Kinetic Molecular Theory and Intermolecular Forces

I. INTRODUCTION

Lesson 1: The Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Properties of Liquids and Solids

Matter can exist in three main different states: namely, solid, liquid, and gas. The most common
example of which is water. You only must think about water to appreciate how different the three states of
matter are. Steam bathing, drinking, and ice skating are all done in contact with water in its various forms.
But how do these states of matter differ from each other? Understanding the kinetic molecular model of the
three states will answer this question.

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is based on a series of postulates. Some of the postulates of
KMT are as follows:
1. Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is called kinetic energy.
2. The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature. Increased temperature means
greater speed.
3. There is space between particles. The amount of space between particles is related to the substance's
state of matter.
4. Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.
5. There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength of these
forces increases as particles get closer together.

The principal difference between the condensed states (liquids and solids) and the gaseous state is
the distance between molecules. In a liquid, the molecules are so close together that there is very little empty
space between particles. Thus, liquids are much more difficult to compress than gases, and they are also
much denser under normal conditions. Molecules in a liquid are held together by one or more types of
attractive forces. A liquid also has a definite volume because molecules in a liquid do not break away from
the attractive forces. The molecules can, however, move past one another freely. So, a liquid can flow, can
be poured, and assumes the shape of its container.

In a solid, molecules are held rigidly in position with virtually no freedom of movement, so they only
vibrate only about fixed positions. There is even lesser empty space between particles in a solid than in a
liquid because their particles are tightly packed. Thus, solids are almost incompressible and possess definite
shape and volume. This is due to the stronger intermolecular force of attraction compared to liquids.

Lesson 2: Types of Intermolecular Forces

It is important to note the difference between intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces.

Intramolecular (within molecules) forces hold atoms together in a molecule.

Intramolecular forces stabilize individual molecules. Generally, these forces are
simply chemical bonds such as ionic and covalent bonding.
 On the other hand, intermolecular forces are attractive forces
between molecules. Intermolecular forces are responsible for the non-
ideal behavior of gases, but they exert more influence in the condensed
phases of matter - liquids and solids.

The intermolecular forces of attraction in substances include dipole-dipole, London dispersion forces,
hydrogen bonding, and ion-dipole forces.

London Dispersion Forces

London dispersion forces, or simply dispersion forces, are intermolecular forces of attraction between
all atoms and molecules. In addition, dispersion forces are the only kind of intermolecular forces present
among symmetrical nonpolar substances such as O 2 and CO2 and monoatomic species such as noble gases.
Without dispersion forces, such substances could not condense to form liquids or solidify to form solids.

Dispersion forces are weak attractive forces that result from the continuous movement of electrons in
particles. Nonpolar molecules have zero dipole moment because their electron density is uniform and
symmetrical. Nevertheless, the electrons have some freedom to move around the molecule. This induces
temporary dipoles (instantaneous dipoles) in neighboring atoms or molecules. As electron clouds become
larger and more diffuse, they are attracted less strongly by their own positive nuclei. Thus, they are more
easily distorted or polarized by the adjacent/nearby nuclei.

Dipole-dipole Forces

Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules, that is, between molecules that
possess dipole moments. Their origin is electrostatic, and they can be understood in terms of Coulomb's law.
The larger the dipole moment, the greater the force. Dipole-dipole forces are the attraction between the
positive end of one molecule and the negative end of another.

Dipoles form when there is a large difference in electronegativity between two atoms joined by a
covalent bond.

The partially positive end of the molecule is attracted to the partially negative side of another molecule.
Hydrogen Bonding

The hydrogen bond is a special case of very strong dipole-dipole

interaction. It is not a chemical bond in a formal sense. Strong Hydrogen
bonding occurs among polar covalent molecules containing H and one of the
three small, highly electronegative elements – F, O, or N. Like ordinary dipole-
dipole interactions, Hydrogen bonds result from the attraction between + (partial
positive) atoms of one molecule, in this case H atoms and the − (partial negative)
atoms of another molecule. The + H is attracted to a lone pair of electrons on
an F, O, or N atom. Typically, a Hydrogen bond is about five to ten times stronger
than other dipole-dipole interactions.

Ion-Dipole Forces

Ion-dipole force acts between an ion (either cation or anion) and a polar molecule. When an ionic
compound is placed in an aqueous solution, the positive end of the ionic compound becomes surrounded by
the partial negative end of the ionic compound. In turn, it becomes surrounded by the partial positive
Hydrogen ion in water. In short, the positive pole is attracted to the negative ion (anion), while the negative
pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation). Ion-dipole interactions are involved in the dissolution process, like
in the case of sodium chloride (table salt) dissolving in water. The Na+ and Cl- ions are dispersed among
water molecules. The Na+ ions will be surrounded by the partial negative Oxygen of the water molecule,
while the Cl- ions will be surrounded by the partial positive H of the water molecule.

These four intermolecular forces vary in strength. Ion dipole forces are the strongest of the four,
followed by Hydrogen bonding being a special type of dipole-dipole. Dipole-dipole is weaker than the ion-
dipole and Hydrogen bonding, while London dispersion forces are the weakest.

Lesson 3: Properties of Liquids

Liquids are made up of particles that are close to each other and have kinetic energy. The particles
are not confined to a rigid position, and they move, but they can only travel at a short distance before they
collide with each other and change the direction of motion. They roll and slide on top of one another and flow.
Since the molecules flow, they take the shape of their container and diffuse moderately to a fixed volume.

Liquids have moderately high density since they occupy a fixed volume, and the particles are attracted
to each other. They also have low compressibility and thermal expansion.

The kinetic energy of the molecules break away from their neighbor, and thus, the particles are joined
by intermolecular forces. Most liquids exist as molecules at room temperature. The presence of the
intermolecular forces results in special properties. The physical properties of liquids depend on the type of
the different intermolecular forces.

Surface Tension

Surface tension is the force that causes the surface of a liquid to

contract. It is the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist
an external force due to the cohesive nature of its molecules.

Phenomena such as insects walking on the surface of the water,

droplets of liquid being spherical in shape, and needles remaining
suspended on the surface of the water can all be explained in terms of
surface tension.

The strength of surface tension depends on the intermolecular force of attraction. If the intermolecular
force of attraction of a liquid is strong, then there is a greater force needed to break through the surface and
the greater the surface tension is. Since the intermolecular forces vary in nature and strength, surface tension
is different for various forms of liquids. Water has a high surface tension because of its ability to form a
Hydrogen bond.

Temperature affects surface tension. An increase in the liquid's temperature causes water molecules
at the surface to evaporate, resulting in the weakening of the force of attraction. Therefore, there is less force
needed to break through the surface of the molecules, and this decreases surface tension.

Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces. Molecules at the surface
are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not upward away from the surface.

These intermolecular forces tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and cause the surface to tighten
like an elastic film or "skin".

Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes

or be drawn into small openings such as those between grains of a rock.
Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is a result of the
intermolecular attraction between the liquid and solid materials.

Capillary action is shown by water rising spontaneously in

capillary tubes. A thin film of water adheres to the wall of the glass tube
as water molecules are attracted to atoms making up the glass (SiO 2).
Surface tension causes the film of water to contract and pulls the water
up the tube.

Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:

1. Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid molecules).
2. Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water and in the particles that
make up the glass tube).

Viscosity

Viscosity is the resistance of fluids to flow. A liquid's

resistance (friction) to flow exists between the molecules of liquid
when they move past each other. The greater the resistance in
flowing, the more viscous the liquid is.

Maple syrup in pancakes is usually made from the xylem sap

of sugar maple, red maple, or black maple trees. It is boiled down, so
it becomes a more concentrated and viscous liquid. Maple syrup is
more viscous than water. The difference in viscosity between the two
liquids is a measure of their intermolecular force of attraction. To flow,
molecules must move, roll, and slide over one another. A liquid with low intermolecular force allows its
molecules to move freely and has a lower viscosity.

An increase in temperature causes kinetic energy to increase. Heat breaks the intermolecular forces
causing the liquid molecules to move faster. This makes the molecules flow more readily. Therefore, an
increase in temperature decreases viscosity.

Vapor Pressure

Vaporization is a phase change from liquid to gas, while the opposite process (gas to liquid) is
condensation. When liquid molecules break free from their neighbors and escape into the gas phase, the
process is called evaporation.

Vaporization is a broader term that includes evaporation and boiling. Gas and vapor are similar but
not the same. Vapor is used to refer to the gaseous phase of a substance, which is normally a liquid or solid
at room temperature. The average kinetic energy of the liquid molecules of a substance depends on
temperature. Most liquid particles have higher kinetic energy, and some others move at a slower pace.

The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature and
that it is constant at a constant temperature. It increases with temperature. Vapor pressure is independent of
the amount of liquid as well as the surface area of the liquid in contact with the gas. When the temperature
is high, more molecules have enough energy to escape from the liquid. At a lower temperature, fewer
molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the liquid. When liquids evaporate, the molecules must have
sufficient energy to break the attractive forces that hold them in the liquid state. The stronger these
intermolecular forces are, the greater the amount of energy needed to break them.

Molar Heat of Vaporization

The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given
temperature. H is the symbol for enthalpy, which means heat content at a given standard condition.

The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in a
liquid. If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free the molecules from the liquid
phase, and the heat of vaporization will be high.

It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower Hvap) than water (higher Hvap) at a given temperature, and
more acetone escapes into the vapor phase at a given temperature. Acetone is a polar substance but has
no H-bonding. It has weaker intermolecular forces than water, and therefore acetone molecules are held less
tightly to one another in the liquid phase.

Boiling Point

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid changes into a gas. A liquid boil
when its vapor pressure equals the pressure acting on the surface of the liquid. The boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.

The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid converts to a gas when the external
pressure is 1 atm. The normal boiling point of water is 100 °C. The boiling point of a liquid depends on the
external pressure. For example, at 1 atm, water boils at 100 °C, but if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm,
water boils at only 82 °C.

The boiling point is related to the molar heat of vaporization; the higher ΔHvap, the higher the boiling
point.

Lesson 4: Properties of Water

Water makes up a large proportion of the entire biosphere, where 95% is saltwater, and the remaining
5% is freshwater.

Water is locked up in ice and glaciers, deep and shallow underground lakes, soil, atmosphere, and
rivers. The human body consists of 50-75% water. Water serves important purposes for life on earth. Water's
unique properties result from the strong intermolecular force of attraction characterized by the hydrogen bond.

Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very easily. When placed in water,
sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The positively charged sodium ion (Na+) binds to Oxygen, while the
negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-) attaches to hydrogen. This property of water allows for the transport of
nutrients vital to life in animals and plants. A drop of rainwater falling through the air dissolves atmospheric
gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the land, lakes, and rivers.

The following are properties of water:

 Boiling point and freezing point. The high boiling point of water is a consequence of its strong
intermolecular forces of attraction caused by the formation of the H-bond. It also explains why water is liquid
at room temperature. Due to Hydrogen bonding, water molecules cling to each other (cohesion) and remain
in the liquid state under temperatures favorable to plants and other living organisms. Pure water at sea level
boils at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °C, but extra energy is needed to push water molecules into the air. This is
called latent heat—the heat required to change water from one phase to another. At higher elevations (lower
atmospheric pressure), water's boiling temperature decreases. Therefore, it takes longer to boil an egg at
higher altitudes. The temperature does not get high enough to cook the egg properly.

If a substance is dissolved in water, the freezing point is lowered. Energy is lost when water freezes.
A great deal of heat is released into the environment when liquid water changes to ice. It is lost when the
high energy phase of liquid water moves to the low energy phase of ice. Thus, nights when ice freezes often
feel warmer than nights when the ice melts.

Specific heat. Specific heat refers to the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of 1 gram
of a substance by 1 °C. For water, its specific heat is 1cal/g °C. It means that water can absorb and release
large quantities of heat without a change in temperature. This is the reason why body temperature remains
at 37 °C even when there's a change in the surrounding. This also explains why oceans and lakes exert an
influence on the climate. If there were no large bodies of water, the earth would experience significant
temperature variations. Water has high specific heat. The amount of energy required to raise the temperature
of water by one degree Celsius is quite large. Because so much heat loss or heat input is required to lower
or raise the temperature of the water, the oceans and other large bodies of water have relatively constant
temperatures. Thus, many organisms living in the oceans are provided with a relatively constant
environmental temperature. The high-water content of plants and animals living on land helps them to
maintain a relatively constant internal temperature. The specific heat of water is five times greater than that
of sand.

Density in its liquid form. Water is the only substance that contracts when cooled. For most
substances, their solid form is denser than their liquid form. This is because the H-bond is more extensive in
its solid state than in its liquid state. Ice has an open structure because the hydrogen bonds could not get
inside the hexagonal ring structure. This more open structure of the solid form of water causes the ice to have
a smaller number of molecules packed in a given volume. This causes the mass to be lower. Hence, the
density of ice is lesser than the liquid water, and, as a result, ice floats on water. This also causes the water
in ponds or lakes to freeze from the top down. Water is most dense at 4 °C and then begins to expand again
(becoming less dense) as the temperature decreases further.

For most substances, solids are denser than liquids. But the special properties of water make it less
dense as a solid. Ice floats on water. Strong hydrogen bonds formed at freezing 0 °C lock water molecules
away from each other. When ice melts, the structure collapses, and molecules move closer together. Liquid
water at 4 °C is about 9% denser than ice. This property plays an important role in water ecosystems. Floating
ice often insulates and protects animals and plants living in the water below.

Surface tension. The hydrogen bond formation among water molecules causes water to have high
surface tension, as described earlier. This high surface tension causes water to move from the roots of a tree
to the top of very tall trees and explains why water moves into the fibers of a towel.

This phenomenon is called capillarity. Water molecules at the surface (next to air) hold closely
together, forming an invisible film. Water's surface tension can hold a weight that would normally sink. You
can carefully float a paper clip on top of the water. Some aquatic insects, such as the water strider or pond
skater, rely on surface tension to walk on water. Surface tension is essential for the transfer of energy from
wind to water to create waves. Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes and seas. Next to
mercury, water has the highest surface tension of all commonly occurring liquids.

Thermal properties. Water absorbs or releases more heat than many substances for each degree
of temperature increase or decrease. Because of this, it is widely used for cooling and for transferring heat
in thermal and chemical processes. Differences in temperature between lakes and rivers and the surrounding
air may have a variety of effects. For example, local fog or mist is likely to occur if a lake cools in the
surrounding air enough to cause saturation—small water droplets are suspended in the air. Large bodies of
water, such as the oceans or the Great Lakes, have a profound influence on climate. They are the world's
great heat reservoirs and heat exchangers and the source of much of the moisture that falls as rain and snow
over adjacent landmasses. When water is colder than the air, precipitation is curbed, winds are reduced, and
fog banks are formed. These properties of water are crucial in stabilizing temperatures on earth.

Heat of vaporization. A large amount of heat is needed to vaporize a given amount of water. This
causes a significant drop in temperature during evaporation. When molecules of water absorb heat energy,
they move fast in the water. Eventually, the speed of movement of some molecules becomes so fast, allowing
them to overcome the intermolecular attraction, detach from the multi-molecular water, form bubbles, and
leave the water surface in the gas state. This property of water helps to cool down the body of living
organisms. This is called evaporative cooling.

pH. Water molecules tend to ionize. They dissociate into ions (charged particles), Hydrogen ions (H+),
and hydroxide ions (OH-). In pure water, a very small number of water molecules form ions in this way. The
tendency of water to dissociate is balanced by the tendency of Hydrogen ions and Hydroxide ions to reunite
to form water. A neutral solution contains an equal number of Hydroxide ions and Hydrogen ions. A solution
with a greater concentration of Hydrogen ions (H+) is said to be acidic. A solution with a greater concentration
of Hydroxide (OH-) ions is said to be alkaline or basic.

II. MELCs WITH CODE

✓ Use the kinetic molecular model to explain the properties of liquids and solids (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-
c-99)
✓ Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-100)
✓ Describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these
properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c102)
✓ Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-103)

III. STRATEGY

Answer activities 1, 2 and 3 in the answer sheet given.

IV. REFERENCES

• https://znnhs.zdnorte.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/GenChem2_Module-1.pdf

Prepared by:

NOEL ANTHONY N. ABANTAO

Senior High School Teacher II
 Answer Sheet
Write your answers here!

Name: ______________________________________ Grade and Section: __________________ Date: __________

Name of Teacher: ____________________________________________

Activity 1. Directions: Complete the crossword by filling in the boxes to form a word that fits each clue. Disregard
space between two-word phrases or hyphens.

Activity 2. Directions: Identify the concept that is described in each statement below. Choose the correct answer
from the list below. Write only the letter on the blank before the number.
A. Surface Tension D. Viscosity G. Vapor J. Fluid
B. Vapor pressure E. Capillary action H. Liquid Flow
C. Molar Heat of Vaporization F. Boiling point I. Vaporization

___1. The measure of the elastic force on the surface of a liquid.

___2. A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
___3. The tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn into small openings.
___4. The measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
___5. A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a liquid or solid at normal temperature.
___6. The change of phase from liquid to vapor (gaseous phase).
___7. The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid; that is, the pressure exerted by the vapor above the
surface of the liquid in a closed container.
___8. The temperature at which a liquid boil.
___9. The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature.
___10. The movement of liquids and gases; describes how fluids behave and how they interact with their
surrounding environment.

Activity 3. Read and answer the questions briefly but concisely. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. Why are solids and liquids considered as condensed states? ____________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain why ice floats in water. __________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How is a lake or river that freezes over helpful to the organisms in the water? ____________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________