somewhat less difficult for them. Because the boys are going through
similar experiences and may work more slowly as their voices change, the
girls will be free to move more quickly if they are in a separate ensemble.
If you do train your students separately, combining the boys’ and girls’ choirs
at times may be a good idea to address some of the social issues so important
at this age. If you train them together, consider including some boys-only
and girls-only pieces that focus on each gender’s specific needs, both musical
and vocal. This system will also expose all singers to a greater variety of
music literature.
Although at times approximating an adult range and/or tessitura, the
adolescent voice is not an adult voice and should never be treated as such. In the
area of dynamics, directors should always remember that a young singer’s forte is
not the forte achieved by an adult. Asking for a bigger sound than your singers are
capable of producing will not only yield an unpleasant tone quality but will also
encourage poor vocal techniques and habits. A certain amount of breathiness
in adolescent voices is normal and should be acceptable. The amount of breath
support required for very long vocal lines is often difficult for young singers. Due
to the thickness and rapid growth of vocal cords, a lack of flexibility and control
is a prominent characteristic of the adolescent voice, especially during the high-
mutation stages of the voice change.
Certainly, range and tessitura are the first aspects to consider when choosing
music, but quality repertoire is as important at this age as any other. Although
middle school singers are somewhat limited in range and dynamic variation,
they can sing music that is challenging in both text and structure as long as it
suits their voices. As many middle school teachers will confirm, if you provide
challenges at the right level, this age group may be the most energetic, motivated,
and committed group of singers you will ever have.
Mini-Projects
1. Observe choral rehearsals at local middle schools and junior high
schools. Listen carefully to the sound produced by this age group as well as any
musical problems associated with boys’ and girls’ changing voices. Take note of
techniques used by the director in meeting these challenges, and write down
any vocalises that seem especially helpful.
2. While observing at these schools, ask to see copies of the music they are
rehearsing. What do the selections tell you about the voices in the choir?
3. Observe choral rehearsals at local middle schools and junior high

schools. Note the social behavior of these adolescent singers. Pay close
attention to techniques used by the director to manage their behavior and to
channel their high energy level in positive directions.
4. Contact a local voice teacher who teaches middle school/junior high
students and ask if you might observe a voice lesson for one girl and one boy.
Notice the vocal characteristics are discussed in this chapter.
Suggested Music for Adolescent Choirs
Treble Choirs
Dodi Li Chen, arr. Rao Two-part (Boosey & Hawkes)

Hotaru Koi arr. Ogura SSA (Theodore Presser)
The Pasture Kallman Unison (Shawnee Press)
Birdsong Paul Read Two-part (Boosey & Hawkes)
El Vito arr. Emily Crocker Two-part with descant
(Hal Leonard)
I’ve Got the World arr. Zegree Two-part (Hal Leonard)
on a String
Like as a Father Luigi Cherubini SSA (Hal Leonard)
Non nobis, Domine Byrd, ed. Jean Bartle SSA (Hinshaw Music)
Young Men’s Choirs
A la Nanita Nana arr. Davison TB (Walton)

The Lion Sleeps Tonight arr. Funk Three-part mixed (Alfred)
Tshotsholoza South African arr. Ames TTBB (Walton)
Cripple Creek arr. Crocker Two- part or TB
(Hal Leonard)
Praise His Holy Name Keith Hampton TTB (earthsongs)
Two Folk-Songs for arr. John Rutter TB (Oxford University Press)
Male Voices
Middle School Mixed Choirs
Gloria (from Missa Solemnis, W. A. Mozart, arr. Liebergen Three-part mixed (Alfred)
K139)
Praise the Lord Cameroon, arr. Johnson SATB/Percussion (earthsongs)
(Note: This also works for a boy’s group with unchanged voices.)
Shine on Me arr. Dillworth Two-part (Hal Leonard)
The Ash Grove arr. Ruth Elaine Schram SATB (Belwin)
El Grillo Josquin des Prez SATB (Hal Leonard)
Hush! Somebody’s Callin’ arr. Brazeal W. Dennard SATB (Shawnee Press)
My Name
May Thy Holy Spirit Tschesnokoff, ed. Lindsay SATB (Colla Voce)
Psallite M. Praetorius, ed. Leck SATB (Hal Leonard)
Sail the Waters, Villancico, ed. John Haberlen SATB (Neil Kjos)
Beautiful Julieta
Gloria (from Helig Messe) Haydn arr. Robinson SAB (Alfred)
Six Folk Songs Brahms SATB (Marks)
(Note: Not all of these songs work with young voices, but some do.)
Dies Irae (from Requiem) W. A. Mozart, arr. Robinson Three-part mixed (Alfred)
Lacrymosa (from Requiem) W. A. Mozart, arr. Robinson SAB (Walton)
Ave Verum Corpus W. A. Mozart, arr. Robinson SAB (Alfred)
Yonder Come Day Ga. Sea Islands, arr. Tucker Three-part (World
Music Press)
(Note: This also works as written for men’s groups with unchanged voices.)
References
Barham, Terry J., and Darolyne L. Nelson. 1991. The boy’s
changing voice: New solutions for today’s choral teacher. Miami, FL:
Belwin Mills.
Barresi, Anthony L. 1986. Barresi on adolescent voice. Videotape.
Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, UW Videotapes.
Cooksey, John M. 1977. The development of a contemporary, eclectic

theory for the training and cultivation of the junior high school male
changing voice. Part I: Existing theories. Choral Journal 18 (2):
5–14.
———. 1977. The development of a contemporary, eclectic theory for the
training and cultivation of the junior high school male changing voice.
Part II: Scientific and empirical findings; some tentative solutions. Choral
Journal 18 (3): 5–16.
———. 1992. Working with the adolescent voice. St. Louis: Concordia
Publishing House.
Gackle, Lynne. 1991. The adolescent female voice: Characteristics of
change and stages of development. Choral Journal 31 (8): 17–25.
Johnson, John Paul. 1981. An aural/visual examination of selected
characteristics associated with the male voice mutation. Master’s thesis,
University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Killian, Janice N. 1999. A description of vocal maturation among
fifth and sixth grade boys. Journal of Research in Music Education
47: 357–69.
Killian, Janice N., and John B. Wayman. 2010. A descriptive study of
vocal maturation among male adolescent vocalists and instrumentalists.
Journal of Research in Music Education 58: 5–19.
Additional Reading
Adcock, Eva. 1987. The changing voice: The middle/junior high
challenge. Choral Journal 28 (3): 9–11.
Collins, Don L. 1993. Teaching choral music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Fowells, Robert M. 1983. The changing voice: A vocal chameleon.
Choral Journal 24 (1): 11–17.
Freer, Patrick K. 2009. Getting started with middle school chorus, 2nd ed.
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
———. 2009. TIPS: The first weeks of middle school chorus. Lanham, MD:
Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Phillips, Kenneth H. 1992. Teaching kids to sing. New York: Schirmer
Books.
Rutkowski, Joanne. 1981. The junior high school male changing voice:
Testing and grouping voices for successful singing experiences. Choral
Journal 22 (4): 11–15.
CHAPTER 9
Building Musicianship
Skills
Three weeks still remain before the concert, but Ms. Mayes is already worried that the students
won’t be ready. A couple of the pieces she chose are just not coming together as quickly as she
had hoped. As she plans her next rehearsals, she decides to go directly from warm-ups to
rehearsing the literature and to skip sight-singing instruction. After all, the students are past
the reading stage with this music, and she can always put in extra time on music reading at
the beginning of next term.
Scenarios like the one described above are all too common for choral directors
faced with the constant pressure of preparing students for public performance.
Instruction in sight-singing can be easy to skip in rehearsal because nobody sees
sight-singing, but everyone will hear the final performance. Over the course of
one to four years in your program, however, such decisions add up to something
that everyone will see: students who do not know how to read music. The deci-
sion to teach musicianship to your students in a consistent and sequential way
may be the most important decision you make as a choral teacher. Your decision
will affect generations of students who graduate from your program either with
or without the essential skills for musical independence.
Sight-singing
Sight-singing, like any other musical skill, can be learned over time with con-
sistent practice, and many teachers agree with the importance of teaching music
reading in a choral curriculum. However, a great number feel unprepared or
204
BUILDING MUSICIANSHIP SKILLS 205
unqualified to teach it. There are many possible reasons for their hesitation.
Perhaps they came from a high school choral program that did not emphasize
music reading, or they personally have difficulty with music reading them-
selves. They may have had a negative experience with collegiate theory and
ear-training classes or struggled with the sight-reading portion of every choral
audition. If you fit into any of these categories, you need to realize that none
of these reasons should keep you from offering your students a comprehensive
choral curriculum that includes systematic instruction in musicianship and
music reading.
Getting Started
Successful sight-singing teachers do not need to be excellent sight-singers them-
selves because they will always be able to prepare the materials ahead of time.
In fact, teachers who have struggled with sight-singing are often more sensitive
to the problems encountered by students; and, as many teachers will tell you,
by teaching sight-singing consistently to your students, your own skill will grow
as well. You do not need special certification in a particular method, though
many teachers find such training helpful. You do not need a lot of expensive
sight-singing books for your classroom. Many experienced teachers prefer to
use self-created materials. If you have the budget for it, a published sight-
singing method can offer helpful consistency and supplemental materials for the
students.
What do you need to get your students started with sight-singing? A strong
sight-singing curriculum consists of several components that can be imple-
mented by any teacher in any setting. Those components are (1) a system for
reading pitch and rhythm; (2) sequential materials (purchased or self-made)
to use with the students; (3) lesson models that fit singers at different levels of
training; and (4) methods and tools for individual assessment. The final, and
most important, component is the teacher’s choice to spend precious rehearsal
time teaching music reading in a consistent and sequential way. Research has
indicated that the teacher’s belief in the importance of music reading was the
single most important predictor of the choir’s sight-singing success (Daniels
1986). The rewards of such a choice are many, including a stronger overall
206 BUILDING MUSICIANSHIP SKILLS

choral program, advanced choirs who can sing more difficult music and learn
it more quickly, and students who graduate from your program as competent
and independent musicians.
Choosing a System for Music Reading

One of your first important decisions is the approach you choose for teaching
pitch and rhythm reading. A number of approaches are available, including the
pitch systems of movable “do,” fixed “do,” numbers, or note names, and the vari-
ous rhythm systems using counting or syllables (e.g., ta ti-ti). Figure 9.1a lays
out how several different systems would be used to read the pitch of a basic
melody. Note that the pitch systems are either fixed (meaning that each note
has the same label regardless of the key), or movable (meaning that the syllable
for a note changes based on its function in the key). Rhythm systems are also
of two basic types: either a measure-based system, in which the label is based
on where the beat falls in a measure (Counting and Eastman) or a beat-based
system, in which each beat has a consistent label (Kodály and Gordon) regard-
less of meter. Figure 9.1b illustrates four different rhythm-reading systems for
the same melody.
#
& # 44 œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
3 3
œ
Numbers: 1 2 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 1 7 6 5 5 4 3 4 3 2 3 2 1 1
Moveable do: do re mi mi mi fa sol la ti do ti la sol sol fa mi fa mi re mi re do do
Fixed do: re mi fa fa fa sol la ti do re do ti la la sol fa sol fa mi fa mi re re
Figure 9.1a Different pitch reading systems. © Cengage Learning 2014.
#
& # 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
3 3
Counting: 1 2 3 & 4 & 1 & a 2 e & a 3 a 4 1 & a 2 & a 3

Eastman: 1 2 3 te 4 te 1 te - ta 2 ti te ta 3 ta 4 1 la li 2 la li 3
Kodály: ta ta ti ti ti ti ti ti ri ti ri ti ri ti (-i) ri ta tri-ple ti tri-ple ti ta (-ah)
Gordon: du du du de du de du de - ta du - ta - de - ta du ta du du da di du da di du
Figure 9.1b Different rhythm reading systems. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Figure 9.2 shows how several different pitch systems deal with accidentals and
with different modes. Note that traditional fixed “do” and some number systems
do not change the syllable for an accidental; rather, they simply “inflect” the note
in the proper direction. Opinions differ regarding how minor mode should be
represented in movable “do”. Some teachers favor “la”-based minor while others
favor “do”-based minor.
Minor 1: 1 3 5 6 5 1 5 3 1 7 1 1
Minor 6: 6 1 3 4 3 6 3 1 6 5 7 6
& b 44 ˙. œ œ. œ
J ˙
œ œ œ œ #˙. œ w
Minor la: la do mi fa mi la mi do la si ti la
Minor do: do meh sol eh sol do sol meh do ti re do
Traditional Fixed do: re fa la ti la re la fa re do mi re
Modified Fixed do: re fa la teh la re la fa re di mi re
Figure 9.2 Modes and accidentals in different syllable systems. © Cengage Learning 2014.
So, what should guide your choice? Most often, teachers will go with the
system they have been taught because it is comfortable and makes sense to
them, but other issues need to be considered as you make your decision. One
of the most important issues is what your students already know. Find out
what system, if any, is taught in the elementary schools in your district. For
example, if students have had six years of Kodály-based training, they will
come in much better prepared to sing movable “do” and to read rhythms on
“tas and tis.” Instrumental teachers often use numbers for pitch to represent
harmonic function and prefer a measure-based counting system for rhythm.
Your students may come into your program with little or no training at all, so
you will be freer to choose any system. As a foundation for your curriculum,
you should choose a single system for teaching sight-singing, and be consistent
in using it.
Keep in mind two thoughts as you make your choice: (1) there is no one
“right” way to teach sight-singing; and (2) all of these systems are a means to an
end and not an end in themselves. Research on different approaches to teaching
music reading has found that movable “do” is the most common system used
in the United States, but no evidence has indicated that it is the “best” system
for teaching pitch reading (Demorest 2004). Many students in Asia and
Europe develop excellent sight-singing skills, where fixed “do” is more common.
Comparatively less work has been done in exploring different approaches to
teaching rhythm, though studies indicate that the use of movement while read-
ing rhythm can help student performance (Boyle 1970). The ultimate goal of any
sight-singing curriculum is for students to be able to sing what they see without
the aid of any syllable or number system.
Sight-singing Materials
The choice of materials for any single sight-singing lesson will be deter-
mined by the level of your students, and teachers often find it helpful to
have a library of sight-singing materials organized by type and difficulty.
As mentioned before, many experienced sight-singing teachers prefer to use
either self-created materials or octavos to teach music reading (Demorest
2004). In addition, several different types of materials are available for sight-
singing instruction, including method books, graded songbooks, and multi-
part literature.
Method Books
Method books often feature a predesigned sight-singing curriculum with
materials ordered sequentially, and usually include suggestions for how to
teach the lessons. Inexperienced teachers may prefer to start out with a set
of published materials that provide a sequential framework for instruc-
tion. Some books specify the system of music reading they want you to use,
whereas others are fairly flexible. Some include both single-line and multi-
part materials within the same volume. Examples of this type of material
include the following:
•• Essential Musicianship by Crocker and Leavitt (Hal Leonard) comes in

three volumes with a teacher’s manual and student books. These books
build on the approach used in the Patterns of Sound series and contain
choral literature to read that fits the students’ reading ability. They
can be used with any system of pitch or rhythm. The book not only
contains sight-singing materials but also features vocal training, music
fundamentals, and performance.
•• Successful Sight-Singing by Nancy Telfer (Kjos) is available in two
compact volumes with a teacher’s manual and student books. Offering
an intervallic approach to teaching sight-singing with a variety of keys
and meters presented, these two books are based in movable “do”
with “la”-based minor, and use part singing throughout. No system is
specified for reading rhythms.
•• Jenson Sight-Singing Course by David Baugess (Jenson/Hal Leonard)
is the oldest of the three method books, and is still popular. This
method advocates using movable “do” and doesn’t add clefs or key
signatures on the staff until well into the exercises. In the course of
two books, the materials move from single-line exercises to four-part
reading.
Graded Songbooks
Graded songbooks provide single-line melodies and sometimes duets that are
organized by difficulty level. Although some graded books give basic information
on instructional approaches, they are not method books per se. Having a library
of graded songbooks can provide the teacher with a wealth of material from
which to choose for lessons. These materials are typically cheaper than method
books, and some are designed for every student to have a copy. If you find a
book with materials you really like, such a large investment may be worthwhile
in the long run. However, beginning sight-singing lessons are often best taught
from an example on the board because you can focus the students’ attention on
relevant information. Examples of graded songbooks include the following:
•• Melodia by Cole and Lewis, published by Ditson in 1901, is now

available in the public domain, and a PDF copy of the entire book is
included on the website for this book. It contains a large number of
graded exercises, but the layout is hard to read, as exercises start in
the middle of lines and go on for one or two systems. The book mixes
treble and bass clefs with a variety of meters and keys. As a source of
exercises to write on the board, this is a great choice.
•• Folk Song Sight-Singing Series edited by Crowe, Lawton, and Whittaker
(Oxford University Press) is a series of ten small songbooks featuring
from 50 to 110 melodies in each book. The melodies are drawn from
actual folk song material so they tend to be more interesting to sing
than exercises. Books 1 through 8 are sequenced by difficulty, whereas
Books 9 and 10 provide two-part songs with descants. This is a great
series but is available only with exercises in treble clef.
Multi-part Literature
Multi-part literature is an important component of the sight-singing curriculum.
Although single-line exercises are necessary for teaching students the basics of
reading, ultimately they should be able to sight-sing within a choral context.
Most state contests and festivals that include sight-singing as part of the
adjudication process require students to sight-sing in three or more parts. Of
course, the most obvious source of multi-part sight-singing examples would be
your own choral library, and as you are building your library, purchasing pieces
specifically for “reading” is a good idea. However, much of the repertoire in your
choral library may be too difficult to serve effectively as sight-singing material.
Fortunately, there are published sources for multi-part literature that are graded
by difficulty. Two of them are listed here:
•• Songs for Sight-Singing compiled by Henry and Jones (Southern Music,

http://www.southernmusic.com/) are songs that were composed
for past sight-singing contests as part of the Texas University
Interscholastic League (UIL) system. The books are organized by
voicing and level. These materials are great for reading instruction but
rather expensive if you want every student to have one.
•• Masterworks Sight-Singing Collection published by Masterworks
Press (http://www.masterworkspress.com/). This series features
four-part exercises written in Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, and
Romantic styles. Each style series has five books graded for difficulty
and are available in SATB, SSAA, or TTBB. Unlike the Songs for
Sight-Singing, these melodies don’t contain any text. The books are
sold either as a single copy to teachers with the right to reproduce
as many copies as they need or in lots of ten bound copies for each
student. Although the reproducible copies are more expensive, the
purchase is a one-time cost, and then you are free to make as many
copies as you want from year to year.
Both Southern Music and Masterworks Press also offer graded method
books that can be found on their respective websites. Another source for multi-
part lessons is a church hymnal. Even though hymns are not graded for difficulty,
they typically feature simpler harmonic and rhythmic language and are authentic
music. Because of issues concerning sacred music in the schools, your district
may not support the use of Christian hymns as musical material, so make sure
to check with your administration.
The Sight-singing Curriculum

Once you have chosen an approach to teaching pitch and rhythm reading and
identified sequential materials, you must decide how to teach sight-singing
in rehearsal. Your approach will depend on the skill level of the singers in
your choir. At the beginning of the school year, you need a way to evaluate
students’ skill levels with regard to reading music. In many choirs, this can
be accomplished as part of the audition process. For nonauditioned choirs,
teachers must take time early in the year to assess their students’ abilities in
music reading. Even for choirs with music-reading experience, the beginning
of the year is a good time to review and reacquaint students with sight-
singing.
Prenotational Singers
Unfortunately, many students enter a middle school or high school choir
with little or no sight-singing experience. Either they are relatively new sing-
ers, or they come from programs that focused entirely on learning music by
rote. When teachers are faced with a choir full of “prenotational” singers, it
can be difficult to know where to start. As Maria so helpfully reminds us in
The Sound of Music, “Let’s start at the very beginning” with what students
already know how to do. They may not know solfège or the rules of music
theory, but they know a lot about how music sounds. They will probably be
able to sing a major scale accurately even if they don’t know what it is called.

a.
4 Ó
&4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
do re mi fa sol fa mi re do
b.
Figure 9.3a–b Echoing solfège by rote and with the solfège ladder. Reproducible copy of
the solfège ladder available on the text website. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Thus, the prenotational lesson starts with the familiar sound of music and
then introduces the unfamiliar symbols that go with those sounds. In the first few
weeks of the year, this means singing familiar patterns from warm-ups or scales
and introducing by rote the solfège or numbers for the notes. For example, the
pattern in Figure 9.3a could be sung on solfège with the students echoing you.
Then the same pattern could be sung while pointing to a solfège ladder
(Figure 9.3b). Within the first few weeks, teachers can use a variety of familiar
patterns and scales to introduce solfège to the choir. At this point, you needn’t go
into detail on how you determine what note is “do” or other details of music the-
ory. What you are developing is the ability to remember patterns aurally, using
solfège. A similar process can work with rhythm by first clapping, then chanting,
and eventually introducing rhythmic notation to fit the patterns students have
already mastered. After a few weeks of using these new labels with students, it is
time to introduce their first sight-singing example.
Figure 9.4 details how a prenotational lesson moves from sound to symbol.
Notice that throughout this lesson the sound of a pitch or rhythm pattern is
always introduced prior to the symbol. Sight-singing is an act of memory, so
students cannot sing a melody that includes patterns or intervals they haven’t
learned in some form. They can sing unfamiliar melodies, but the pitch and
rhythm patterns that make up those melodies must be familiar. Notice also
that notation used for the examples contains all of the clef, key, and time
signature information, but that none of this need be discussed with students
at this point.
Song Learning Sequence

The song learning sequence in Figure 9.5 provides a basic template for any
sight-singing lesson. Notice that for both pitch and rhythm the singer must
(1) gather information from the score, (2) scan the score, (3) set a context,
(4) read through the score, and (5) evaluate. The difference between beginning
and advanced readers is the speed and independence with which they can
accomplish these steps. Although the two elements of the sequence could be
reversed (i.e., pitch first), many pitch errors can be avoided by getting a sense of
the speed and flow of the rhythm before reading the pitch.
If you compare this sequence to the beginner’s prenotational lesson, you see
that even with beginners, the same steps were followed in sequence, but the
teacher provides or eliminates the need for certain information. For example,
by teaching the rhythms by rote on counts, the teacher takes care of steps 1
and 2, and then the choir reads the rhythms and their success is evaluated. In a
similar way, the first three steps of the pitch process were accomplished first by
echoing patterns and then labeling notes on the G scale. An additional step of
singing the solfège of the melody out of rhythm helped students to be successful
Materials: Solfège ladder from low “sol” through high “do”; rhythm patterns A & B on
board; G scale on board; the following melody is projected on screen:
# œ ˙
& cœ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ w
1. RHYTHM
# 4 # 4
A B
& 4 œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙ & 4 œ œ œ œ w
•• Echo-clap rhythms A and B several times.
•• Chant the same rhythms on counts while keeping a steady beat on your leg and
have the students echo.
•• Move to board and point at the note values while you chant on counts—keeping
the steady beat established—read the two patterns in different orders.
2. Put the melody up on the screen and ask the students to look at the melody and
identify whether or not rhythm A or B is present.
•• Identify rhythms and chant on counts while pointing at the music.
3. PITCH
•• Sing DRMFSFMRD and have the students echo.
•• Sing again while pointing at the solfège ladder.
•• Sing several patterns on solfège while pointing at the ladder and have students
echo—be sure to include low “ti.”
4. Move to the G scale and sing the same DRMFSFMRD pattern—identify which note is
“do” and label (e.g., the note on the second line or, if they have learned note names, “G”).
•• Sing the same patterns while pointing to notes of the scale.
5. Find “do” in the melody on screen and label all the “do”s. You can label other pitches
as desired.
6. Have students sing the pitches of the melody out of rhythm while pointing at the
notes—you can stop and correct as you go if they lose the pitch.
7. Review the rhythm with them and then sing on solfège in rhythm. Have students keep
the beat on their leg as they read. Correct as needed and repeat.
Figure 9.4 A “prenotational” lesson plan. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Song Learning Sequence
Rhythm
– Identify the meter and starting beat.
– Scan ahead for difficult and repeating patterns.
– Set a steady tempo and chant the rhythm while keeping the beat.
– Evaluate.
Pitch
– Identify the key signature, tonality, and starting syllable.
– Scan for difficult and repeating patterns.
– Establish sense of key through tuning up; perhaps sing difficult patterns.
– Set a steady tempo and chant or sing solfège (or other syllables) in rhythm.
– Evaluate.
Figure 9.5 The song learning sequence for music reading. © Cengage Learning 2014.
before reading in rhythm. With this sequence as the underlying template, sight-
singing lessons at different levels are simply a matter of adjusting how much
information is supplied by the teacher and how much by the student. Ultimately,
this template is one your students should internalize as they learn to sight read
on their own.
The lesson plan in Figure 9.6 shows how the song learning sequence is applied
to a more advanced group. T represents teacher questions or comments, and
S represents the student response. As you follow the plan, ask yourself: what
would the students have to learn in order to answer the teacher’s questions?
As mentioned before, the information provided by the teacher and the number
of questions asked of the students will depend on their ability level and the
difficulty of the example. Although such a lesson takes a long time to write out, it
doesn’t take long to execute once you and the students have become comfortable
with the sequence. Ultimately, students should be able to apply this sequence
to any new song they encounter, without instruction from the teacher. When
introducing any new or difficult musical material, the teacher may need to lead
students through more and provide additional practice to establish the patterns
in their ears before they attempt to read it in context.
Your curriculum should consist of a combination of single-line and multi-
part examples. For reading multi-part examples, the same sequence is followed,
3 œ œ œ ˙. œœœ œ ˙
& b 4 œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ ˙ œ
Œ
RHYTHM PREPARATION
T Look at the example on the board and identify the time signature and the
starting beat.
T What’s the time signature?
S1 3/4
T What does that mean?
S1 Three beats to a measure; quarter note gets the beat.
T What’s the starting beat?
S2 1
T Take 20 seconds and scan the rhythm for any difficult or repeating patterns.
Are there any?
S3 Measures 3 & 4 are a repeat of 1 & 2. Measure 7 starts with two eighth notes.
T OK, think about how you need to count that measure and make sure you hold
the dotted half notes for the full value.
T Let’s read the rhythm on counts. Tap the beat with me: 1-2-3-1-ready-go
(T conducts but does not give rhythm).
All S Read on counts while physically keeping the beat (they have a little trouble in
Measure 7).
Evaluate
T Any problems?
S4 The eighth notes in Measure 7.
T Right. We need to count that: 1&-2-3. Try it from the measure before. Tap the
beat with me: 1-2-3-1-ready-go (T conducts but does not give rhythm).
All S 1 3 1& 2 3.
T Good. Let’s count the whole thing again from the beginning.
All S Read on counts while tapping the beat.
Figure 9.6 A single line sight-singing lesson. © Cengage Learning 2014. (continued)
but with students reading their own parts simultaneously at each step. If you hand
students a three-part piece and have them all read each part separately, you have
done three melodic sight-singing exercises, but no multi-part reading. See the
text web resources for sample videos of sight-singing lessons that use variations
of this sequence for both single-line and multi-part examples.
PITCH PREPARATION
T What’s the key signature?
S5 F major.
T How do we check to see if it’s major?
S5 The starting and ending notes. It starts on A and ends on F.
T What solfège syllables are those notes in the key of F?
S6 “mi” and “do”
T Let’s sing the F major scale on solfège. (Students sing.) Look through and see if
you find any difficult or repeating patterns. (Give time to study.) What do you see?
S7 Lots of stepwise movement but two big leaps—one from “ti” to “la” and one
from “sol” to “sol.”
T Good. Let’s speak through the solfège in rhythm.
All S Speak solfège in rhythm while physically keeping beat.
T Good. Let’s tune up in the key. Teacher runs them through some patterns in F,
using hand signs or the solfège ladder that includes the “ti”-“la” leap and the
“sol”-“sol” leap.
T Now let’s sing through slowly on solfège—what’s your starting syllable?
All S They sing “mi.”
T Sets slower tempo; students tap beat and sing on solfège.
Evaluate
T Any problem spots? (At this point, the teacher can actually work on individual
measures for either pitch or rhythm, reviewing previous steps as necessary. Also
emphasize strategies regarding repeated patterns or sequences. Emphasize need
for phrasing and dynamics.)
Reading 2
T Sets a little faster tempo and perhaps conducts the students rather than keeping
the beat with them.
Assessing Sight-singing
Research has demonstrated that the choir’s sight-singing ability is not a valid
indicator of how well individuals from the choir can read music (Demorest and May
1995; Henry and Demorest 1994). Regular individual assessment with feedback
is crucial to tracking individual learning and has been found to actually improve
students’ sight-singing performance (Demorest 1998). Therefore, you should have
a strong system of assessment in place for evaluating your students as individual

music readers. The assessment forms (checklist, rating scale, rubric) presented
in Chapter 4 are easily adapted to evaluating student progress in sight-singing.
Figure 9.7 shows a rubric for assessing a student’s sight-singing performance. Note
that this rubric includes not only pitch and rhythm accuracy but also musical
expression. If students are aware that musical expression is an area being assessed,
they will likely take a more musical approach to their sight-singing.
One of the challenges of individual assessment is how to incorporate it into
the rehearsal. If students are required to sight-sing alone in front of each other,
this can cause significant anxiety. One approach is to set up individual testing
stations during rehearsals that the students manage themselves. Figure 9.8 gives
one example of how such a procedure might be accomplished.
For such an approach to be effective, the students must be introduced to the
procedure as a group. Although some hiccups may occur the first time through,
students will eventually become quite proficient at this process. By assessing students
in this way, rehearsal can proceed with minimal interruption. Several aspects of the
example are worth mentioning. First, note that students get two chances to study
the example. This is purposeful, as the goal of these assessments is to give them time
to practice individually the procedure they are learning in their group instruction.
Second, the students are to set their own key and tempo. This task can be surprisingly
difficult for students who aren’t used to it, but it may be an important step in enhancing
their musicianship. By creating the tonal and temporal context themselves, they may
develop a greater sensitivity to tonality and relative tempo. Some directors, however,
may prefer to give students the key and tempo for the example. This can be done
easily with a prerecorded sound file saved on the computer.
Another option is to assess students outside the school day. Testing stations
could be set up on the school computer(s), using music notation programs to
create examples and audio files to give the key and starting pitch. Depending on
the extent of your students’ access to technology, sight-singing examples could be
provided online, complete with audio files providing the key and starting pitch.
Students can either record their attempts to their computer by using a program
like GarageBand or SmartMusic, or by using their smartphone or other portable
audio recorder. Students can upload the files to a special folder, or just email
them to the teacher directly.
Individual Sight-singing Evaluation
1 2 3 4 5
Missed starting Correct starting Good sense of Strong tonal Pitches were
pitch, no clear pitch, key key, awareness center, most accurate
sense of key. center changed of tonic pitches correct, throughout.
throughout. throughout. a few intervals
were incorrect.
PITCH ___________
1 2 3 4 5
Inconsistent Started in Kept sense of Steady tempo, Steady tempo
beat from the tempo, but lost steady beat but missed a few and accurate
beginning. sense of steady with fluctuating rhythmic rhythms
Stopping and/ beat. Stopping tempo, several patterns in the throughout.
or starting over or slowing on rhythmic line.
repeatedly. certain patterns. patterns
incorrect.
RHYTHM ________
1 2 3 4 5
Sung with Sung with good Sung with Sung Sung
inconsistent tone, but with good tone expressively expressively
tone and no little attention and accurate with accurate with good tone,
clear sense to phrasing or phrasing. Did phrasing clear phrasing,
of phrasing dynamics. not reflect and general and accurate
or general accurate dynamic dynamic level
dynamic level. dynamic level level. Lack and dynamic
or dynamic of dynamic shading.
changes. shading and
nuance.
EXPRESSION ___________ TOTAL SCORE __________
Figure 9.7 Rubric for sight-singing assessment. © Cengage Learning 2014.

Individual Sight-singing Assessment Procedure
1. The student leaves rehearsal and goes to a practice room. Outside the room is a folder
with the sight-singing example on which they will be tested (so they my practice).
2. When the previous student is finished, the student enters the practice room
and sits down at the assessment station. This can be a table with a second
folder containing the same example and instructions for what to do. Preferably
there is no piano in the testing room.
3. The instructions tell the student to set their own key and practice the example
for up to 30 seconds. When the student has finished, she records her attempt
either on a portable digital recorder or on a computer. She gives her name and
the date and then sets the key and tempo before singing the example.
4. Once the student has recorded the example, she saves it (if necessary), closes
the folder, and leaves the room where the next student is waiting outside.
5. When the student returns to her section, she taps the next person to go and be assessed.
Figure 9.8 Sample individual sight-singing assessment procedure. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Sight-singing Games
Sight-singing games can be a fun way to integrate assessment into your cur-
riculum. The game context can provide an engaging environment in which to
test students’ skills and reduce some of the anxiety associated with individual
assessment. The following games can be used on a regular basis to challenge and
assess students’ sight-singing ability.
1. Name that tune. Have the melody of a familiar song notated on the board
before rehearsal. You can either have it available for view continuously or unveil it
at a particular time for a competition. The students must do their singing silently,
in their heads. You can award points and prizes to the student who identifies
the melody and sings it back to you correctly on solfège. This activity will pro-
vide additional practice for students as well as show them a connection between
sight-singing and performance. This practice will also help the transition from
the hallway to the choral room.
2. Write that tune. Give rhythmic and/or melodic dictation. Compose short exam-
ples of approximately two to four measures each, and sometimes include rhythmic
and melodic patterns from music currently in rehearsal. Before playing the example,
have the students tune up in the key on solfège so they are anchored in a tonal center.
Dictation can be completed in notation or by simply writing out the solfège syllables.
By manipulating the rhythmic and melodic figures, students are likely to understand
notation better, and that will enhance performance of the music.
3. Solfège card game.1 This game can be played in several ways. They all involve
taking a deck of cards and preparing it by first removing all 9s, 10s, jacks, queens,
and kings so only aces through 8s are left. The ace will serve as the tonic and the
8 as the octave above. You can create simpler decks by removing more of the 2s,
4s, 6s and 7s, depending on the level of your singers. You can also lay down an
ace as the permanent starting note to help set the key.
a. One game uses a large-sized deck with cards that are big enough for
all singers to see when they are held up in front of the choir. These are
sold frequently at party stores. Establish a tonic and instruct the choir
to first sing the tonic and then the scale degree of the first card you hold
up. For example, if, for the first card, you turned up a 6, the choir would
sing the tonic and then the sixth scale degree (“do-la”). Students can
be tested this way in groups or individually, competing in teams to see
how many cards in a row they can read before missing an interval, and
then scoring their own attempts. You can increase the difficulty level by
placing cards over different rhythm values.
b. Another approach is to use multiple packs of regular-sized playing
cards that have been prepared the same way. Have the students work
in pairs or small groups and challenge each other by shuffling and deal-
ing out six to eight cards for a member of the other team to sing back
on solfège or numbers. Again, the students can keep score. During this
time, individual students can come up to the front of the room and sing
back patterns for you for their formal assessment.
4. Rhythm baseball.2 Divide the class into two teams and establish a home
plate and first, second, and third bases (chairs) like a baseball diamond. Write
four individual rhythms (could be a single measure or more) on the board and
1
For more variations on this game or ways to prepare easier or harder decks, see Demorest, S. M. 2006.
A recipe for sight-singing success. In The Choral Director’s Cookbook, ed. A. Gumm. Galesville, MD:
Meredith Music Publications.
2
The basics of this game come from Carol Whitworth, choral director at Sammamish High School in
Bellevue, Washington.
label the rhythms A, B, C, and D. The person “at bat” decides if he or she would
like to go for a single (one rhythm), double (two rhythms), triple (three rhythms),
or home run (four rhythms). If the student chooses a single, the teacher claps (or
chants or sings) a rhythm (e.g., Rhythm B). The person at bat must identify that
you performed Rhythm B and then has to perform (clap or chant) it correctly. If
the batter chooses to try for a triple, for example, you select three rhythms (they
obviously don’t know which ones) and perform them in random order but as a
sequence (e.g., Rhythms C, A, D). The person at bat must identify that you did
C, A, D and then clap them correctly. If person succeeds, then he or she advances
to third base. If not, it is an “out” and the next person is “up.” You could have the
option of fouling off a pitch if the batter identifies all the rhythms but doesn’t
give them back to you correctly. You may want to limit each team to two outs.
After a few at-bats, you can change the rhythms on the board, gradually making
them harder each time you change them. The team with the most runs wins.
5. Trashketball.3 The teacher picks two sight-singing exercises (could be
rhythm alone, pitch alone, or melodies). One exercise should be significantly
easier than the other. You will also need a wadded-up piece of paper (or Nerf
ball) and a small trashcan to sit on top of your piano. Divide the class into teams
and have students sit on opposite sides of the room, leaving a big gap in the mid-
dle. Flip a coin to decide which team goes first. Students from each team come
up one at a time to “take a shot.” Each student decides whether he or she will sing
the easy exercise (for a two-point shot) or the harder exercise (for a three-point
shot). If students sing their chosen exercise correctly, they get to shoot. If they
make their shot, they score. Set up a two- and three-point line, but keep it easy
because the goal is to get points for correctly reading the melody. Use an alter-
nate shot format as in real basketball (minus offensive rebounds). The teacher
can be assessing the students individually as they sing, a process separate from
the game. Although some students will have it easier because they are “reading” a
melody that someone else has already sung, it is still valuable to have them sing
melodies alone on solfège. After the first “quarter” (eight to ten students), you can
change the melodies to keep it challenging.
3
The basics of this game were learned at an American Choral Directors Association (ACDA) interest
session on sight-singing games given by Mary Jane Phillips from North Ridge Middle School, North
Richland Hills, Texas.
Through a combination of more formal procedures and games, you can begin
to track the individual musical skill development of your singers. As Chapter 4
suggested, you may have many different levels of skill in the same choir, and your
assessments can offer students multiple examples at varying levels of difficulty.
Research has found that students assessed in this way are significantly better at
sight-singing than are students who receive the same instruction but without
individual assessment (Demorest 1998). Assessment in this context is not just
a way of evaluating student progress, but of facilitating that progress through
transferring group procedures to individual skills. It also assures the teacher that
students are learning critical musical skills as part of their choral education that
will lead to musical independence for a lifetime.
Integrating Sight-singing Into the Rehearsal

Choral directors who devote eight to ten minutes of every rehearsal to teach-
ing music reading will certainly see growth in their singer’s music literacy over
time, but it is also important to help the singers transfer this new skill to their
approach to rehearsing music literature. If a ten-minute sight-singing lesson is
followed by thirty minutes of rote teaching from the piano, students may begin
to see sight-singing as an academic exercise rather than a usable skill.
Integrating sight-singing into the rehearsal presents challenges because the
choir often performs music that is more difficult than the students’ reading abil-
ity. For example, your sight-singing for the day might be a single-line melody in
G major with no accidentals and then you move right to the rehearsal of Eric
Whitacre’s Water Night. This illustrates that your students’ ears and voices are
typically much more advanced than their music literacy skills. Even though the
students may be incapable of sight-singing the repertoire as written, this doesn’t
mean they can’t use their sight-singing skills in rehearsal. The teacher can look
for opportunities to simplify, to locate appropriate reading challenges within
each piece that can enhance musicianship, and to build connections between
sight-reading instruction and rehearsal of the repertoire.
These readable moments are often determined by the structure of the piece.
For example, a folk song arrangement has at its center the original folk song
melody, which may provide a wonderful reading opportunity. Figure 9.9 is the
first part of “Annie Laurie,” the folk melody that Parker and Shaw used for their
bb .
& b b b 44 œ . œ œ . œj œ œJ œ ˙ œ œ . œj œ œ œ ˙ . œ. œ
Max - wel - ton's braes are bon - ny where ear - ly fa's the dew and it's
b j œ.
& b bbb œ . œ œ ˙ œ œ. j j Œ
œ J œ œ. œ ˙.
there that An - nie Lau - rie gave me her pro - mise true
Figure 9.9 The folk melody “Annie Laurie.” © Cengage Learning 2014.
beautiful arrangement. Although the actual piece may be beyond your singer’s
sight-singing level, the melody certainly is not. After presenting the melody as a
typical single-line sight-singing exercise, the teacher can move to the score and
have all the students sing the melody again on solfège before moving to text.
Once the students have the proper tone and phrasing for the melody in unison,
the teacher can begin to add parts either by rote or by continuing with solfège.
Another musical structure encountered frequently in choral music is that of
imitative counterpoint. Although imitative counterpoint is typical of much early
music, it is also present in many contemporary settings. Figure 9.10 is an excerpt
from Morten Lauridsen’s “Dirait-on,” a popular piece for high school choir.
The section illustrated is not at the beginning of the piece, but rather one of
the many repetitions of the central refrain. Because this music recurs frequently
throughout the piece and has a consistent text, it makes an excellent starting
point for rehearsing “Dirait-on.” It also contains music that is not particularly
difficult from the standpoint of music reading.
Sight-singing could be integrated into a first rehearsal of “Dirait-on” in several
ways, depending on the level of the group. One approach would be to start with
the “Dirait-on” melody as an exercise, as you did with “Annie Laurie,” and then
begin rehearsal with the unison statement of the melody at m. 32 before moving
to counterpoint in m. 40–49. Another approach would be to start at m. 40, with
all voices reading the soprano part on solfège. Once they can sing the soprano
part musically on solfège, you can move to French text (two words). Other voices
could then be added on solfège either one at a time or all at once, focusing on the
points of direct imitation versus variation. The first rehearsal could finish with
students singing from m. 32–49 and then skipping to m. 75 and singing until the
end, which repeats the same canonic material.
Figure 9.10 Morten Lauridsen’s “Dirait-on” (m. 32–49). Used by permission of Songs
of Peer, LTD.

Notice that in both of the previous examples, the rehearsal starts with a
structurally important line that serves as the basis for the reading challenge.
However, a number of pieces in the repertoire are not melodically based, but
center instead on a harmonic progression or certain rhythmic motives. Figure 9.11
illustrates a harmonic sight-singing exercise based on the progression found in
the refrain of “Revecy venir du Printans.” After singing this simplified progression
as an exercise, you can move directly to the piece and read again, with an eye
toward what is different. The original music of the refrain and the sequence for
integrating this exercise into rehearsal are found in the rehearsal plan given in
Chapter 11.
All of the examples follow a similar strategy: (1) they start with a structural
element that was central to the piece; (2) they extract or simplify the musical
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
&b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
&b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
&b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙
Vb ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
? ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
Figure 9.11 Harmonic sight-singing exercise based on “Revecy venir du Printans.”

material in some way for reading; (3) they go from sight-reading immediately
into rehearsing nuances of the musical performance for that section, even before
completing part learning; and (4) they blend reading with some rote teaching,
where appropriate. By integrating sight-singing into the rehearsal in this way,
students learn to apply their developing reading skills to the literature being
rehearsed. Another advantage of this approach is that, once introduced, pitch
and rhythm syllables can be used in subsequent rehearsals as a technique for
cleaning up pitch and rhythm problems that have crept into the performance.
Additional Choral Musicianship Skills

Although the ability to read music is central to choral musicianship, especially
in classical music traditions, it is not the only important aspect of musicianship.
Singing expressively and with an understanding of choral style that reflects
the history and culture of the piece is every bit as important to a successful
performance. The key to building musicianship in rehearsal is engaging the
students in making musical decisions as you rehearse, not simply deciding for
them all the time how things should go. When you think of the activities
the conductor engages in during a typical rehearsal, such as choosing music,
planning rehearsals, providing critical feedback, and guiding musical decision
making, the students’ role begins to resemble that of a musical instrument

rather than a musician. So, how can you engage students more in the process
of rehearsal and musical decision making? The choral ensemble can be a setting
with many opportunities to develop personal musicianship, from listening
to choral recordings, evaluating choral performances, developing leadership
skills, and singing in solo and chamber contexts that require more individual
commitment and independence.
Music Listening
Careful listening to a variety of music is one of the most powerful ways to
build personal musicianship. The student hears a repertoire of model musical
examples from which to draw when considering issues of style, tone, and
interpretation. Many choral directors use listening in their rehearsal to perhaps
introduce a new piece or illustrate a particular musical point, but how much
listening is done beyond that? With today’s technology for music listening, you
could provide students with a vast library of choral recordings for listening on
their own time. For example, if you have a password-protected website, you
can legally post tracks from commercial recordings for students to listen to and
study. An even simpler solution is to share links to recordings and performances
that have been posted on YouTube. As mentioned earlier, these recordings vary
widely in quality, but that, too, can be instructive. Some teachers create a choir
blog where choir members can share recordings and post comments about what
they hear. Students are familiar with this “peer review” environment, and you
can engage them in active listening as well as monitor the sophistication of their
musical thinking (National Standard 6).
Performance Evaluation
In addition to listening to others’ recordings, students can be encouraged to
listen to their own choir’s performances. Many choir programs do this in the
first rehearsal after the concert, at which students gather and listen to the per-
formance and perhaps critique it (National Standard 7). This is an important
experience, but what if such evaluation happened throughout the rehearsal
process?
Conductors often ask students to listen critically while in rehearsal and

even ask them, “How could that be better?” For inexperienced listeners,
though, such on-the-spot judgments may be difficult. Perhaps they would
do better with some choir homework. For example, you could record just
one rehearsal of each piece every week and post it for student feedback. The
recordings could be posted online or on a school computer, emailed home,
or made available on CD (depending on the student’s access to technology).
Students would be required to listen to and evaluate one recording by answer-
ing a short list of questions you have provided. Students should be asked
to suggest improvements either for their section or for the choir as a whole.
Suggestions could be posted in a blog format or shared on a listserv or simply
submitted to the teacher. Adolescents are often eager to share their artistic
opinions on the work they are doing. Creating such a community of listen-
ers could be a powerful tool for engaging your students and developing their
overall musicianship.
Musical Leadership
As mentioned before, the leader of the choral rehearsal is the person who
typically displays many of the qualities of musicianship that directors desire
in their students. One way to develop students’ musical knowledge is to give
them leadership opportunities. Research has shown that such opportunities
were instrumental in many music educators’ decisions to pursue music as a
career (Bergee and Demorest 2003). Although not all of your students will
choose music as a career, they can all develop leadership skills. Beneficial
activities can be as simple as student-led warm-ups or sectional rehearsals.
Section leaders are often called on to run sectional rehearsals, but they are
seldom trained to do so. Offer a brief clinic for your section leaders (or any
interested student) on how to run an effective rehearsal segment and then
give them opportunities to do so. Teaching all of your students basic con-
ducting or keyboard skills can facilitate this approach. Even though such
instruction takes time initially, imagine having a choir of musical leaders,
any of whom could take a sectional or could warm up the choir in your
absence.

Musical Independence
One of the biggest impediments to individual musical learning is the sense of
anonymity that can come from being part of a large ensemble. It may not be
practical to have everyone in a large ensemble lead the full group, but other
ways to develop musical leadership can be found. For example, small ensemble
and solo work can encourage musical independence and leadership (Berg 2008;
Graulty 2010; Morrison and Demorest 2012). By breaking your large ensemble
into smaller groups, you can give a number of students opportunities to develop
musical independence. Imagine having students experience the process that you,
the conductor, go through when you choose a piece of music, figure out the best
way to learn it, schedule a series of rehearsals, and polish it for final performance.
Although this sequence of activities will seem out of reach for some of your stu-
dents, it is a great way to take advantage of the multiple levels of musicianship
in your group. By being allowed to take the lead, more advanced musicians can
mentor their peers in the process of musical learning. The small group environ-
ment requires much more personal responsibility, even from the followers in the
group, and students will realize that as they progress through your program, they
will need to assume leadership roles. It is difficult to know the musical potential
of your students until they are given the opportunity to develop it by leading.
Summary
Choral musicianship involves many different kinds of knowledge: from basic
musical literacy to an understanding of choral history, culture, and performance
practice. Every rehearsal should provide opportunities for students’ musical
growth through sight-singing instruction, the development of listening skills, or
peer leadership. The pressure of a performance can sometimes reduce the choral
rehearsal to a drill session, in which the teacher is simply trying to get the parts
down as quickly as possible before the concert. Although this may seem like the
most efficient approach under pressure, educational theory suggests that this
kind of top-down instruction is the least effective for long-term student learn-
ing (Morrison and Demorest 2012). Choral programs should be evaluated not
just on the quality of group performances but also on the extent to which they
promote individual learning and musical growth. Only then can choir directors
claim the title of choral music educators.
Mini-Projects
1. Prepare lesson plans to teach a short melody as both a prenotational
and an intermediate sight-singing lesson. What aspects of the plan are different
and which stay the same? Teach one of the lessons to your peers.
2. Find a choral teacher in your area who teaches music reading and
observe a rehearsal. What approach is used? Can you identify the song learning
sequence that underlies the approach? Were any aspects of sight-singing
incorporated into the rehearsal of the repertoire?
3. Choose four published sight-singing books and review them to see
if they would work in your curriculum. Ask yourself the following questions
about each set of materials:
•• Are the materials specific to one method of teaching?
•• Are the materials graded for difficulty?
•• Are the materials based in real music or specially composed

exercises?
•• Do the materials feature a variety of rhythmic and melodic content
(e.g., minor mode)?
•• Do the materials include information or supporting materials on
music fundamentals?
References
Berg, Margaret H. 2008. Promoting “minds-on’’ chamber music
rehearsals. Music Educators Journal 95 (2): 48–55.
Bergee, Martin J., and Steven M. Demorest. 2003. Developing
tomorrow’s music teachers today. Music Educators Journal 89 (4): 17–20.
Boyle, J. David 1970. The effect of prescribed rhythmical movements on
the ability to read music at sight. Journal of Research in Music Education 18:
307–18.
Daniels, Rose D. 1986. Relationships among selected factors and the
sight-reading ability of high school mixed choirs. Journal of Research in
Demorest, Steven M. 1998. Improving sight-singing performance in
the choral ensemble: The effect of individual testing. Journal of Research in
———. 2004. Choral sight-singing practices: Revisiting a web-based
survey. International Journal of Research on Choral Singing 2 (1): 13–20.
Demorest, Steven M., and William V. May. 1995. Sight-singing
instruction in the choral ensemble: Factors related to individual
performance. Journal of Research in Music Education 43: 156–67.
Graulty, J. P. 2010. Don’t watch me! Avoiding podium-centered
rehearsals. Music Educators Journal 96 (4): 53–56.
Henry, Michele, and Steven M. Demorest. 1994. Individual sight-
singing achievement in successful choral ensembles: A preliminary study.
Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 13 (1): 4–8.
Morrison, Steven J., and Steven M. Demorest. 2012. Once from the
top: Reframing the role of the conductor in ensemble teaching. In Oxford
Handbook of Music Education, ed. G. McPherson and G. Welch. 823–43.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Additional Reading
Bertalot, John 1993. Five wheels to successful sight-singing. Minneapolis:
Augsburg Fortress.
Demorest, Steven M. 2001. Building choral excellence: Teaching sight-
singing in the choral rehearsal. New York: Oxford University Press.
CHAPTER 10
Analyzing and
Preparing the Score
Mrs. Gomez is reflecting back on her third period’s rehearsal, trying to decide what went
wrong. The Girls’ Ensemble was extremely frustrated while rehearsing the new piece she
selected for them to perform at the graduation ceremony in two weeks. In fact, things went so
badly that she wonders whether the choir’s unfavorable reaction to the piece can be overcome.
Mrs. Gomez did not really have time to study the music before the rehearsal, but she
wasn’t particularly worried. She had played through the piece when she chose it and
knew that it fit the ranges and abilities of her girls. She figured she was prepared to help
them learn their parts and could just develop the other aspects of the piece as she worked
with the ensemble. As she thinks back over the rehearsal, however, she realizes that she
really wasn’t prepared at all! She hadn’t thought through the best way to teach this piece
and so failed to guide the choir through their first experience with the new music. Con-
sequently, Mrs. Gomez became frustrated, and because of this lack of leadership from
their director, the choir was equally frustrated. As a result, the rehearsal was almost a
total waste of time.
Unfortunately, situations such as this are all too common. Because of an unreal-
istic schedule or an unforeseen event or emergency, choral directors may go into
a rehearsal without having studied the music adequately. Of course, unexpected
events occur, but these circumstances should be the exception and not the rule.
Careful preparation of the music to be rehearsed is essential for classroom manage-
ment and motivation, as well as for the musical integrity of the actual performance.
236
ANALYZING AND PREPARING THE SCORE 237
Preparing the Music

Aural Study
The first thing most directors want to know when they find a new piece for
their choir is this: How does the music sound? Listening to recordings of vari-
ous performances of the music can help in formulating a concept of the work
as a whole. By listening to several different recordings you will have a variety of
interpretations to consider as you formulate your own interpretation. You can
often find recordings on YouTube or on publisher’s websites, and although not
all of these recordings will be of the highest quality, you can learn something
from them. If no recordings are available, playing the piece on the piano will
give you a good idea of how the music sounds. This kind of listening or playing
through the score will happen to some degree as part of the repertoire selection
process discussed in Chapter 5.
After gaining a general sense of the piece, more thorough study is necessary
before going into rehearsal with your students. This stage of your study should
include gathering much more detailed information, such as performing the
various parts of the score both vocally and at the piano. First, take the time
required to sing each individual part from beginning to end to locate and note
any difficult intervals or difficult rhythmic patterns singers will encounter. It
is helpful at this point to start conducting while you are singing individual
lines. This way you will begin to understand how your gesture will relate to
the needs of each part as well as to the whole work. Some questions you can
begin to answer at this point: What is the phrasing and where do you need to
breathe? What are the major themes and what is the dynamic profile of the
piece? After studying, listening to, and singing each individual line, play vari-
ous combinations of parts together to discover how the different voices relate
to one another.
This additional musical detective work will help to create a detailed aural map
of the music. An aural map is a model in the director’s mind and ear of the way
the music should sound when performed correctly—holistically as well as in each
individual part. As the singers rehearse the piece, you will perceive their efforts
and measure them against your musical expectations. Obviously, if your aural
map is not securely in place by the first rehearsal, you will not know whether the
238 ANALYZING AND PREPARING THE SCORE
singers’ efforts are correct and, consequently, will have little idea of how to help
them improve. In addition, without a clear vision for the piece, the musical and
expressive demands of the music may go unaddressed until later in the rehearsal
process, when correcting them becomes much more difficult. The singers’ first
impression of the piece may be negatively affected because they aren’t hearing the
musical potential in the very first rehearsal. This is part of Mrs. Gomez’s problem
in this chapter’s opening scenario.
Visual Study
After a solid aural map is in place and you are beginning to develop your vision
for the piece, you need to dig even deeper to understand how the piece is assem-
bled. Analyzing the score for details of sound, diction, harmony, melodic and
rhythmic themes, formal aspects, and textual issues will help to solidify and
undergird your aural model. In addition, this further study will yield informa-
tion and insights that will guide you in planning effective rehearsals, and will
highlight further any conducting issues you will need to address.
The musical analysis form given in Figure 10.1 for “Weep, O Mine Eyes”
demonstrates how thorough a choral director’s study of the music should be.
(Note: the full score for “Weep, O Mine Eyes” is found in Figure 10.2 beginning
on page 246.) This study needs to happen before the first rehearsal. Although
filling out such a form may seem daunting at first, if you have done a thorough
aural preparation, you should already have the answers to many of these ques-
tions. Answering questions like these about a new piece of music eventually
becomes second nature and you will no longer need a physical form to guide
your score study. The questions on this form may help in the analysis of any
piece of music, but remember, what will be a significant question for one musi-
cal selection may not be so for another. A blank copy of the Musical Analysis
Form is available on the website for this text.
As you are working on your aural and visual study of the music, note that
various pedagogical ideas and opportunities will reveal themselves as you dis-
cover musical information. The pieces you have in your choir folder will each be
rehearsed in slightly different ways and will present entirely different learning
opportunities because each piece is constructed differently. A rehearsal plan for
“Weep, O Mine Eyes” based on this analysis is provided in Chapter 11.
Score Analysis
Initial Information
Identifying the title, composer/arranger, and dates of the piece will help to pin-
point the style or genre, and further investigation can reveal interesting and perti-
nent cultural or historical information as well as links to other subjects. The com-
poser for the sample piece is English, and he composed during the Renaissance
period. This gives you important information for your interpretation of the piece
regarding performance practice and ideals of choral tone. With a quick search on
the Internet, you will discover that “Weep, O Mine Eyes” may have been inspired
by a lute song by John Dowland, and written in homage to him. This opens the
door to teaching the choir about Dowland, seeing the lute, hearing the sound of
it, and listening to the inspiration for the piece. Comparing and contrasting the
two pieces could be an interesting learning experience for you as well as your
students (National Standard 6), and having them sing in quartets or octets after
the piece is learned would address Standard 1. Discussing how this particular
madrigal might have been performed in its day could lead to a more general dis-
cussion of the characteristics of the madrigal form. Such discussions fit well with
the goals of National Standards 8 and 9. (See Chapter 4 for more on this topic.)
Sound
This section charts the range and tessitura of each voice part. The range is
notated in whole notes, and the tessitura is written as stemless quarter notes
next to the whole notes as shown. Although you will have checked this infor-
mation when you chose the piece, reviewing it at this point in your score study
is helpful. The discovery of extreme ranges may suggest warm-up exercises for
rehearsal. The low alto part in the piece might indicate spots where some men
could help reinforce the alto sound, such as m. 8 and m. 19–28, if you have
enough men to spare. Another option would be to raise the key of the piece one
whole step to give your altos some relief but this may make the soprano and
tenor parts a little harder to sing. Changing keys in music of this period is per-
fectly acceptable, though it may affect the tone color of the different voice parts.
You will need to check the character of the accompaniment (if there is one).
Is it harmonically, rhythmically, and/or melodically supportive of the voice parts,
Title of piece: Weep, O Mine Eyes

Composer/Arranger: John Bennet
Dates of composer and/or arranger: c. 1575–1614
Background of composer and piece: Little is known of Bennet’s life, but he was
probably born in northeastern England, and received his first musical education as a
choirboy. His First Collection of Madrigals was published in 1599. “Weep, O Mine Eyes”
is probably Bennet’s most popular madrigal. It may have been written in homage to
John Dowland because “Weep, O Mine Eyes” uses part of Dowland’s most famous piece,
“Flow My Tears” (a lute song).
SOUND
Voicing: SATB Accompaniment: a cappella Relationship to voices:
w œ w œ
&w œ () w ( œ)
Range and tessitura
w œ w
w (# œ ) w œœ
of each part:
?
()
S A T B
Texture: Monophonic Polyphonic (A & B sections) > Homophonic (C section)
Dynamic Range: ppp pp p mp mf f ff fff
(Note: none marked, but text suggests moderate dynamics)
Articulation/Potential Problems: Very legato lines, long phrases, independent lines,
breath support, staggered breathing.
FORM
Major Sections and their measure numbers: A (m. 1–14); B (m. 14–28), C (29–
end, repeated) = ABCC (Through composed.)
Unifying Element(s) of piece: Points of imitation, especially in A and B sections and to
a lesser degree in the C section; repetition of the C section.
MELODY
Melodic Themes/Motives
Text: “Weep” “Alas” “Oh when”
Voice Part: B A S
Measure #: 1 14 29
Melodic Motion: predominately conjunct predominately disjunct
Melodic Features/Potential Problems:
Soprano: m. 6th leap in m. 7
Alto: C# high enough, m. 14; octave leap, m. 19
Tenor: leap from B to D, m. 7; octave leap, m 23;
Bass: F# to G# to A, m. 7–8; m. 6th leap, m. 23–24; octave leap, m. 35
Figure 10.1 Musical analysis form. © Cengage Learning 2014. (continued)

RHYTHM
Meter(s): 4/4 (2/2) Tempo(s): moderately slow
(𝅘𝅥 = 100) with flexibility at cadences
Rhythmic Motives: None
Voice Part:
Meas. #:
Rhythmic Features/Potential Problems: No rhythmic motives independent of
melody. Long note values to “keep alive”; keeping steady pulse internalized so that
independent lines will fit together yet give flexibility for musical expression.
HARMONY
Key(s) of piece: a minor with cadences often in A Major
Harmonic Features/Potential Problems
Alto and Tenor: voice crossings, m. 9–10, m. 23–25
Bass and Tenor: voice crossings, m. 21–22
Soprano and Alto: m. 36–end (parallel 3rds and 4ths)
All parts: tuning independent lines, suspensions; A Major cadence to a minor (Ex. m. 28–29).
TEXT
Source: Not known; possibilities include (1) a translation or reworking of an Italian
madrigal of the time, or (2) the decade of 1590–1600 was the greatest concentration
of English madrigal composition and it coincided with the popularity of the English
sonnet.
Mood/Translation: Sad, defeated, one love doesn’t feel the same as the other person
anymore; C section is more hopeful and the piece ends in A Major.
Diction Issues (list words that present potential problems and underline the problem—
ex. vowel, consonant, diphthong—be specific): “Alas” (a); “your” (o); “high” (diphthong
a-I); “drown” (diphthong a-u); “weep” (initial sound)
or does it add contrasting harmonies or interesting (but potentially confusing)

rhythmic features? This information must be considered when deciding when
and how to add accompaniment to the voice parts. The sample piece is performed
a cappella, which suggests extra work on intonation as well as perhaps learning
the piece without the piano (or at least getting away from piano support as soon
as possible). Rehearsing the piece on “loo” will help give singers an opportunity to
listen, to blend, and to feel that intimacy among the choir members so desirable
in chamber music of the Renaissance. If solfège was used to teach the piece, it can
help reinforce note function and tuning in critical spots as you rehearse.
Texture is also included under the category of Sound. In this piece, the texture
changes from predominantly polyphonic in the A and B sections to predominantly
homophonic in the C section. In the polyphonic sections, you might consider having
all parts sing the various points of imitation in unison before learning the piece as
written. This will encourage more uniform phrasing, listening to other parts while
singing your own, and hearing how the four parts interact and imitate each other.
Often, an entire piece will be primarily one texture or the other, rather than both.
Use a < sign to show which is the more dominant texture (example: homophonic <
polyphonic). Notate the range of dynamics by underlining the appropriate dynamic
abbreviations on the form. Scores from the Renaissance period often do not specify
dynamics in the score, but you must still specify a dynamic range for your perfor-
mance. Articulation/potential problems provides an opportunity to make note of
any unusual challenges in the piece. As you will see, the independent melodies com-
bined with long phrases and a legato line indicate the need for attention to correct
breathing and breath support, perhaps reviewing the technique of staggered breath-
ing, and suggesting the use of movement in rehearsal to help feel the legato line.
Form
Although all musical works have an organizing structure of some kind, not all
will fit common musical forms, such as binary, ternary, rondo, or strophic. Map-
ping out the major sections of the piece, however, and discovering whether the
material repeats in some way will help with organizing rehearsals. If the form of a
piece is ABA1, for example, this may suggest that after learning the A section, you
would move directly to the A1 section to discover similarities and differences. This
is also true when discovering unifying elements of a piece. The unifying element
may be the overall form itself, a recurring motive, a signature harmonic progres-
sion, or a certain texture that recurs throughout. In the case of “Weep, O Mine
Eyes,” the points of imitation heard in the polyphony of the A and B sections as
well as the repetition of the entire C section help form the unifying elements. You
want to decide how the choir might sing the two C sections differently to deliver
the text and mood of the piece in the most interesting and expressive way.
Melody
With melodic themes and motives, you enter into a more detailed analysis of
the musical structure. What makes a musical idea a theme or motive? Melodic
themes and motives are musical ideas that are repeated in their entirety (both
pitches and rhythms) either at the same pitch level or in transposition. Motives
are typically shorter than themes, though the terms can be used interchangeably.
For this piece, the major melodic themes have been charted by identifying (1) in
what measure they first occur; (2) the voice part in which they occur; and (3) the
text on which they occur. This last point is helpful because themes often retain
text associations throughout a piece, especially in certain styles of music (such
as “Weep, O Mine Eyes”).
For melodic features/potential problems, examining each individual voice
part in a horizontal way helps you spot any difficult intervals the singers will
have to navigate. In “Weep, O Mine Eyes,” there are several difficult leaps and
chromatics that will be difficult to tune. Making note of such potential prob-
lems will help guide your listening when rehearsals begin, and creating warm-up
exercises to address these difficulties out of context can be a time saver. Melodic
features refers to characteristics of the melodic motion (conjunct/disjunct), the
use of imitation, and other devices like text painting or ornamentation.
Rhythm
The section on rhythm provides a space to sketch out the tempo and meter
profile of the piece. These elements of the music are beneficial to review even if
the piece is not very difficult in this regard. This question will be more pertinent
for a piece that changes meter every few measures or one that contains tempo
changes. Whether difficult or simple, seeing meter and tempo information laid
out graphically is helpful in understanding the piece and will aid in setting an
optimal tempo or tempi. Terms like andante and allegro are relative to the style
and complexity of the piece, so choose a specific target tempo (for example, in
the sample piece, MM 𝅘𝅥 = 100) even if you eventually change your mind in the
process of rehearsing the piece.
Rhythmic motives are those musical ideas in which the rhythm returns, but
with several different pitch combinations. Although sometimes less noticeable than
melodic themes, rhythmic motives can be important to the structure of a piece.
The sample piece has no rhythmic motives that are independent of the melody.
The rhythmic features/problems section allows for commentary on the presence
of rhythmic devices like fermati, accelerandi, polyrhythms, and syncopation. The
sample piece contains long note values to “keep alive” in addition to maintaining a
steady internalized pulse. Using the technique of count singing might be helpful for
phrasing as well as in achieving vibrancy in the long lines of “Weep, O Mine Eyes.”
This will also enable the independent lines to fit together well yet allow for the flex-
ibility necessary for musical expression. Ritards are marked at cadences, but you may
choose not to mark them and simply let the phrase endings happen more naturally.
Harmony
This section deals with the harmonic elements of the piece. What key is it in,
and does it modulate? Does the piece have a lot of accidentals or other har-
monic devices like suspensions, unusual cadences, Picardy thirds, and so forth?
An easy way to diagram the harmonic profile is to identify the measure in which
modulations take place. The section on harmonic features/potential problems
allows you to notate any unusual or prevalent features.
For “Weep, O Mine Eyes,” suspensions are significant and could be considered
text painting because the piece is about lost love and the pain it brings. Voice
crossings are prevalent in this piece and are potential problem spots. Pointing
these places out and asking the singers to listen carefully while singing the two
parts separately and then together as they cross may help address this difficulty.
In addition, although the song is written in a minor, several cadences in A Major
are present. Exercises that help students to change easily between major and
minor could reinforce their security in singing this piece.
Text
Last, but certainly not least, is analysis of the text. In choral music, the text
is often where the composition process begins. Finding the source of the text
may yield insights into where the composer’s musical intent originated, and a
look into the life of the poet, author, playwright, or the history surrounding
the creation of the literature (National Standard 8) may help you understand
the meaning of the words and how to interpret them musically. Always useful
is having a student read the text aloud in rehearsal so that it may be viewed as
a separate entity. Guide students as they discover the connection between the
words and the composer’s choice of mood, tone color, texture, harmony, melody,
form, tempo, and dynamics (National Standard 6). This study will help magnify
sensitivity to the words and their meaning, and can provide a real opportunity
for the singers to involve themselves on a deeper level.
Whether the piece is in English or a foreign language, attention to the pronuncia-

tion of the text must always be part of your music analysis and rehearsal preparation.
Many diverse musical challenges, from intonation to rhythm, can be solved by fixing
a problem with diction. Time spent combing through the text to find potentially
troublesome words will save time in rehearsal. Equally important is having solutions
ready or warm-up exercises prepared to address the problems, should they occur.
For each language, including English, the director must know the correct
sounds needed, and be ready to teach the students how each sound is produced.
Some modification of standard diction may be required at various times because
of the differences between solo and choral singing. For example, in a choral set-
ting, the singers may exaggerate the open or closed position of a vowel to pro-
vide greater unification as well as a clearer understanding, whereas a soloist has
more freedom because he or she does not have to blend with anyone else. For
the words “great time,” in solo singing you are likely to pronounce both the “t” of
“great” and the “t” of “time.” However, because the “t” is an explosive consonant, a
choir may need to elide the two “t”s to avoid undue attention on the two words as
they are sung. Decisions like this must be made before rehearsal.
Because a thorough study of diction is outside the scope of this textbook, a
list of books on diction has been provided at the end of this chapter. Remember
also that many pieces provide pronunciation guides right in the music when the
language is other than the “traditional” languages most often found in diction
texts. This might be a determining factor in whether to select a piece.
Marking the Score

An important part of your music study is marking the score. This process is intended
primarily to help you learn the score in even more detail. By the time you have fin-
ished, you probably won’t need to use the markings as much as you think, especially
after a few rehearsals. Although using a highlighter in a score may provide a helpful
visual for analysis of certain musical forms, such analysis should only be done on a
study copy of the score. Using a highlighted score for conducting is not advised, as
it can be difficult to read and impossible to erase. Choose carefully what you mark
so your rehearsal score will not look cluttered, and mark in pencil so you can erase
marks as your ideas change. Some important elements of the music to note in the
score are entrances that need to be cued; phrasing and breath marks; tempo or
meter information, especially where it changes; important harmonic markers; and,
Figure 10.2 Marked score for “Weep, O Mine Eyes” by John Bennet, 1599. (continued)

finally, spots where you anticipate either a conducting challenge or a musical issue
for the singers. Figure 10.2 is a sample marked score for “Weep, O Mine Eyes.”
Entrances and Cues

Entrances and cues must be marked to give the conductor an idea of the “flow
of traffic” in the score. How does the texture change as the piece unfolds? What
voices enter together? Are there any “traffic jams” where voices enter on top
of each other or at odd times? All of these features can be noted in the score.
Entrances can be marked with small brackets right at the point of entrance, and
pairs of voices can be indicated by closed brackets, as in m. 5 or m. 29. Brackets
in front of each entrance let you see at a glance whom to cue and when.
One of the most important decisions concerns what entrances don’t need to
be marked. Entrances should be marked if they are technically difficult, such
as when a section hasn’t been singing for a long time or when the entrance is
off-beat or unexpected. For example, in m. 4 the alto entrance on “weep” is not
marked because they have been singing, but the tenor entrance in m. 5 is marked
because it pairs with the soprano entrance. By focusing only on the places where
singers will need a cue, you clarify the structure of the piece as you mark.
Phrasing and Breath

Breath marks are often shown in published scores as apostrophes placed between
notes, but this doesn’t indicate when the cutoff actually happens, whether to
breathe, or how long the breath should last. You must decide whether to shorten
a previous note value by an eighth note or a quarter note to allow space for the
singers to breathe before re-entering. For an example, see m. 10 in the alto and
tenor parts. All situations such as these need to be decided upon and marked in
your score before the first rehearsal.
A lift is similar to a breath in that it is a cessation of sound, but a lift is often
so quick that no actual breath can be taken. Lifts might be marked with an apos-
trophe or this symbol (^) to indicate as little time as possible. Lifts might also be
noted with a rest, but perhaps with a connecting line to indicate no breath. To
indicate phrasing, you might draw an arch over the measures involved. In addi-
tion, you might underline syllables in the text that indicate arrival points as seen
in the text painting on the word “drown” in m. 41. Being specific to this degree
will lead to a much cleaner performance as well as a faster pace in rehearsal

because you have made these decisions beforehand.
Other Items to Mark

Tempi and any tempo or meter changes should be marked in the score in black pencil.
For any tempo change, you should mark the target tempo as a specific metronome
marking (MM=__) in the score. For meter changes, it may be helpful to extend the
barline above the score and then mark either the number of the new meter as shown
or a symbol for the pattern you want. For other sudden changes, such as an or
subito , simply underlining or circling the item can often be enough of a reminder.
Your harmonic analysis has given you the overall outline of the harmony. For
score marking, it is best to concentrate on major harmonic transitions or to identify
trouble spots where accidentals or other challenges might impact vertical intonation.
For example, the E Major to A Major cadences in m. 14 and m. 28 are followed by
a minor entrances of the new theme. “Traffic jams,” or places where different parts
enter and cut off at different times in an overlapping fashion, need special attention
and specific markings. Marking the letter scheme for the form of the piece can be a
helpful reminder as well as facilitate rehearsal procedure. Rather than identifying the
place to start by giving the page, score, measure, and beat, you can simply say “Begin
at the B section.” This practice also helps students be aware of the form of the music.
Each conductor develops a personalized system for marking the score, and
you should experiment to find what works best for you. Above all, your approach
should allow you to consider all the details that will make for a cleaner and more
accurate performance and remind you of important occurrences in the score as
you rehearse and perform.
Refining Your Vision

Once you have prepared, analyzed, and marked the score, you have created an
outline of your approach to the piece. Your ideas may change and grow as you
encounter the piece differently in rehearsal, but it is important to have a point
of view, an intention, a “vision” for the piece going into that first rehearsal. This
vision will give focus to your teaching and add interest to your initial preparation.
No amount of lesson planning can make up for a lack of clear musical vision.
Your study to this point has given you a lot of information about the piece. Now
you must make some decisions about how your singers will perform it.
Gesture
One of the first issues to consider in refining your vision is how you will use
gesture to reinforce musical ideas. For example, because “Weep, O Mine Eyes”
has long, flowing lines within a predominantly polyphonic texture, you will
need a very legato gesture. You may choose to rehearse the piece initially using a
4 pattern and a slower tempo, but ultimately, when you reach performance tempo,
directing in a slow 2 will help achieve the feeling of flow. One way to practice is to
sing the lines as you did in your initial score study, but now try conducting your-
self in the mirror. Try it in both 4 and 2. Does your gesture support your desired
sound and articulation? You may discover that you need lots of “pull” between the
beats in the slow 2 to keep the breath energy moving forward.
Cueing will be extremely important in the A and B sections, as well as in the
more homophonic C section. Specific dynamics may be difficult to show in your
gesture due to the independent lines, but the beginnings and ends of the three sec-
tions can be consistent. To help individual voice parts sing the phrase shape of their
own lines, you might rehearse lines independently and then gradually add parts to
experience the beauty of the overlapping phrase shapes. Perhaps ask the singers to
create an arch with their arm to show (and feel) the shape of their particular part.
Listening is important at all times, but is extremely important in this piece.
Gesture isn’t simply about showing how the music should progress, but also
about making the piece easier to sing. Where will singers need extra attention
and support from you? For example, you want a relaxed and open sound on
the soprano and tenor entrances in m. 7 and m. 8, respectively, without being
too loud. Experimenting with different left and right hand gestures in your own
singing can help you decide how best to draw out the sound you want. Once in
rehearsal, you may find that your singers respond differently to those gestures
than you did, so be ready to make adjustments according to what you hear.
Rehearsal Planning
Ultimately, careful study of the score should provide the necessary information
for designing an efficient and effective rehearsal plan. The goal of any choral
rehearsal is to teach the piece in such a way that students derive a sense of
the musical structure and some idea of how the finished product will sound.
Although planning will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 11, a few points
will be highlighted here from the analysis of the sample piece.
Because “Weep, O Mine Eyes” is through-composed, it has no obvious sections
of returning material to use as a basis for starting rehearsal, although section C does
repeat. However, two of the three sections feature imitative counterpoint based on
text themes. For example, in m. 1 to 13, the descending melodic motive on “Weep,
O Mine Eyes” appears in all voice parts. Have students mark whenever that motive
appears in their parts. Such a marking is shown in Figure 10.3. To set that melodic
Figure 10.3 Measures 1–13 of “Weep, O Mine Eyes,” with the first melodic motive brack-
eted in each part. By John Bennet, 1599.
motive securely in their ears, have the students hear what it sounds like to sing m. 1
to 13, but only when they have the descending melodic motive. The teacher could
either play the non-thematic parts softly on piano or challenge the students to hold
the key as they wait to come in.1
By using the musical structure of the piece to help teach it, your rehearsals
will be more interesting and effective, and students will learn something about
music theory and composition. None of this can happen without first analyzing
the work to be rehearsed.
Summary
No amount of lesson planning can substitute for the careful preparation of
music prior to the first rehearsal. In fact, your lesson plan should be born of
your study of the music, for the combination of musical analysis and score
marking yields valuable information that will impact the entire rehearsal pro-
cess. Studying the music will have a major effect on your level of confidence,
your efficient use of time, and your choice of teaching strategies, not to men-
tion student behavior and musical success. Although this process will be time-
consuming at first, with experience you will begin to approach each new piece
systematically and be able to extract more quickly the key structural elements on
which to build your rehearsal. The great choral conductor Robert Shaw strongly
emphasized this aspect of the conductor’s preparation, and no matter how many
times he conducted a major choral work, he always started with an unmarked
score to prepare each new performance.
Mini-Projects
1. Select two compositions with which you are not familiar but which are
likely to be available in recorded versions. Listen carefully and repeatedly to at
least two different recordings of your selections. Decide which performance
you prefer and explain why.
1
Note: The rehearsal plan in Chapter 11 offers a different approach to the first rehearsal of “Weep, O Mine
Eyes,” but this sequence could be introduced after the read-through on solfège or perhaps in a subsequent
rehearsal to clarify the polyphonic texture.
2. Take the music selected in Mini-Project 1 to the piano and play

through each part individually and then in various combinations. Mark in
pencil any potential trouble spots that you discover within each part as well as
between parts.
3. Analyze both selections using the Score Analysis form provided on the
text website.
4. After listening to and analyzing the two pieces, mark them for
conducting and rehearsal.
Additional Reading
Cook, Nicholas. 1987. A guide to musical analysis. New York: G. Braziller.
Dunsby, Jonathan. 1988. Music analysis in theory and practice. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Green, Elizabeth, and Nikolai Malko 1985. The conductor’s score.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Herford, Julius. 1988. Score analysis. In Choral conducting: A symposium,
2nd ed., eds. Harold Decker and Julius Herford. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
LaRue, Jan. 1992. Guidelines for style analysis, 2nd ed. Detroit monographs
in musicology, No. 12. Sterling Heights, MI: Harmonie Park Press.
White, John David. 1994. Comprehensive musical analysis. Metuchen, NJ:
Scarecrow Press.
Books on Diction
Colorni, Evelina. 1970. Singers’ Italian: A manual of diction and
phonetics. New York: G. Schirmer.
Cox, Richard G. 1970. The singer’s manual of German and French diction.
New York: G. Schirmer.
Grubb, Thomas. 1979. Singing in French: A manual of French diction and
French vocal repertoire. New York: Schirmer Books.
Hall, William D., ed. 1971. Latin pronunciation according to Roman

usage. Tustin, CA: National Music Publishers.
Jeffers, Ron. 1988. Translations and annotations of choral repertoire:
Volume 1 Sacred Latin texts. Corvallis, OR: earthsongs.
Marshall, Madeleine. 1953. The singer’s manual of English diction. New
York: Schirmer Books.
May, William V., and Craig Tolin. 1987. Pronunciation guide for choral
literature (French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Latin, Spanish). Reston, VA:
Music Educators National Conference.
Moriarty, John. 1975. Diction: Italian, Latin, French, German; the sounds
and 81 exercises for singing them. Boston: E. C. Schirmer.
Uris, Dorothy. 1971. To sing in English: A guide to improved diction. New
York: Boosey and Hawkes.
CHAPTER 11
Planning the Rehearsal
The rehearsal has been going badly, and Mr. Nichols is getting more and more frustrated.
He has studied the music thoroughly and knows it inside and out. He thought this was suf-
ficient preparation to have a good rehearsal, but he now realizes that he neglected to plan
exactly how to rehearse the choir on the music rather than just sing the pieces and correct
whatever goes wrong. The singers’ attention span has long since expired, and the class period
isn’t over for twenty more very long minutes. He is so flustered at this point that he is at a
loss for what to do next. He can’t just give up on this music, but how can he recapture the
students’ attention?
Mental discipline is required to plan out the details and sequence of events for
a rehearsal, but directors who do so find that it gives them freedom to run a
more efficient and effective rehearsal. At first glance, this statement may seem
contradictory because we don’t always think of discipline as facilitating freedom.
Over time, however, you will find that studying the music and planning the
specific steps of a rehearsal can give you freedom of focus; that is, your attention
can remain almost entirely where it should be: on the singers and their efforts,
rather than on yourself and what will happen next. Mr. Nichols would have cer-
tainly benefited from a carefully constructed rehearsal plan. In fact, his rehearsal
may not have deteriorated to such a degree if he had given some thought to the
day’s activities in addition to studying the music.
Because an element of the unknown is present in every rehearsal, a rehearsal
plan should be exactly that: a plan that remains flexible and that may be modified
slightly (or radically, if necessary) according to what happens in rehearsal. Don’t
be afraid to alter your plans as singers achieve objectives faster or slower than
predicted or events out of your control affect the rehearsal atmosphere.
255
256 PLANNING THE REHEARSAL
For example, one day the singers may come to choir right from a pep rally, so
instead of spending the usual eight minutes on warm-ups, you will need to spend
additional time to focus their attention and calm them down. The choir may not
have as much trouble with a section of the music as you had anticipated, so you
can move quickly to the next step without having to isolate individual parts, as
planned. The opposite may be true as well. The choir may have extreme difficulty
with a portion of the piece that you believed would give no problem at all, and
you will either need to spend more time on it than you had anticipated or post-
pone this portion of the rehearsal until you can study the music further. Having
a plan in place in all three situations will prevent activities from veering too far
off course, yet will provide the flexibility to adapt as needed.
Studying the Music

Careful and thorough study of the music is always the first step in planning any
rehearsal for choirs of all ages and maturity levels. Studying the score not only
will prepare you to conduct the music but will also suggest how to rehearse the
music with the choir (Demorest 1996). For example, if your study revealed that
a canonic section begins one of the compositions, your rehearsal plan should
include teaching the melodic line to all sections in unison before an attempt
at the canon is made. Or, if you observed that the form of the composition is
ABA’ , you might plan to rehearse the A’ section directly after the A section so
that their differences and similarities can be compared. If the music features
singing in close and sometimes dissonant harmony, planning a warm-up exer-
cise to work on this technique would be helpful. Often the music is too difficult
to sight-sing through the score on the first day of rehearsal, so you may choose
to simplify some aspect of the piece for reading and then continue by rote, as
described in Chapter 9. Each time you revisit the music for study and rehearsal
preparation, further insights will be gained, which in turn will affect any subse-
quent rehearsal plans.
Shaping a Rehearsal
A carefully planned rehearsal has a certain shape, resembling a musical phrase
that begins softly, builds to the middle, and tapers off at the end. The intensity
PLANNING THE REHEARSAL 257
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 11.1 The shape of a rehearsal. © Cengage Learning 2014.
as seen in this rehearsal shape (Figure 11.1) is reflected not in loudness but
in the level of detail and time spent on each piece. Cox (1989) found that this
gradual increase in time, with faster work at the beginning and end, was the
preferred rehearsal pace of the most successful choral conductors. Several factors
should be taken into consideration when planning this shape, including vocal
demands, attention spans, the difficulty of the repertoire, and where you are in
the rehearsal process.
Warm-up Exercises
When students come into the choir room for rehearsal, they bring with them
all that has happened to them up to that point in the day. You must focus their
attention and prepare them for rehearsal through carefully planned warm-ups
(No. 1 in Figure 11.1). These exercises should be designed to benefit the choir
vocally, mentally, and physically, and some of the exercises may be intended spe-
cifically to address difficulties in the repertoire. The entire sequence of warm-
ups should take from eight to twelve minutes, depending on how many exercises
you choose, the choir members’ age and attention span, and at what time of day
the choir meets. Obviously, a choir that meets at 8:30 in the morning will likely
need to vocalize longer than a choir scheduled at 2:00 in the afternoon (more
about warm-ups can be found in Chapter 7).
Sight-singing
Sight-singing skills, like vocal techniques, are as much a part of the choral
rehearsal as the repertoire to be performed in the concert, and a choir must
be given opportunities on a consistent basis to gain knowledge and skill

in this area (No. 2 in Figure 11.1). The warm-up exercises, by their very
nature, need to come at the beginning of the rehearsal, but the sight-singing
portion is more flexible and can be moved to various positions within the
rehearsal period. For example, if the choir will be rehearsing a piece that fea-
tures syncopation, and you have created a sight-singing exercise to help in
this area, it would make good sense to place the sight-singing exercise right
before the rehearsal of that piece (more about sight-singing can be found in
Chapter 9).
The First Piece

The first piece to be rehearsed (No. 3 in Figure 11.1) can often set the tone for
the entire rehearsal, so choose carefully. Although every piece in the repertoire
may serve as a first piece at some point, the type of rehearsing planned for
that day can determine if it is a good starting point. Much like programming
a concert, a rehearsal that begins with a piece in a moderate to fast tempo can
often propel the rehearsal forward more easily. Directors will often work on the
“bigger picture” (style, memorization, endurance) during the first piece rather
than center on tedious details, because the choir still warming up vocally, as well
as sharpening their mental focus. The first piece may offer a chance to review an
aspect of a selection that was mastered by the choir in the preceding rehearsal
and then add something new or choose to focus on a smaller section of a piece
and bring to it a more finished sound. A maximum of ten to twelve minutes
spent on the first piece is usually a good plan.
Sustaining the Rehearsal

Because singers’ voices and minds are warmed up and still fresh at this point,
the piece or pieces requiring the most challenging work should be placed sec-
ond (and third) during rehearsal (Nos. 4 and 5 in Figure 11.1). For example,
a highly dissonant piece would work well here if notes and rhythms are still a
problem, for which a lot of starting and stopping with much repetition may be
necessary. This is also the place where singers will be likely to sustain energy
and attention for longer periods of time (ten to twenty minutes for each piece),
so a selection requiring lengthy rehearsal would work well in the second or

third spot. The total number of pieces rehearsed will be determined in part by
how long the total rehearsal period is and by how far along the students are in
their preparation.
Always remember the importance of being sensitive to your singers’ fatigue
and frustration levels. If, after ten minutes, you notice the choir has reached its
limit, you may need to leave the selection and return to it tomorrow, even if the
amount of work you planned required more time. Twenty minutes on one piece
may really stretch singers of junior high/middle school age (and occasionally,
some high school students), so use your knowledge of the choir to accommo-
date their attention span, and then heed unmistakable signals of fatigue during
rehearsal and modify accordingly.
Ending the Rehearsal

After more challenging and lengthy work during the middle of the rehearsal,
you should begin tapering off the demands, both vocally and mentally, as you
and your singers move toward the conclusion of your time together (No. 6 in
Figure 11.1). The length of time spent on pieces toward the end of a rehearsal
should be shortened as well (eight to ten minutes each). The end of a rehearsal
is a good time to look at the big picture again, such as working on a more ani-
mated delivery of the text, or attempting in its entirety a selection that has been
rehearsed only in its various sections. Try to plan something that will not only
provide closure for the day’s work but also create anticipation and excitement
about the next rehearsal.
Sample Rehearsal Plan

The following rehearsal plan is presented as a guide to planning your own
rehearsals. Notice the amount of detail included at each step, from an estima-
tion of time required for each piece or activity to exactly which voice parts will
rehearse together. Outline form is a clear and concise way to write out plans for
the day, but other methods may be just as effective. The important thing to learn
is, no matter what the format, planning a rehearsal in detail will make the time
more productive and pleasant for everyone concerned.
Rehearsal Plan
Choir: High School Chamber Choir, 24 singers
Music to Be Rehearsed:
1. “Revecy venir du Printans” by Claude Le Jeune (edition CPDL available on
text website or CPP/Belwin, Inc., DMC 1203)
2. “Weep No More” by David Childs (Santa Barbara Music Publishing,
SMBP 965)
3. “Weep, O Mine Eyes” by John Bennet (edition CPDL available on text website)
4. “Sing We and Chant It” by Thomas Morley (edition CPDL available on
text website or E. C. Schirmer No. 1183)
Rehearsal Length: One hour and twenty minutes long (block scheduling)
Objectives
1. The students will be able to apply what they learned in warm-ups and
sight-singing to the rehearsal of “Revecy.”
2. The students will be able to identify characteristics of sixteenth-century
madrigals and chanson in the pieces they are rehearsing.
3. The students will be able to sight-sing part of a piece (“Weep, O Mine Eyes”)
in a minor key.
4. The students will sing with light and detached (“Revecy” and ”Sing We”) and
legato (“Weep” and “Weep”) articulation with emphasis on text expression.
National Standards Addressed at This Rehearsal:

Singing alone and with others a varied repertoire of music (1)
Reading and notating music (5)
Listening to, analyzing, and describing music (6)
Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines
outside the arts (8)
Understanding music in relation to history and culture (9)
I. Warm-ups (ten minutes)

A. Massages and stretches
B. Breath support: Perform the following rhythm on “ss.” (Note: Having
singers tap their palm on the accents can help set the rhythm.)
> > > > >

& œ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ ˙
ss
C. Resonance: “Prin-pah” and “tans-ta” moving from French nasal to

pure vowel.
& 44 ˙ œ œ œ œ ˙
Ó
Prin Pah
Tans Tah
D. Range and flexibility: Encourage diaphragmatic breathing; ascend by

half-steps; vary vowels, and work for unification and smooth clean
legato articulation.
& 44 œ œ. œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
Ó
.
yah ha ha ha ah
E. Five-part F chord: Build from root to fifth to third; sing on five

vowels; then sing on the rhythm pattern from the breath warm-up
on “dee.”
S &b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
dee deh dah doh doo
S &b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
dee deh dah doh doo
A &b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
dee deh dah doh doo
T Vb ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
dee deh dah doh doo
B
?b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
II. Sight-singing exercises (ten minutes).

A. Chord progression from “Revecy” on the board
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
S &b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
&b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
S
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
&b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
A ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙
T Vb ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
? ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
B b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
B. Sequence of sight-singing
1. Have the students look over the example and identify the key
signature.
2. Tune up in F Major on solfège: Include some intervals from the
example.
3. Each section will identify their opening solfège syllables and take
30 seconds to scan the exercise for difficult or repeating pitch patterns.
4. Sing through slowly on solfège. After the initial reading, you may
need to work parts individually, such as the opening bass progression
and alto/soprano II part crossing.
5. Read again.
6. Move to score.
III. “ Revecy venir du Printans” by Claude Le Jeune (ten minutes; full score
available online)
A. Speak the opening slowly in rhythm on “doot” (m. 1–2) as students tap
the quarter note on their legs.
1. Concentrate on proper stress and watch that they don’t rush the half notes.
2. May need to isolate tenor eighth notes for proper stress.
B. Review pitches (m. 1–2): What is the same and what is different from
sight-singing exercise?
1. Sing slowly on solfège in rhythm, tapping quarter notes.
2. Stop on chords for tuning as needed.
3. Help tenors with eighth notes.
C. When notes are secure on solfège, move to “doo” to focus on tone and
articulation.
D. Have them speak French text in call response: Listen for good nasal
vowels and proper placement on “du” and “et.”
E. Have them speak French in rhythm.
F. Have them sing refrain in French.
G. If time permits, have them sing from beginning through second refrain,
(m. 1–12) speaking rhythm on “doot” for verse 1 and singing text on
refrain with piano doubling where needed.
IV. “ Weep No More” by David Childs (fourteen minutes)
A. Review singing from beginning through m. 44.
1. Remind students about word stress and phrasing.
2. Listen for tuning of accidentals, balance in divisi, good rhythmic unity
and phrasing.
B. Work backwards from refrain to clear up problems encountered previously.
1. m. 37–44: Listen for clean entrances, quick “w,” and keeping the
repeating pitch in tune.
2. m. 21–36: Listen for tuning and balance, review 2-bar phrasing and
breath together. Check pitches on divisi for accuracy and balance.
3. m. 13–20: listen for G/G# in bass and alto, no “r” on “tear,” clean
rhythm and clear phrasing.
C. Sing from opening through m. 44.
D. If time permits, read through next section on “loh” with piano on parts,
then move to accompaniment for m. 60 to the end.
V. “Weep, O Mine Eyes” by John Bennet (fourteen minutes; full score available
online)
A. p. 1, m. 1–14
1. Keep pulse on leg with “spider fingers” with 4 beats per measure
(MM = 100), and speak all four parts on text with piano doubling.
2. Speak again without piano and concentrate on expressive phrasing

and accurate rhythm.
3. Ask students where they think they should breathe in their voice
part: Review and begin to mark breaths even while speaking.
4. Sopranos and tenors speak their parts together on text in rhythm:
Point out imitation between lines.
5. Add alto and then bass, still speaking on text in rhythm: Listen for
the rise and fall of the line as voice parts enter.
6. All parts speak their own part on text in rhythm. Listen for good
phrasing, breath, and accurate rhythm on longer notes.
B. Sing an ascending and descending a minor scale (harmonic), first in
unison and then in a four-part canon two beats apart.
C. Try to sight-sing (slightly under tempo) m. 1–14, SATB on text with
piano doubling or reinforcing arrival points.
D. Isolate certain voice combinations to help learn parts in m. 1–14.
1. Soprano and tenor sing alone to highlight points of imitation and
shape of line.
2. Soprano, tenor, then add alto and listen for suspensions and note
where the voices cross. Have parts sing alone as needed to correct.
3. SAT, then add in basses for harmonic foundation: Make sure all
parts are keeping the beat and showing good vocal energy on their
long held notes.
4. Are they singing with the same expressive shape they had when speaking?
Are the held notes moving toward or away from points of arrival?
E. To finish, sing through m. 1-14 on text as expressively as possible.
VI. Listening and discussion (twelve minutes)
A. Watch a video performance of John Dowland’s “Flow My Tears,” perhaps
his most famous lute song. (A number of wonderful performances by
notable singers and lutenists can be found on YouTube.)
1. Before starting the video, ask the choir to listen for similarities
between this piece and the two “Weep” pieces they just rehearsed.
2. Discuss together:
a. Minor key
b. Longing and pain in text and mood
c. Rhythmic similarities
d. Melodic similarities
e. Other
B. Briefly discuss sixteenth-century secular music (madrigals and
chansons in particular) and relate the discussion to the music currently
in rehearsal (ten minutes). Characteristics include:
1. Text painting.
2. Predominantly homophonic with some polyphony.
3. Often had “fa-la-la” refrains.
4. Intended for small group performances, sometimes for after-dinner
entertainment.
5. Texts often dealt with pastoral settings, nymphs, fairies, shepherds,
unrequited love.
6. Sung in vernacular.
7. Often used lively, spirited rhythms that would have been out of place
in the church services of the day.
8. Performed without accompaniment or with instruments doubling or
substituting for voices.
C. Name several important English, French, and Italian composers of
secular choral music.
D. Mention a website where paintings from the sixteenth century can be
seen. Ask students to bring a list of similarities they see between the
artwork and the music currently in rehearsal (homework).
VII. “Sing We and Chant It” by Thomas Morley (ten minutes; full score available
online)
A. Have them sing entire piece on text, swaying to feel stress on beat 1 of
each measure. Listen for strong rhythmic ensemble and light articulation.
B. If they are unsuccessful with A above, ask them, as they sing, to hit an
imaginary beach ball lightly into the air on beat 1 of every measure to
achieve the same effect.
C. Divide choir into two equal groups. Have each group sing the piece for
the other and have the listeners evaluate whether the performers have
achieved the feeling of one pulse per measure.

Explanation of Rehearsal Plan
WARM-UPS. Physical preparation will be achieved by massages and stretches.
The breath exercise helps introduce the rhythm pattern of the refrain in the
first piece. The students need to perform accurately as well as musically even
while pulsing on “ss.” The next exercise reinforces resonance by using the
sound of the French nasal vowels to place the voice in the mask and moving
between nasal and pure vowels. Asking singers to show some teeth on the
nasal vowel can help place the voice correctly. The range and flexibility exercise
features both steps and skips in a detached articulation with lots of abdominal
bounce. Be sure singers are maintaining uniform vowels as the range ascends.
If the pitches become unfocused, move to an “oh” or “ee” briefly. If the run is
indistinct, the teacher can insert a consonant like “d” to clarify the notes of
the scale.
The final chord exercise introduces the voicing of “Revecy” and allows the sing-
ers to practice tuning with a detached articulation. The exercise could start on a
C chord and move up, if desired. Bringing back the rhythm of the breath exercise
with the chord prepares the singers for combining clear intonation with a detached
rhythmic feel.
SIGHT-SINGING EXERCISE. Devoting at least ten minutes during each

rehearsal to strengthen sight-singing skills will result in choir members who
not only sing well but are also learning to be knowledgeable musicians. The
sight-singing portion can be moved to other positions in the rehearsal to pro-
vide variety. Use portions of new music, an exercise on the board, or a sight-
singing workbook for helping your students learn to read music. The exercise
presented in the sample rehearsal plan illustrates how material from the litera-
ture can be extracted for a sight-singing lesson that leads directly into rehearsal.
Note that the complexity of the tenor part has been removed to focus on har-
mony, so time must be taken during rehearsal to introduce that part back into
the texture.
PIECE NO. 1: “REVECY VENIR DU PRINTANS.” The first piece was chosen
because of its moderately fast tempo and lighter vocal quality. While any piece
can be used to begin rehearsal, try to avoid beginning in sections of the piece that
feature extreme ranges and dynamics, as the singers are still warming up. Prior
to this rehearsal, the choir has listened to a performance of the piece and briefly
read through the first section on rhythm. Speaking the rhythm first in rehearsal
will serve as a review and enhance the choir’s later success with pitches as well.
After sight-singing on solfège to connect to the sight-singing exercise, the
syllable “doo” was chosen because of its percussive “d” for clarity in rhythm and
“oo” vowel to help with tuning (sopranos can open to “oh” in their upper regis-
ter). Note that the parameters of this rehearsal are limited to the refrain only,
which repeats throughout. On another day, when this piece is placed later in the
rehearsal, a longer time will be spent, using much larger parameters and perhaps
incorporating more work on details. Today, the goal was a short introduction
(only ten minutes) to a portion of the piece, in addition to continuing the vocal
and mental warm-up. By adding the French text for the refrain, the singers can
begin to sense how the finished product will sound.
PIECE NO. 2: “WEEP NO MORE.” As you can see from the way rehearsal
starts, this piece is much further along. The goal of today’s rehearsal is to solidify
the sections introduced earlier and set the bar a little higher in terms of singing
accurately and musically. By working backwards from the refrain, the choir is con-
stantly singing through transitions and stitching the section together musically. In
addition to the technical demands, the director should be discussing the poetry
with the choir (for example, how the composer has set certain words like “tears”).
PIECE NO. 3: “W eep , O M ine E yes .” Today is the first time the choir has seen
this piece. It is predominantly polyphonic, so helping the singers establish inde-
pendence in their part is key; a good place to start is with the rhythmic element.
Although the piece is not rhythmic in the same way as “Revecy,” the choir’s ability
to maintain an inner pulse through the held notes and shape them will be vital to
their success. Giving students a chance to sight-sing the pitches after working out
the rhythm will be a challenge helped not only by their rhythmic work but also
by singing the a minor scale (harmonic) in unison and in canon. In a less musically
skilled choir, the teacher may choose simply to double the parts on piano while
the choir reads through on a neutral syllable or text rather than solfège. Although
that does not present the same reading challenge, the rhythmic work and the har-
monic minor scale exercise still help develop the singer’s musicianship.
After the somewhat challenging work on this new selection, the choir will enjoy
hearing John Dowland’s “Flow My Tears.” Sources suggest that Bennet’s “Weep,
O Mine Eyes” was both based on this piece by Dowland and written in homage
to him. The choir will have a chance to see and hear a lute and get a “feel” for the
Renaissance period. This will lead nicely into the next portion of the rehearsal.
BRIEF DISCUSSION OF MADRIGALS. The majority of music being

rehearsed by this choir for the upcoming concert is based in the musical features
of a sixteenth-century chanson or madrigal. Therefore, the director will spend a
short time (ten minutes) during today’s rehearsal to highlight the characteristics
of this musical form and guide the students in finding these features in their
music. Several composers will be named, and the singers will be directed to a
website of sixteenth-century artwork. Encourage students to make comparisons
between the twentieth-century setting of “Weep No More” and the sixteenth-
century “Weep, O Mine Eyes.”
When a school is on block scheduling, the classes are often as long as an hour
and a half, which can present a problem for teachers: How do you plan activities
to encourage students’ focused attention throughout the class period? This brief
discussion on madrigals comes at a time when the singers will need a vocal break
and a change of pace, and they are likely to listen more carefully.
PIECE NO. 4: “S ing W e and C hant I t .” Because the notes and rhythms
of this selection are secure, the director is attempting to put some finishing
touches on musical interpretation. Working on the bigger picture at this point
in a rehearsal is always wise because voices are getting tired and attentions spans
are getting shorter. The amount of time planned for this portion of the rehearsal
is only eight minutes.
The swaying activity will help energize a choir that is just about to finish
rehearsal and is also designed to help the singers with this piece. Notice that an
alternative is planned in case the choir has difficulty achieving the feeling of one
strong beat per measure. The choir is then divided in half, and each group sings
for the other. Small-group singing is a great way to build musicianship. The lis-
teners are asked to evaluate the performers on whether they succeeded in feeling
one beat per measure. This activity will encourage careful performing and listen-
ing as well as develop the skill of critical evaluation. If things go as planned, this
segment will conclude the rehearsal in a positive way, and the choir will likely
look forward to the next rehearsal.
Alternative Planning Formats

Other formats can be used for planning rehearsals that you may find more
effective than the outline format shown here. Some districts specify the format
for planning lessons, at least for the purpose of sharing them with your super-
visors. Figure 11.2 shows the rehearsal plan for “Revecy venir du Printans”
outlined in a different format. In this format, the center column is the main
rehearsal sequence planned by the teacher. The left-hand side shows additional
corrective activities and the right-hand side shows how you can move more
quickly through the rehearsal. You may need to stay on one path or another,
or perhaps you will need to mix corrective and extension activities during
rehearsal, depending on the difficulties and successes of the choir. Remember, a
plan is “just a plan,” and needs to remain flexible. In this alternative format, you
have considered ahead of time how to remediate or to accelerate as needed.
“Revecy venir du Printans”

Rehearsal Block: Measure 1-2
Objectives: (the students will be able to…)
1. Students will be able to sight-sing the rhythm and pitch of m. 1-2 on solfège.
2. Students will be able to sing the irregular rhythm with accurate accents and light
articulation.
3. Students will be able to sing m. 1-2 on the French text with good nasal vowels.
Corrective Main Sequence Extensive

– Isolate tenor slowly on A. Speak the rhythm of – Focus on articulation of
eighth notes—have other m. 1-2 slowly on “doot” the held notes
parts help as needed while tapping quarter – Increase the tempo
– Have them count the notes.
subdivisions 12–123– Listen for:
123–12–12 while – proper accent stress and
tapping accents detached articulation
– Half count—half on doot – tenor part rhythm on
eighths
– Isolate tenor on solfège— B. Review pitches compared – Challenge them

double on piano as to sight-singing exercise to maintain light
needed—then add bass (same/different) then articulation while singing
then alto, etc. sing m. 1-2 slowly on at slower tempo. Increase
– Sing all parts on solfège solfège while tapping tempo.
out of rhythm – check quarter notes. – Have them step with the
with piano Listen for: two and three groupings
– Sing with only soprano – eighth notes in tenor and to get the lilt of the line
1 and bass for outside alto
tuning—add S2, alto, – bass leaps
tenor – tuning of chords, especially
those involving leaps
– stop on chords for tuning
Figure 11.2 Alternative planning format for “Revecy venir du Printans.” © Cengage
Learning 2014. (continued)
Corrective Main Sequence Extensive

– Pair certain voices to C. Move to “doo.” Skip this step and go
improve clarity of parts Listen for: directly to D.
– Have one section model – good focused tone
the tone and articulation throughout the range
while others imitate – light articulation but not
– Lightly tap palms in too detached
time with the rhythmic
groupings to maintain
lightness
– Recall nasal warm-up D. Speak text in French – Do call and response in

– Have them hold nose to call/response, then in rhythm
get nasal and put an “ee” rhythm. – Focus on vowels but also
vowel in their “et” and Listen for: word stress (e.g., prin-tans)
“du” to get the forward – nasal vowels
focus – placement of “du” and
“et” vowels
– maintain articulation
– Speak slowly in rhythm E. Speak then sing on – Sing in rhythm—

and isolate problem French in rhythm. increase to performance
vowels Listen for: tempo
– Sing in rhythm under – nasal vowels – Maintain tone even in
tempo have a drumstick – placement of “du” and “et” extreme registers
play the subdivision to vowels – Sing through to second
maintain pulse – maintaining articulation refrain, singing verse
on “doot” with piano
doubling

Summary
Good rehearsals have a certain shape and pace that take into account the sing-
ers’ need to prepare not only vocally, but also physically and mentally, and the
competent director monitors attention spans and fatigue levels. Planning every
rehearsal is as important as studying the music to be rehearsed or creating a
concert program. You will find that such planning becomes much easier over
time and the results will far outweigh the efforts required.
Although each rehearsal plan will be shaped by the structure and needs of
the music, several general principles can guide the teacher in this task. The
first principle is that of choral musicianship, the idea that your singers will leave
every rehearsal better musicians than they were at the beginning. Ask yourself
how you will challenge students’ musicianship and growth.
A second principle is that of a positive musical experience. Even though some
rehearsals are more difficult or more tedious than others, every rehearsal should
feature opportunities to enjoy the beauty of music. Teachers spend a much greater
proportion of time with students in rehearsal than in performance, so they cannot
afford to wait until students are in concert for them to experience the beauty of the
music. To provide positive musical experiences prior to the concert, include musi-
cal goals as part of every rehearsal. Rather than just drilling pitches and rhythms,
call the singers’ attention to tone, intonation, articulation, and phrasing. A reward-
ing musical experience can be as basic as singing a phrase in unison with good tone
and articulation or holding a particularly well-tuned chord a little longer.
A third principle is that of engagement, keeping all the singers involved
throughout rehearsal. Although it is sometimes necessary and desirable to iso-
late an individual part, teachers must always be conscious of how long students
are sitting without singing. Because choirs have access to the full score, strategies
such as having all the students sing on a single part can keep everyone engaged
and help transfer musical ideas from one part to another. Engagement is more
than just the physical act of singing; it can also involve mental activity through
the use of questions or critical listening during rehearsal.
Finally, teachers should always be conscious of respecting students’ time.
Rehearsal time should be used efficiently and effectively, which means that the
teacher must plan time carefully. If you expect students to be in class on time, you
should make sure that you finish on time. With careful planning, you can usually
end rehearsals on a positive note, but by ending on time you send a message that
their commitment to choir is respected and that you are committed to them as
well. Most time with your choir is spent in rehearsal, so it is important to use
the time well and offer many opportunities for musical enjoyment and personal
engagement. Taking this approach to planning rehearsals will yield benefits far
beyond an individual performance and will draw students to your program over
time because the power of music is your best recruiting tool.
Mini-Projects
1. Choose and study three pieces for a middle school or high school choir,
and plan three consecutive fifty-minute rehearsals on your selections. Decide on
a fictitious “status” of each piece (brand new, adding the language, working on the
finishing touches, etc.) and plan your rehearsals accordingly. Use the rehearsal plans
in this chapter as guides. Include warm-ups for each rehearsal. At least one warm-
up for each rehearsal should relate to the repertoire you will rehearse that day.
Write your plans in outline form. Give enough information so that you
know what to do but don’t crowd in so much detail that you are unable to
understand the rehearsal plan at a quick glance. Indicate the amount of time
you intend to spend on each piece or activity. Be as creative as possible.
2. Observe at least two choir rehearsals in local schools. Pay close
attention to the connection between the order of pieces rehearsed and the
students’ behavior and level of engagement.
3. Using the same three pieces you selected for Mini-Project 1, identify at
least three potential problems in each piece and suggest three techniques (e.g.,
chanting or counting rhythm, solfège, isolating parts) you might use to solve
those problems.
References
Cox, James. 1989. Organizational structures used by successful high
school choral directors. Journal of Research in Music Education 37: 201–18.
Demorest, Steven M. 1996. Structuring a musical choral rehearsal.
Additional Reading
Barrow, Lee G. 1994. Programming rehearsals for student success. Music
Brunner, David L. 1996. Carefully crafting the choral rehearsal. Music
Teaching choral music: A course of study. 1991. Reston, VA: Music
Educators National Conference.
Ulrich, Jerry. 1993. Conductor’s guide to successful rehearsals. Music
Educators Journal 79 (7): 34–35, 68.
———. 2009. Preparing the conductor as teacher. Music Educators Journal
95 (3): 48–52.
CHAPTER 12
Rehearsing the Choir
Claire, a junior music education major in her second semester of conducting, is about to re-
hearse a group of singers for the first time. As she looks out at the sea of faces in front of her,
many questions are racing through her mind: Will I hear the mistakes? Have I studied the
music thoroughly enough? What if I forget my beat pattern? What do I do if the basses aren’t
paying attention? How do I get them started?
Making the transition from conducting the music to rehearsing the music can
be difficult—even overwhelming at times. Prior to rehearsal, the music is stud-
ied carefully, appropriate conducting gestures are practiced, and a rehearsal plan
is prepared. Then, for the first time, you find yourself in front of a group of
singers with whom you must rehearse the music! Things are complicated further
as soon as the choir begins to sing, because you must determine quickly what
in the music may need correction or attention. Trying to comprehend so much
information at once can prove frustrating, and may cause the novice choral
director to be unsure of which direction to take.
A Rehearsal, Step by Step

To help alleviate this frustration, the flowchart shown in Figure 12.1 and the
accompanying comments offer a guide to developing rehearsal techniques and
acquiring listening skills. By providing a visual image of what transpires within a
choral rehearsal, this step-by-step plan may prove helpful in organizing rehearsal
time as well as sorting out the wealth of musical information a conductor must
perceive when directing choirs.
Step 1: Study the Score. As discussed in Chapter 10, thorough study of
the music creates a firm foundation upon which all else is built—from the first
275
276 REHEARSING THE CHOIR
Is
Place problem back FEEDBACK
problem
into CONTEXT and YES to singers
SOLVED?
listen. 12 14
13
YES
NO
Is
problem
NO FEEDBACK to singers
SOLVED?
REHEARSAL 11
FRAME
SOLVE the problem.

10
DIAGNOSE cause of
problem.
109
OR
IDENTIFY specific
problem.
8
ISOLATE the problem

area.
7
YES
Is
there
LISTEN as a FEEDBACK
NO
choir sings. 5 problem? to singers
6
COMMUNICATE
to choir and
accompanist. 4
CHOOSE a
section of music
to rehearse. 3
PLAN the rehearsal. 2
STUDY the score. 1
Figure 12.1 Rehearsal flowchart. © Cengage Learning 2014.

REHEARSING THE CHOIR 277
rehearsal to the performance. Potential problem spots should be noted and pos-
sible solutions planned before the first rehearsal. Nothing can substitute for care-
ful preparation.
Step 2: Plan the Rehearsal. As discussed in detail in Chapter 11, a plan
can provide a musical focus and have a positive impact on every aspect of the
rehearsal. Of course, each rehearsal plan should be based on a careful study of
the music.
Step 3: Choose a Section of Music to Rehearse. The third step in the
sequence is the first one that moves above the dotted line in the flowchart. What-
ever is below the dotted line should have been accomplished prior to rehearsal.
Step 3 straddles the line because in your rehearsal planning before rehearsal you
established parameters, or boundaries, within which the music will be rehearsed.
The decision required in Step 3 may also need to be made during rehearsal as
well. The size of your parameters will vary according to what you are working on
and how close you are to the performance. Within the parameters you choose,
however, you must always have something specific in mind to rehearse. Estab-
lishing parameters with a specific goal in mind will eliminate the tendency of
novice conductors to sing through the piece at each rehearsal and correct what-
ever goes awry. This “hit-or-miss” approach is haphazard and inefficient at best,
and often results in over-rehearsing the beginning of the music and neglecting
the remainder.
Using wider boundaries for the choir’s initial contact with the piece will
give the singers an overview of the composition. Sight-singing the entire work
or a portion of it (as discussed in Chapter 9) may provide a good introduction
if the choir’s sight-singing skills are up to the task. Other ways to introduce
a new composition include playing a recording, singing through with piano
doubling, or even following along in the score while the accompanist plays
through it. The initial contact need not be with the entire piece, but should
include a large enough (and structurally important enough) section to give the
choir a sense of the piece’s character. These experiences, using wider bounda-
ries, will provide an initial impression and a holistic view for the singers. Sub-
sequent rehearsals should still begin with larger sections of the piece, but in
the form of reviewing what was learned previously, to get the piece back “in
their ears.”
As you continue work on the piece, you will want to establish more lim-
ited parameters and focus on a specific aspect of the composition. For example,
attention can be directed to learning Section A only or on rehearsing several
smaller sections in the piece that feature a similar musical problem. At this point,
Step 3 has moved above the dotted line as you respond to the singers’ perfor-
mance of your planned starting point. Perhaps you will decide to work on the
articulation changes occurring across six measures on page 4, or help the choir
make a smooth transition from duple to triple meter in the B section. Whatever
section you select, keep it small enough that you can go beyond just correcting
pitches and rhythms and work on more advanced technical and expressive con-
cerns, such as phrasing, articulation, tone, and so on.
As various sections of the composition are learned and polished, your
rehearsal parameters will begin to broaden somewhat to include the linking
together of various sections until the piece is complete. Wider boundaries are
necessary to rehearse such aspects as style, memorization, and endurance.
Step 4: Communicate to the Choir and to the Accompanist. Commu-
nication, either verbal or non-verbal, is one of the most important aspects of a
rehearsal. The most obvious form of nonverbal communication is the conducting
gesture, but more subtle nonverbal signals can also communicate messages to the
choir. For instance, facial expressions can indicate the mood of the piece in addition
to revealing how you feel about the music, the singers, and their efforts in rehearsal.
Body language can suggest tension, fatigue, or excitement about the music. These
messages are communicated to the choir, whether or not you want them to be;
wise conductors pay attention to nonverbal aspects of their rehearsal demeanor.
Verbal communication indicates any information, instructions, or corrections the
conductor may give to the choir and accompanist. You may know precisely what
you want to do and where you want to do it, but if you cannot communicate this
information clearly to the choir and accompanist, very little will be accomplished.
To communicate instructions for where you want to begin, use the follow-
ing order: page, score (system), measure, beat. Another technique that facili-
tates communication between director, choir, and accompanist is for everyone
to number the measures of the composition so that this is the only information
required, other than on which beat within the measure you will begin. Rarely do
you need to waste time telling the choir where you will stop, because you will stop
them yourself when you get there. In addition, you must indicate which section
or sections of the choir will be singing, as well as what aspect of the music they
will be rehearsing (for example, pitches in measure 4, intonation, crisp rhythm,
or clear diction). And don’t forget the accompanist. He or she plays a vital role
in the music-making and can often make or break the success of a rehearsal. The
accompanist needs to know “where, what, and who,” as well as whether to play
parts, play the accompaniment, or simply give initial pitches.
Speak these directions clearly, efficiently, and in a voice that can be heard
by the group. Allow a reasonable time for the choir and accompanist to find the
place in question, and when their eyes are up (signifying they are ready), begin.
Step 5: Listen as the Choir Sings. Listening accurately is probably a con-
ductor’s most important task and is a skill that improves with experience. In
addition, good listening requires careful aural and visual study of the music
before rehearsal. If you don’t know how the piece should sound, how can you
determine whether the choir is singing it correctly?
As novice directors develop error-detection skills by working with choirs,
they may be overwhelmed by the amount of musical information that must be
heard and acted upon—right on the spot. Rather than “listening in general,” try
focusing attention on the specific aspect being rehearsed at the moment (alto
part, relaxed tone, rhythmic accuracy in measure 34, or intonation, for instance).
Listening in this way, and relegating other information to the background, can
alleviate frustration caused by “information overload.” As skills in error detection
improve, you will find that you are able to hear a greater number of things at one
time. Be patient as this skill develops and improves over time.
Step 6: Is There a Problem? As the choir sings the selected portion of
the music, determine whether a problem exists. If there is no problem (or the
problem is to be corrected at a later date), give the singers specific feedback on
their progress, go back to Step 3 on the flowchart, and begin the same sequence
again, using a different section of music. If a problem exists, proceed to Step
7. A key to success in this portion of rehearsal is to plan carefully so that you
are listening for something specific, such as the articulation in m. 13–25 or
the soprano/bass balance in m. 42–50. You may hear something different from
what you expected or planned for, but focused listening is always a productive
starting point.
Step 7: Isolate the Problem Area. If a problem is discovered, isolate the

area in which it was heard while working toward identification of the specific
problem (Step 8), diagnosis of the cause of the problem (Step 9), and its solution
(Step 10). This isolation will be easier if you have planned ahead for potential
problems you may encounter.
Isolation can mean many things. In general, it refers to working with less
than the whole. For example, if the entire choir is having difficulty with notes,
rather than continuing to sing the section with all voices, work quickly with one
voice part at a time to discover which section is having difficulty. Or, isolate the
notes and rhythm by taking away the text and have the choir sing on a neutral
syllable. Asking the choir to speak the text in rhythm isolates the rhythmic
aspect of the music as well as provides opportunity to focus on diction and even
phrasing.
Isolating will help both the director and the choir, especially if the director
is inexperienced. Attention can be focused on one or two aspects at a time by
breaking down various components of the composition, and more careful listening
can occur. In addition, this approach broadens the choir’s awareness of the music,
because the singers become familiar not only with their own part but also with
all components of the composition. As directors become more experienced and
error-detection skills improve, they will be able to isolate problems much more
rapidly. The technique of isolation is central to effective rehearsals.
The Rehearsal Frame

Robert Duke (1994) developed the concept of “the rehearsal frame” as a result
of many observations involving expert music teachers in both group and indi-
vidual sessions. Centering on what Duke calls the “middle ground” of teaching,
this is the portion of a rehearsal during which musical goals are addressed and
either accomplished or not. The rehearsal frame is found in Steps 8–12 of Fig-
ure 12.1. This portion will likely be repeated many times over in the course of a
single rehearsal or even a single piece. Duke argues that by focusing your teach-
ing on successful rehearsal frames, you can evaluate the effectiveness of your
rehearsals as a function of making positive change in the group’s performance.
Without such changes, the other aspects of rehearsing, such as clear conducting,
pacing, energy, and specific feedback, don’t really matter.

The rehearsal frame focuses on the process from that point when a problem is
identified until that same problem is either solved or abandoned. If the problem
is solved—meaning that after being identified, diagnosed, remediated, and put
back into a larger context, it no longer exists—then the rehearsal frame is said to
be “closed.” If the problem is not solved when put back into context, or is never
put back into context before moving on, or is identified but never rehearsed,
then the rehearsal frame is “open,” meaning that you cannot know if the problem
has been resolved. A rehearsal with too many open frames is less likely to be
effective in making positive changes in a group’s performance, even though many
ideas may have been mentioned and a lot of time may have been spent. A single
rehearsal frame may take from ten seconds to ten minutes, depending on the size
and nature of the problem identified, so the many steps outlined here can hap-
pen very quickly, especially if the director can move from identification directly
to remediation.
Step 8: Identify the Problem. Often, problem identification is a trouble-
some skill for novice conductors. This may be due in part to a lack of anticipation
regarding problem areas, but can also result from multiple problems occurring at
once. In such instances, a problem will be heard—that is, you know that some-
thing is not right—but you cannot yet state specifically what is wrong. For exam-
ple, the choir has just sung m. 3–10 and the harmonic sequence didn’t sound
correct. At this point, however, you are not aware of the specific problem. To
facilitate identification of the problem, you might isolate sections of the choir,
asking each to sing their part alone. If no problems exist at this point, begin to
combine the sections. Perhaps you will discover that the dissonance between the
soprano and tenor parts is causing difficulty, or the problem is occurring when
the alto and soprano parts cross.
Another issue in problem identification is problem hierarchy. Novice teach-
ers will often solve problems at the surface level of the music because those are
the problems they can readily hear. For example, they will focus on dynamics or
diction while the singers are still singing wrong notes or singing with poor tone
or intonation. Being able to hear more fundamental problems in the moment is a
skill that develops with time. Careful planning can help you succeed, but another
powerful tool is to record your rehearsals so that later you can listen to the choir
in an objective way without the pressure of leading the rehearsal. Hearing what
you may have missed will help you better prepare for your next rehearsal. Once
you have identified the specific problem, proceed to Step 9.
Step 9: Diagnose the Cause of the Problem. Through careful study of the
music prior to rehearsal (Step 1), directors will have located potential problems
in the score. Possible causes of, and several remedies for these potential trouble
spots will have been considered as well. As a result, valuable rehearsal time will
be saved and frustration averted.
The cause of a problem will often suggest the remedy. For example, you have
heard the sopranos continue to sing a particular group of very high notes below
pitch (the problem). The cause of this problem may be: (1) a closed vowel (rem-
edy: vowel modification); (2) poor breath support (remedy: work on breathing);
(3) a very long line for the sopranos (remedy: have them stagger their breathing); or,
(4) poor vocal production (remedy: stop and work on whatever aspect you deter-
mine is causing the trouble). You can see the potential for frustration—and resulting
discipline problems—if you focus exclusively on one cause to the exclusion of other
possibilities. Several remedies may be necessary before the problem is corrected.
Step 10: Solve the Problem. You have heard a problem, isolated the area,
identified the specific problem, and determined its cause. Now the problem must
be corrected. This process includes both informing the choir about the problem
and having them work on the solution. As obvious as this sounds, many novice
conductors will hear a problem and simply tell the altos to “sing in a more legato
style in m. 5–6” or tell the tenors and basses to “sing an F natural instead of an F
sharp in m. 18.” Simply telling the choir what the problem is does not necessar-
ily ensure that it will be corrected, especially with younger singers. After stating
the problem, the director must have the singers actually work (sing) toward the
solution. This is when teaching begins in earnest.
To fix the problem, the director must first decide who will sing. Obviously,
the part of the choir that has the problem will sing, but will the section sing alone
or with other sections? The correction process may require singing by only one
section of the choir to correct notes; two sections that have harmonies that clash
or rhythms contrary to one another; or simply the front row of singers who aren’t
blending well. Whoever is selected should be that combination of singers who
will most efficiently yield the solution to the problem.
Next, the director needs to decide what/where students will sing. Choosing
to sing the entire A section again would be counterproductive and inefficient if
the problem is only in m. 14–18. Having to make a conscious decision about
what/where the choir needs to sing will hopefully eliminate endless repetitions
of large sections in which nothing ever gets fixed.
How the choir will sing to remediate the problem is the director’s next
decision. Examples include having the entire choir sing but at a slower tempo
to resolve harmonic difficulties, or having the entire choir speak the foreign
language in the A section to accentuate the consonants. Other options might
include rehearsing on a neutral syllable, rehearsing with a different articulation
than written, using movement to achieve a nicer phrase shape, singing at a louder
or softer dynamic level, or singing chord by chord to hear close harmonies.
If the problem is still not fixed at this point, breaking things down further
may be required. Examples include having the entire choir sing with the section
experiencing difficulty, and then letting the one section sing alone correctly before
gradually adding each of the other sections back in, one at a time, or having two
sections with crossing parts sing separately to gain individual security and then
adding the other part, singing slowly and then resuming the faster tempo required.
This is working further out of context but may be necessary to resolve the problem.
Step 11: Is the Problem Solved? The singers will provide tangible evidence
for whether the problem has actually been corrected. As they sing the section
that was remediated, make certain that the choir is secure with the solution
before placing it back into full context. Remember that several remedies may be
necessary before a problem is solved (shown in Figure 12.1 with the loop back to
Step 8 or Step 9 from Step 11 if necessary).
Step 12: Place the Problem Area Back Into Context and Listen. After iso-
lating a problem to identify it, diagnose it, and solve it, you must determine if the
problem has been solved (Step 11). If the answer is yes, your work is not yet done.
The problem must be placed back into context before continuing the sequence.
Placing the problem area back into context is similar to an organ transplant.
During the operation, doctors remove the poorly functioning organ and replace
it with a new one. The job is not complete, however, until the doctors reattach
the vital connections of the body to the transplanted organ. Choral directors must
do the same thing in the music. The musical problem is not completely solved
until all the connections that were severed in order to solve the problem have
been reconnected. In addition, placing the problem area back into context will
give a sense of closure for both the choir and director. This step serves as a sort
of “posttest” for you and the singers.
Step 13: Is the Problem Solved? If the problem is corrected, give evaluative
feedback, move back to Step 3, and begin the sequence again with another sec-
tion of music. If the problem is not solved, give evaluative feedback, return in the
sequence to Step 7 or Step 8, and move through the sequence again. Perhaps after
isolating the problem area several times and/or reevaluating the cause of the prob-
lem, no clear solution may be found. At this point in the rehearsal, choir members
may be frustrated by lack of success, and it may be wise to move on. Certainly, times
will arise when leaving a problem unresolved will be better in the long run, rather
than wasting rehearsal time “beating a dead horse.” When such moments occur,
the best approach is to study the problem spot outside of rehearsal and identify
other possible solutions. Then you can approach the problem from a different
angle at the next rehearsal when both you and the singers are fresh.
Step 14: Provide Feedback to the Singers. After working through

Steps 3–13, the director should provide some form of feedback to the choir
regarding their progress. Feedback, of course, has been offered along the way, but
some sort of summative statement is needed at this point. Often, when success
has been achieved on a clearly identified problem, all the director has to say is
an enthusiastic “That’s right!” or “That’s what we want!” Sadly, sometimes not
having to sing the problem area again is all the positive reinforcement given to a
group that has been working very hard. Singers need to hear positive comments
that refer specifically to what they have done well. They will often be willing
to work harder if they know their efforts are appreciated. Also, you shouldn’t
assume that singers will always hear clearly when a problem is fixed. By provid-
ing specific positive feedback regarding their performance, you are also reinforc-
ing the kind of singing you want to hear. Reinforcement is a step sometimes
neglected by directors, but one critical to establishing a healthy rapport and a
positive atmosphere in which to work.
If the choir has been less than successful, they also need to be told. Often
they will know, but an informative evaluation from the director will help explain
why they were unsuccessful as well as suggest what needs to be done next to cor-
rect the problem. Corrective feedback can be couched in a positive manner with
comments such as: “Your tone quality was much better in this section that time,
but we still need to work on the diction in measure 6. We need even taller vowels
there.” Statements such as this will not defeat a choir that has been working hard
to correct a problem, but will still inform them that more work is necessary.
(Note: As mentioned before, the sequence in Figure 12.1 takes much more
time to read and discuss than to actually implement during rehearsal. Working
through Steps 3–14 may require less than a minute, although more complex
problems can take much longer.)
Effective Rehearsal Techniques

The flowchart and comments above deal with steps you may take regarding the
musical aspects of a rehearsal, but behavioral issues can also hinder rehearsal
effectiveness and musical progress. What follows are some useful techniques
that can help prevent or address disruptive behaviors so that you can keep the
focus on making music.
Start on Time, End on Time

Always begin rehearsal on time, even if all singers are not present or ready to
begin. Middle and high school students like to socialize and will bring their
conversations into the classroom or start new ones once inside. When the bell
rings, begin rehearsal and do something that will focus students’ attention right
away (see “Transistions” below). To train choir members to arrive on time, have
a system in place for students who are tardy, let students know what points or
privileges they may lose if they are late too many times, and enforce this system
consistently. At the same time, you must discipline yourself to end class on time.
If you insist on a timely start, but then run five minutes over every day, it creates
a double standard that your students will not appreciate, and fellow teachers
will not be happy when your students arrive late to their classes.
Transitions
Planning purposeful transitions will help preserve precious rehearsal time by pre-
venting behavioral problems. Those transitions will get you every time! As Thomas
Jefferson said, “It is wonderful how much may be done if we are always doing.”
Sharing the order of rehearsal with your singers by posting it on the board
can help them make the transition between selections more quickly. The result-
ing faster rehearsal pace eliminates idle time and unwanted behaviors among
the singers. Another idea is to play a recording of music to be rehearsed that
day as the students come in. You may even want to have “DO THIS NOW” on
the board below which you also write: “Give the measure numbers of where the
loudest and softest points in this piece are located.” (Nicolucci 2010, 39). Begin-
ning rehearsal in this manner, you draw your students in immediately and the
transition is bridged between what came before choir and the rehearsal itself.
High Magnitude
Increasing students’ attentiveness and improving their attitude about rehearsal
will be affected not only by what you say to singers but by how you say it. Cornelia
Yarbrough found that high magnitude teachers had better student attitudes and
attentiveness during rehearsals. Although this concept is sometimes referred to as
a teacher’s energy or presence, specific behaviors associated with high magnitude
teaching can be practiced and learned. Figure 12.2 identifies the characteristics of
Teacher
Behavior High Magnitude Low Magnitude
Eye contact Maintains with group and/or Never looks at individuals or
individuals throughout rehearsal. group. Looks at music, ceiling, or
occasionally in direction of piano.
Closeness Frequently walks or leans toward Stands behind music stand at all
clorus or particular section. times. Music stand is always a
minimum of four feet from chorus.
Volume and Volume constantly varies. Wide Volume remains clearly audible but
modulation range of volume as well as speaking the same approximate volume and
of voice pitch. Voice reflects “enthusiasm pitch throughout rehearsal. Voice
and vitality.” reflects little “enthusiasm and vitality.”
Gestures Uses arms and hands to aid in Strict conducting pattern, never
musical phrasing. Great variety of varying. Uses arms and hands
movement. Varies size of conducting for attacks and releases. Exact
patterns to indicate phrases, movements.
dynamics, and the like.
Facial Face reflects sharp contrasts between Neutral mask. No frowns.

expressions approval/disapproval. Approval No smiles.
is expressed by grinning, laughing
aloud, raising eyebrows, widening
eyes. Disapproval is expressed by
frowning, knitting brow, pursing
lips, narrowing eyes.
Rehearsal pace “Rapid and exciting.” Quick “Slow and methodical.” Meticulous
instructions. Minimal talking. Less care and detail in instructions.
than one second between activity. Always stops group to give
Frequently gives instructions to instructions.
group while they are singing.
Figure 12.2 Characteristics of high and low magnitude teachers. From Yarbrough, C., 1975.
Effect of magnitude of conductor behavior on students in selected mixed choruses. Journal of
Research in Music Education 23: 134–46.
high versus low magnitude teachers (Yarbrough 1975, 138). Several of these char-
acteristics will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Flexible Planning
Having a good rehearsal plan is extremely important, but your carefully con-
structed plan must sometimes be modified as you navigate your way through
the rehearsal with your singers. Your overall vision for the piece will keep you
focused, but you must remain flexible and be willing to take varied (and some-
times unexpected) routes to your final destination.
Supportive Atmosphere
In the learning process, students should be allowed to make mistakes without
fear of ridicule or embarrassment, so work on creating a positive and support-
ive atmosphere in which it is safe to try and safe to make mistakes. After all,
it’s a rehearsal. Mistakes are not failures but rather necessary steps on the road
to learning. Positive feedback, giving a positive comment before giving con-
structive criticism, and praising genuine effort even if the outcome is less than
you want are all ways to create an environment where students feel secure and
appreciated.
When singers have been working on a particular problem and it is finally
corrected, react with genuine enthusiasm, not with comments such as, “Okay,
now let’s turn to page 7” (delivered without even looking up from the score).
Granted, the latter statement is not a negative comment, but honest, enthusiastic,
and positive reactions can be so much more effective. Along the same lines, we
statements are more productive than you statements: “We still need to improve
our vowel unification in measure 12,” rather than “You still aren’t singing unified
vowels in measure 12.”
When disciplining a student, make sure you disapprove of the action
rather than the student, and correct specific actions rather than making broad
statements. With a comment such as, “Class, you are being horrible today!” the
students don’t know what behaviors are inappropriate or what behaviors to
change. More specific comments such as, “You are talking too much between
pieces,” or “please remember to raise your hand to speak,” are much more helpful
because they tell the students what specific behavior you expect them to change.
Show singers that choir is a team effort—you, your students, and the
accompanist. Comments such as “That’s what we want!” rather than “That’s what
I want!” send an important message to students. Their actions, both musical
and social, will then be motivated by the desire to do well rather than to please
the director. The singers are not singing for you. They are involved in the act of
making music with each other under your direction, and, you hope, are doing so
for the sheer joy of singing. Demonstrate through your actions and your words
that it is a team effort.
Work With the Entire Choir as Much as Possible

If you need to work for an extended time with one or two sections of the choir,
consider holding a sectional rehearsal before or after school, or during lunch if
your schedule allows. If you have the facilities and personnel to do so, you may
want to use the choral rehearsal time as an opportunity for sectional rehearsals of
the entire choir. In this situation, assistant directors, student teachers, or the sec-
tion leaders can take one or more of the various sections to nearby rooms or areas
to work alone for a portion of the rehearsal. After a specified amount of time, the
sections will reconvene in the choir room for a rehearsal of the entire choir.
When the entire choir is present and you need to work with one section for a
brief period of time, make sure to engage the other singers in some way. The least
engaging approach would be to say, “Follow your own part while the altos sing.”
A more engaging technique might be to say, “Sing (or hum) your part softly while
the altos sing on the text,” or, if the ranges are moderate, to have the sopranos
sing with the altos as they learn their part. If you are working with the tenors and
basses, you might match registers by having the sopranos sing with the tenors
and the altos sing with the basses (in the appropriate octave). In addition to
promoting better rehearsal discipline, the singers’ overall knowledge of the music
increases because members of one section learn first-hand what is happening in
other sections’ parts. This can have a positive effect on performance due to an
increased level of musical involvement and understanding by the singers.
Eye Contact
You’ve heard the expression “It’s almost like Mrs. Harper has eyes in the
back of her head”? This means that Mrs. Harper has great withitness.
Withitness means that you are aware of what is happening in the rehearsal. By
consistently scanning the room and making eye contact with individual students
along the way, you are sending the message that you are paying attention and
know what is going on. This technique increases your overall magnitude and is
also useful in preventing minor disruptions due to off-task behavior. Looking at
your choir also suggests confidence, preparedness, sincerity, and an eagerness to
share ideas and information. Eye contact is equally beneficial from a conducting
standpoint. A special connection can be created between you and your singers,
which is particularly important during preparatory gestures when you invite
your choir to sing.
Teacher Talk
“Talk less, do more” is a good motto to remind you that students are there to
sing, not to listen to you talk. The greatest way to communicate in rehearsal is by
using clear and expressive conducting gestures. That way, talking may not even be
necessary. Perhaps say, “Watch me carefully and follow my gesture.” This not only
improves focus but also minimizes talking and idle time. It will also tell you (1)
whether the students are really watching, and (2) whether your gesture is clear.
Students who are singing are engaged actively in rehearsal and are likely to
remain on task longer than those who are listening to you talk. Obviously, some
verbal instruction is necessary during a rehearsal. The key to avoiding discipline
problems is simply to minimize the amount of talking you do. Charlene
Archibeque (1992) suggests using “the rule of seven,” which means telling the
choir what you want them to do in seven words or fewer (for example, “twice
the energy, half the volume,” or “this time, much more facial involvement”). Tom
Goolsby (1996) studied the rehearsals of sixty instrumental teachers classified
as experienced, novice, or student teachers. He found that student teachers
talked most and allowed students to play least, whereas experienced teachers
spent more than half the period on performance, used the most nonverbal
modeling, got the ensembles on-task the quickest, and talked the least during
rehearsals.
When you do talk, give your directions in statement rather than question
form, and be brief. Instead of “Would you please stand up now?” a simple “Please
stand” is so much more efficient and authoritative, and leaves little room for a
response other than to stand. In this case, just giving the signal to stand using
your hands would work well. Short, informative directions in the form of a
statement will help the rehearsal move quickly and smoothly.
Careful preparation will yield detailed information about the music, the
composer, and the historical period and culture within which the music was
composed. A good rule is to share only that which will enhance the choir’s
understanding and performance of the composition. This is not to diminish the
importance of such information, but rather to serve as a reminder that a choir
rehearsal is not a music history or theory class. Be selective about what you share.
For example, if the choir is performing a Bach chorale, the singers could learn
something about when and where Bach lived and composed, a brief background
on chorales and their function in the Lutheran church service, and Baroque
characteristics that are found in and pertinent to their particular piece, though
perhaps not all at once.
The most effective way to deliver such information is to spread it out over
the time the music is rehearsed. Some information will provide an overview of
the composition and should be given when the music is introduced. Additional
information to enhance understanding of a particular aspect of the music should
be shared when that aspect comes up during rehearsal. This approach will avoid
what might feel like a “lecture” in the choral rehearsal.
Nonmusical aspects of rehearsal require talking as well. For example,
announcements are a necessary part of running a choral program, but having
them at the beginning of rehearsal can lead to a lot of talking and a lack of
focus. Consider having announcements in the middle of rehearsal when the
students need a short break from singing. To avoid potential discipline problems,
announcements should be kept brief and to the point. Whenever possible,
find other methods to get the information out, such as writing on the board,
emailing, website updates, newsletters, or a classroom bulletin board reserved for
important information. For any of these ideas to be effective, you must train your
choir members to look for announcements regularly.
Questions for Learning

Asking questions as you rehearse can help involve singers in the learning pro-
cess. Examples of good questions include: (1) Was our beginning dynamic level
soft enough to build to a fortissimo by measure 16? (2) Why do you think the
composer suggested a faster tempo at this point? (3) Tenors, would it be better
to breathe after the last word in measure 3? This approach creates ownership,
and develops problem-solving skills, careful listening, and analytical thinking.
In this way, students will invest more, and will get more out of rehearsals. This
approach can also help keep them on task.
But remember: Good questions get good answers. Try to avoid open-ended
questions such as “What do you think?” if you are looking for a specific answer.
A better question would be “Was the tempo too fast or too slow?” Whenever
possible, give choices or guidance to students. When you ask a question and
you know that your students know the answer but can’t come up with it, you
have probably asked a question that is worded poorly. Rephrase it for better
results.
Specific Feedback
As mentioned before, use specific feedback after the singers have stopped sing-
ing. They need to know what they did well, or why they are stopping to work
on something. Comments such as, “Let’s do that again,” or “That was great!”
aren’t sufficiently clear to be educational and time efficient. Why are we doing it
again, or what was great? Let the students in on the learning process so that they
can participate and learn on a deeper level. In this way, learning is enhanced,
frustration levels remain lower, and praise statements don’t turn into “empty
comments” that eventually mean nothing to the students. Asking them to be
responsible for feedback from time to time is a great way to build their musical
skills and keep them engaged in rehearsal. When taking such an approach, you
may wish to focus their attention by asking a specific question about a particular
aspect of performance.
Using Movement
Using physical activities in rehearsal can extend students’ attention spans, wake
up a lethargic choir, deepen your singers’ level of involvement in the music, and
provide opportunities for pent-up energy to be spent in constructive rather
than destructive ways. In addition, using movement brings another dimension
to learning by making tangible that which the singers cannot see as they sing.

Through physical sensation, choir members may be able to understand musical
concepts that are confusing to them.
For example, if your choir is having difficulty mastering a legato line, ask
them to first stomp the beat as they walk in a circle while singing the piece.
This experience will illustrate physically what they are doing incorrectly vocally.
Then ask them to walk the beat while concentrating on the time and space
between beats as they sing the piece again. Their physical movement will pro-
duce musical results, and the singers will understand by feeling how to achieve
a legato line. So that they will ultimately produce the desired musical results
without movement, repeat this experience often until they can remember what
it feels and sounds like.
Additional ideas for using movement in rehearsal include the following:
1. If phrasing is a problem, ask the singers to move their arms in an arc to

demonstrate phrasing for their part. Another helpful activity for phrasing
intensity is to have them pull an imaginary rubber band or piece of taffy.
2. To deepen the choir’s involvement in and understanding of a selection, ask

them to move creatively as they sing the piece. You might focus their movement
on a single aspect like articulation or phrasing, or keep the focus more general.
Just the act of moving often improves energy and support.
3. To enhance your singers’ emotional portrayal of their music, divide the choir
into pairs and ask them, as they sing, to use facial expressions and arm gestures
to convey the mood of the piece. Insist that they look each other in the eye as
they sing.
Summary
During rehearsal, the choral director must manage a huge amount of
information—both musical and behavioral. Watching experienced teachers
rehearse a choir can seem almost magical, as they move from musical concerns,
to monitoring student behavior, and then on to administrative tasks. These
teachers know that all this information will be easier to manage if a “blue-
print” of steps for the rehearsal is already in place. Standing in front of a class
and conducting singers is not teaching. Only when teachers identify specific
problems, isolate and remediate them, and put them back into context can real
musical achievement take place. It is also one of the more frightening challenges
for young teachers; as soon as you raise a specific issue, you open up the pos-
sibility of running into something you can’t fix. The most important step for
inexperienced conductors is to rise to this challenge and “get your hands dirty,”
by tackling difficult musical problems. You will learn more through failure than
through avoidance and deferral—and it is only through such challenges that
you will teach students something new.
A thorough rehearsal plan can help guide your decisions in rehearsal, but
choral teaching can be learned only by doing. Seek out opportunities to run
warm-ups or sectionals for your college choirs or for an area middle school or
high school. These provide a “safe” context for you to practice your skills in a
real teaching and learning environment. Teachers are often grateful for the extra
help, and you can learn a lot by getting involved rather than simply observing. By
focusing on student engagement and problem solving, and on specific musical
goals, your rehearsals will gradually become more efficient and effective, and you
will develop the confidence necessary to lead a group of singers toward greater
musical learning.
Mini-Projects
1. Using the flowchart in this chapter and the observation form found
in Chapter 13 (Managing the Choral Classroom) as guides, observe a high
school or middle school rehearsal and make a list of all the different ways the
technique of isolation was used by the choral director.
2. Observe a middle school choir rehearsal, and take note of ways in
which the choral director has set up and maintains a supportive atmosphere for
the singers. Notice both verbal and non-verbal techniques.
3. Observe a collegiate and a secondary choral rehearsal and identify
the specific rehearsal techniques used to improve the choir's sound and focus.
What was the teacher's "magnitude," how many rehearsal frames did you detect,
were they all completed successfully? How did the teacher use gesture or
movement to solve some of the musical challenges?
References
Archibeque, Charlene. 1992. Making rehearsal time count. Choral
Journal 33 (2): 18–19.
Duke, Robert. 1994. Bringing the art of rehearsing into focus: The
rehearsal frame as a model for prescriptive analysis of rehearsal conducting.
Journal of Band Research 30: 78–95.
Goolsby, Thomas. 1996. Time use in instrumental rehearsals: A
comparison of experienced, novice, and student teachers. Journal of Research
Nicolucci, Sandra. 2010. No wasted moments: Planning purposeful
transitions. Music Educators Journal 96 (3): 39–43.
Yarbrough, Cornelia. 1975. Effect of magnitude of conductor behavior
on students in selected mixed choruses. Journal of Research in Music
Education 23: 134–46.
Additional Reading
Duke, Robert A. 2006. Intelligent music teaching: Essays on the core
principles of effective instruction. Austin, TX: Learning and Behavior
Resources.
Eichenberger, Rodney, and Andre Thomas. 2007. What they see is
what you get! Video. Chapel Hill, NC: Hinshaw Music.
Emmons, Shirlee, and Constance Chase. 2006. Prescriptions for choral
excellence: Tone, text, dynamic leadership. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Gumm, Alan, ed. 2006. The choral director’s cookbook. Galesville, MD:
Meredith Music Publications.
Noble, Weston. 2005. Creating the special world: A collection of lectures by
Weston H. Noble, ed. Steven Demorest. Chicago: GIA Publications.
Wyers, Giselle. 2008. Incorporating Laban actions in the choral
rehearsal. In Music for conducting study, eds. James Jordan, Giselle Wyers,
Roger Ames, and Gerald Custer. Chicago: GIA Publications.
CHAPTER 13
Managing the
Choral Classroom
Jacob is late to rehearsal again and disrupts the warm-ups by getting his music from the top of
the piano and pushing through the entire bass section to get to his seat. Jiyung is chewing gum,
Nancy and Courtney are talking about the homecoming dance, and Jessica is busy texting her
friend about debate team practice.
Mrs. Tollenaar, the choral director, is getting anxious and frustrated because the
Spring Choral Festival is only one week away, and the choir is simply not ready to per-
form. She can’t understand how this has happened because she carefully chose this year’s
selections, and has studied the music and practiced her conducting gestures every night
for weeks. She knows she is an excellent musician, and she is pleased with her choir’s
potential but is continually frustrated by the choir’s general lack of musical success. She
believes the problem is directly related to student behavior. Things have really gotten out
of hand! Why do they act this way? What can she do to encourage cooperation and posi-
tive behavior patterns?
Unless choral directors possess knowledge of the age group with which they
work and have the necessary skills and techniques to manage their students’
behavior in rehearsal, they will often find their choirs falling short of musical
success. Learning how to focus attention, create and sustain motivation, make
smooth transitions, and give meaningful feedback is as important to your prepa-
ration as the acquisition of musical knowledge and the development of musical
skills. You are an educator whose specialty is music.
297
298 MANAGING THE CHORAL CLASSROOM
Classroom management is an area of great anxiety for most education stu-

dents because it is something that is difficult to practice until you set foot into
a real classroom. The issue becomes even more significant for ensemble direc-
tors because they need to work with large groups of students in a very active
environment in which the ultimate goal is to have everyone’s actions perfectly in
sync. For such learning to take place, music teachers must establish a classroom
environment in which the learning process is valued, expected, and enjoyable.
Fortunately, you can do much to ensure that your classes run smoothly. One of
the first steps is to get to know your students.
Whom Are You Teaching?

Knowing the unique characteristics of the age group with which you work can
enhance your effectiveness as a teacher and will result in improved student
behavior and learning. Your knowledge (or lack thereof ) will be reflected in your
rehearsal plans and techniques as well as in your one-to-one relationships with
the singers. Students can sense whether their teachers really understand and
care about who they are, and will often respond accordingly.
First of all, students of any age are human beings who deserve to be treated
fairly with the care, concern, and courtesy you would normally observe in
any relationship. More often than not, the care, concern, and courtesy will be
returned to you as you and your students build a mutual respect for one another.
This mutual respect can go a long way in building positive behavior patterns as
well as in beautiful music-making.
Adolescence
When you teach at the middle school/junior high school level, your students
will be entering adolescence, so an understanding of this stage of human growth
and development is critical to your success. The onset of puberty, which usually
occurs between the ages of twelve and fourteen (and sometimes earlier), is the
simplest way to pinpoint the beginning of adolescence. During this time, your
students will experience rapid changes in physical growth as well as increased
cognitive and emotional capacity. Because of hormonal changes, adolescents will
develop sexual feelings. Their capacity for abstract thinking increases during
MANAGING THE CHORAL CLASSROOM 299
this transitional period. They are eagerly seeking a new identity and attempt to
separate themselves from their parents, while at the same time, they begin to
associate more closely with their peer group. Mentally and physically, adoles-
cents are at their peak, but “paradoxically, the quality of inner experience is often
at its lowest point” (Csikszentmihalyi 1987, 103).
The adolescent is in transition from being a child to becoming an adult, and
your students can be either or both on any given day. During this transition,
change rather than stability is the norm as emotional, physical, psychological,
and social changes occur, often quite rapidly. Your students will be eager to be
treated as adults with certain important responsibilities and can often perform
delegated duties with maturity. Then, without any warning, they will slip back
into the more comfortable and familiar behavior patterns of childhood, frustrat-
ing themselves as much as their parents, teachers, and any other adults with
whom they are associated.
Due to rapid growth spurts, students of this age are often gangly and clumsy, as
if they don’t know what to do with their arms and legs. Adolescents will often have
emotional reactions that are far out of proportion—either completely ecstatic or
totally devastated—to the cause. They are nearly obsessed with how they look at
all times, and they often experience excessive fatigue or boundless energy. Girls
usually mature earlier and at a faster rate than boys, so it is not unusual to find
some girls towering over boys, especially in middle school/junior high.
Students at this age still crave adult approval and attention, but their peer
group becomes extremely important. They will stick together, are intensely loyal
to one another, and often wear similar clothing, talk a certain way, stay closely
connected through social media and texting, and listen to their own kind of
music. Because adolescents are searching for their own identity, belonging to
groups becomes very important, and because they are unsure of just who they
are at this point, this age group is often extremely sensitive to criticism.
Applying the Knowledge

How can this knowledge of adolescence affect your teaching? By accepting these
characteristics and taking them into consideration in your relationships with your
students—as well as when you plan rehearsals and activities for them—you can use
these traits to everyone’s advantage, rather than fighting against them. Adolescence

is a powerful force, and teachers who acknowledge this fact and are creative in
dealing with this age group develop choral programs that are quite successful.
For instance, consider the importance of peer approval and the need for ado-
lescents to belong to groups. A choral ensemble is a group, and if students at
your school perceive choir as a successful and acceptable endeavor, they will
likely be eager to join. The choir can even serve as a second family during these
transitional years. Opening up your rehearsal room as a gathering place for cho-
ral students before and after school as well as during lunch can help satisfy their
need for belonging. Knowing they have a home base at school can offer them
security and stability in their ever-changing world.
Knowing that adolescents enjoy wearing clothing that identifies their mem-
bership in a certain group, you may consider the purchase of T-shirts or hats (or
whatever is “in” at the time) and print the choir’s name on the item along with
the school insignia. Involve your students in the decision because they are preoc-
cupied with their looks and it is important for them to wear (and not to wear)
certain things. This involvement also takes into account their eagerness for adult
status and responsibility.
Adolescents’ love of fun and silliness is a trait that can be capitalized on by

couching learning activities within a game format. They will be having so much
fun they may not even realize they are learning! Even having sections of the choir
sing for each other for the purpose of evaluating tone quality, diction, or facial
expressions can be approached as a game.
One of the most challenging aspects of working with adolescents is their lack
of time-management skills, but this is completely normal. The ability to think
ahead and plan long term is just emerging in this stage of their development.
Williamson (2000) suggests focusing on short-term goals and narrower param-
eters for achievable success. The status of each of their pieces, the musical goals
toward which they are working, and the time line that remains before the concert
can be displayed on poster board or a piece of butcher paper and posted in the
classroom. Each time they come into rehearsal, they have a visual reminder of
how much they have accomplished and how much is yet to be done. They can
even have the responsibility for charting some of the information themselves.
If students have been delegated certain responsibilities, and after weeks of suc-
cessful work, they suddenly fail to complete an important task, it is reasonable to
share your disappointment and displeasure as well as point out the consequences
of their actions. At the same time, however, remind them of their successes and
let them know that you expect them to succeed again. This approach can make
them aware of their responsibilities while acknowledging the transitional stage
between child and adult and encouraging them to move forward.
When students exhibit excessive energy levels, especially at the preadolescent
and early adolescent stages, you must take this into account in planning and car-
rying out rehearsals. Rather than wasting valuable time trying to get them to be
quiet and complaining about their energy level, begin rehearsal with warm-up
exercises to help with mental focus, add various physical activities to burn off
some energy, try to schedule their rehearsal earlier in the day when they may not
be so active, or plan to rehearse small amounts of many different compositions
to promote a better attention span.
The excessive energy level of your students cannot be changed, but the pre-
ceding suggestions show many ways to work with this adolescent trait. Actu-
ally, many teachers of middle school/junior high students consider this high
energy a positive characteristic. The challenge to these directors is to focus that
energy in a productive and positive direction. Once their energy is channeled,

kids in this age group have been known to “move mountains.” At the opposite
end of the spectrum, older adolescents will often suffer from excessive fatigue.
When this occurs, rather than thinking negatively, accept it, use a fast pace in
rehearsal, and plan your time together so that the students are engaged with
focus and energy.
The best help you can offer your adolescent singers during this transitional
time may be to serve as a strong role model. All aspects of their young lives
are in a constant state of change, and they appreciate having someone they can
count on, day after day, as a steady influence. They also appreciate knowing the
boundaries within which they will work. This means having a specific set of
rules, created jointly by you and the students, to guide their behavior in choir.
Adolescents may act as though they don’t like rules, but they need (and want)
the security provided by specific boundaries as well as the consequences they
might expect when those boundaries are crossed. This, too, is something on
which they can count.
Preventive Discipline
Obviously, the primary goal of classroom management is not to control students
but to create an environment for optimal learning. The easiest and often most
effective way to manage behavior is through preventive discipline—that is, to
structure the rehearsal environment so that positive behavioral patterns (and,
therefore, better learning) are encouraged. This suggests a front-end approach
for prevention rather than the frequent hand-wringing, after-the-fact approach
of “what should I do to stop my singers’ undesirable behaviors?” Proactive rather
than reactive, this approach hinges a great deal on the teacher’s behavior.
The fact that teachers can actually cause misbehavior in their students may
be a new idea to you. Put positively, teachers can actually create an environment
that encourages positive behavior patterns and a good learning environment for
optimal musical success. Several suggestions follow for structuring your learn-
ing environment before the first rehearsal even begins. You should observe that
although many of the suggestions are nonmusical in content, all of them have the
potential to influence behavior, which in turn, has an impact on musical success.
Notice also how many of these variables are under the teacher’s control.
The Physical Environment

Physical surroundings send a message (perhaps subconsciously) to the singers and can
affect the success of a rehearsal, so do your best to create a pleasant and neat rehearsal
area for your choirs. If students sense order, planning, and a reasonable concern for
their physical comfort, they are more likely to respond in positive and pleasant ways.
Having equipment and materials ready beforehand is good preventive discipline as
well. This may be difficult when you have one choir coming in as another is leaving, but
efforts should be made to be ready, in every way, for your students.
Rules, Consequences, and Procedures

Knowing the boundaries within which they are to work and learn fosters stu-
dents’ sense of security, so be sure to present students with a brief set of rules
and include consequences for breaking them. Adolescents appreciate knowing
what is expected of them, even if they complain and initially test you as well as
the rules. Involving students in the establishment of the rules is often a good
idea. This process gives them an opportunity to contemplate the reasons for the
rules rather than viewing them as an arbitrary list of forbidden behaviors. The
consequences of breaking a rule need to be in place and communicated to the
choir before any rule-breaking occurs.
To be effective, you must be consistent in enforcing the consequences when
students break the rules. If you punish an infraction one day and not the next,
students will become frustrated and confused about what the rules really are. If
you discipline one singer and not another, the unwanted behavior is likely to con-
tinue and students may begin to think of you as an unfair teacher. For example,
if Jarnetha, your best soprano and choral librarian, talks out during rehearsal for
the first time all year, she must be punished in the same way as you would punish
Emily, who is also acting out but is a frequent troublemaker. Even if you think
that enforcing the rules one particular day will interrupt the flow of the rehearsal
and you want to ignore the misbehavior, you must not! Teachers must be con-
sistent in every way for the rules and consequences to actually work as intended.
Figure 13.1 provides an example of classroom rules and a set of consequences.
Note that there are only five rules, and all are stated in a positive way.
Daily procedures are equally important for your students to understand and
follow. Examples of procedures you might choose for your classroom include:
RULES
•• Respect all people.
•• Leave all cell phones, gum, food, and drinks outside the choral room.
•• Be on time for rehearsal.
•• Have all necessary music and a pencil at every rehearsal.
•• Listen carefully to hear instructions or feedback from the teacher.
CONSEQUENCES
•• First offense: Verbal warning
•• Second offense: Remain after school
•• Third offense: Call parents
•• Fourth offense: Student sent to principal
Figure 13.1 Rules and consequences. © Cengage Learning 2014.
“When I give the signal to stand up for warm-ups, I expect you to stop talking
and focus.” “When you come into the room, I expect you to remove your folder
from the cabinet and come directly to your seat.” “When you sit down, arrange
your music according to the order of rehearsal listed on the board.”
Requiring every singer to have a pencil at every rehearsal is a helpful proce-
dure. If students mark their music with reminders of places to breathe and not to
breathe, diction assistance, cutoffs, and so forth, you will only need to go over this
information once (or maybe twice). This will not only keep the rehearsal flowing
but will also decrease frustration levels by not having to go over and over some-
thing that has already been done. In addition, this procedure sends a message that
much of the responsibility for the choir’s success belongs to its choir members.
Establish and actually teach your students the procedures you want them to
follow. This may be as important as teaching music, especially at the start of a
school year or semester. Your students need (and want) to know what you expect
of them. This will take up more rehearsal time at the beginning of the year and
will gradually taper off (see Figure 13.2). Teaching these procedures, however,
will certainly be worth it—for you and your students.
Performances
Planning a performance schedule that is suited to your students’ level of exper-
tise is important for sustaining student learning and good behavior patterns
100%
Content
Procedures and Rules
10%
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3
Figure 13.2 Balancing procedures and content. © Cengage Learning 2014.
in rehearsal. If you have too few performance opportunities during the year, then
you are likely to have students who either lose interest or don’t try very hard
because the goal is so far down the road. On the other hand, if the schedule is
too demanding for your singers, genuine musical understanding will often take a
backseat to learning the music as fast as possible in order to perform it. Rushing
from performance to performance causes impatience, frustration, and irritability
in the rehearsal arena. This is not to suggest that performance hinders learning;
quite the contrary, if kept in proper perspective, performance can serve as both a
showcase and motivator for student learning and musical understanding.
Student Leadership
Involving students in leadership roles can help create a positive environment. So
often, peer pressure is associated with negative influences, but this does not have
to be the case. By serving as choir officers or section leaders, students assume
partial responsibility for the choir’s success and, in this way, can have a positive
influence on the musical and social behavior of their fellow singers. This system
can be so effective that, often, little or no intervention by the director is neces-
sary. In the process, student leaders have the opportunity to learn valuable life
skills, such as responsibility, organization, teamwork, and dependability.
Music Choices and Rehearsal Preparation

Work hard to choose appropriate music for your choirs. This topic was discussed
in detail in Chapter 5, but it is worth repeating here: you and your choir will have
great difficulty recovering from a poor choice of music. This doesn’t necessarily
mean that the music is poor, but that the particular piece is not a good choice for
your choir at that particular time. The selection may be too hard, too easy, or too
long; or it may have difficult leaps across registers, too wide a tessitura, or other
such issues. Spend the time necessary to choose wisely. The frustrations that arise
from poor repertoire decisions can be a direct cause of behavior problems, and can
be prevented simply by making better musical choices.
Have an efficient system for handling music. If time is spent giving out and tak-
ing up music, opportunities will exist for students to slip into disruptive behavior.
Valuable time and energy are then spent disciplining the offenders as well as refo-
cusing the choir on the musical activities ahead. This begins the rehearsal in a nega-
tive way and can be prevented by having a procedure in place for music distribution.
To improve efficiency, study the music carefully before rehearsal and have a
rehearsal plan. Because your attention will then be focused on the singers and
their performance, their attention is likely to be more focused as well, resulting
in better behavior.
Proximity
It is amazing how quickly a problem will correct itself when you walk over and
stand close to where you think the problem is located. Students will put forth
a stronger effort and, more often than not, the results are better. This goes for
social and musical difficulties. If you are standing close by, students may sit up
straighter, breathe more deeply, or think with greater care about their notes or
rhythms. In addition, singers will often stop talking or engaging in other off-task
behavior when the odds of being seen are high. Without saying one word, or
disrupting rehearsal in the least, you can bring students back on task simply by
your proximity. Moving around the room in this way increases the intensity of the
teacher’s presence, or magnitude. Novice teachers often see the podium or the music
stand as a sort of invisible barrier they are reluctant to cross. Breaking the bar-
rier and getting close to the students raises the energy level of your rehearsal.
Stop!
Often, the degree of excitement about the music or the amount of talking dur-
ing a rehearsal will escalate to such proportions that something must be done
to regain the choir’s attention. Sometimes unconsciously, teachers will begin
to raise their voices in an effort to be heard, and the louder the choir talks, the
louder the teacher will talk. Of course, in a situation like this, nothing productive
can be accomplished, and the rehearsal suddenly becomes a shouting match.
Perhaps the most effective way to handle this situation is simply to stop. The
singers will not notice right away, but eventually they will become aware that
the rehearsal is not proceeding. At this time, you can point out what happened;
then, the rehearsal can continue at a more manageable level.
Variety
Try using both standing and sitting to vary your rehearsal. Sometimes, sitting
to woodshed a section and then standing to do the “posttest” will change things
up. In addition, standing will give students an unspoken signal that this is a
time when they need to make a great effort to see if they really learned what
they have been working on. Posture can be improved, and they get to stretch
their bodies a bit. Giving instructions before they sit or stand will help minimize
the disruption of changing positions (this is one of those transitions). Using
an unpredictable mixture of standing and sitting, while paying attention to the
needs of the students, can help steady their focus.
Special Day Rehearsals
During the year, various activities such as the homecoming dance, class elec-
tions, and football playoffs will occur and have the potential to affect the success
of choir rehearsals. Rather than fighting against the realities of life in junior
high/middle school and high school, be flexible in planning rehearsals on such
days. This is not the time to plan very detailed work, because students’ minds
will not be focused as usual. Rather than rehearsing that day, consider setting
up a fun game between sections of the choir on music terminology, sight-singing
skills, or music history and culture.
Students as Individuals
The student–teacher connection is a powerful tool for establishing respect in
the classroom, and one way to show care and concern for your students is to
know their names. When you teach large numbers of students every day, learn-
ing their names can be difficult. This challenge, however, is definitely worth the
effort involved.
Having a seating chart at the beginning of the year can help you remem-
ber names more quickly. Another way to learn the names of large numbers of
students is to take pictures of them in groups of four or five and write their
names on the back. Study these pictures and names frequently at the beginning
of the year and practice the names in class—make it a game for yourself and the
students. They will enjoy watching you learn something, too.
No matter how busy your days become, always keep in mind the human fac-
tor. Unfortunately, teachers often find themselves so involved with the music and
its preparation that they forget their students’ needs from time to time. Remem-
ber that you don’t simply teach music; rather, you teach music to people. There is
an important difference here.
Make sure that you distinguish between behavior and misbehavior when work-
ing with your singers. Often students who are off-task are just behaving, not mis-
behaving. For example, if younger singers are rustling their music too loudly while
you are giving instructions, this may simply be a factor of their age and tendency to
fidget. They are not willfully attempting to drive you crazy. Consider establishing
a routine in which students put the music in their laps after the singing stops, so
that they can hear what you have to say. Such strategies involve careful attention to
human needs and behaviors, and those of adolescents in particular.
Personal Baggage
“The show must go on” is a good policy to have for yourself as well as for your
students. This means that everyone checks his or her personal problems at the
door. On some days, you will find it extremely difficult to rise to the occasion,
but you must. You are there to teach, and no amount of sleep deprivation or
number of personal problems can get in the way. If you model this behavior and
let it be known that you expect the same from your students, your rehearsals
can remain consistently positive.
The Aesthetic Component

Nothing succeeds like success. If students are motivated and they experience
deeply felt musical rewards, their behavior will focus on maximizing the likeli-
hood of musical success. You may think that such rewards can come only in
performance, but every rehearsal is an opportunity to achieve positive musical
experiences. Something as simple as a perfect unison, or a well-tuned chord, or
a rhythmic passage that really locks in for the first time can make a substantive
difference in student attitudes. Plan for aesthetic accomplishments (even for a

few measures) in every rehearsal, and watch how the power of music can make a
positive impact on student behavior.
Techniques to Create a Positive Environment

In its broadest sense, discipline is not about punishment, as some people may
think. Discipline refers to a system that involves understanding human behavior
and knowing both preventive measures and intervention techniques to create
a positive learning environment for you and your singers. Discipline is also
about teaching your students responsibility and self-control—which includes
the rules, consequences, and specific procedures you expect from them.
Teachers often think of motivated students as the ones who are following the
rules, raising their hands enthusiastically, and getting assignments in on time; the
unmotivated students, in contrast, are busy misbehaving and causing problems.
Morrison (2008) suggests that students are always motivated; they just may
be motivated to do something other than what you want them to do. He sug-
gests that when teachers attempt to discover that driving force behind student
behavior (either positive or negative), then they have the opportunity to alter
the student’s motivation to create the possibility of behavioral changes, or main-
tain the positive behavior if it already exists. Perhaps the most important thing
for the teacher to remember is that it isn’t personal. Most often when a student
misbehaves, it isn’t about you but about them, so it is important not to take their
behavior personally, but rather, to try to help them through the situation. Avoid
the temptation to escalate a conflict by asserting your authority directly or pub-
licly. Remain calm and try to find ways to defuse the situation.
Chapter 12 offers a variety of techniques to help you conduct a well-paced,
well-organized, and engaging rehearsal. A well-run rehearsal by a high magni-
tude teacher is the best classroom management strategy and will prevent many
behavior problems. Even with the best intentions, rules, consequences, plans,
and preparation, however, you will still experience difficulties with students
on occasion during rehearsal. This can cause anxiety in people who direct
ensembles—you can have a wonderful plan for the hour, but you really can’t
predict with any certainty what will actually happen. You fear that unknown
factor. The techniques discussed below can help you successfully address some
behavioral issues you might encounter both in and outside a choral rehearsal.
Ignoring
Ignoring a student’s misbehavior can be very effective if he or she is trying
to get your attention. By not attending to the student in any way, the payoff
has been removed and the behavior is likely to disappear. If peers, however,
are reinforcing the misbehavior from across the room by laughing or giving a
thumbs-up sign, no amount of ignoring by you will extinguish that behavior
because the offending student is getting reinforcement from his or her friends.
For ignoring to be effective, you must first determine the intended payoff for
the misbehavior.
Praise
Praising students who are behaving in a positive way can encourage those who
are not doing things correctly to behave in a more accommodating manner.
The misbehaving students eventually will learn that the way to get your atten-
tion, with the accompanying praise, is to do the correct thing. Make your praise
statements informative so that the student will know what he or she has done
right (this applies to social and musical behavior), and make sure you don’t
overdo praise so that it becomes meaningless. In addition, remember that praise
can cause a student or group of students to become targets for harassment or
bullying, so use the praise technique with care. Behavioral expectations should
be delivered with positive statements; for example, rather than saying “don’t
slouch” you can remind them of good singing posture. One of the most effective
ways to deal with a student who misbehaves frequently is to catch them doing
something right. These students are not used to being singled out for good
behavior, so when you can praise them for anything, they may be encouraged to
participate in a more positive fashion.
Provide Choices
Giving students a choice is one way to defuse a difficult situation. Suppose that
two students continue to talk throughout rehearsal. Twice you have asked them
to stop, but the talking continues, and it is disrupting the choir’s progress. You
can calmly say to them, “You two have a choice. Either stop talking and partici-
pate in our rehearsal in a positive way or we will have a private discussion after
class. You decide.”
When a really serious disruption occurs, stay as calm as possible, speak softly
and slowly, keep your movements small and slow, and use “I statements” (“I can
see that you are really upset about your score on the part-singing test”). It is
hoped that these techniques will defuse the situation rather than escalate it. In
the meantime, if you think you may need additional adult assistance, send some-
one to the office or have someone call for help. Do not leave the room.
Dealing with disruptive students can certainly be a challenge, and you will
have to “face the music” at times throughout your teaching career. However, by
combining preventive discipline with techniques for behavior management, you
can create and maintain a positive learning environment as well as significantly
reduce the number of problems caused by disruptive behaviors.
Bullying
In addition to issues that crop up during rehearsals, there are discipline issues that
arise inside and outside the rehearsal environment that can harm your students
and therefore your program.

One of the most damaging
is bullying. Unfortunately,
bullying is a fact of life in
school environments. Both
boys and girls are vulnerable
to bullying and harassment
at school, and on the way to
and from school. Boys most
often will use physical force,
Poster provided with permission from the Buffalo Board of Education (NY)
whereas girls use hurtful
words and social ostracism.
Technology has allowed bul-
lying to extend into cyber-
space, so that some varieties
of hurt and harassment can
happen 24 hours a day, mak-
ing it difficult or impossible
to control and stop.
At this age, peer pressure
is at its height, and this power
ful pressure may affect students’ choices. Stereotypes are at work, and society
often pushes boys into athletics and girls into the arts. If students agree to follow
these limiting societal expectations, then they can often avoid harassment. If stu-
dents dare to follow their interests no matter what the social consequences, they
may be setting themselves up for trouble. Many are not willing to risk doing so
because they know that any child who is perceived as “different” is a potential vic-
tim. Taylor (2011) reports that students can become victims on the basis of eth-
nicity, disability, socioeconomic status, religion, or perceived sexual orientation.
Sometimes participation in a music ensemble comes with the status of
“nerd” or “outsider” in a school community, and this label can lead to harass-
ment. Bullying is often a bigger issue for students who choose to engage in
activities normally pursued by students of the opposite sex. Some members
of the school culture (children and adults) may see choir as an unacceptable
endeavor for boys, so boys who choose to be in choir may be prime targets
for harassment; you must be on the lookout for this. Bullying happens most
often between students, but teachers and coaches have also been known to
harass students for unconventional choices. In addition, outdated parental
attitudes and gender biases may be an issue for some students. Bullying and
harassment can include (supposedly) innocent teasing and veiled remarks
about sexuality, as well as pressuring boys to drop choir for more “masculine”
activities.
The negative stereotypes that adolescents associate with sexuality and gender
are a tragedy in and of themselves. A National School Climate study (2010) sur-
veyed 7,261 LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) middle and high school
students and found that 9 of 10 had experienced harassment during the past
year. Nearly two-thirds of students surveyed felt unsafe due to their sexual ori-
entation, and nearly one third of LGBT students had skipped school at least one
day in the past month due to safety concerns. Unfortunately, the pressure of such
harassment for some students becomes so great that the only resolution they can
see is to commit suicide.
Participation in a choral ensemble should not result in bullying or harassment
of any kind. All teachers must work together to stop this hurtful problem and
make it “safe” for students to follow their interests and expand their talents.
Fortunately, schools have become increasingly aware of the problem, are bringing
bullying issues to light, and creating “zero tolerance” policies for such behavior.
Establish a zero tolerance policy toward bullying in your own classroom and nip
any derogatory comments in the bud. Ask the perpetrator how he or she might
feel if someone said something like that to him or her. Building empathy is one
of the best ways to curtail bullying behavior. Often, young people don’t think
in empathetic terms; if encouraged to do so, they may stop before they direct
hurtful comments at a fellow classmate.
When you see bullying or hear hurtful comments, do not let it pass.
Put a stop to it right away and then speak to the offender after class and
administer appropriate consequences. At the same time, discuss the student’s
actions with the class and explain why they were inappropriate. Educating all
students on how you expect them to conduct themselves, the consequences
of not following school guidelines, and the reasons behind these rules of
conduct is extremely important. Nothing can substitute for education and

understanding.
Let your students know you are available to them if they need to talk.
Choral directors are in a unique position to build close relationships with
their students and to observe and monitor incidents of bullying. Having
singers in choir over a number of years and spending time with them
outside the classroom at festivals, competitions, trips, or social gatherings
helps you get to know your students well, and this will enable you to spot
atypical behaviors. An unusual drop in grades, personality changes such as
becoming withdrawn, poor school attendance, unexplained bruises and cuts,
and pretending nothing is wrong when something obviously is not right are
all signs of potential bullying. (They may also be signs of other problems,
including abuse or neglect at home, which you may need to follow up on and
report.) Teachers and parents must be on the lookout for these and other
signs and take the time to investigate their causes. You may be the person
who helps change a student’s life for the better, so take this responsibility
seriously and be observant. Looking away not only leaves the student without
an advocate but also sends the message that bullying is “okay.”
When students see your classroom as a haven where all students are accepted
and where you take a strong stance against bullying and harassment, they will
more likely feel secure enough to join choir. Only when students feel safe will
they be able to learn, and to function freely and happily. You owe it to all your
students to make choir a safe and healthy activity, as well as one that is acceptable
for both boys and girls to enjoy without harassment. By doing so, you will be
contributing to the fight against bullying in general.
Summary
Effective classroom management takes courage. All teachers want to be
liked, and new teachers are especially eager for their students to hold them
in high regard. Rehearsals are so much more pleasant when everyone is
happy. Unfortunately, things won’t always be pleasant, and everyone won’t
always be pleased with the decisions you make, with the actions you take, or
with the music you choose. Tolerating misbehavior in order to be liked will
not make you a more popular teacher. In fact, over time, the opposite result
is more likely. Students need and want you to take charge and be a leader for
them. Your primary responsibility is to create a safe and positive learning
environment for all students in your classes so that learning can take place.
When you find yourself facing a behavior situation and you are reluctant to
act, you must remember that it is not personal. Students are not misbehaving
to make trouble for you specifically but, rather, because you are a teacher and
authority figure—or perhaps because of an incident or situation that has abso-
lutely nothing to do with you or with choir. Try to separate yourself personally
from the situation and deal with it as a teacher. It may feel personal, but in almost
every case, it isn’t. These situations can be very unsettling for everyone, and espe-
cially for a new teacher. The disciplined student (and their friends) may not be
happy with you for a time. Once the student has been disciplined, however, be
careful not to show lingering negative feelings. Let students know that you are
always ready to help them start fresh with a positive approach.
The most effective strategy for classroom management is a preventive one.
Understanding the age group with which you work is the first step necessary
for building positive behavior patterns in your students. Working successfully
with middle school/junior high and high school students requires knowledge
of adolescence, and this knowledge should be reflected in everything you do,
including your selection of music, rehearsal plans, and teaching strategies, as well
as in your one-to-one relationships with the singers. Adolescence is a powerful
force. Teachers who acknowledge this fact and who work with their students’ age-
specific characteristics, rather than complain about them, are those most likely to
create successful and rewarding choral programs.
Mini-Projects
1. Robert, an eighth grader, has joined choir for the first time this year,
and has found he really enjoys it. However, he is starting to be bullied about
singing by some of the boys he used to hang around with before he joined
choir. Robert wants to stay in choir, but he is not sure he can handle the way
he is being treated by his “friends.” What would you do as his choir director to
help Robert weather the storm of bullying and make choir a safe activity for
him as well as the other boys? List several options.
2. Occasional group activities can help develop cohesion and good

relationships among choir members, as well as with their director. Name three
inexpensive group activities that junior high/middle school choir students might
enjoy. Name three inexpensive group activities that high school students might enjoy.
3. Visit a choir rehearsal at a junior high/middle school and a high school.
Fill out the following form to guide your observations. A copy of this form is
available on the text website.
Your name:____________________________________________________
Director’s name: ________________________________________________
School & choir observed:__________________________________________
Date of observation:__________
1. How does the Choir Room support the students’ learning?
2. What is the seating arrangement of the choir?
3. When were students most engaged in the rehearsal? When were they least engaged?
4. How did the order and number of pieces rehearsed contribute to the success of the
rehearsal?
5. Did the students demonstrate sight-singing skills during rehearsal?
6. How did the singers demonstrate musical learning today?
7. How do you know the singers enjoyed the rehearsal today?
8. List specific social and musical characteristics you see in the age group you are
observing today.
9. Briefly summarize your observation. Use the back if necessary.

References
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1987. The pressured world of adolescence.
Educational Horizons 65 (3): 103–5.
Morrison, Steven J. 2008. Classroom management. In Musician &
Teacher, ed. P. S. Campbell. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.
Taylor, Donald M. 2011. Bullying: What can music teachers do? Music
Williamson, Susan. 2000. Positively adolescent! Music Educators Journal
86 (4): 29–32.
Additional Reading
Canter, Lee, and Marlene Canter. 1992. Assertive discipline: Positive
behavior management for today’s classroom. Santa Monica, CA: Lee Canter
and Associates.
Carter, Bruce A. 2011. A safe education for all: Recognizing and
stemming harassment in music classes and ensembles. Music Educators
Journal 97 (4): 29–32.
Gordon, Debra G. 2001. Classroom management: Problems and
solutions. Music Educators Journal 88 (2): 17–23.
Haugland, Susan L. 2007. Crowd control: Classroom management and
effective teaching for chorus, band, and orchestra. Lanham, MD: Rowman and
Littlefield Education.
Kosciw, Joseph G., Emily A. Greytak, Elizabeth M. Diaz, and
Mark J. Bartkiewicz. 2010. The 2009 National School Climate
Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth
in our nation’s schools. New York: Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education
Network.
Madsen, Charles H., and Clifford K. Madsen. 1998. Teaching/
discipline: A positive approach for educational development, 4th ed. Raleigh,
NC: Contemporary Publishing.
Merrion, Margaret. 1990. How master teachers handle discipline.

Reese, Jill. 2007. The four Cs of successful classroom management.
CHAPTER 14
Small Ensembles
and Musical Theater
Mr. Escobedo, a first-year choral director, attended a show choir conference during the sum-
mer to learn about choreography and to find repertoire for his new ensemble. He met yes-
terday with students and parents from the outfit committee to choose this year’s performing
attire, and today he is shopping at the local music store for sound equipment. Because he has
no previous experience directing a show choir, Mr. Escobedo has to learn everything from
scratch, and his head is spinning! Although he is excited about having a show choir at his high
school, he hopes that he can keep it in perspective, especially because he has agreed to direct the
school musical in the spring. Will there be enough time to accomplish it all?
School music programs rarely conform to the schedule of a standard school day,
as other subjects do. Before-school rehearsals, after-school rehearsals, and even
evening rehearsals are at least part of the year’s schedule for most choral direc-
tors. This is even more likely if the program includes a choral ensemble that
does not meet during the school day, as well as rehearsals for the annual school
musical.
Small Ensembles
Most traditional ensembles within a school’s choral program perform a wide
variety of repertoire on a regular basis. Such variety is an important goal of
any choral program. Often, however, some students may express an interest in
having a small ensemble that performs a specific style of music. These types of
choirs have become an integral part of the choral experience for today’s students.
319
320 SMALL ENSEMBLES AND MUSICAL THEATER
The pervasive influence of a wide variety of pop music styles, interest in vocal
jazz or world music, and the growing popularity of gospel choirs all help gener-
ate a wide variety of choral offerings in high schools. At the same time, these
additional groups often need a director, and a day has just so many minutes.
Small ensembles can vary from focusing on one specific genre of music to
combining pop, jazz, madrigals, world music, or gospel music into one ensem-
ble. If you choose to direct one of these smaller groups, the choice of focus may
depend on your own interests and expertise, students’ abilities and interests, the
area of the country in which you live, the amount of time available, or all of the
above. The size of small ensembles can vary as well. Generally, groups range in
size from twelve to twenty-four singers, but some, such as gospel choirs, can be
much larger.
The Issues
When you take your first job, you may inherit a choral program with one or
more small ensembles already in place. After a year or two, you may decide to
leave these ensembles the way they have been in years past or to disband them
altogether, or you may want to keep them but change their musical focus or
how the members are selected. Whatever decision you make, it should be made
carefully and be based on your philosophy of music education, as well as the fol-
lowing issues:
1. Do you want to include one (or several) small ensembles in your choral
program? You may believe that your traditional ensembles themselves can satisfy
the need for variety in music.
2. Do you want small ensembles to meet during the school day or outside of
school? Although the school day may contain room for such a group, this may
mean removing your best singers from the larger choir because students cannot
devote more than one elective to music. This can weaken the larger ensemble
and create an imbalance in your program and in your student’s musical educa-
tion. Many directors choose to have these small ensembles meet before school,
especially if a “zero” hour option is available. After school and evenings are also
options, though often greater conflicts arise with other activities such as sports
and outside lessons. Many activities compete for students’ time and attention.
SMALL ENSEMBLES AND MUSICAL THEATER 321
3. Do you have the budget to support such an ensemble? Ensembles such as

show choirs and vocal jazz groups require an initial investment in sound equip-
ment that can be quite expensive. Other costs include added travel, as well as
expenditures for special clothing or choreography. On the other hand, such
ensembles are often popular with students, parents, and the community and can
provide outreach opportunities not available to the larger choral group(s). This
outreach may help raise funds for the choral program and may also assist in
recruiting students.
4. Do you have the time and energy to devote to another ensemble? One
additional choir will require additional time, of course, but because of its nature,
a group that focuses on pop music demands an unusually large amount of time
and attention. In addition to rehearsing with the choir (often before or after
school or in the evening), various other duties are required: (1) instrumentalists
(if used) need rehearsing; (2) permission slips for various off-campus perfor-
mances need to be given out, signed, and collected; (3) transportation of people
and equipment to performances must be arranged; (4) choreography (if used)
needs to be planned or a choreographer needs to be contacted; (5) equipment
must be purchased and kept in good repair; and, (6) outfits have to be chosen
and purchased. This is a huge responsibility and can be a wonderful opportu-
nity. If not kept in perspective, however, this additional ensemble might become
“the tail that wags the dog.” You will need to delegate to students and parents
some of the responsibilities related to a pop, jazz, or other small ensemble. If you
don’t, you run the risk of endangering your general health, or perhaps finding
that you are doing too much, and none of it very well. Keeping things in proper
perspective in key.
5. Are you knowledgeable about repertoire and performance practice of
the group(s) you plan to start? Each of these ensembles requires expertise with
a different repertoire than that sung by a traditional ensemble, and the skills
needed to locate and perform such repertoire demand special knowledge. For-
tunately, numerous publications, workshops, and online resources can help you
get started; it may be wise to get some training before starting so that the group
gets off on the right foot. One of your best tools is your own musical ear. Become
an avid listener of the style you wish to master, whether jazz, pop, gospel, or
world music. This will do more than almost anything to prepare you for success
because you will begin to understand the artists, repertoire, and musical charac-
teristics that shape the style.
The Benefits
An ensemble that sings pop music, vocal jazz, gospel, or world music can pro-
vide multiple benefits for all who are involved in performing and for those who
listen. First, students can have an in-depth experience with additional genres
of music and different styles of singing, especially if they are also members of
a traditional choir. Smaller, specialized ensembles offer a great opportunity to
develop strong musical independence, and typically the pop repertoire boasts
many solo opportunities. (Finally, that alto who scoops all the time has a place
to shine!) Second, student recruitment and retention may be enhanced. In
many schools, belonging to one of these ensembles is the most coveted member-
ship of all for some young people; therefore, the mere existence of such a group
may boost enrollment in the choral program, and can provide motivation for
those singers who strive to be selected. Third, relationships between the school
and the community can be strengthened through run-out performances at local
civic clubs and shopping malls.
Students who participate in a small ensemble will benefit greatly from concur-
rent membership in a traditional choral ensemble. In fact, directors often require
this dual participation to provide students with a well-rounded music education
and to ensure that those in the small ensembles know about and use healthy
vocal technique. With increased requirements for high school graduation, how-
ever, students may not be able to schedule more than one choir during the regu-
lar school day. To accommodate students who want to belong to two groups, you
may opt to rehearse the small ensemble several mornings or afternoons a week.
Several options exist for smaller choral programs, or ones for which it is not
economically feasible to offer a separate group for a specific genre of music.
Some choral programs have a madrigal group, or similar small ensemble, that
is the school’s most advanced choir. This advanced choir can “become” a spe-
cific type of small ensemble in the spring, after the annual choral festival or
contest. Another possibility is for the director to include a number of arrange-
ments of vocal jazz, gospel, world, or pop music, perhaps with choreography,
in the repertoire for the traditional choirs throughout the year. This flexibility
of sound and style can enhance the breadth of the students’ music education
as well as provide a versatile program for a variety of audiences with a minimal
amount of time and effort (and money).
Types of Ensembles
You may have already experienced some variation of one of the small ensembles
presented below. And you may have already decided that you want such a group
in your own program. Having had a successful experience with an ensemble as a
student can certainly give you an advantage, but you may be hired into a school
where a different small ensemble tradition has been established. Such traditions
are often valued greatly by students and parents and should not be dismissed
lightly. For this reason, the choral director should be prepared to learn new
styles and lead a different kind of ensemble than the one they personally have
experienced. What follows is a brief sketch of some of the more prevalent small
ensemble options.
SHOW CHOIR. Sometimes called swing choir or pop choir, the show choir has
a long tradition as an alternative school ensemble. Show choirs blend elements
of popular music, dance, and even theater into their concerts. Show choir direc-
tors must be knowledgeable about current popular music, must often have skills
in music arranging (or know someone who does), be skilled with movement
or rely on students and parents with dance experience, and must know how to
use sound equipment. Additional demands on the show choir director include
working with an instrumental combo that often accompanies such groups (at
least piano and drums, and usually bass as well), as well as some stagecraft in
terms of lighting and blocking. The Additional Reading section at the end of
this chapter offers some resources for directing a show choir, but your best way
of getting started may be an experienced local teacher or a how-to clinic at your
state conference.
Show choirs often have devoted members and followers (parents and com-
munity members) and inspire fierce loyalty. Although this can provide great sup-
port for your program in many ways, you must always be sure to keep things
in perspective and balance. Because of its visibility and expense, the show
choir can easily begin to eclipse the other work being done in your program.
Creative Commons Attribution/Wikipedia

Given the educational importance of the traditional ensembles as well as the
large number of students they serve, you must keep the show choir as an extra
added attraction rather than the main feature. By making sure that all students
in your program have the opportunity to sing some pop repertoire, to travel to
festivals, and to perform in the school and community, the show choir can then
take its place as a prized feature of a strong comprehensive choral program.
CONTEMPORARY A CAPPELLA GROUP. Popular at the collegiate level for

many years, the contemporary a cappella group has begun to filter into the high
schools. These groups often feature only six to ten members, usually one to a
microphone, and perform pop repertoire that has been arranged so that voices
sing all the instrumental, vocal, and even percussion parts of the song. These
groups can be student-led or teacher-led, or some combination thereof, and
can be a great addition to your program and a wonderful learning opportunity
for your students. Contemporary a cappella repertoire can be performed with
groups of various sizes and features arrangements for all-male, all-female, and
mixed ensembles. Repertoire and resources for such groups can be found at
The Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA; http://www.casa.org/), http://

www.singers.com/, and other online sites that offer recordings, resources, and
even custom arrangements.
VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE. Vocal jazz groups are often considered “pop”
music ensembles even though much of their repertoire hasn’t been featured
on the radio since the early 1950s. They share many features with other pop
ensembles such as singing with microphones, singing in a more improvisatory
vocal style, and often using instrumental combos for accompaniment. Despite
these similarities, the style of the repertoire is quite different. Vocal jazz groups
can sing one to a microphone or use area mics for the group and just mic soloists
individually. Groups often perform a balance of a cappella jazz numbers with
pieces requiring instrumental combo accompaniment. Vocal jazz groups do not
typically include the type or amount of choreography used by show choirs, and
the outfits are typically more understated (cool).
Vocal jazz can be a wonderful addition to your program because it introduces
your singers to repertoire from a truly American art form, one that influenced
Broadway and much of today’s popular music in important ways. Vocal jazz
typically features music with complex harmonies and opportunities for improvi-
sation that can really build students’ personal musicianship, when taught prop-
erly. Vocal jazz directors need to be students of jazz style, both instrumental
and vocal, and must be comfortable teaching improvisation. Rudimentary piano
skills for comping the blues are very helpful, as the teacher must be able to pro-
vide the harmonic backdrop for developing students’ ears and formal knowledge
about jazz.
Fortunately, blues forms are, at their roots, extremely simple and repetitive.
What musicians bring to the blues framework is what creates its amazing variety
and interest. The bass line in Figure 14.1 with accompanying harmonies provides
a good starting point to introduce students to improvisation featuring twelve-
bar blues. Numerous prerecorded blues sequences can be used as well, and great
resources are available to help teach vocal improvisation (Ward-Steinman 1999;
Weir 2005). Like music reading, the key to teaching improvisation is providing
opportunities to do it daily and provide a safe environment in which to practice
and experiment.
C9 F 13 C9 F 13
w w b www b www w w
& .. b ww b ww b ww b ww
? .. œ œ b œ n œ œ bœ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ nœ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ bœ
C9 G 13 G b 13 F 13 C9 G 13
w b ww ˙˙ œœ b b œœ ww b ww ww ..
& b ww
7
w ˙ œ œ bw w w
œ
? œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ bœ œ bœ œ bœ œ œ œ # œ œ œ œ b œ ..
Figure 14.1 Twelve-bar blues bass line and chords. Courtesy of Dave Cross.
MADRIGAL/CHAMBER CHOIR. The madrigal/chamber choir can perform any

small ensemble repertoire the teacher desires. These choirs might perform tradi-
tional vocal chamber music for part of the year and then change into a pop or jazz
group for another part of the year. Some schools with such groups host a large
production known as a madrigal dinner or feast. Madrigal dinners are a blend of
music, dance, and theater often performed during holiday seasons. They feature
music of the Renaissance period, both instrumental and vocal, performed by
large and very small ensembles (often holiday music interspersed with madrigals
and chanson), period dress, full medieval room decorations and props, and food
common to the period. Schools with long traditions in this area have built up an
amazing array of costumes, sets, and props that are all integrated into the madrigal
dinner. Obviously, this undertaking can be rather expensive, so if you choose to
try a madrigal dinner, you might think on a smaller scale for the first year or two
as you build up your costumes and props, and discover ways to make or borrow
necessary items. After start-up costs have settled down, this event could become
a strong fundraising event over time. Perhaps you could alternate presentations,
offering a madrigal dinner one year and a musical the next year.
WORLD MUSIC ENSEMBLE. Although performing world music is part of

a comprehensive choral program, a world music ensemble (WME) focuses
exclusively on music of other cultures. Because much of the world’s music

combines singing, instruments, and movement or dance, these ensembles
often blend all or some of these components. Beyond performing repertoire
from other cultures, a WME attempts to faithfully render the performance
practices, vocal tone, and even the teaching and learning styles of the cultures
represented.1 Such ensembles can provide a wonderful opportunity to broaden
students’ musicianship and sharpen their ears.
One challenge of WME lies in the area of vocal technique because music
from other cultures often features a tone quality significantly different from that
of Western art music. Teachers are sometimes concerned about the possible
vocal strain that might result from having students sing in different vocal styles.
Although teachers must always be vigilant about avoiding vocal strain, some-
times breaking out of the Western singing approach can help students become
more aware of their vocal habits. Because many vocal styles feature a more for-
ward production than the bel canto style, they can really help students develop
better forward resonance in their tone.
Another challenge is that no single teacher can master the musical and vocal
styles of many cultures. One of the best ways to enhance your knowledge and that
of your students is to involve culture bearers, musicians from the relevant culture in
your community or who might be hosted for residencies. This person’s input can
be coordinated with curricular studies in other areas and provide opportunities for
learning broader lessons about culture through music. The culture bearer could
be available not only for choral and instrumental work but also for visual art,
history, social studies, and other courses. The unit of study could culminate in a
special culture-specific evening (for example, a “Culture of Cuba” night), and could
include food, beverages, slides and information, artwork, dances, and choral and
instrumental music. As our world gets smaller and smaller, and some of our schools
grow more and more diverse, this type of event could help draw the community
together through information, art, food, and music.
You must consider the expenses involved in hosting a culture bearer at your
school for a brief residency. In addition, authentic instruments and dress could
This type of ensemble was pioneered by Professor Mary Goetze, who founded the International Vocal
1
Ensemble at Indiana University in 1995. She has since founded mjpublishing and produces interactive
DVDs in the Global Voices series that introduce the music and culture of different parts of the world.
be an additional expense, but the concert, designed as a cross-curricular event to

reach many of the students at the school, would be well worth the cost. You may
even consider joining forces with a school nearby to share the experience as well as
the costs.
If you cannot locate a culture bearer, take advantage of an increasing number
of audio and video resources (visit, for example, http://www.mjpublishing.com/
dvds.html). Because much of the world’s music is transmitted orally, having
students learn both the music and the performance styles by rote is completely
appropriate. Videos often provide the best context for learning not only how
the music sounds but also what other features are involved in an authentic
performance.
GOSPEL CHOIR. The gospel choir can range in size from twenty to one
hundred singers. Gospel choirs provide a wonderful opportunity to introduce
students to another truly American art form that is an integral part of African
American culture. The combination of a soulful singing style, simple choral
harmonies, and vibrant piano accompaniment make this music very powerful
in presentation. Although performing gospel music does feature some limited
synchronized movement, its main power comes from a strong, repetitive,
improvisatory style of singing. The driving force of any gospel choir is the
“band,” particularly the piano, which is usually played by the director. Teachers
from outside the tradition wishing to start such a group need to study with a
gospel pianist or hire one from the community.
A word of caution is necessary. Although gospel music is associated strongly
with African American culture, it is also sacred music whose primary purpose
is to spread the Christian gospel through music. This is perhaps the primary
challenge of having such a group in a public school, as the repertoire is entirely
sacred and connected with only one faith. If your students want to start a gospel
choir, you need to make sure your administration can sponsor such an exclu-
sively religious enterprise as an official part of the curriculum. Can the gospel
choir rehearse on school property? Will the mere existence of such a group cause
discord within the community? Legal issues need to be investigated and resolved
before moving ahead. Ask questions and get answers. (Note: You may find that
singing selections of gospel music within a traditional ensemble, rather than
creating a specific group that sings nothing but gospel music, may be a safer and
easier route.)
Common Issues, Different Approaches

Although all of the small ensembles are unique in what they can offer students,
they share some common issues. Each group, however, can have a decidedly dif-
ferent approach to these issues. The small ensembles sing different repertoire,
use a variety of different vocal styles, and vary in their use of amplification,
instrumental combos, and choreography or movement. Teachers need to con-
sider how these issues will affect the goals of the traditional choral offerings
before they decide what type of ensemble they wish to add.
REPERTOIRE. Although the large choral publishers do offer music arranged

for many of these groups, their arrangements are often not quite as authentic
in sound because they are also marketing to traditional choirs. Each of these
ensemble types usually has available to it a community of publishers, arrang-
ers, and teachers that specialize in the particular music. The best way to get to
know the repertoire is to do a lot of listening and connect with someone experi-
enced with this type of group. Summer clinics that focus on teaching a specific
style are often helpful for teachers starting out. Other repertoire considerations
include singing while moving, singing while using a microphone, balancing solo
versus ensemble singing, and the sometimes extreme vocal demands of certain
pop repertoire.
The programming techniques discussed in Chapter 6 also apply to all types of
small ensembles. Choosing a variety of music within the style and giving thought
to its order will usually result in a smoother flow and more pleasing program.
Varying the styles, keys, and tempi of the music will help achieve these goals.
TONE QUALITY. As mentioned before, world music ensembles often require

students to sing with a variety of vocal timbres from different cultures, so
attention must be paid to good fundamental technique. Contemporary a
cappella groups often have arrangements that ask singers to imitate instrument
sounds, including guitars and vocal percussion. These demands must be met
with good vocal technique as well. Pop and jazz music styles have similar issues.
Generally, singers of pop and jazz music will use more breath in their sound than
when they are singing in other styles, particularly if the sound is amplified. In
vocal jazz, or in any pop style with very close harmonies, the use of vibrato will
be minimal. In addition, much of the pop repertoire features male and female
vocal registers that are very similar. This results in men singing a lot in falsetto
(which can be great for them) and women spending a lot of time in their chest
voice (which is not so great for them). Spend time looking for arrangements
that allow for a wider range of singing in the accompanying voices, even if the
solos feature traditional pop ranges.
Gospel music can often be louder and should be sung with great conviction
and a throaty intensity. However, make sure that the students, while remaining
true to the style of the music, don’t belt the sound in extreme registers or sing in
other ways that could potentially harm their voices. Tone quality is a subjective
issue and therefore will vary from director to director, but monitoring students’
vocal health is important in any setting.
The use of amplification (see below) can impact students’ tone quality over
a long period of time. Because balance adjustments can be made electronically,
students can sometimes sing with an unsupported sound to achieve the desired
tone. On the positive side, amplification can be used to adjust the balance of
singers in extreme registers so they don’t have to push their voices or harm
them by closing off the sound. As in traditional ensembles, if directors strive
for a completely homogeneous straight-tone quality, the resulting sound is often
pleasant, well blended, and balanced, but because of the vocal adjustments
required of the singers, this practice may cause vocal problems if continued over
a long time.
SOUND AMPLIFICATION AND RECORDING. Many of the small ensembles

mentioned above feature the use of sound equipment for both the singers and the
instrumentalists. Consequently, directors interested in conducting such groups
need to learn how to use such equipment and teach their singers how to use it
as well. You must become conversant with the different kinds of microphones,
speakers, mixers, and other equipment required by your particular group.
Groups that use amplification will benefit from having a sound technician at
their concerts to adjust levels for different acoustic environments.
A wealth of computer software is available for sound recording and editing.

Teachers with a high-quality laptop can mix sound for performance, as well as
record and edit multichannel recordings in a way that only the most advanced
sound studios used to be able to do. The price of such software is coming down
all the time even as features are added, and some, like audacity (http://audacity.
sourceforge.net/), can be downloaded for free.
ACCOMPANIMENT. Most of the small ensembles listed here require accompa-

niment beyond the standard piano. Show choirs, vocal jazz, and gospel typically
use at least a combo comprising piano, bass, and drums, though sometimes the
bass line is covered by another keyboard with synthesized sound. Some selec-
tions by a vocal jazz ensemble will be sung a cappella, whereas others will have
an instrumental combo as accompaniment. When students are available, an
instrumental ensemble consisting of bass and rhythm guitars, a drum set, and
one or more electronic keyboards can provide exciting, full accompaniment for
these groups. The contemporary a cappella and madrigal ensembles often sing
without accompaniment, but madrigal dinners might feature guitar (lute) and
recorder consorts to help create the desired mood. Contemporary a cappella
groups need members who can provide vocal percussion (beat boxing), and
using flexible vocal tone to imitate certain instrument sounds is sometimes
required.
Directors must learn to work with the instrumentalists accompanying their
small ensembles. This can cause some trepidation for teachers who are primarily
vocalists, but the key is to do the homework: listen to the playing styles of good
jazz or rock combos and be willing to ask your instrumental colleagues for help.
Over time, choral teachers should learn some basic techniques on each of the
instruments so that they can demonstrate them. You should audition any instru-
mentalists before accepting them as part of the pop ensemble. Often these stu-
dents might be interested in doing some singing as well. Sight-reading abilities,
improvisatory skills, cooperation, and reliability are a few factors to be assessed.
If a player has exceptional solo capabilities, you may consider using an instru-
mental solo as part of the program. Sometimes you will have singers in the group
who can also play various instruments. They may want to rotate out of the choir
occasionally to play an accompaniment part.
CHOREOGRAPHY AND MOVEMENT. Although all of the small ensembles

discussed here may feature some movement as part of their performance, show
choirs and world music ensembles will often have the most. Choreography adds
a visual component to the overall performance and accounts for much of the
appeal of show choirs. Care should be taken, however, to choose movement that
will enhance, not detract, from the musical presentation. Remember that the
choir is a choir, not a dancing group that also sings, or worse: a dancing group
that cannot sing!
Some directors prefer to create their own choreography, whereas others rely
on students or community members who are interested and talented in this
area. Additional possibilities include involving a fellow faculty member who has
a background and interest in dance, or, if funds are available, hiring a local dance
teacher, or a student majoring in dance at a nearby college or university. Whom-
ever you choose to do the choreography should know that you have the final say
on what movements will be used. This way, moves that are inappropriate for
school will not be an issue.
To create a natural connection between the musical portion of the perfor-
mance and the physical movements, have the choreographer study and listen
to the music first. Focusing on such aspects as the tempo, text, form, phrasing,
and overall mood of the piece will often suggest the most suitable choreography.
For example, if the piece is a slow love song with soft dynamics, a minimum of
movement is suggested. A selection in ABA form may indicate that the choir
repeat the opening movement sequence when the A section returns. The musical
phrases and sections will guide the number of repetitions of the various move-
ments chosen or suggest a change in direction from left to right, or from front to
back. Sharp gestures or smoother movements may reflect the articulation style
of the music.
The most common mistake in show choir performances is too much move-
ment, causing the choir to be in a perpetual state of breathlessness, in addition
to creating a hurried and “busy” visual image that can detract from the singing.
When the music is fast and extremely complex, a moderate amount of move-
ment may be desired to enable the singers to concentrate more completely on the
musical aspects of the performance. More active choreography can be reserved
for fast tunes with fewer voice parts or less challenging harmony, for example.
World music ensembles often feature dancing as part of their presentation,

simply because in many of the world’s cultures singing and dancing are never
separated. This is why videos of performers from the relevant culture can be
more valuable than audio in training your singers (and yourself!) for perfor-
mance—because you can learn the movement as well as the sound. If you can
find a musician or even a community member from the specific culture, he or
she can give you tips on customary performance practice for different types of
music. Programming music from cultures represented in your community is a
great way to start a world music ensemble and make it relevant to your school
community. For gospel music, the movement is more natural and limited, and
for jazz ensembles, movement may not be required (or desired) at all beyond the
natural movements that happen while singing.
Summary
Small ensembles that concentrate on a certain type of music—or explore reper-
toire that can’t be done with a large group—can provide a wonderful teaching
opportunity for your more advanced students and for those with specialized
musical skills and interests. When considering which ensemble to offer, look at
the culture of your school community, your school strengths and interests, the
strengths of your students, and the expense required to get started. Remember
that it may take several years to build the skills and equipment necessary to
direct a successful small ensemble.
Musical Theater
The production of a Broadway musical is often an integral part of high school
(and some middle school) choral programs and offers many potential benefits.
First, the cohesion and esprit de corps of the entire school can be enhanced
as everyone works toward a common goal. A school community often experi-
ences a surge of positive energy when everyone has an opportunity to audition
for a part in the production, and when other students, faculty, staff, and parents
are involved in various nonmusical roles, such as building the set, designing the
costumes, planning the makeup, selling ads for the program, taking publicity
photographs, and selling tickets. This broader base of involvement also prevents
one or two people from having to do all of the work.
Second, involving the entire school in producing a musical can serve as a

recruitment tool for the choral program. As students participate in music on a short-
term basis, they will get to know you and the current choral students and may decide
to join choir on a regular basis. As other faculty and staff become familiar with you
and your activities, they may advise interested students to join the choral program.
A third benefit of producing a musical can be a financial one. When the
publicity is done well and the quality of the performance is consistently high, the
school and surrounding community will look forward to each production, and
ticket sales will be strong. Musicals are costly to produce, though, so expenses
must be kept to a minimum to see any profit. When the musical is financially
successful, a portion of the proceeds may be channeled toward the choral
department and can enhance your budget for the year.
Finally, when businesses are involved with the production in various ways,
ties with the community can be built or strengthened. This outside interest in
and support for school activities can benefit the activities as well as the students
involved in them. Some organizations or businesspeople may be so inspired that
they will donate financial help toward a musical production each year.
When deciding whether to produce a musical at your school, you should be
aware of several potential pitfalls. Of primary concern should be the tremendous
time commitment required of all participants. The time involved is added on to
that required for you and your students to fulfill your responsibilities to the overall
choral program. If not planned efficiently and kept in proper perspective, after-
school and evening rehearsals may place the students’ schoolwork in jeopardy. For
this reason, some schools produce a musical on an every-other-year basis. However,
the enthusiasm and excitement produced by successful rehearsals and performances
can boost the energy levels of both faculty and students and, in this way, can have a
positive effect. (Note: Check with your school district to determine whether there is
a limit to the number of hours per week that students may rehearse.)
An additional concern often raised by critics of producing a musical at the mid-
dle school and/or high school level is the type of vocal production required for
Broadway-style singing. In an attempt to sound like the Broadway stars they all
admire, or to be heard in a large auditorium or over an instrumental ensemble,
young singers may overuse their chest voice and “belt” the sound. Although belting
is a legitimate vocal technique, it requires the same kind of solid vocal fundamentals
Courtesy of the Ballard High School Drama department. Photographer: Maia Wiseman.
Scene from Bye Bye Birdie.
as head voice singing and can put undue strain on young voices whose full range
and power have not yet developed. Obviously, this can be detrimental to the overall
vocal health of your students and should not be encouraged. To reduce the poten-
tial strain on singers, consider using lapel or head microphones for soloists and use
a smaller instrumental ensemble for accompaniment. Amplification through either
head microphones or floor microphones can help reduce the need for singers to
push their voices. Amplification also allows you to use the soundboard to carefully
adjust the balance between the singers and instrumentalists.
Choosing the Right Show
Once you have decided to produce a musical, you must select the show. For
help, you may contact the primary agents who handle musicals (http://www.
musicals101.com/alphinde.htm provides a list of musicals and their agents), and
they will supply you with a catalog, on-approval scores, and, sometimes, a recording.
Several factors must be taken into consideration when choosing the show. You
must determine the musical requirements of the production and match them with
the musical resources available at your school. These resources include singers for
1. Tams-Witmark Music Library, Inc. (tams-witmark.com)

560 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10022
2. The Rodgers and Hammerstein Organization (rnh.com)
229 West 28th Street
New York, NY 10001
3. Music Theatre International (mtishows.com)
421 West 54th Street
New York, NY 10019
4. Samuel French, Inc. (samuelfrench.com)
45 West 25th Street
New York, NY 10010
Figure 14.2 A partial list of companies that license musicals for production. © Cengage
Learning 2014.
principal parts, instrumentalists for the pit orchestra or other accompaniment,

dancers for the show, and the number of singers who are qualified and available
for the chorus. The perceived difficulty level of the show, as well as the suitabil-
ity of the musical requirements for young voices, must also be considered. Drama
teachers will often want to choose a show that fits the personnel perfectly but that
doesn’t take into account the difficulty of the musical score for instrumentalists.
(Note: An excellent article by Susan Bruenger, included in the Additional Reading
list, goes into great detail about choosing shows from the instrumentalists’ point
of view). Another common error is selection of a dance-heavy show made on the
basis of the singing parts, without the knowledge or resources to do all the chore-
ography. Physical attributes (or limitations) of the performing area must be taken
into consideration in addition to necessary sets and props.
Figure 14.3 is a sample summary taken from Larry Mitchell’s A Practical Handbook
for Musical Theatre (2012). Mitchell’s book provides a detailed overview of the musi-
cal and technical requirements for more than one hundred musicals, including those
appropriate for middle school and elementary students, as well as information on
auditions and descriptions of the many jobs required to produce a successful musical.
Just as important as the musical and dramatic demands are the technical
demands of the show. Physical attributes (or limitations) of the performing area,
BYE BYE BIRDIE * (1960) — Lee Adams and Charles Strouse (TW)
This is a show set in the 1950s when Conrad Birdie, a rock‘n’roll singer (suggesting Elvis
Presley), is about to be drafted into the U.S. Army. Birdie’s manager and his secretary
dream up a publicity stunt where, before going into the army, Birdie will kiss a young
teenaged girl on the Ed Sullivan Show.
Cast:
Albert Peterson—tenor/baritone; Birdie’s manager—must have a flair
for comedy
Rose Alvarez—mezzo; Albert’s secretary
Conrad Birdie—tenor/baritone; Elvis Presley type—sensual but crude
Kim McAfee—soprano; a spunky and attractive teenager from Sweet
Apple, Ohio
Mrs. McAfee—mezzo; Kim’s mother
Mr. McAfee—tenor/baritone; Kim’s father
Mae Peterson—non-singing role; Albert’s doting mother—fine comedic role
Many other roles include more teenagers and their parents.
Chorus:
There is a lot of enjoyable, youthful activity with songs like “The
Telephone Hour,” “Kids,” “Honestly, Sincere,” and “One Last Kiss,”
which really relate to young people.
Songs:
In addition to the chorus, songs listed are “Put on a Happy Face,”
“A Lot of Livin’ to Do,” and “How Lovely to Be a Woman.”
Choreography:
It is 1950s style rock and roll movement, not difficult, and it is
something the students will enjoy.
Technical:
The time period needs to be kept in the late 1950s or early 1960s to retain
the story’s charm and identity. There are a number of scene changes going
from New York to Sweet Apple, Ohio, and back again. Care needs to be
taken to make the many scene shifts quickly or you may lose your audience.
Remarks:
Birdie is a very popular show that still works well with performers and
audiences alike. With its numerous scene changes, it is more difficult to
produce that one might think. However, for sheer fun and enjoyment, it
is well worth the effort.
Figure 14.3 Music and technical requirements for Bye Bye Birdie. From Mitchell, L.,
A Practical Handbook for Musical Theatre, 4th ed. Cedar Rapids, IA: Heuer Publishing.
the necessary scenery and costumes, the makeup, the lighting, and any special
effects (will Peter Pan actually fly?) are all factors that could prohibit the choice
of some musicals. If the financial resources and personnel necessary to realize
these production requirements are not available, consider a less elaborate show.
Keep your expectations realistic, and remember, sometimes less is more!
The Middle School Musical

Despite the vocal demands and often mature subject matter, musicals have
become increasingly popular at the middle school level. This is no doubt due in
part to the broad-based participation required, which can energize and unify
an entire school. Although many musicals would not be appropriate musically
or dramatically for adolescents at this age, there are shows that can work quite
well. MTI Broadway Junior Collection versions are often suitable for middle
school singers (http://www.broadwayjr.com/). In addition, the Getting to Know
(G2K) series from Hal Leonard (http://www.halleonard.com/) also gears the
voicing of shows to middle school voices. Some veterans of directing musicals
for this age group suggest that directors may have to do a little arranging when
working with middle school boys in particular, because their range is likely to be
very narrow. One way to counteract the lack of any particular voice part is to use
middle school students in the high school musical and high school students in
the middle school performance. This can be especially useful in a smaller district
where more personnel are needed. Even a guest appearance by the principal or a
coach who sings would be fantastic publicity as well as solve a vocal chasm that
might exist in your situation. Don’t be afraid to be creative.
Budget
So, how much does a musical cost? The answer can depend a lot on the show
you choose, your existing theater resources, and how far you want to (or can)
go in producing a more professional show. Figure 14.4 gives a sample budget
for a high school musical. Royalty and rental costs for scripts, musical scores,
and orchestral parts depend somewhat on the size of your audiences and the
number of performances, so you want to limit the number of shows in order to
maximize the audience for each show. An open dress rehearsal that is free for
the student body wouldn’t count against this number. Beyond the royalty and
Royalty and Rental Fees

$5,100
(Based on number of performances and size of hall)
Orchestra Part Rental $900
Set Construction Costs $2,000
Sound $1,500
Lighting $1,000
Makeup $100
Programs and Publicity $2,500
Ticket Printing $200
Costumes $2,000
Choreographer $2,000
Rehearsal Accompanist $1,500
TOTAL $18,800
Figure 14.4 Sample budget for a high school musical. © Cengage Learning 2014.
rental costs, the other figures really depend on your situation. Will you need to
rent lights and sound? Do you have a state-of-the-art theater in your school, or
do you need to rent a building? Sets, sound, lighting, makeup, and costumes are
all adjustable based on your budget, but as Figure 14.3 indicates, a show like Bye
Bye Birdie could be done with minimal costuming and simple choreography;
however, you may need to be creative about the many scene changes.
The first musical you produce may be challenging to finance, so take that into
account when choosing the show. After a successful first show, you can discuss
with your principal ways to have at least some of the expenses factored into the
overall school budget each year. You may still have to fund-raise (see Chapter 15)
to supplement what can become quite an expense. Look for businesses that could
make “in kind” donations of set materials, printing tickets and programs, or lend
lighting and sound equipment to use for the show. Ticket sales, if priced cor-
rectly, will bring in revenue as well. (Note: It is important that every student in
the school be able to attend the musical for free.)
One way to help raise money as well as advertise for the musical is to have
local businesses take out ads to appear in the program. Figure 14.5 shows a
sample letter to send to local businesses. Offer them the choice of a full page,
a half page, or a business card–size ad and make sure the prices are reason-
able. You want to build a relationship between the school and community. Be
certain to deliver a program to the place of business so that the donors can
see what it looks like, and invite them personally to the show. In fact, right
before the musical starts each night, ask everyone who donated time, talents,
money, or supplies toward the production to stand up and be recognized as
a group.
Auditions
The audition committee should consist of at least the stage director and the
musical director. Different directors run auditions in different ways, but all
auditions should feature some kind of monologue or dramatic reading, a short
vocal solo, and some type of movement audition. Sometimes initial auditions
are done with music and monologues brought by the students, and it isn’t
until the first callback that they audition with materials from the show. Other
directors hand out an audition packet ahead of time that contains several
scenes and songs from the show. This can build excitement, especially if stu-
dents are sent home with materials before winter break and auditions start at
the beginning of spring term. Initial auditions will likely require several suc-
cessive days, followed by callback auditions to narrow down part assignments.
Make sure the dates are well publicized in advance. During the audition,
consider each student’s speaking voice, personality, and overall suitability for a
part. Availability for after-school and evening rehearsals must be determined
at this time.
If the turnout is unusually good and the level of talent is high, you may be able
to double-cast the principal parts. At the very least, choose several understudies
in case of illness or other unforeseen emergency involving the principal cast. Post
the results of the auditions promptly.
Scheduling
All rehearsals and, of course, the performance dates must be scheduled and
entered into the master calendar for the school. Ideally, this should occur as
Name and Address of Your School

(school letterhead)
Dear Patron:
__________________________Middle School is proud to announce that our annual

musical production for this year is_______________________________. The
performance will be on (day of the week, month, day, and year) at 7:30 PM and (day of the
week, month, day, and year) at 2:00 PM. It has been a community tradition for our local
businesses to support our productions by choosing to advertise in our program.
We are offering the following space in the patrons’ portion of our program:
Business Card (four business cards to a page) $5
Half-Page Advertisement (two patrons to a page) $10
Full-Page Advertisement (one patron to a page) $15
We hope you will join our community in wishing success and best wishes to a very
hardworking cast and crew. Messages should be written below and sent to me by (day of
the week, month, day, and year). Thank you in advance for your interest and cooperation.
Please call with any questions or concerns.
Sincerely,
Name of Director
________________________________________________________________
Please make checks payable to (name of your school) and send to:
Name of Your School
Att: Name of Director
Address of School
Name of Business___________________________________________________
Please check one of the following:

Business Card $5___________________(please attach business card)
*Half Page $10__________________
*Full Page $15__________________
*For half-page or full-page advertisements, please write the message as you would like it
to appear in the program. Feel free to attach brochure or company logo.
Figure 14.5 Sample letter to local businesses. From Bobetsky, V., The Magic of Middle
School Musicals. Lanham, MD: Roman & Littlefield Education.
early as one year, but no later than five to six months, before the production. In
addition to the dates, you must reserve multiple rehearsal spaces so that differ-
ent groups of cast members can practice simultaneously. The choral room, the
gymnasium, and various large classrooms can serve as alternatives when the
stage is not available, but these places, too, must be reserved. The rehearsal spots
should be placed on the master calendar at the same time as the dress rehearsals
and the actual performance dates.
When scheduling rehearsals, you must take into account the students’ time
and the resources available to you. Students should be scheduled only when
needed. Once technical and dress rehearsals begin, you will require everyone’s
presence, but, until then, be organized enough to call people only when neces-
sary. Such consideration improves their energy level and commitment and yields
a better show in the long run. At the beginning, rehearsals can be separated into
musical rehearsals, acting/staging rehearsals, and dance rehearsals. As students
learn the show, you will rehearse more by scenes. Don’t feel the need to proceed
chronologically through the show. Large scenes are often challenging to block
and rehearse, so you may want to address those early in the process.
One other aspect of scheduling is whether to consider offering the musical
as a separate class for the term it is being produced or whether to consider it
entirely extracurricular. The benefits of having the musical as a class include a
dedicated rehearsal time and faculty availability during the school day. The major
drawback is finding a way to fit it into students’ already full schedules without
their having to drop another elective (like choir). Some choir directors produce
their musical at the end of the year, and choir class becomes a musical theater
class, with non-choir students either registering for the term or simply rehears-
ing outside choir time.
The Production Team

Figure 14.6 lays out the various duties that must be fulfilled by the produc-
tion team and the directors who might oversee those duties. You would be
wise to have an overall director of the show, and the logical choice for this
position is often the drama instructor, but the choral director, the band or
orchestra director, or a faculty member who has had experience in community
theater or dramatic training and experience in college could fill this role as well.
Stage Director Musical Director Technical Director
• Blocking • Musical numbers • Set construction
• Acting • Pit orchestra • Lighting
• Costumes • Choreography • Sound
• Makeup • Stage manager
• Props
Additional Duties
• Ticket sales
• Publicity
• Programs
• House manager
Figure 14.6 Production team duties. © Cengage Learning 2014.
Every situation is different. You, as the choir director, may be doing both the
stage and musical direction while your theater faculty member handles the
technical directing, or the musical direction may be split between the choir and
orchestra director while a parent handles the technical duties.
So that production of the musical can truly be an all-school event, and so that
all responsibilities will not fall to one person, the director should delegate various
duties among fellow faculty members, students, and parents. For instance, the
publicity committee can handle all details involved in publicizing the event. The
art teacher can head the committee for sets and backdrop, and another interested
faculty member or parent can organize the selection and creation of costumes.
All financial matters might be delegated to the treasurer of the choral parent
organization, and the drama coach can be responsible for guiding the acting. Of
course, the choral director will prepare the vocal portions of the show, and the
band or orchestra director (if an instrumental ensemble is used for accompani-
ment) may select and prepare the instrumentalists.
Involving Teachers and Students in Other Subjects

Musicals can generate school-wide excitement as well as create opportunities for
integrated learning in various classrooms. After choosing the show, meet with
various teachers to share your research into the musical and your ideas on how
their subject area might relate to learning and/or participating opportunities.
Brainstorm together and come up with topics of interest to the teachers as well
as those that fit well into their curricula. Suggestions include studying the history
surrounding the time period or subject matter of the show, discovering the cos-
tumes and hairstyles popular during the period, or researching the librettist and
composer to learn about the inspiration for and composition of the musical. Some
classes might benefit from designing and building sets (with supervision), and
art students could certainly help with backdrops. Especially at the middle school
level, designing a unit of study that includes many different subjects and teachers
is a worthy undertaking (Bobetsky 2009). The opportunities will vary from musi-
cal to musical, but a wealth of information awaits discovery by an entire school!
Publicity and Programs

The administrative side of producing a musical is just as important as the
creative side. The publicity committee must develop a detailed plan for getting
the word out to the community as well as to the school population, and the
earlier the better. Publicity might include newspaper articles, radio and televi-
sion interviews, online announcements, and repeated announcements over the
public address system at school. As the show draws closer, invite people from
the school newspaper as well as the local newspaper to come to a rehearsal and
take publicity shots and gather information for a feature article or two. The local
television station may be interested in a short video clip.
Hanging colorful printed posters in various businesses throughout the com-
munity can be an effective way to advertise the musical. Provide the usual “who,
what, when, and where,” and if tickets are being sold, be sure to include the price,
as well as where they can be purchased. Making advance tickets cheaper than
tickets at the door can be a great way to encourage advance sales and protect your
bottom line.
You may need to engage the services of a school or community person to print
an appealing program. Plan ahead and gather information so that you will have
time to proof it and get it exactly right. Nothing is more disappointing to students
than finding their name in the wrong place or misspelled—or worse, left out
completely! Ordering the correct number of programs can be difficult, but after
a number of years, you will be able to make a more accurate prediction. Students
can always take an extra program for themselves or a family member or special
friend. To help offset the cost of the programs as well as other expenses, sell ads
to local businesses, as suggested earlier under Budget. In addition, family and
friends will often pay a small amount to take out a message ad for the program
that says something like “We love you, Marcy!” or “Break a leg, Sam!”
Student Leadership
Musical theater provides numerous opportunities for student leadership in both
musical and nonmusical roles. The student who isn’t interested in singing on
stage but who is a star dancer or a great poster artist can find a place in the
musical production. Although adults may fill most of the supervisory roles,
student-led committees should oversee most aspects of production. Students
can help with set building and painting, costumes, lights, sound, and just about
everything. Not only can they help, but you will need them to help. Delegating
a large number of tasks to student and parent helpers will become a necessity
if you hope to get everything done on time. Although parents can often be as
enthusiastic as the students about the musical, it is important to give students
the chance to lead and not be steamrolled by well-intentioned but zealous par-
ent volunteers. Requiring everyone in the show, from those in the lead roles on
down, to put in a certain number of hours on the less glamorous “tech” aspects
of the production is important. This creates a more egalitarian atmosphere and
gives students a broader education on what a theatrical production involves.
Summary
Today, a student’s opportunities to sing can consist of traditional choral ensem-
bles offered during the school day as well as a variety of small ensembles and
musical theater productions. These varied opportunities will enhance your stu-
dents’ choral music education if kept in proper perspective. Learning diverse
musical styles and providing opportunities for solo work, theater experience,
and dance can be extremely valuable for students. The teacher must monitor and
encourage the use of good vocal technique in all of these settings. If you choose
to have a small ensemble at your school, consider all the options available.
Your interests and expertise, student and community interests, and your school
resources should all factor into your choice.
Production of a Broadway musical can foster a spirit of commraderie when
students from across the school community are involved in different ways. Like
selecting repertoire for the choir, choosing the right show can go a long way
toward ensuring a successful experience for all. Musicals that allow larger num-
bers of students to participate can serve as a great recruiting tool for the choral
department, and successful productions can strengthen the school’s ties to the
community.
The time commitment required to produce a musical is challenging, however,
so rehearsals must be planned efficiently in consideration of the students and
adults who are involved. Although one person should act as the director of the
show, this person does not need to do all of the work. Responsibilities should be
delegated to students, parents, and other faculty members. This larger base of
involvement not only will help to distribute duties but will also make the musical
a genuinely all-school event.
Mini-Projects
1. Locate two directors in your area who each have small ensembles at
their schools but who have different musical emphases in their groups. Go with
a friend from class to observe a rehearsal at both schools. Discuss what you saw
and heard. Prepare a brief report to present to the class.
2. Visit a music store and familiarize yourself with the sound equipment
currently available. Create a complete list of equipment that you would need to
support your favorite type of pop/jazz ensemble and include the price for each
choice.
3. Observe the rehearsal of a pop ensemble on a day when they are
working with their choreographer and notice how he or she teaches movement
to the group. Was it effective? How would you do things differently? Discuss
with your class.
4. Attend several rehearsals at a middle school or high school as students
prepare a musical production. Observe the delegation of responsibilities and
the organization of rehearsal time. Write down a “who does what” list and how
well it is working.
5. Observe a rehearsal of instrumentalists in the pit for a school musical.
What instruments are required? Who is directing them? Is the ensemble
all students or are older, more experienced people filling in some gaps in the
group? Compare the observations from other schools by your fellow classmates
and discuss differences and similarities.
References
Bobetsky, Victor V. 2009. The magic of middle school musicals. Reston,
VA: Music Educators National Conference.
Mitchell, Larry. 2012. A practical handbook for musical theatre, 5th ed.
Cedar Rapids, IA: Heuer Publishing.
Ward-Steinman, Patrice M. 1999. Getting started with vocal
improvisation. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
Weir, Michelle. 2001. Vocal improvisation. Rottenburg, Germany:
Advance Music.
Additional Reading
Bruenger, Susan. 2005. Preparing a Broadway musical: Instrumental
considerations. Choral Journal 46 (3): 51–56.
Combs, Ronald, and Robert Bowker. 1995. Learning to sing nonclassical
music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Lanier, Brian. 2007. Keeping the choir in show choir. Choral Journal 48
(2): 35–37.
Ostrander, Arthur E., and Dana Wilson. 1986. Contemporary choral
arranging. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Weaver, Mike, and Colleen Hart. 2011. Sweat, tears, and jazz hands:
The official history of show choir from vaudeville to Glee. Montclair, NJ: Hal
Leonard Books.
CHAPTER 15
Administering the
Choral Program
Ms. Chin is feeling frantic and frustrated. The music she ordered two weeks ago has not ar-
rived; the choir brought their uniforms for a photograph on Thursday, but the photographer
came on Friday; and the front office is demanding the progress reports, due yesterday, for three
students with borderline grades. In addition, the student who serves as choral librarian has
been sick with the flu all week, and music has spread over the choir office and the workroom
as well. Preparations for the Spring Festival and Solo and Ensemble Competition have meant
that Ms. Chin hasn’t had a free weekend in several weeks, and her stress level is rising. How
can she possibly rehearse five choirs with all these demands and worries?
As musicians, choral directors often have little patience for keeping up with
correspondence, getting grades in on time, or organizing a fund-raising cam-
paign. These nonmusical details take precious time away from what you are best
qualified for and most eager to do: making beautiful music! Unfortunately, these
nonmusical details of running a choral program will not go away, and, if not
managed properly, can overwhelm you and have a negative impact on the musi-
cal portion of the job.
Because they may not fully understand the teaching of music, some administra-
tors will assess your teaching effectiveness on how efficiently you manage the cho-
ral program under your direction rather than on your musical successes. Choral
directors must acknowledge that management is an important and necessary com-
ponent of directing choirs and develop systematic strategies for handling adminis-
trative details. Then, and only then, can a choral program rise to its full potential.
348
ADMINISTERING THE CHORAL PROGRAM 349
Teacher Burnout
Choosing and preparing appropriate music for up to six choirs, planning excit-
ing rehearsals and executing them with enthusiasm and diligence, conduct-
ing before- and after-school rehearsals, and making preparations for solo and
ensemble participation are just a few of the musical responsibilities of the choir
director. When the wide array of duties involved in managing the choral depart-
ment is added to these tasks, the job can quickly become overwhelming.
Youthful enthusiasm, a high level of energy, and a strong desire to succeed
often lead new directors to think that they can do it all by themselves, and for
a while, this may be possible. After a few years, however, the fact that you are
working (and working hard) during every waking hour in the week and often
over the weekends will make the normal stress level of the job very difficult to
handle. To avoid suffering teacher burnout and to remain as effective as possible,
take care of yourself by eating properly, getting enough rest and exercise, and
planning recreational time with friends and family. Learn what you can handle
well and then practice saying “no” without feeling guilty. In addition, and per-
haps most important, learn early in your career how to delegate responsibilities
to others. Parents are often eager to get involved with their child’s educational
experiences, and students can benefit greatly by taking on responsibilities them-
selves. Share duties with others. You will find the result is a well-run organization
where everyone involved has a strong, vested interest in the choral program. This
positive energy will spill over into everything—recruitment, retention, discipline,
and, most importantly, music.
Parent Organizations
When you begin your first job, a choral parent organization may already be in
place. If none exists, you should consider organizing one at your school. Start by
discussing your idea with the principal in case you need to know about certain
school policies regarding such groups. If your school is small, a music boosters
club for choir, band, and orchestra may be a better, more efficient way to involve
parents. In such cases, clear expectations for how resources are allocated should
be discussed because instrumental music programs tend to cost considerably
more than choir.
350 ADMINISTERING THE CHORAL PROGRAM
Parents can be extremely helpful in managing a choral program. Delegating

duties to willing and eager parents can ease the burden of nonmusical responsibili-
ties, allowing the director to focus almost entirely on the musical portion of the
job. Parents help with fund-raising, certainly, but they can also help with concert
details, choosing outfits, and travel—and when things get tough, they can be fierce
advocates for your program. Fostering a strong and positive relationship with your
choral parents is a very important aspect of your work.
A good way to make initial contact with parents is to send home a student
handbook at the beginning of the year. Request that the student’s parents or
guardians sign it and return it to you, signifying that they have read and agree
with the choral schedule and procedures. This gives parents valuable informa-
tion about the year’s plans and lets you know that they have received it and (you
hope) read it. Also include a form on which parents may indicate if they would
like to be involved in the choral program. Include space for contact informa-
tion (email, phone numbers, and address) and follow up quickly with those who
express an interest in assisting. Create a contact list of choral parents right away
so that when the need arises, you can send out the call for help.
An alternative to sending home a handbook is to invite the parents to a mini-
concert close to the beginning of the year in which each choir performs one or
two pieces. This plan has two advantages: the singers will have an early per-
formance goal toward which to work, and having all students involved at the
meeting may promote better parental attendance. In this way, a spirit of unity
can start growing within the choral program. Inform the parents that a brief
business meeting will follow the concert, with refreshments to come after that.
Begin the business portion of the evening by providing a brief overview of
the entire choral program and the year’s goals for each choir. Then, explain your
vision of and need for a choral parent organization and give a brief description
of the various duties for which you hope they can provide assistance. A handout
(or PowerPoint presentation) containing a list of proposed officers and commit-
tees and their responsibilities can be helpful to the parents at this first meeting.
Once parents understand what is desired and expected, ask them to sign up
or volunteer for committee chair or officer positions. If you have a lot of interest,
you may need to hold elections. After the leaders are appointed or elected, they
can begin organizing volunteers to serve on the various committees.
Parent Officers
The following list of parent officers and their duties is rather basic for any
organization. The list of suggested committees can be modified according to
your situation and particular needs.
PRESIDENT. The president presides at all meetings, and is involved in any

major decision making, especially if it involves policy or the organization’s
money. This person is the primary point of contact with the teacher.
VICE PRESIDENT. The vice president can preside whenever the president is
absent, but can also serve as the chairperson of all committee heads. When the
officers make a decision on a project, for instance, the vice president can then
call the committee heads to explain their committee’s contribution to the cur-
rent project. Each committee head then disseminates the information to com-
mittee members, and the work begins.
SECRETARY. The secretary keeps accurate minutes of each meeting, and

is responsible for all the organization’s correspondence, both written and
electronic.
TREASURER. The treasurer keeps accurate records of all monies, and should
have had at least some experience in the financial area. The treasurer should
be bonded to protect both the treasurer and the choral department in case any
discrepancies occur.
Possible Committees
FUND-RAISING. This committee is an extremely important one because its
members will organize and supervise all fund-raising activities for the year
(more about fund-raising later in this chapter).
TRAVEL. This committee is responsible for planning trips, including meals,

housing, and providing chaperones for all choir activities during the year. They
may also be asked to make arrangements for buses or vans needed for transport-
ing choral students.
COMMUNICATION. This committee is responsible for “getting the word out” as

quickly as possible. Each committee member should be provided with an accu-
rate list of all choral students’ names, parents’ or guardians’ names, addresses,
phone numbers, and email addresses. This committee’s chairperson should have
access to the choral department’s website so that announcements can be posted
in a timely manner. This is often the quickest way to let the singers and their
families know you have had to cancel tonight’s concert because of bad weather,
or that the bus will depart 15 minutes earlier than previously stated. In many
choral programs, the chair of this committee is responsible for sending regular
email updates to parents, soliciting volunteers, and perhaps even managing a
separate parent booster webpage. Keeping parents in the loop of information is
crucial to maintaining positive relationships between school and home.
PUBLICITY. This committee is responsible for the public relations portion
of the choral program. Duties may include the writing and delivery of articles
about the choir’s activities and achievements to the local newspaper, putting up
posters around town about upcoming concerts, and the organization of yearly
pictures for the entire choral department.
PERFORMANCE ATTIRE. This committee can be extremely helpful at the
beginning of each school year, when new outfits may be purchased or made by
parents. A good amount of time is required to search for available sizes, costs,
colors, and vendors, and parents can help find this information. Parents can
also be helpful when school-owned outfits are returned at the end of the year.
In addition, if parents are involved in deciding what the young people will wear,
they may be more supportive of the decision.
HISTORIAN. This committee (or person) keeps a record of the activities of the
year, including articles, trips, concert programs, and photographs to be placed
on the choral department’s website. This responsibility may be assumed by one
of the choral students. You may wish to keep a traditional scrapbook as well as
an electronic one.
Constitution
Balancing your authority as the choral director with the authority of the choral
parent organization is often tricky. On the one hand, if you constantly try to run
everything yourself, or attempt to preside at meetings, the parents will wonder

why you created their organization. On the other hand, if one or two of the
officers begin making decisions without consulting you, you may wonder why
you created their organization! A good way to avoid this potential power strug-
gle is to create a constitution or charter for the group. This document should
be drawn up together by the officers and the choral director, and then voted on
by the entire membership. The constitution should state specifically the duties
and responsibilities of each participant and the organization’s relationship to the
choral director and choral students. Then, when a problem arises, you can refer
to the constitution to help resolve a potentially difficult situation.
Student Leadership
Encouraging students to take on leadership positions can be beneficial to all
those involved in choir. By delegating to students some of the nonmusical aspects
of running a choral program, you will have more time and energy to focus on
the musical portion of your job, and students will benefit by developing impor-
tant life skills, such as responsibility, teamwork, organization, and dependability.
Because they are giving more of themselves, these students will likely feel greater
investment in the choir and will appreciate the trust that has been placed in them.
In addition to participation in the management duties of the choral program,
student officers should also take part in some decision making. Representation
in the choral parent organization can provide student leaders an opportunity to
voice student concerns and opinions.
Student Officers
Officers may be elected for each choir or for the entire choral program. A word
of caution, however: do not hold elections for offices that have no real purpose
or responsibilities. If you don’t need officers in each choir, don’t create those
positions. However, electing section leaders within each choir is usually a good
idea to promote team spirit, motivation, and positive behavior patterns.
Possible student officers and their responsibilities include:
PRESIDENT. The president of the choir or the choral department can act as
student representative to the choral parent organization and, in this way, will be
involved in the decision-making process. The president is the spokesperson for

the choir at performances and recruitment ventures.
VICE PRESIDENT. The vice president assists the president and will step in
whenever the president is unavailable. In addition, assigning to this office a
specific function, such as management of fund-raising activities or maintenance
of accurate attendance records, can help make this person feel important and
necessary in his or her own right.
SECRETARY. The secretary is responsible for all correspondence. One impor-

tant job for this officer is to write thank-you notes from the choir to the choral
parent organization or to individual parents for a job well done. This gesture
will show much deserved appreciation to those who volunteer to do important
(and often thankless) work for the choirs. The secretary should take pictures at
various choral activities and help the historian from the choral parent organiza-
tion to keep the choral website current and attractive.
TREASURER. The treasurer, of course, deals with the financial aspects of the
choral program and should work closely with the treasurer of the choral parent
organization. Although the student vice president may be in charge of managing
a fund-raising event, the student treasurer may be responsible for the money col-
lected during the school day until the choral parent can deposit it into the bank.
LIBRARIAN. The librarian is in charge of the choral library. Cataloguing new

music, entering it into the computer database, pulling music to be used by choirs
and then placing it back into the file when no longer in use, and keeping track of
music that has been lost or is in need of repair are just a few of the very impor-
tant duties of this office.
WARDROBE MANAGER. The wardrobe manager is in charge of concert attire

for the choral groups. If the school owns choral outfits, they will need to be
assigned to students at the beginning of the year, cleaned at the end of the
year, and stored properly over the summer. Like the choral library, perfor-
mance outfits are a big investment, and great care should be taken to keep
both investments in good shape for as long as possible. The wardrobe manager
will also serve as the student voice regarding the choice of performance attire.
Budget
Each school district will have a slightly different method of budgeting funds for
various departments within the schools, and you will need to become knowl-
edgeable about your district’s procedures. The best time to ask questions regard-
ing finances is during your job interview. Knowing how much money is allo-
cated to the choral department may suggest not only the economic condition of
the school system but also the level of support for the music program.
If the amount of money budgeted for choir is insufficient (and it usually
is), you may wish to request a larger figure. If you do, come prepared to justify
the increased amount in terms of direct benefits to the program, the students,
and the school as a whole. If additional funds are not available, discuss with
the administration their policies regarding alternatives for raising the necessary
money, such as fund-raising projects or charging admission to a musical program
produced by the choral department.
Efficient and conscientious management of funds allocated to your department
is critical. Be knowledgeable about budget procedures, keep accurate records and
receipts, shop around for the best prices available, and take good care of the
music and equipment in the choral department. If the administration observes
that your materials are well cared for, and that you are frugal and efficient in your
business dealings, they may be more likely to increase your budget when feasible.
General Operation Costs

You must have a provision each year for the general operation of the choral
department. Money allotted to this area should allow for at least the purchase of
music, and optimally, for additional music folders or music storage containers if
needed. Festival and contest entry fees, transportation costs, fees for guest con-
ductors and clinicians, piano tuning and upkeep, and any maintenance required
on performance apparel should fall into this category as well.
Some costs within the general operating budget of the choral department may
be covered in the budget for the entire school. For example, piano tuning and
upkeep may be included within the school’s general maintenance budget, and
any clinician’s fees may fall into the category of general instruction and materials.
Some schools charge all students an activity fee, which can then help support a
portion of student-centered activities like guest clinicians or contest fees. The

purchase of music may even be covered by the textbook budget for the school
because that is, in essence, the function that the music serves. As much as pos-
sible, pursue alternative funding to relieve the choral department’s financial
responsibilities.
Large Purchases
Occasionally, you will have to purchase items such as concert risers, a new piano,
performance attire, sound equipment, or a new computer and/or additional
software. Discussing the items needed with fellow choral directors can often
yield valuable information about what has been successful, and checking cata-
logues and online sites to compare features and prices can help you make a more
informed choice. Some of these unusual purchases, like some items within the
choir’s general operating budget, may be covered in the budget for the entire
school, thus allowing the music budget to be used for other purposes.
When proposing large expenditures, provide written justification for the pur-
chase. Most important, this justification should include educational benefits to
the students. The need for the items (how they will be used in rehearsal and
how many students will benefit) and information on available brands and prices
should be provided as well so that the administration can see your efforts toward
making a wise purchase.
Alternative Sources of Income

Most likely, an active choral department will not be able to operate easily with-
out supplementary funds raised from alternative sources. Fund-raising projects
directed by the choral parent organization can bring in additional monies, but
they may also become overwhelmingly frequent, taking valuable time away from
learning about and performing music. If you have a choice, plan one large fund-
raiser that has the potential to yield large profits, rather than three or four small
projects with modest profits. Always keep in mind that students are in choir to
sing and learn about music rather than to earn money.
In lieu of fund-raising projects, some parents would rather contribute a set
amount of money to the choral department. In addition to parent donations,
several wealthy citizens in your city may be interested in arts education and thus
may be willing to donate money for a needed item or for a desired special pro-
ject or trip. If such good fortune comes your way, make sure that the donors are
thanked publicly and properly for their thoughtfulness, and that they are invited
to see the benefits made possible by their donation.
Another alternative source of income is to charge an admission fee to an
annual musical production. This production can be a variety or talent show, a
Broadway musical, a madrigal dinner, a special holiday program, or a spaghetti
dinner at which the singers perform and wait tables when they aren’t singing. The
winning feature of this alternative is that the money earned comes from students
doing what they are supposed to be doing: singing and learning about music.
Choral Library
Central to any choral program is its choral library. Choral directors spend
countless hours of thoughtful consideration in choosing and ordering the music
their choirs will sing, and large sums of money can be spent yearly on the pur-
chase of music, making the choral library a sizable financial investment. Great
care, therefore, should be taken regarding its cataloguing, distribution, repair,
and storage, and security both during and after its use. With shrinking budgets,
music already in the choral library may need to be revisited more often than
usual to save on the purchase of new music.
Ordering the Music

You may want to research several vendors to see if any provide a discount. For
example, vendors frequently offer discounts for ordering early or in large quanti-
ties. Before deciding, make sure you know their policies on returns and whether
music can be ordered “on approval.” Once a vendor is chosen, try to order most
of the music during the summer. This way, the music will likely arrive before
school begins. For purchases during the school year, check with the vendor
to verify how long it will take to receive the music, and plan accordingly. One
month is a good average timetable for music to be ordered and shipped, but the
process can take as little as one to two weeks or as long as several months. Noth-
ing is more troubling than to have a performance deadline facing you, and the
music has not yet arrived. Plan ahead.
Information you will need at the time you order the music includes:
1. Title
2. Composer, arranger, and/or editor
3. Publisher
4. Edition number (some music will not have one)
5. Voicing (SATB, SSA, TTB, 3-part mixed, etc.)
6. Number of copies (order a few extra copies to allow for damage or loss of music
over the years)
7. Shipping preference (sometimes you will need it shipped the fastest way
possible; be prepared to pay an extra charge for this service)
Cataloguing the Music

Let’s say you ordered sixty-five copies of “Echo Song” by Orlando di Lasso for
the Concert Choir (see Figure 15.1). When the music arrives, the choral librar-
ian verifies that sixty-five copies have been received. Then each piece of music
is stamped with the choral department’s stamp (for example: “Carey Middle
School Choral Dept.”). Next, the piece of music is assigned the next number in
the sequence of music purchases for mixed voices that your school has made.
For instance, the last piece of mixed choir music ordered and received was
No. 55, so Echo Song will be given the number 56. The next piece of music for
mixed voices to be ordered and received will be assigned No. 57. For the new
piece, the number 56 will be stamped on the front of each copy, and the con-
tainer that will hold the music in storage will be marked with No. 56 as well.
(The same idea will apply to music for treble voices as well as to music for male
choir. Music of each voicing could have separate numbering sequences and be
stored in separate locations within the choral library).
Each copy received will be stamped with an additional number (in this case,
from 1 to 65) signifying the copy number from that set of music. This number is
helpful when you assign music to a particular student because, after the music is
taken up, if copy number 7 from piece No. 56 is not returned or is damaged in
some way, you will know which student had the music. This helps prevent loss or
damage because students know they will be held accountable for all music given
Figure 15.1 A new addition to the choral library with all the necessary stamps.
to them; if the music is lost, the student, rather than the choral department, will
pay for its replacement.
Simplified, the sequence of events for the choral librarian is as follows:
1. Verify the number of copies received by counting them.

2. Stamp each piece with the name of the school.
3. Assign to the piece the next number in the sequence of music purchases by
voicing. This number is stamped on each copy of the piece and is also notated
on the container that will hold the piece.
4. Stamp the copy number on each copy of the piece.
The choral librarian then enters all cataloguing information about the piece,
including its newly assigned number, into the computer. Examples of entries that
can be put into the database about each piece in the choral library include: title;
composer/editor/arranger; publisher; edition number; topic or season; number
of copies; difficulty level; a cappella or accompanied; source of text; language;
and voicing. You can see the many possibilities for cross-referencing and sorting,
as well as for ease in locating a particular composition even if you are unable to
recall its title and/or composer.
Distributing the Music

If music is given out and taken up at each rehearsal, it can create confusion in
the classroom as well as damage to the music by excessive handling. In addition,
because students will have a different copy of the music at each rehearsal, they
will be unable to write in the music various reminders, such as where to breathe
or where to watch the conductor closely.
To counteract these problems, assign a music folder to each student. These
folders, containing all music currently in rehearsal, can be stored in a folder cabi-
net like the one shown in Figure 15.2. The cabinet is located where students can
pick up or return their folders as they enter or leave the choral room. The music,
the folder, and the slot in the folder cabinet all have the same number for identi-
fication purposes. For example, José’s folder, marked with the number 6, contains
music also marked with number 6, and his folder is kept in slot number 6 in the
folder cabinet.
© 2014 Thom Ewing/Cengage Learning

Figure 15.2 Cabinet to store students’ music folders.
With this system, new music, reminders to be taken home, or a long list of
announcements can be placed in all slots before rehearsal, avoiding confusion
and saving valuable time. Likewise, students can leave music they are finished
singing on top of their folder once the folder is placed in the cabinet. The choral
librarian can easily retrieve the music in numerical order and return it to the
choral library. He or she will also be able to see which students have not turned
in their music. New music can also be given out this way. This system holds stu-
dents accountable for their materials.
Some directors allow students to take their music home on a regular basis for
additional study and practice. Fearing the music may be misplaced, other direc-
tors have a system in place to allow students to check out their folder at the end
of the school day and to return it the following morning before school begins.
You will need to decide what policy you prefer. Keep in mind that it is difficult
to expect students to practice their music if they can’t easily take it home with
them.
Storing the Music

After a concert, the music will be taken up and stored in the choral library, but
before it is put away, the librarian will first need to do several important tasks.
First, he or she must check to make certain that all music has been returned
and to see if any repairs are needed. Choral music is handled much more than
band or orchestra music and, therefore, may need more frequent repairs. Archi-
val document repair tape is good for rips and tears because it is very thin and
transparent, and will not become brittle and turn yellow with age like ordinary
Scotch tape. Check with the librarian or media specialist at your school for help
in purchasing the document repair tape and keep some handy at all times.
After all the copies are gathered and any necessary repairs are made, the music
must be placed where it will remain safely until the next time it is used. Several
options are available for storage.
FILE CABINETS. Several letter-size file cabinets can be used to store most
music quite easily. A hanging file system may work best, because it may require
a bit less handling than the regular manila folders or filing envelopes. Regardless
of the type you choose, each file folder should have the title and composer, as
well as the number of the piece, written on the outside of the folder. The music,
of course, is placed inside the folders, and the folders are filed numerically. If you
have limited space and a limited budget, storing the music in folders inside sev-
eral file cabinets may be your best choice. An additional positive feature of file
cabinets is that they can be locked.
CARDBOARD BOXES. Cardboard boxes of the same length and width but of
varying thickness are available for music storage. The music is always protected
inside the box, and because the boxes are stored numerically on shelves, the
choral director and librarian can readily see them. On the negative side, many
shelves are necessary to accommodate these boxes, and choral directors often
complain they must open the box to get even one copy of the music. Repeated
opening and closing of the boxes may limit how long the boxes will last before
replacements are needed. In addition, it is sometimes difficult to get all copies
of the music to go down evenly into the box, causing one or two pieces to be
folded or crushed in the storage process. If, however, you like having your music

Figure 15.3 Cardboard boxes in various sizes for music storage.
out where you can see it, and have the space required as well as the money to
purchase them, you may want to consider storing music in cardboard boxes, as
STURDY BOXES WITH SEPARATE LIDS. Another available option is the

use of boxes with separate lids, shown in Figure 15.4. As with the cardboard
boxes described above, shelves are required, but retrieving the music in these
boxes is much easier because you simply remove and then replace the lid. These
boxes are more expensive but may last longer because they are made from a
sturdier cardboard. The lids are an optional purchase at a small additional cost
but are recommended because dust, bugs, and curious fingers will easily get into
these storage containers if left uncovered.
The storage of major works, oversized music, or instrumental parts often
proves difficult. Large boxes can be used to keep this music safe and free of
dust, but the amount of floor space required is often a problem. Large boxes
to store on shelves are also available for purchase to store larger works, and
large-sized envelopes with a brad closure take up less space but are more dif-
ficult to see at a glance. More often than not, this music is simply stacked up

Figure 15.4 Sturdy boxes with optional lids for music storage.
and placed on shelves with no covering whatsoever. This is not a good idea for
obvious reasons, not the least of which is the cost of replacing just one copy of
a major work.
Classroom Equipment
When looking for a guide for what instruments and equipment are needed for
music instruction, you can refer to Opportunity-to-Learn: Standards for Music
Instruction (1994), published by the National Association for Music Education.
This booklet gives several recommendations for choral music programs at the
secondary level. Every room should have “a high-quality sound reproduction
system capable of utilizing current recording technology,” as well as access to
recordings of a variety of musical styles and cultures. Each room should have
convenient access to a high-quality electronic or acoustic piano that is tuned at
least three times each year, and a set of portable choral risers. The recommenda-
tions also include sturdy music stands, a music folder for each choral student,
conductors’ stands, and chairs designed for music classes.
If moving the piano from the rehearsal hall into the performance area is
extremely difficult or impossible because of the building’s architectural limi-
tations, you should consider purchasing a piano that would remain in the
performing area and be used for concerts and school assemblies that include
music in some way. Even if moving the rehearsal piano is an easy task, you
may wish to consider the purchase of a performance piano to reduce wear
and tear, due to frequent moves, on the rehearsal piano. Someone in the com-
munity may have a piano he or she would donate, or you could fund-raise to
purchase one.
Risers for choral performances are certainly desirable. Having singers on dif-
ferent levels not only promotes better eye contact but also allows for every voice
to be heard. A variety of styles are available today, including those with carpet to
reduce noise, those with casters for ease in moving, those to which an acoustical
shell can be attached, and those that have a back rail available to prevent singers
from falling off the top row. Many styles even allow for various configurations
in addition to the more traditional straight-line or semicircular arrangements.
This latter feature is a definite plus if you have a pop ensemble that uses creative
choreography.
If you have the luxury of securing a position at a brand-new middle school/
junior high or high school and can consult on architectural plans for the choral
area, you may want to consider a flat floor with portable risers for sitting, rather
than a floor with permanent concrete risers built in. A flat floor offers much
more versatility, especially if your program includes teaching musical theater or
nonperformance classes, such as general music or music theory, or if movement
is part of your instruction in any way. The nonperformance classes need a differ-
ent type of space and often require desks, and the pop ensemble must have suf-
ficient room to rehearse choreography. Traditional choirs often use movement
to foster a certain feel for the music they are performing, and this is difficult to
accomplish in a tiered choir room.
Technology in the Classroom

Educators have a vast array of technology available for use in classrooms and
rehearsals. Because technology changes so rapidly, the task of becoming knowl-
edgeable in this area can sometimes be overwhelming, especially for new choral
directors who are already assuming many new responsibilities. However, an ini-
tial investment of time and effort to learn about new technology and how it can
make your job more manageable and exciting will pay huge dividends in the long
run. If you haven’t taken a technology course as part of your college curriculum,
investigate a course offered by a community college or a summer workshop, or
ask friends or colleagues who can help you become familiar with the equipment
and its myriad uses. Another useful source for technology education is your stu-
dents, many of whom are likely to be on the cutting-edge of current technology.
Computer technology can support both the administrative and instructional
needs of your program, often with the same basic computer.
Administrative Uses
Using a computer for administrative purposes alone can greatly increase your
efficiency as well as reduce the amount of time required for many nonmusi-
cal tasks. Accurate and accessible records for every student can be stored in a
database or spreadsheet program and updated when necessary. An inventory
of the choirs’ performance attire and other materials or equipment can be kept
in a different document. Using the computer for word-processing, email, and
web-related purposes will greatly expedite communication to parents and col-
leagues, and any correspondence of a general nature.
A choir webpage can also be a place to post announcements, audio and video
of recent performances, and other information about your program. If you post
video, be sure that your student’s privacy is being safeguarded, perhaps by having
a password-protected section on your webpage. (Note: Short of banning record-
ing during performances, you won’t be able to control videos that students and
parents take and post on YouTube or other sites.) Many of the forms, rules, and
procedures of your program can be placed on the choir webpage so that students
and parents can access them at any time, saving you time and printing costs.
Students’ grades may be calculated accurately and much more quickly with the
use of a spreadsheet or dedicated grading program for the computer. More and
more districts are moving to online grading systems in which teachers must post
grades regularly for parents and students to reference. Spreadsheets or accounting
programs allow financial information to be kept accurately and updated easily. Per-
haps the most valuable benefit is computerization of the choral library. The initial
move from a card-file system to entering the information into the computer may
require substantial time and effort, but afterwards you need only enter new pieces
as they arrive, and the possibilities for cross-referencing are endless.
Instructional Uses
Computers and related technology have become increasingly important in
music instruction, even when students themselves are not using computers.
Teachers must have a way to create music notation, to record and perform
basic sound editing, and to display information for the entire class. Having a
music notation program allows the teacher to create exercises as needed for
instructional purposes. Although some limited programs are available for
free, music teachers typically need the full features of a purchased program.
Choral directors can use the music notation system to create such things as
specialized warm-up and sight-singing exercises as well as to arrange music
selections tailored to their particular choral group. Exercises can be created
and then uploaded to a webpage, displayed on the board, or embedded in
worksheets handed out to the students. Programs are also available that will
coordinate with your music notation program to create recordings and exer-
cises for the students to practice.
Sound recording and editing software and equipment can range from rela-
tively inexpensive and very simple to complicated and extremely expensive.
Computers and other devices usually contain an internal microphone and cam-
era that can record sound and even video of varying quality. For the quality of
sound most music programs require, it is worthwhile to invest in a high-quality
stereo recording microphone or a portable recording device. Once recorded, the
sound can be edited using programs that vary in cost as well as professional
quality. If you are performing with amplification from multiple sources, then a
mixer and multi-track recording program will be the best way to capture and
edit your performances. For the purposes of sharing recordings with your school
or submitting them for festivals and conferences, you need to be able to produce
high-quality sound files that could be burned to a disc or uploaded to a website.
Classroom technology for displaying information can range from the old-
fashioned (chalk board, white board, or overhead projector) to the more modern
(PowerPoint and document cameras) to the more integrated (SMART Board).
These technologies are continually evolving, and schools and professional organ-
izations often offer in-service workshops or clinics to familiarize teachers with
new equipment and techniques. Mastering an approach that works for you and
sticking with it for a period of time is often the best bet.
Instructional technology for students has also changed greatly, moving from
software-based to web-based tools, many of which are free of charge. The ben-
efits of technology for students include the possibility of individually tailored
and directed learning by moving through an online course of study in areas such
as music theory or music fundamentals. Method books and textbooks (includ-
ing this one) are increasingly supplementing their information with web-based
tools that feature audio and video. Teachers with facility in webpage develop-
ment and social media can provide vibrant out-of-school environments for stu-
dents to share and discuss the music they are performing. Instructional pro-
grams and games designed to teach or reinforce aural skills and music theory can
enhance your students’ knowledge, sight-singing skills, and overall musicianship.
Through iTunes and other online streaming resources, you can begin to cre-
ate an extensive library of choral recordings that your students can access from
anywhere.
Increasingly, students have access to hand-held personal technology that
offers the opportunity to record sound and video; to connect to the web; and
to take advantage of free applications, from pitch pipes to metronomes. It is
important to remember that not all students can afford these more expensive
technologies, so your instruction cannot depend on them unless you provide
them for everyone.
Performance Attire
Wearing a specific performance outfit for concerts provides visual uniformity,
complementing the musical uniformity for which every choir strives. The choir,
after all, is a group; therefore, attention should be not on various individuals but
rather on the entire ensemble.
A wide variety of options, ranging from very elaborate to quite simple, are
available for concert apparel. An inexpensive and age-appropriate outfit for
middle school/junior high choirs consists of nice jeans (no holes or baggy
pants, please!) and a T-shirt with the school’s name on the front. Singers can
purchase a pair of jeans that meets the requirements and appeals to them, and
the T-shirts can be purchased in bulk, to provide uniformity as well as identi-
fication for each group. This idea may work well with older choirs, as well, for
casual concerts such as trips to feeder schools for recruitment programs, or for

concerts with a lighter musical focus. Having students wear the same T-shirt
also makes gathering them together considerably easier when it is time to get
back on the bus.
Another relatively inexpensive but more formal performance outfit includes
long black skirts or dress pants and long-sleeved white blouses for the women,
with black slacks and long-sleeved white shirts for the men. No specific pattern
need be required, apart from a reminder to keep the style simple. This way,
students can select the style that looks best on them, and the black-and-white
colors provide uniformity. Adding a colorful cummerbund or tie can provide
variety.
The most formal attire consists of tuxedos for the men and formal gowns
for the women. This route can become very expensive, but the look is quite
distinctive and sophisticated. If an all-black dress is chosen, a splash of color can
be added with a belt for the women and a matching bow tie for the men. Using
the same dress for all choirs at your school and varying the color of the belts (and
matching bow ties for the men’s tuxedos) can provide identification not only for
the school but also for the various choral groups, if desired.
Choir robes are a relatively easy way to dress a choral group, and because
the cut of a robe is full, the style will look attractive on almost every student.
However, choir robes carry a religious connotation and may no longer be

acceptable attire for a public school. Check with your administration if you are
seriously considering the purchase of choir robes.
Some students (especially boys) are often reluctant to wear choir robes for
various reasons. Most choral programs rarely have enough male participation,
so using performance attire that may discourage boys from singing in choir
is an important issue to consider. Before deciding to purchase something as
expensive as choir robes, you might ask several of the boys what they think
about the idea. Having one or two students model a sample robe in class so
they can really see what they look like would help them make a more informed
decision.
Gathering the information necessary to decide on the performance attire for
your choirs is a time-consuming task. Remember to delegate authority to the
choral parent organization and, whatever your choice, you will want to consult
a student committee as well as the parents. Some aspects of the decision are
given below. (Note: Make sure that, before the first performance in which the
new outfits are worn, you have the students bring in their attire to make sure
they have what they are supposed to have. If the girls are choosing their own
black skirts and blouses, check the length of the skirt, the height of any slits,
and the coverage of the blouse. Be specific about shoes and hose. Boys’ outfits
need to be checked as well—no one wants to appear in the concert with a
red bowtie when everyone else has a black one! This pre-check of the boys’
and girls’ outfits will save time and embarrassment for everyone. Don’t assume
anything.)
Expense
Choral outfits can be extremely expensive. Are the parents willing and able
to purchase an outfit for their child? If a family cannot afford an outfit, what
provisions will be made for that singer? Perhaps your school or school system
is willing to pay for all performance apparel or will share the expense with
the choral department. The outfits are then given out to each singer at the
beginning of the year. Students remain responsible for them until the outfit is
returned after the final concert, and a repair or replacement fee is charged for
damaged or lost clothing. The apparel needs to be dry-cleaned (or washed,
if it is machine washable) before it is returned for storage. Is a storage area

available and secure? This is an important consideration for such an expensive
investment.
Age and Appropriateness

Try to choose apparel that is appropriate for the age of your choirs. Nothing
is quite so disconcerting as seeing a middle school/junior high school choir
dressed like a college group. And consider the variety of body shapes and
sizes of the choir members, especially at the middle school/junior high level.
Finding a dress that comes in the wide variety of sizes you will need and that
will look appropriate on a majority of the singers may be extremely difficult for
this age group. Purchasing a ready-made uniform, wearing nice jeans and school
T-shirts, or using the black skirt/pants and white blouse/shirt strategy may be
the easiest way to dress young adolescents.
How Does It Look From the Stage?

Often, an outfit that looks cheap or flashy up close will look just right on the
stage. Conversely, sometimes an outfit that looks great up close will look washed
out on the stage. Therefore, when making a decision on performance attire,
remember that the outfit will be seen from a distance and with varying degrees
of lighting. Another aspect to consider is whether the outfits will still look
attractive when fifty of them are on the stage at the same time. Sometimes the
look can be overpowering or too busy and, therefore, would distract from the
musical efforts of the choir.
Longevity
The quality of the material and workmanship will certainly contribute to the
longevity of an outfit. Will the uniform withstand repeated wearing and wash-
ing or dry cleaning? Will the outfit wrinkle when packed in a suitcase for trips
and tours? Will the style remain current long enough to get your money’s worth
out of the purchase before having to choose a different outfit? If the outfits are
custom made, will the same material, color, and patterns still be available for
new members or for returning members who grow during the summer? If the
outfits or robes are purchased, for how many years will the same style be avail-
able? Will the colors match on purchases from different years? The answers to
these questions are important, because parents will be unhappy with frequent
changes in uniform, particularly if they are required to purchase their child’s
outfit themselves, and school budgets will be unable to finance new choral out-
fits every two to three years.
Fund-Raising
Because of shrinking school budgets, a large portion of your choral budget may
have to be raised through garage sales and car washes, or by selling candy, grape-
fruit, candles, and other items. Before embarking on your first project, find out
about your school district’s policy regarding fund-raising. Some districts don’t
allow the sale of candy on school grounds, for instance. Other districts forbid
their teachers to be directly involved in fund-raising in any way. In such cases,
the entire responsibility of raising money will fall on the shoulders of the choral
parent organization.
Many schools partner with professional fund-raising companies to do their
projects. Other schools prefer to do their own projects, such as car washes and
bake sales, but unfortunately these types of events sometimes don’t bring in
enough money to justify the effort involved (although they are fun and can fos-
ter friendships). Having a cabaret night in which the choir members perform
as the people eat—and then they wait on tables when not performing—is the
type of event that can become an expected annual affair in your community. Be
creative!
Many schools like to have one very large fund-raiser per year (such as an
auction or garage sale) rather than several smaller projects. Make sure that choir
fund-raisers don’t conflict with all-school fund-raising projects, but also find out
how the choir can support and benefit from all-school efforts. Try to make the
most profit from the fewest projects so that your focus can remain on the music-
making, not the moneymaking.
Take care that funds raised through various projects are viewed by the
administration as supplemental funds, not as a replacement for school funding
to curricular programs. In addition, when planning fund-raisers, be aware of
your relationship with the community. Fund-raising can be regarded as a form

of additional taxation, so be careful not to aggravate the community by too
many fund-raising drives. (Note: For tips on fund-raising, go to the website of
the Student Youth Travel Association: www.syta.org.)
Tours and Travel

Benefits
Travel of any sort can be a bonding, educational, and life-enhancing experience.
Groups often report that, upon returning from a trip, their music-making is
stronger, they are closer to each other, and they see the world in a different light
because they have experienced new places and activities. Travel abroad can be an
especially enriching educational and cultural experience, but destinations closer
to home can be exciting and enriching as well. Just a day trip can bring about
positive results for your ensemble, even if the sole purpose is to celebrate a suc-
cessful school year.
Traveling can also boost your enrollment. Remember reading about extrinsic
motivation in Chapter 2? Well, here it is in action. Students may consider join-
ing choir if they know a trip is involved. Of course, once they join (for whatever
reason), you will make sure that the magic of making beautiful music becomes
even more important to them.
Logistics
The logistics of a trip or tour with an ensemble can quickly drain a lot of
the fun away unless careful planning is done. Some directors do the planning
themselves, with the help of the choral parent organization and perhaps other
teachers at school. Other teachers choose a tour operator, even for a day trip—
though that adds to the expense of the trip. A day trip will pack more activities
into a shorter amount of time, and you will be happier and more relaxed if you
are able to enjoy the students and activities rather than worrying about the best
route to take or whether you have all the tickets to get into a certain attraction.
TOUR OPERATORS. Tour operators are professionals who understand large

groups, and will often provide a better value as the number of participants grows.
Their business is to know the details of traveling, many of which may have
escaped your awareness. How do you choose a travel planner or tour operator?
First, check with your colleagues. Next, find out how long the company has
been in business and how much of their business involves student travel. Ask
what kind of insurance they carry. Do they have general insurance, professional
liability insurance, and/or a risk management plan? Do they follow a strict code
of ethics?
Founded in 1997, the Student Youth Travel Association (SYTA) is a non-
profit organization that assists teachers and students with travel and points them
in the right direction for every aspect of their trip. They are a valuable resource,
and any company that has the SYTA seal of approval has passed a rigorous list
of requirements, including a sufficient amount of insurance. SYTA publishes
all sorts of guides on trip planning and safety tips for students. Their website
(www.syta.org) is full of information and answers to questions you may have,
especially if you are planning your very first trip. This information will help you
make your own informed choices.
DO IT YOURSELF. If you choose not to use a professional in planning your

trip, make sure that you delegate responsibilities to others. Do not try to accom-
plish it all yourself. Meet with your choral parent organization to discuss poten-
tial trips, costs, and other details, and make a decision on destination. You might
even want to decide on several destinations that would work and then let the
students vote on where they would most like to go. The parents may be more
amenable to the decision knowing that this is the destination chosen by the
singers from among several other approved alternatives.
Decide on a budget, and start making plans for how to raise the money. Will
each singer earn money through fund-raising, with that money going into his or
her account? Will parents be expected to pay a portion? What kinds of expe-
riences would you like your students to have? Are there certain performance
venues in which you would like to sing? Do they cost money? What about rec-
reational activities and meals?
Veteran travelers strongly suggest that planning for a long-range domestic or
overseas trip should begin at least one year ahead to get the best deals, to spread out
fund-raising projects and payments, and to determine with the administration
when would be the best time for students to be away from school. For a shorter
trip, about six months ahead is a good rule of thumb.
CHAPERONES. The size of the ensemble will likely determine how many
chaperones are needed for your trip. Tour operators suggest anywhere from one
chaperone for every four students to one chaperone for every eight students.
Some teachers believe it is important to include a nurse or a doctor within the
group of chaperones, if possible (Olson 2008). No one wants to think about
sickness or an accident while on a trip, but it is certainly better to be safe than
sorry. Using the buddy system is always a good idea for safety and is an easy way
to make a quick check of the entire group.
TRAVEL FREQUENCY. During tough economic times, you may find it diffi-
cult to raise enough funds to travel with your ensemble. So that all students can
experience at least one and perhaps two tours or trips during their time in choir,
you might consider traveling every two or three years. This way, the fund-raising
strain on students, families, and community is not so dramatic and is spread out
over a longer period of time. By spreading out trips, you may be able to embark
on a longer tour or go to a more exciting destination.
COMMUNICATION. Communication is key as you plan your trip, as well as

while you are traveling. Holding several parent meetings before departure as
well as providing a tour handbook with itinerary and contact numbers will
make parents and guardians feel more secure. A daily update via electronic
media will reassure families back home who are waiting to hear where the group
is and what they have been doing.
TRIP INSURANCE. Should you take out trip cancellation insurance? Being
covered in case the trip has to be cancelled due to unforeseen circumstances
at the very last minute is a comfort, yet this type of insurance is optional and
can be expensive. Group insurance is generally the least expensive choice
because everyone is paying a part of it. More expensive is individual insur-
ance, and the most expensive is a policy that accommodates cancellation for
any reason.
Awards
An awards banquet or ceremony can be a positive way to conclude the school
year for students and parents alike. Everyone appreciates a pat on the back, and
an occasion such as this allows for public acknowledgment of hard work and
successful endeavors.
At the very least, all choral students should hear their name called to come
forward and receive a certificate of participation. Other awards may include out-
standing student in each choir (voted on by each choir’s membership), acknowl-
edgement of students’ selection to the All-State Choir and various other honor
choirs, and ratings earned at large group and solo and ensemble festivals. In addi-
tion, the choral director may wish to choose an overall outstanding choral stu-
dent each year and engrave each recipient’s name on a permanent plaque to be
displayed in the choral room.
The awards banquet affords an excellent opportunity to publicly thank
members of the choral parent organization for their assistance during the year.
They need to feel appreciated and to know that their efforts are invaluable to the
overall success of the choral program.
Don’t forget to invite and publicly thank administrators such as the
principal and guidance counselor, because without their support the choral
program invariably suffers. If they are not as supportive as you would like
them to be, their presence at the awards banquet may change their attitude
in a more positive direction. By seeing firsthand a celebration of musical success
as well as the cooperation and support shown to you and the choral program
by students and parents, they may rethink their view of the department.
This is a great example of “educating your advocates,” as discussed in
Chapter 1.
An inexpensive way to hold an awards banquet is to have a covered-dish
(or potluck) dinner in the school cafeteria. Committees from the choral
parent organization can organize the food and decorations, invitations, and
purchase of awards and certificates. The cost of food for the covered-dish
or potluck dinner will be distributed among the various parents, and the
decorations need not be fancy. Paper tablecloths with handmade place cards
and perhaps small vases of flowers picked from a parent’s yard will help turn
the cafeteria into a more festive place. Of course, if funds are available, a much
more elaborate occasion can be planned, but the event can be managed on a
small budget.
Summary
Taking time to develop your skills in managing the nonmusical aspects of
the choral program will be a major factor in your success with administra-
tors, parents, and students. Fortunately, you don’t need to invent all of these
administrative procedures. You will pick up many ideas from your university
classes, your supervising teacher, your student teaching, and experienced
teachers in the district, and then adapt them to your program’s specific
needs.
Good administration means clear communication, efficient procedures,
consistent expectations, and shared responsibilities. Effective administration
allows you and the students to spend more of your time making music. New
teachers often find the administrative aspects of the job to be the most chal-
lenging, but spending more time in that first year setting up effective systems
and procedures will yield a more functional program in the long run. As your
program grows, your skills and responsibilities will grow with it, so distribut-
ing the workload and involving others in your program will be crucial. Del-
egating responsibilities to both students and parents can ease the burden,
allowing you to focus more fully on the musical portion of your job. This
approach will help you avoid teacher burnout, provide parents with oppor-
tunities for involvement in their children’s education, and teach valuable life
skills to students.
Mini-Projects
1. Create a prototype of a choir handbook or choir webpage for students
and families, outlining activities, expectations, and procedures for your class.
Look for models from various programs online. What will your students
need to know to participate successfully in your class? Section topics might
include: welcome letter with contact information; grading and make-up policy;
classroom expectations; uniform policy; fund-raising and fees; travel dates and
procedures (eligibility, administrative requirements); honor choir auditions and
information; calendar of events; and outside performances (community events,
for example).
2. Develop an ideal budget for the prototypical choral program in
Mini-Project 1. What will be the areas of regular expense? Consult with area
teachers and conduct research online to find out what some of these items
will cost.
3. While observing at several schools, take time to visit their choral
libraries. Look at the system used in storing the music and discuss with the
choral director how well it works. How is the music catalogued in the choral
library?
4. Examine the websites of performing attire companies. Survey the
merchandise and familiarize yourself with available outfits and their cost.
Choose several clothing options that would be appropriate for middle school/
junior high school students and several that would be good choices for high
school students. Websites for performing attire include:
Stage Accents: www.stageaccents.com
Southeastern Performance Apparel: www.sepapparel.com
Formal Fashions Inc.: www.formalfashionsinc.com
Tuxedo Wholesalers: www.tuxedowholesaler.com
References
Olson, Catherine Applefeld. 2008. Music in motion. Teaching Music
16 (1): 34–47.
Opportunity-to-learn: Standards for music instruction. 1994.
Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
The school music program: A new vision. 1994. Reston, VA: Music
Educators National Conference.
Additional Reading
Cutler, Carolyn, et al. 2001. International tours with student
ensembles. Teaching Music, 9 (1): 23–28.
Hamann, Donald L. 1990. Burnout: How to spot it, how to avoid it.
Music booster manual. 1989. Reston, VA: Music Educators National
Conference.
Poliniak, Susan. 2010. Working with proactive parents. Teaching Music
18 (2): 38–43.
Simons, Dave. 2008. Putting the fun in fundraising. Teaching Music 16
(1): 54–59.
CHAPTER 16
Building Your Career
Vicky is both excited and a bit anxious about her student teaching experience that begins next
week. She’s excited because she likes her placements and cooperating teachers, and she is look-
ing forward to putting into practice all that she has prepared for over the past several years.
She’s anxious because she is eager to make a good impression on her cooperating teacher and
the students in the choral program at Westfield Middle School. What if the students don’t
accept her as a “real” teacher? What if she can’t keep the choir’s attention or earn their respect?
What if her first rehearsal plan completely falls apart?
Preparation to Student Teach

You may have feelings similar to Vicky’s as you approach your student teaching
experience. You have worked so hard in the studio, ensembles, practice rooms,
conducting classes, methods classes, piano classes, field experiences, and on and
on. You are ready to teach! But are you really? A more accurate statement would
be that you are ready to student teach.
Student teaching serves as the bridge between your college preparation and
your first teaching position; it is the time to put into practice with real students
all the skills and knowledge you learned in college. But remember: you are not
expected to be a practiced, polished teacher at this point in your career. You are
expected to learn even more during student teaching as you apply what you have
learned in college. If you go into your experience with this receptive attitude,
then your mind will be open to new ideas and approaches that will serve you for
the rest of your teaching career.
Student teaching is the time to develop your teaching persona and to put it into
action. It is the time to teach a lesson or conduct a rehearsal and receive feedback
380
BUILDING YOUR CAREER 381
from your cooperating teacher. This is your opportunity to really get to know
and understand the age group you are teaching and to try out the techniques that
worked well in the college choral conducting laboratory. Serving as your safety
net, your cooperating teacher can guide you as you reflect and modify lessons
according to reactions from your students as well as from constructive feedback.
Be patient with yourself as you gain experience and become more confident. This
growth as a teacher won’t happen overnight. The only real mistake you can make is to
avoid putting yourself out there, taking risks, and trying new ideas and techniques.
A word of caution is probably necessary here. As a student teacher, you are,
to some extent, a “guest” in the school and in the classroom or classrooms where
you teach. Make yourself at home, but remember that this is not your classroom.
Student teaching is not the time to apply your own revolutionary methodology
that differs completely from that of your cooperating teacher. To do so would
most likely annoy the teacher, confuse the students, and cause you distress. Do
try new things, but be sure that your cooperating teacher knows what you plan
to do, agrees that it generally fits with his or her teaching philosophy, and that it
will be beneficial for the students.
Professionalism
Professionalism is a word you will probably hear a lot at this point in your
education. Just what does professionalism mean? How does a professional act
and look? Professionals arrive consistently early to get things ready to start
exactly on time. If they are ill or otherwise unable to be on time, they call in to
communicate this information as soon as possible to all relevant parties so that
plans can be changed. Professionals dress like teachers and not like students.
You should always be well groomed, and your clothing should be neat, clean,
and comfortable enough to move along with your students in rehearsal or to
carry equipment or instruments. Men should consider wearing a nice shirt and
tie with casual slacks. Women should be mindful of the length of skirts and the
depth of necklines. Teachers’ clothing should never distract from or compete
with what they are teaching. As a student teacher, it is always better to err on the
side of being overdressed, even if your cooperating teacher dresses more casu-
ally. If your cooperating teacher has a suggestion about your attire, you would be
wise to follow it.
382 BUILDING YOUR CAREER

Professionalism spills over into your relationships with students, your coop-
erating teacher, your supervising teacher, other school faculty and staff, and, of
course, the administration. Not only are you learning how to act in the work-
place, but you could also be making contacts that may be influential in securing
your first job—or beyond. Be polite, use eye contact, learn peoples’ names and
use them, shake hands firmly, listen, and be willing to take suggestions in the
spirit of learning. Do not speak negatively to others about students, administra-
tors, or other faculty, even if you are in a setting where other teachers are doing
so. Make sure your language is professional and avoid slang, street language, or a
lot of colloquialisms that may confuse your students. Be mindful of your temper
and language should you find yourself in a challenging or conflict-laden situa-
tion. Teachers are role models for their students, so count to ten, gather yourself,
and then make a professional response.
If your placement, or part of it, is in a high school setting, you may be very close
in age to the students under your care. Maintain the role of teacher at all times by
dressing differently, and by being warm but not inappropriately friendly in your
approach. This will help you to avoid potential problems. These suggestions are
applicable when teaching at any age level, but are even more critical when as little
as four years may separate you from the age of your students.
Classroom Management
No, you are not the “real” teacher, but you should be viewed as an authority fig-
ure in rehearsal and around school. You will gradually gain the confidence you
need to feel natural in this new role as teacher, but until you do, invite positive
responses by being professional and authoritative. Remember, in this case, to
“fake it ’til you make it!”
You should discuss with your cooperating teacher the established rules and
procedures for the choir room (and the consequences for violating them) so that
you can follow and enforce them consistently. When you and your cooperating
teacher work in tandem on both musical and behavioral issues, students will feel
more comfortable and will likely view you as their “other teacher” rather than as
their “practice” teacher.
If you are placed with a cooperating teacher who has a very different (or less
than successful) approach to classroom management, or who has more or less
tolerance for classroom noise than you do, then this might prove challenging
for you as a student teacher. You must never undermine your teacher or his/her
rules and procedures, so tread lightly; if you would like to try something new,
be sure to check with your teacher first. While you are teaching, for example,
you might prefer that students raise their hands for permission to speak during
discussions. After checking with your cooperating teacher, establish and enforce
that rule when you are in charge of the class. The students may be confused at
first because they may not be required do this with their regular teacher. Simply
remind them of the rule as you begin your rehearsals and lessons, and be consist-
ent in its enforcement.
Use Your Resources

When you aren’t in front of the class, take time to sit and observe your coop-
erating teacher working with the students. Pay attention to what works and
what doesn’t, how the students react, when their attention is at its best, and
what techniques the teacher uses to refocus attention. Discuss what you have
observed and ask questions. Your cooperating teacher can serve as a living
textbook, so take advantage of the experience. Not only observe your teacher,
but also ask other teachers (in music and/or other subjects) if you might sit in
on one of their classes. Observing a master teacher in any discipline can teach
you something important. There are so many different ways to do things, and
you will have a wealth of examples to see. If distance and schedules allow, you
might profit from visiting another music teacher in the immediate area. Seeing
students who are older or younger than those in your own teaching assignment
can show vividly just how much of a system the music program can be from
elementary to middle school to high school.
Another valuable resource is your supervising teacher from your college or
university. Ideally, this will be someone with whom you have worked and have a
strong relationship so that discussions can be based on common language and
familiar practice. Here is an opportunity to meet this person as a professional, off
campus, in a teaching situation. Listen and learn, share, and ask questions on the
days you are observed. Your supervisor is there to help you succeed, so feel free to
seek advice any time you encounter a difficult problem. If a situation arises and
you need help right then, don’t wait until he or she comes out to observe you. The
supervisor can serve as a confidential sounding board and can help you navigate
some of the challenges you may face.
If possible, keep in close contact with other student teachers. Talk frequently
by telephone, email, or social media if you can’t meet in person, to compare your
situations, your opportunities, your students, your successes, and those strategies
that weren’t so successful. Staying in close contact with those who are going
through a similar experience can serve as a real support system and learning
opportunity for everyone involved. Share ideas, fears, and funny stories.
You will most likely be required to come and go exactly as your cooperating
teacher does, so take advantage of those extra help sessions before school, the
pop ensemble rehearsal after school, auditions for the musical, or a meeting of
the choral parent organization. You can learn much by observing and possibly
participating in all that goes on in music and at school. Be willing to serve as a
lunch monitor or volunteer for bus duty. This allows you to see your students in
different contexts, and also helps you to become comfortable outside the music
room. This is important in student teaching, but it is even more so when you
land a teaching job.
If you have the opportunity, go to any workshops, in-service days, and

conventions that you can attend while student teaching. Not only will these
experiences continue to broaden your view of the school system and the
music profession, but you will also be able to attend without charge or at a
student’s rate. Pick up free music and materials, go to sessions, ask questions,
check out the latest technology, and get your name on several mailing lists of
publishing companies. And don’t forget to network with music teachers in
attendance.
During your student teaching experience, make time to look carefully at the
music in your school’s choral library. Also notice how the music is catalogued
and stored, and how much space is required. Look closely at any materials that
support music theory and sight-singing, whether booklets, computer software,
or a combination. If you see materials that really work and that the students
enjoy using, make sure to get ordering information so that you can purchase
them for your own classroom further down the road.
Take Care of Yourself

Last, but certainly not least, make time for yourself during student teaching.
Getting up early and staying late at school, preparing lesson plans, studying
new music, having lots of new experiences, and learning so much so fast can
be exciting and wonderful, but overwhelming and stressful as well. Try your
best to get enough sleep, eat properly, exercise, and do something fun to help
rejuvenate your mind, body, and spirit! You’ll need it to be the best that you
can be.
Your First Teaching Job

After completing his student teaching experience, earning a bachelor’s degree in
music, and receiving his long-awaited teacher’s certificate, John is now ready for his
first job as a music teacher. But wait, he asks himself—should I go on to graduate
school to earn my master’s degree first? Or would it be better to start teaching right
away? Because many states require that teachers obtain a master’s degree within
a fixed period after earning a bachelor’s degree, wouldn’t it make more sense to go
ahead and finish my schooling and then start teaching? I would know more and
would be older and wiser too!
Teach First or Go to Graduate School?

Many new music education graduates face this graduate-school-versus-teaching-
first dilemma. This can be a complicated decision, and the job market in your
area may influence it. If possible, you should try to teach for two to three years
before beginning graduate study. The rationale for this advice is that when you
have experience under your belt as a teacher with your own classroom, you will
have a genuine context in which to integrate the new information and ideas you
will be learning in graduate school, and in this way, they will have more meaning
for you. The argument for teaching more than one year is that your first year of
teaching is not representative of the normal life of a teacher. It isn’t until the sec-
ond or third year that you will have a better idea of what has been successful in
your teaching and what you need to improve. In addition, you will have a better
idea of your identity as a music teacher. You may have discovered that you enjoy
middle school students much more than you thought you would, or that you’d
prefer to teach a different age group. All of these things will make your graduate
degree so much more effective, useful, and meaningful.
Because music teaching jobs can be challenging to find and obtain, you may
have to move to a different part of the state or the country, teach one section of
piano class in addition to serving as the choral director, or perhaps teach half a
day at the high school while directing two choirs at the middle school. Your first
job may not be the ideal situation that you ultimately desire, but keep in mind
that (1) you need and want a job, and (2) you need to gain experience as a choral
director. Try to be open-minded and flexible because there are jobs out there. Try
to remain positive, resourceful, and flexible.
Several years of full-time teaching followed by full-time graduate school is
probably the ideal course for a music educator. A slight twist on that ideal is
to begin taking one graduate course per semester while you are teaching, and
then work full time on your degree in the summers. Some graduate programs
offer a summers-only master’s degree or an online master’s degree. The advent of
online degrees has made such an arrangement more feasible, but online learning
has some drawbacks; you may lack opportunities to work directly with mentors
and to immerse yourself in a collegiate musical environment. However, such
alternative scenarios offer benefits, such as an immediate opportunity to try out
new teaching ideas with your students while you are learning. The downside
to teaching full time and taking graduate classes or studying all summer is the
potential to reduce your effectiveness as both student and teacher because of
fatigue and stress. Completing your graduate study, full time, over one or two
years allows you to immerse yourself in a learning environment once again and
may provide more opportunities to grow musically.
If you have tried to find a job, and circumstances are not allowing you to get
this important experience, then graduate school may be the best use of your
time. You will learn new literature, have additional performance opportunities,
and take classes in which you delve more deeply into conducting, methodology,
philosophy, or curriculum development. Those experiences will make you a
better teacher. However, there is no substitute for the learning that will take
place when you are in charge of your own classroom and working with students
every day. Even if you do choose graduate study before teaching, try to find a
part-time job with a church or community choir so that you can start building
your teacher identity and fine-tune skills for your master’s coursework.
The Job Search

Clean Up Your Technology
Before you apply for graduate school or your first teaching position, you need
to start thinking and acting in a professional manner, and that includes clean-
ing up your email address, your telephone answering machine message, and any
social media that you use. Potential employers may try to contact you and hear
a message that may cause them to think twice about hiring you. Social media
are probably even more critical. Your profile provides a digital facsimile of your
life: your likes and dislikes, your friends, your activities, your photos, and many
other parts of your life that you may not wish to share with students or employ-
ers. Tighten up your privacy settings so that only your friends are able to view
your profile, and be sure to “Google” yourself to see what comes up. (Note: This
actually needs to happen before student teaching, as the first thing your older
students will do is look you up online.)
Online searches to get information on prospective employees may seem unfair
and an invasion of your privacy, but the fact is, if you put personal data on the
Internet, then it is fair game for anyone to see. Take the time to adjust your
settings and keep your private life private. This is the time to change your email
from “barisexy22@gmail.com” to something more professional, and to record
a polite and brief voicemail greeting. These elements often serve as a potential
employer’s first impression of you, and you want that impression to be positive!
The Application
Check with the school district or districts to which you are applying to find out
about their application process. More than likely, the application itself will be
electronic, with opportunities to type in names of references. Then the refer-
ences will be contacted by the school district. If the application is in paper form,
make sure that you use ink when you fill it out, write neatly and clearly, and mail
it back promptly. As soon as the application process starts, you begin to make
an impression on the people who may hire you or work with you. Be sure to put
your best foot forward at all times.
The Resumé
The items listed on the sample resumé (Figure 16.1) are self-explanatory, but a
few tips may be helpful. Make sure the mailing address you list is one at which
you will be able to receive any mail that school districts may send. If necessary,
provide several addresses and the dates when you will be there.
Remember also to be consistent in the way that you list items. One way is to
list each activity, honor, or experience first and then the date it occurred. The
other is to list the date first and then the activity, honor, or experience afterwards.
Whichever way you choose, always begin with the most recent entry first and
move chronologically backwards.
In general, you should make your resumé short, simple, neat, and attractive.
Purchase good-quality paper in white or neutral colors such as beige, cream,
light gray, or pale blue. Choose a professional font of a readable size, and be
careful not to get carried away with musical “decorations.” They may be cute, but
they will probably not contribute to a professional impression. You want your
future employees to grasp in a very short amount of time the essence of who you
are and what you have accomplished. Make it easy for them to do this, and your
application might move to the top of the stack!
The Interview
You should arrive early for your interview. Dress professionally, keep your eyes
up and focused on the committee members, use a firm handshake, and smile!
Sit tall and confidently, and remember to breathe deeply! If your mind is racing,
take time to organize your thoughts before you answer a question.
QUESTIONS TO EXPECT. The committee who interviews candidates for

jobs will likely want to know information about you in three basic areas: as a
teacher, as a musician, and as a person. Keep in mind that the committee may
not include anyone with a musical background.
General questions that you can anticipate to get things started include:
1. What unique qualifications make you suitable for this position? You should
highlight some genuinely outstanding abilities you have and how they match
this job description rather than enumerating all of your qualifications. The
committee has your resumé.
2. What do you consider your greatest strength and your greatest weakness? As a
suggestion, start out with your weakness, but make it into a strength (“I am
a naturally shy person, but I have found that my shyness makes me a better
listener,” or “My piano skills aren’t as strong as I would like, but it has forced
me to develop strategies for making students more musically independent
without the piano”). Then finish the discussion with your greatest strength.
Don’t sell yourself short, but say it modestly!
3. What attracted you to this particular job? Even if it is the last job available and
really doesn’t suit you, give a truthful answer about something that you find
intriguing and avoid any answer along the lines of “I need a job!”
Questions you might hear with regard to your skills as a teacher and musician
include:
1. Give some examples of how you would deal with a disruptive student in a choral
setting. (Alternatively, they may give you a specific scenario and ask how you
would handle it.) Think carefully before the interview about your approach to
classroom management. This way, you will be ready to answer this question in a
general way, and you can then add more specific information on the spot.
MIRANDA SPEAR
Before June 5, 2013 After June 5, 2013
124 1st Ave., Apt. 2-C 6557 Greenlawn Avenue
North Fork, Colorado 12345 East Lake, New Jersey 45632
Cell phone: (424) 680-0197
Email: mspear@gmail.com
OBJECTIVE:
I am seeking a position to utilize my skills as choral director and general music teacher at the
middle school or high school level.
CERTIFICATION:
Candidate for Colorado Initial Teaching Certificate, Music (K-12), expected May 2013
EDUCATION:
STATE UNIVERSITY AT NORTH FORK, North Fork, Colorado
Bachelor of Music, expected May 2013
Major: Music Education
Major Instrument: Voice
– Current GPA: 3.63; Current GPA in Major: 3.83
HONORS:
Magna Cum Laude, May 2013 Commencement
Dean’s List, 6 semesters
Lundy Scholarship, 8 semesters
EXPERIENCE:
Student Teaching
North Fork Independent School District, North Fork, Colorado
Brookhaven Elementary School, Jane Ellis (1/24/13–3/18/13)

Duties: Taught mini-lessons in all grades; did warm-ups for 6th grade choir for
every rehearsal; taught entire schedule for final 2 weeks
Bellport High School, John Franklin (3/21/13–5/11/13)

Duties: Conducted warm-ups for all 3 choirs every day; ran sectionals; prepared
singers for Solo-Ensemble Festival; taught an improvisation unit for General
Music class: assisted in theory class; rehearsed 10th grade choir every day after 3
weeks; took over entire schedule for final 2 weeks
Figure 16.1 Sample resumé. © 2014 Cengage Learning. (continued)

Conducting
Assistant Conductor, Concert Choir, Fall and Spring, 2012

Duties: Ran sectionals; evaluated newcomers; prepared, rehearsed, and
performed one piece with the choir; helped with attendance
Conducting Intern, North Fork Children’s Chorale, Fall, 2011
Duties: Assisted director with attendance, fundraising, and sectionals;
prepared, rehearsed, and performed one piece with the choir.
PRACTICA (one week each)

Manor Middle School, Harold Moss, January 2012
Brocton Elementary School, Marsha Bonnell, May 2011
Pinehurst Middle School, Robert Burnsey, January 2011
Sunset High School, Janice Delong, January 2010
SPECIAL PERFORMANCES (selected)

The Magic Flute (Mozart)—Chorus, November 2012
Graduation Recital, October 19, 2012
Susannah (Floyd)—Mrs. Hayes, Opera Scenes, April 2012
La Boheme (Puccini)—Chorus, November 2011
Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)—Masterworks Chorale, April 2011
Carmina Burana (Orff )—Masterworks Chorale, April 2010
ACTIVITIES
Tour Coordinator, Chamber Choir, Spring, 2011, 2012
North Fork Jazz Workshop, 2009–2012
American Choral Directors Association, 2009–present; Chapter Secretary 2011
National Association for Music Education (NAfME), 2009–present
PAID EMPLOYMENT
Choir Member/Section Leader, St. Francis Episcopal Church, 2009–2012
Proctor, North Fork Music Technology Lab, 2011–2012
INSTRUMENTS
Voice Flute
Piano Guitar
Clarinet
REFERENCES (available upon request)

2. Please sketch out a five-year plan that you might pursue for our school’s choral
program. When you answer, remember to maintain a balance between your
ambitions and what is possible, and between what you currently see at the
school and what it could become.
3. Do you have knowledge of or have you had experience with students with
special needs? (Or they may give you a scenario and ask what you would
do in that particular situation.) The Americans with Disabilities Act
and related legislation has mandated that schools accommodate children
with special needs and integrate them into the regular classroom
whenever feasible. If this subject was not covered well in your college
classes or you lack experience or confidence in this area, say that you
would seek out the guidance counselor or the teacher for students with
special needs, or ask an experienced teacher to observe your class and get
advice. Make it clear that you are eager to continue learning and know
where to look.
4. What is your teaching philosophy? How can you justify choral music as
necessary when our standardized test scores are so vitally important for
funding? These questions will tap into why you believe music should be
in the schools. Be ready to answer! (Be sure to review Chapter 1 and be
able to articulate briefly your philosophy of choral music education.)
Here are several other questions you may hear at your interviews. Think
about these issues ahead of time so you can be confident and authoritative in
your answers.
1. How do you determine what music to include in your choral program?

2. What is your opinion of a select choir?
3. How do you motivate large groups of students?
4. How do you judge whether a concert was successful or not?
5. What level of involvement do you expect from parents?
6. How would you make your ensemble an active member of our community?
7. What is your overall objective for the students in your ensembles?
8. What is your opinion of incorporating religious music?
9. How would you respond to parents who are upset that their child did not get a
desired role or solo?
10. Do you have any ideas for raising funds for our ensembles?
You may also be asked to run a brief rehearsal, either with a group of students
or with your search committee as your “choir.” Be prepared to demonstrate your
musicianship as well as a positive attitude and energetic approach.
QUESTIONS TO ASK. You must do your homework about the school district
and the school in particular. Find out what is important about the choral pro-
gram and its traditions, and what the community values in general. Find out
about the administrative style at the school and how the teachers fit within
that style. Is the choral program already successful, or is it in need of rebuild-
ing or changing direction? Anything you can discover before you go in for your
interview will help formulate what you might ask. Some possible questions
include:
1. What do you see as the strengths and weaknesses of the current choral
program? What changes, if any, would you like to see?
2. What other arts electives does the school offer?
3. Where does choir fit into the master school schedule?
4. Is there a budget for the purchase of new choral music or other equipment and,
if so, how much do you allow per year?
5. Are there any special performances that you would like to continue under the
new choral director?
6. Has the choir ever gone on a brief tour? Would you continue to support that
experience? Or—would you be open to that idea in the near future?
7. Do the school and community enjoy and expect a musical every year? Is there a
separate budget for this event?
QUESTIONS YOU DON’T HAVE TO ANSWER. In years past, school district

personnel might ask about your marital status or plans to have children in the
future. Such questions were usually directed to women, and the answers were
often a factor in hiring or not hiring them. (Male teachers were rarely asked.)

These types of questions, along with any questions about race, creed, sexual
preference, age, religion, national origin, and physical or other disabilities, are
now illegal for prospective employers to ask you—male or female. Requesting
a photograph with an application is generally considered illegal as well. Two
federal laws that prohibit many of these practices include Title IX of the Educa-
tion Amendments (1972) and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964). If you
are asked any of these questions during an interview, politely and calmly state
that you are not comfortable discussing details of your personal life in a job
interview.
On the Job
Music educators do well to think of themselves as lifelong learners, and you
will likely learn a lot in your first year of teaching music. Having a degree
and teacher certification in hand does not mean that you have “arrived,” but
rather that you have gained knowledge, experience, and skill enough to begin an
important journey in teaching, learning, and making music with young people.
Remember that the goal of your first years of teaching is not perfection but
progress. In fact, forget about perfection because it cannot be attained. Instead,
look at every experience—both the good and not so good—as another learning
experience. Be gentle with yourself, and understanding with your students, as
you find your way down the exciting, fulfilling—and sometimes scary—path of
teaching choral music.
Making the transition from music education student to music teacher can
be a challenge. Difficulties with classroom management, working with parents
and communities, fatigue, and feelings of isolation are just some of the chal-
lenges experienced by first-year teachers (Conway et al. 2004). New teachers are
often surprised at how much of the job is not actually making music but doing
administrative and management tasks that can greatly affect the musical suc-
cesses of their choirs. If you anticipate these issues going in, you may be better
prepared to meet the challenges as they come. Then you can really enjoy the suc-
cesses and perhaps have more of them during that first year.
Students will be curious about their new choir director and will be interested
in discovering how you are going to run the choral program and interact with
them. You need to establish yourself as their teacher on the very first day, and
a good way to do this is to set out your expectations, both behavioral and
musical. This is also a good time to remind yourself that you are not there to be
the students’ friend but to be their teacher. Presenting rules and consequences
will show the students from the very beginning that you “mean business” about
having a fabulous choral program. Making music with them on the first day is
also important to give them a sense of how your class will run and to remind
them why they are there. Be patient and diligent in enforcing the rules and try to
remember that when students start testing you and the rules, they are testing the
new teacher, not you as a person!
And they will test you, so be ready. Students want to know what they need
to do—and what they can get away with. Set boundaries and be consistent in
maintaining them. Your authority and leadership as a choral director may take
time to build. Often after the first concert or some other culminating experience
that is successful, the students will come to believe in you and accept you as their
director. They will come through as a unified and focused group, and you will
emerge as a leader whom the students feel they can count on as well as respect.
(By the way, this is true for experienced teachers in new situations, as well as for
new teachers.)
Expect residual loyalty to the former teacher and his or her ways of doing
things from students, parents, administration, and possibly even the community.
At the same time, hold fast to your vision of what you want your choral program
and students to be like. Don’t expect to change everything the first year. Make
changes slowly and with respect for the program’s history. In fact, you might
want to (or have to) live with the situation as it is during your first year. After the
year is over, assess what you liked and what you didn’t like, what you can change
and what you can’t, and then begin the process. It can take two to three years of
new students coming into choir before many teachers feel that the program is
truly their own. Try to involve many different people as you plan changes and
put them into action.
Get out of the music room, and mix and mingle with teachers and students in
other places during and after school. You will want to be regarded as a colleague
and a contributor to the overall mission of the school. Your students will notice
that you are at a football game, or chaperoning a dance, or serving on cafeteria
duty. You don’t want to be viewed as an obscure figure who lurks about in the
choral room all day. Your job may require you to put in lots of extra hours, but
plan to get out and about on a regular basis: it’s important and healthy. Meeting
other faculty members may also create for you a new circle of friends and will
help with the sense of isolation that new teachers often experience.
In your life away from school, continue to participate in music making in some
way. You can get lost in all the managerial details of teaching and lose sight of
why you wanted to teach music in the first place! Feeding your own musical soul
can rejuvenate you and propel you forward to inspire your students. Teaching is
a giving profession; you need to remember to put something back into the tank
so you will be able to give some more!
Many strategies that are useful in student teaching will apply to teaching
on your own. Connect regularly with other first-year teachers in the building
and in the area who are having the same experiences that you are. Maintaining
an appropriate distance from your students, dressing professionally, being on
time, communicating with other teachers and administrators, and getting your
paperwork in on schedule are just a few of the “rules” you should remember.
Continuing Your Education for a Lifetime

One of the most exciting and intellectually stimulating aspects of teaching as a
career is that new knowledge, new methods, and new technology will always be
emerging to learn about and use. Pledge now to be a lifelong learner and make a
conscientious effort to keep current in your field. Listed below are several ways
to do that.
Membership in Professional Organizations

Make sure you keep your membership current in organizations such as the
American Choral Directors Association (ACDA), the National Association for
Music Education (NAf ME), Chorus America, and others. Not only will you be
linked to people in the music teaching profession, but you will also receive valu-
able journals to keep you informed and up-to-date.
Conferences
Whenever possible, attend local, state, regional, and national conferences of
organizations such as ACDA, NAf ME, and Chorus America. Various ses-
sions will present new ideas and methods to contemplate, reading sessions
will offer new music to consider, and you will benefit from making friends in
your profession and area of expertise. After teaching for several years, you may
want to send in a recording of one of your choirs in the hope of being selected
to perform at a conference. If your choir is chosen, this will be a great learning
experience for both you and your students, and will present a challenging and
exciting goal. Presenting an interest session and getting involved in leadership
positions of a professional music organization can be a great way to give back
to the profession and assist your colleagues in the pursuit of excellence in choral
music education.
Reading
Reading articles and research reports in professional journals, reviewing new
choral texts, and attending online “meetings” on various topics will allow
you to remain informed and up-to-speed with the state of the choral music
profession.
Peers
Connecting with a group of fellow teachers on a regular basis can serve as an
important source of support and professional advice. As mentioned before, new
teachers often feel lonely and isolated, especially if they are facing challenges in
the classroom. Keeping in touch with others in the same situation will create
opportunities to vent about problems you’ve encountered, brainstorm about
solutions, learn new approaches, hear about music that was really successful
with a particular age group, and so on. Your student teaching cohort may form
the core of the group, with other music teachers in your district eventually join-
ing in. Even if those peers are working in other cities or states, many ways are
available to connect and share online and at conferences and other gatherings.
Final Thoughts
You have chosen a wonderful profession. Teaching choral music is exhilarating
for you, your students, and those who hear you perform. Music enriches lives in
so many ways. Teaching music comes with challenges, to be sure, but try to keep
your eyes (and heart) focused on why you entered this field in the first place and
why it is so important to share it with others. You may be opening up a whole
new world for many students, giving others a primary reason to come to school,
and helping still others find their career path. For some students, you may be
the one person in their life who holds them accountable and is there for them
when everything else is falling apart. Music has great power, so use it wisely.
Reference
Conway, Colleen, et al. 2004. Becoming a teacher: Stories of the first
few years. Music Educators Journal 91 (1): 45–49.
Additional Reading
Campbell, Patricia Shehan. 2008. Musician & teacher: An orientation to
music education. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Clements, Ann, and Rita Klinger. 2010. A field guide to student
teaching in music. New York: Routledge.
Sadker, David Miller, and Karen R. Zittleman. 2009. Teachers,

schools, and society: A brief introduction to education, 2nd ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, pp. 246–7.
Wong, Harry K., and Rosemary T. Wong. 2009. The first days of
school: How to be an effective teacher. Mountain View, CA: Harry K. Wong
Publications, Inc.
Index
Note: Pages numbers followed by f indicate figure.
A technology, 365–368
tours and travel, 375–378
a cappella Adolescent choirs. See also Middle school
performing, 116 suggested music for, 200–201
for range and tessitura evaluation, 49 teaching, 297–302
in repertoire, 95 Advanced choirs
for tone and expression evaluation, 50 curriculum for, 77–78
a cappella ensembles. See Contemporary a high school, 40–41
cappella middle school, 39
Accompaniment seating arrangements for, 62,
for ensembles, 331 64f–65f
repertoire decisions and, 101–102 Advertising, 34
in score analysis, 239, 241 Advocacy, for music education,
Accompanist 12–18
communication with, 278–279 Angelou, M., 17
for concerts, 130 Application, job, 388
Administration, 348–377 Arrangements, in repertoire, 103
awards, 376–377 Assessment
budget, 355–357 grading and, 84–89
choral library, 354, 357–364 group, 81
classroom equipment, 364–365 individual, 81–82
fund-raising, 372–373 sample form, 82, 83f, 84
parent involvement, 349–353 of sight-singing, 218–224, 220f–221f
performance attire, 368–372 Attire
student leadership, 353–354 performance. See Performance attire
teacher burnout, 349 teacher, 381
401
402INDEX
Audience, repertoire choice and, Bullying, 311–314

105–106 stereotypes and, 313
Auditions, 47–59 teacher response to, 313–314
ending, 58–59
form for, 47, 48f C
for music theater, 340
procedures for, 56–59 Career planning
range and tessitura, 48–49, 49f continuing education, 397–398
sight-singing, 50–53, 51f–52f, first teaching job, 385–387
56–58 graduate school, 386–387
solo, 56 job search, 387–394
student information form, 54–55, professionalism and, 381–383,
55f 387–388
timing of, 110 student teaching, 380–385
tonal memory, 53–54, 54f, 58 Cataloguing music, 358–360, 359f
tone and expression, 49–50 Chamber ensembles, 326
Aural study, of score, 237–238 Changing voice. See Voice change
Avant-garde pieces, 118 Chaperones, 375
Awards, 376–377 Choir, size of, 104
Awards banquet, 32, 376–377 Choir director, 394–396. See also Music
educators
B classroom management. See Classroom
management
Band students, 25–26 continuing education, 397–398
Beginning choir first teaching job, 385–387
curriculum for, 75–76 magnitude of, 286, 287f, 288
high school, 40 questioning by, 291–292
middle school, 39 relationship with students, 382,
Bernstein, L., 1 395–396
Books response to bullying, 313–314
on diction, 253–254 talking by, 290–291
for teaching sight-singing, 209–211 teacher burnout, 349
Boys. See also Male choirs as voice instructor, 142–143
recruitment of, 27–31 Choral library, 357–364
voice change in. See Voice change cataloguing, 358–360, 359f
Breath, marking in score, 248–249 distributing music, 360–361
Breathing librarian for, 354
exercises for, 148–149, 161–162 ordering music, 357–358
fundamentals of, 147–149 storing music, 362–364, 363f–364f
posture and, 147–148 Choral music education, components of
Budgeting, 355–357 successful, 22–23
fund-raising, 356–357 Choral Public Domain Library, 108
general operation costs, 355–356 Choreography, for ensembles,
income, 356–357 332–333
large purchases, 356 Chronological order, in programming,
for music theater, 338–340, 119–120
339f, 341f Classroom equipment, 364–365
INDEX 403
Classroom management, 297–315, 395–396 D

for adolescents, 297–302
bullying, 311–314 Delegation, 138
positive environment, 309–311 Diaphragm, exercises for using, 148
preventive discipline, 302–308 Diction
rehearsal and, 305–306 books on, 253–254
rules, consequences, and procedures, modification of standard, 245
303–304, 304f in score analysis, 238, 241f
student individuality in, 307–308 Difficulty level, balancing, 116
as student teacher, 383–385 Discipline
Coaches, athletic, 24–25 performance schedule and, 304–305
Colleagues, as new music source, 107 physical environment and, 303
Committees, 351–352 preventive, 302–308
Communication rehearsal and, 305–306
of music education value, 12–18 rules, consequences, and procedures,
during rehearsal, 279, 290–291 303–304, 304f
Communication committee, 352 student leadership and, 305
Community choirs, 27 Door monitors, 135
Community involvement, 14 Dress rehearsal, 136–137
Concerts. See also Performance(s); Producing Dynamics
concerts; Programming for exercises, 171
as new music source, 106–107 forte, 171
Conducting. See also Gesture piano, 171
cuing, 248 in score analysis, 240f, 242
in vocal exercises, 169–170
score study, 238 E
Conferences, 107–108, 397
Consequences, 303–304, 304f Emotional intelligence (EQ), 10–11
Contemporary a cappella, 324–325 End-of-year activity, 32
Cooperating teacher, 383–384 Engagement, rehearsal and, 272
Costs, general operation, 355–356 Ensembles. See Small ensembles
Cues, marking in score, 248 Enthusiasm, repertoire and, 96–97
Cultural variety, in repertoire, 103–104 Entrances, marking on score, 248
Culture, of ensembles 11–12 Exercises
Curriculum, 6 for breathing, 148–149, 161–162
for advanced choir, 77–78 for breathing technique, 148–149
for beginning choir, 75–76 for changing voice, 184–186, 184f–185f
content and sequence, 74–75 choosing key for, 170
developing, 72–80 choosing range for, 170
for intermediate choir, 76–77 customizing, 160–166
learning from repertoire, 79–80 for discovering head voice, 152
National Standards for Arts Education, dynamic levels for, 171
73–74, 79 to extend downward range, 156
spiral, 74–75 to extend upward range, 155
standard, 78–79 falsetto for males, 153–154
time factor in, 80 for flexibility, 156–157
Custodial assistance, 138 for intonation, 157–160, 164–165
404INDEX
Exercises (Continued) Grading, 84–89

piano use in, 168 multiple levels of achievement, 87–89, 87f–88f
for posture, 147 musical knowledge, 86
for range, 152–156, 163–164 musicianship skills, 86
during rehearsal, 257, 266–267 for participation, 84–85
for relaxation and physical involvement, percentages, 86–87
146–147 singing skills, 85–86
for resonance and tone, 149–152, 162–163 Graduate school, 386–387
teaching, 167–168
for using diaphragm, 148 H
Extrinsic motivation, 21–22
Eye contact, 287f, 289–290 Harmonic intonation, 158
Harmony, in score analysis, 241f, 244
F Head voice, 152
High school, program design, 40–41, 42f
Faculty choral ensembles, 34 Historian committee, 352
Falsetto exercises, for males, 153–154 Human connection, 9–10
Feedback, during rehearsal, 285, 292
Feeder schools, 26–27 I
Feelings, choral music education and,
Identity
10–11
building for boys and girls, 30–31
Feminine activity, singing as a, 28–29
t-shirts and items to build, 32–33
Festivals, as new music source, 109–110
Independence, musical, 232–233
Filing cabinets, 362
Intelligence, music and, 16
Flexibility, exercises for, 156–157
Intermediate choir
Foreign language, 95
curriculum for, 76–77
in score analysis, 245
high school, 40–41
vowel sounds, 162
Intermission
Form, in score analysis, 240f, 242
activities at, 137–138
Forte, dynamics, 171
programming, 119
Fund-raising, 356–357
Internet
for music theater, 339–340, 341f
Choral Public Domain Library, 108
overview, 372–373
as new music source, 107
Fund-raising committee, 351
web-based tools for learning, 368
Intonation
G exercises for, 157–160, 164–165
harmonic, 158
Games, for learning sight-singing, 221–224 melodic, 158
General operation costs, 355–356 Intrinsic motivation, 22
Genres, balancing, 115–116
Gesture, 287 J
score considerations and, 250
in vocal exercises, 169–170 Job search, 387–394
Girls’ choir application, 388
advanced, 39 interview, 389, 392–394
middle school, 196 resumé, 388, 390f–391f
Gospel choir, 328–329 Junior high school. See Middle school
INDEX 405
K storing, 362–364, 363f–364f

when to order, 110–111
Kennedy, J., 12 where to find choral, 105–110
Key(s) Musical excellence, 13
balancing, 116 Musical independence, 232–233
choosing for exercises, 170 Musical knowledge, grading, 86
Kinesthetic techniques, in vocal exercises, Musical learning, 13–14
169–170 Music choice
audience and, 105–106
L classroom management and, 304–305
for voice change, 186–188
Leadership, student. See Student leadership Music education
Leadership positions, 33 communicating value of, 12–18
Library, choral. See Choral library importance of, 4, 7–12
Life skills, learned in choral music education, purpose of, 5–6
7–9 Music educators, 394–396. See also Choir
Listening director
music, 230–231 classroom management. See Classroom
during rehearsal, 279 management
continuing education for, 397–398
M philosophical foundation of, 3–4
qualities of, 6–7
Madrigal ensembles, 326 Musicianship skills
Madrigals, 268 grading, 86
Magnitude, of teacher, 286, 287f, 288 level 1 check list, 87f
Male choirs level 3 check list, 88f
falsetto exercises for, 153–154 musical independence, 232–233
seating arrangements for, 67, music leadership, 231–232
68f–69f music listening, 230–231
suggested music for, 200 performance evaluation, 231
Male role models, 30 rehearsal and, 272
Melodic intonation, 158 sight-singing. See Sight-singing
Melody, in score analysis, 240f, 242–243 Music listening, 230–231
Middle school Music theater, 333–345
music theater in, 338 auditions, 340
program design, 38–40, 40f benefits of, 333–334
single-sex choirs, 31, 39 budget, 338–340, 339f, 341f
suggested music for, 200–201 choice of show, 334–338, 336f–337f
teaching adolescents, 297–302 in middle school, 338
voice change in. See Voice change production team, 342–343, 343f
Motivation programs for, 344–345
repertoire and, 96–97 publicity for, 344–345
to sing, 21–23 recruitment and, 25
success and, 22–23 scheduling, 340, 342
Music student leadership and, 345
cataloguing, 358–360, 359f teacher and student involvement,
scores. See Score 343–344
406INDEX
N Performance schedule, classroom

management and, 304–305
National Association for music Education Philosophical foundation
(NAfME) creating, 4–5
choral music education resources, 14–15 of music educators, 3–4
music education purpose, 5–6 Phrasing, marking in score, 248–249
on sacred music, 99–100 Physical environment, and discipline,
National Standards for Arts Education, 303
73–74, 79 Physical involvement
exercises for, 146–147
O during rehearsal, 292–294
Piano dynamics, 171
Off-campus recruitment, 26–27 Piano teachers, 27
Officers Piano tuning, 130
for parent organization, 351 Piano use. See also Accompaniment
in student leadership, 353–354 in exercises, 168
On-campus recruitment, 24–26 Pitch system, for sight-singing, 206–208,
Orchestra students, 25–26 207f, 216f, 218f
Political awareness, 15–16
P Pop choir, 323–324
Pop ensembles, 41
Paperwork, for concerts, 129 Positive environment, 309–311
Parent involvement, 33, 349–353 choices, 311
committees, 351–352 ignoring bad behavior, 310
constitution for organization, praise, 310–311
352–353 rehearsal and, 272, 288–289, 310
organization officers, 351 Positive thinking, 16–17
Participation, grading for, 84–85 Posture
Peer approval, 30 breathing and, 147–148
Performance attire, 368–372 exercises for, 147
appearance, 371 good, 144–148
appropriateness, 371 while sitting, 144–145, 145f
for concerts, 131 while standing, 145–146, 146f
expense of, 370–371 Praise, 310–311
longevity, 371–372 Preventive discipline, 302–308
options for, 368–370 performance schedule and, 304–305
Performance attire committee, 352 physical environment and, 303
Performance(s). See also Producing concerts; rehearsal and, 305–306
Programming rules, consequences, and procedures,
away from campus, 33–34 303–304, 304f
on campus, 34 student leadership and, 305
community involvement and, 14 Problem solving
dress rehearsal, 136–137 diagnosis, 282
evaluation by students, 231 feedback, 285, 292
musical learning and, 13–14 identification, 281–282
school musical, 25 isolation, 280
INDEX 407
during rehearsal, 276f, 279–284 R

solving, 283–284
Procedures, 303–304, 304f, 305f Range
Producing concerts, 128–138 change for exercises, 170
door monitors and ushers, 135 defined, 97
dress rehearsal, 136–137 exercises for, 152–156, 163–164
intermission, 137–138 in repertoire, 97–98
logistics, 130–131, 136 in score analysis, 239, 240f, 241
performance attire, 131 voice evaluation, 48–49, 49f
programs, 131 Recording
promotion, 131, 132f–134f, 135 ensembles, 330–331
Production team, for music theater, technology and options for, 367
342–343, 343f Recordings, as new music source, 108
Professionalism Recruitment, 21–35
student teaching and, 381–383 of boys, 27–31
technology and, 387–388 motivation and, 21–23
Professional journals, 110, 397 off-campus, 26–27
Professional organizations, 397–398 on-campus, 24–26
Program design, 37–70 strategies for, 23–27
high school, 40–41, 42f Rehearsal, 275–295
middle school, 38–40, 40f communication during, 278–279
Programming, 114–128 discipline and preparation for, 305–306
balanced, 115–119 flowchart for, 276f
chronological order, 119–120 learning by section, 276f, 277–278
first piece, 117 magnitude in, 286, 287f, 288
intermission, 119 planning for, 250–252
last piece, 117 positive atmosphere during, 272,
logistics, 118–119 288–289, 310
samples, 120–128, 121f–122f, 124f–126f problem solving during, 276f,
transitional pieces, 117 279–284
Programs sight-singing during, 224–229,
for concerts, 131 225f–229f, 257–258, 267
for music theater, 344–345 studying score, 275, 277
Promotion transitions, 286
advertising for choral program, 34 Rehearsal frame, 280–281
for concerts, 131, 132f–134f, 135 Rehearsal plan, 255–273, 277
Proximity, discipline and, 306 alternative, 269, 270f–271f
Publicity, for music theater, 344–345 ending, 259
Publicity committee, 352 flexibility in, 288
Publishers, as new music source, 108 sample, 259–269
shaping, 256–259, 257f
Q sight-singing, 257–258, 267
sustaining, 258–259
Questions warm-up, 257, 266–267
job interview, 389, 392–394 Religious choirs, 27
for learning, 291–292 Renaissance music, 187–188
408INDEX
Repertoire, 92–111 refining vision for, 249–252

accompaniment, 101–102 studying, 256, 275, 277
arrangements and transcriptions, 103 visual study of, 238
audience and, 105–106 Seating arrangements, 59–69
balancing, 93–94, 94f for advanced choirs, 62, 64f–65f
boy voice changes and selection of, 29–30 boys’ voice change and, 65, 65f–66f
cultural variety in, 103–104 with fewer men than women, 61, 63f
enthusiasm and, 96–97 individual, 59–61
learning from, 79–80 for male choirs, 67, 68f–69f
range and tessituras in, 97–98 for treble choirs, 65, 66f
sacred and secular music in, 99–101 for tuning problem, 61, 62f
selection of, 92–93 for weak soprano section, 65, 67,
for small ensembles, 329 67f–68f
text considerations in, 98–99 Secular music
texture, 105 in programming, 118
variety in, 95–96 in repertoire, 99–101
Resonance, exercises for, 149–152, 162–163 Self care, 385
Resources, for choral music education, Show choir, 323–324
14–15 Sight-singing, 204–229
Resumé, 388, 390f–391f books for teaching, 209
Retailers, as new music source, 108 curriculum for, 205, 211–218
Retention strategies, 31–34 evaluation of, 50–53, 51f–52f,
Retreat, 32 56–58
Rhythm, in score analysis, 241f, 243–244 games for learning, 221–224
Rhythm system, for sight-singing, 206–208, graded songbooks for teaching,
207f, 216f–217f 209–210
Rules, 303–304, 304f, 305f individual assessment of, 218–224,
220f–221f
S multi-part literature for teaching,
210–211
Sacred music pitch system for, 206–208, 207f,
laws regarding, 100–101 216f, 218f
in programming, 118 for prenotational singers, 212–214
in repertoire, 99–101 preparation for teaching, 205–206
Scheduling during rehearsal, 224–229, 225f–229f,
models of various schools, 43–47, 44f–45f 257–258, 267
music education, 45–47 rhythm system for, 206–208, 207f,
music theater, 340, 342 216f–217f
School activities, 24 song learning sequence, 214–218,
School counselors, 24 215f–216f
Score Singing
analysis of, 239–245, 240f–241f aspects of healthy, 144
aural study of, 237–238 as a feminine activity, 28–29
learning by section, 276f, 277–278 Singing skills, grading, 85–86
marking, 245, 246f–247f, 248–249 Single-sex choral ensembles, 31, 39. See also
preparation of, 237–238 Girls’ choir; Male choirs
INDEX 409
Sitting, posture while, 144–145, 145f Success, motivation and, 22–23, 308
Small ensembles, 319–333 Supervising teacher, 384
a cappella group, 324–325 Swing choir, 323–324
accompaniment for, 331
benefits of, 322–323 T
choreography for, 332–333
faculty, 34 Teacher. See also Choir director; Music
gospel choir, 328–329 educators
issues related to, 320–321 cooperating, 383–384
madrigal/chamber, 326 supervising, 384
repertoire, 329 Teacher burnout, 349
show choir, 323–324 Technology, 365–368. See also Internet
single-sex, 31, 39 administrative uses, 366
sound amplification and recording, instructional uses, 367–368
330–331 professionalism and, 387–388
tone quality, 329–330 web-based tools, 368
vocal jazz, 325–326 Tempo
world music, 326–328 balancing, 116
Solo, in audition, 56 marking on score, 249
Song learning sequence, 214–218, Tessitura
215f–216f defined, 97
Sound amplification, for ensembles, evaluation of, 48–49, 49f
330–331 in repertoire, 97–98
Specialty choirs, 41 in score analysis, 239, 240f, 241
Spiral curriculum, 74–75 Text considerations. See also Diction
Staff choral ensembles, 34 in repertoire, 98–99
Standing, posture while, 145–146, 146f in score analysis, 241f, 244–245
Storage for music, 362–364, Texture
363f–364f of music, 105
Student information form, 54–55, 55f in score analysis, 240f, 242
Student leadership, 305 Theater. See Music theater
classroom management and, 305 Theme, in programming, 119–120
leading music, 231–232 Tonal memory, evaluation of, 53–54, 54f, 58
music theater and, 345 Tone
positions for, 33, 353–354 exercises for, 149–152
Students small ensembles and, 329–330
individuality of, 307–308 voice evaluation, 49–50
of music education, 5–6 Tour operators, 373–374
Student teaching, 380–385 Tours and travel. See Travel
classroom management, 383 Transcriptions, 103
preparation, 380–381 Transitional pieces, 117
professionalism and, 381–383 Transitions, during rehearsal, 286
resources for, 383–385 Travel, 375–378
self care, 385 benefits of, 373
Study hall, 26 frequency of, 375
Styles, balancing, 115–116 logistics, 373–378
410INDEX
Travel committee, 351 vocal hygiene, 171–172

Treble choirs warm-up exercises, 143–160
seating arrangements, 65, 66f Voice
suggested music for, 200 as an instrument, 142–143
Trip insurance, 375 care of, 171–172
Voice change, 174–199
U exercises during, 184–186, 184f–185f
female, 176–178
Ushers, 135 male, 29–30, 178–181
in middle school, 175
V music choice for, 186–188
quick placement procedure for boys, 183
Variety sample music for, 188, 189f–195f,
discipline and, 307 196, 197f
in repertoire, 95–96 seating arrangement considerations, 65,
Visual study, of score, 238 65f–66f
Vocal evaluations. See Auditions signs of, 176
Vocal hygiene, principles of good, stages of, 179–180, 179f–180f
171–172 testing during, 181–182
Vocalises, during audition, 56 training during, 183–186
Vocal jazz ensembles, 325–326 Voice instructor, choir director as, 142–143
Vocal maturity, 104 Voice matching procedure, 60–61
Vocal mutation. See Voice change Voice placement, 59–69
Vocal techniques, 141–172 individual, 59–61
breathing in, 147–149, 161–162 seating arrangements and, 61–69
choir director’s role, 142–143 voice matching procedure, 60–61
components of, 144
conducting and gesture in, 169–170 W
customizing exercises, 160–166
for flexibility, 156–157 Warm-up exercises. See Exercises
for intonation, 157–160, 164–165 Web-based tools, 368
piano use in, 168 Website, for choral program, 33
posture in, 144–147, 145f–146f World music ensembles, 326–328
for range, 152–156, 163–164
for resonance and tone, 149–152, Y
162–163
teaching, 167–168 YouTube, as new music source, 107

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Choral

Barbara A. Brinson Steven M. Demorest

METHODS AND MATERIALS

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1 The Meaning and Value of Choral Music 1

2 Recruitment and Retention of Singers 21

3 Designing Your Choral Program 37

Auditions and Vocal Evaluations 47

4 Choral Curriculum and Assessment 72

6 Programming and Producing Concerts 114

7 Group Vocal Techniques 141

8 The Changing Voice 174

9 Building Musicianship Skills 204

10 Analyzing and Preparing the Score 236

11 Planning the Rehearsal 255

12 Rehearsing the Choir 275

13 Managing the Choral Classroom 297

14 Small Ensembles and Musical Theater 319

15 Administering the Choral Program 348

16 Building Your Career 380

What Do You Believe?

3. A sound philosophy equips the music teacher to explain the importance of

Music gives a soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight

Creating Your Philosophy of Choral

Music expresses that which cannot be said and on

Important Questions to Ask

Whom Should You Teach?

What Should You Teach?

Who Should Teach?

Why Should Music Be in the Schools?

© 2014 Lori Deemer/Cengage Learning

What makes music so unique, so important—so vital in people’s lives? The

Elliot W. Eisner writes in a similar vein, in a thought-provoking article titled,

THE HUMAN CONNECTION. In an increasingly technological world, people

EDUCATING FEELINGS. Other advantages of participating in music include

© 2014 Lori Deemer/Cengage Learning

The life of the arts, far from being an interruption, a distraction,

Communicating the Value of Music Education

© 2014 Lori Deemer/Cengage Learning

Demonstrate Musical Learning

Participate in School and Community Endeavors

Be Aware of Your Resources

Music and Intelligence

proactive and positive approach to communicating about your program’s suc-

Music was my refuge. I could crawl into the space

2. Write down your philosophy of music education. Issues to consider

Demorest, Steven M., and Steven J. Morrison. 2000. Does music

Jorgensen, Estelle R. 1997. In search of music education. Urbana:

Nothing Succeeds like Success

SCHOOL ACTIVITIES. Involve yourself in school activities and projects out-

WORKING WITH SCHOOL COUNSELORS. School counselors or advisors

WORKING WITH COACHES. By attending athletic events and showing genu-

FRIENDS OF CHOIR MEMBERS. When current choir members are excited

OTHER MUSIC CLASSES. If approached correctly, general music classes (e.g.,

RELIGIOUS AND COMMUNITY CHOIRS. Contact the youth choir direc-

PRIVATE PIANO TEACHERS. Piano students often make excellent choir

Recruiting Boys for Choral Ensembles