THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2021/2022 PH 110-INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS LECTURE
NOTES
CHAPTER 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Physics is based on measurement of the physical quantities we use to describe the changes that
take place in our universe. We start then by learning how to measure the physical quantities in
terms of which the laws of physics are expressed. Among these quantities are length, time, mass,
temperature, pressure, and electrical resistance. We use many of these words in everyday speech.
You might say for example, “I will go to any length to help you as long as you do not pressure
me.” In physics, words like length and pressure have precise meanings, which we must not confuse
with everyday meaning in the quoted sentence. As Robert Oppenheimer has written, “Often the
very fact that the words of science are the same as those of our common life and tongue can be
more misleading than enlightening.”

1.1 Units for measurement

The laws of physics are expressed in terms of physical quantities. Hence an accurate measurement
of these quantities becomes necessary and inevitable in establishing the laws of nature as revealed
by experimental observations. Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a
certain basic, arbitrary chosen, internationally accepted reference standard known as a unit. In
other words, we define a physical quantity by setting up a standard and assigning a unit. A physical
quantity is any quantity that can be measured and expressed in form of laws.

1.2 Magnitude
The number of times a standard is present in the physical quantity is known as the magnitude of
the physical quantity.

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1.3 Fundamental quantities
A physical quantity which is independent of any other quantity is called a fundamental quantity.
The unit of a physical quantity which is independent of any other quantity is called a fundamental
unit. In mechanics, units of length, mass and time are taken as fundamental units.

1.4 Derived quantities

The physical quantities which can be derived from other physical quantities are called derived
quantities. All other quantities except the fundamental quantities are derivable. The units of
physical quantities which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived units.
For example, area, pressure, density and speed are derived quantities and their units are derived
from fundamental units. Note that some derived units have special names e.g. kgm/s2 is Newton
(N) and N/m2 is Pascal (Pa).

1.5 Systems of units

A system of units is a collection of units in which units are chosen as fundamental and all others
are derived from them. This system is also called an absolute system of units. In most systems, the
mass, length and time are considered to be fundamental quantities, and their units are called
fundamental units. The following are some systems of units which are in common use.
1.5.1 C.G.S System
In this system, the unit of length is centimeter, the unit of mass is gram and the unit of time is
second.
1.5.2 F.P.S System
In the F.P.S system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound and the unit of time is
second.
1.5.3 M.K.S System
In this system, the unit of length is meter, the unit of mass is kilogram and the unit of time is
second.
1.5.4 The International System of Units (SI)
S.I unit is the short name of “System International de units” which means “International system
of units”. It is an extension of M.K.S system. It is a system of units for all fundamental physical
quantities popularly known as the metric system. In SI, there are seven base units. These are units
of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance.
Table 1.1 depicts these quantities, their unit names, and their unit symbols.
Many SI derived units are defined in terms of these base units. For example, the SI unit for power,
called the watt (abbreviated W), is defined in defined in terms of the base units for mass, length,
and time. Thus, we shall see in chapter five,

1 W = 1kg. m2 /s 3

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 Table 1.1 The seven independent SI base units

1.6 Prefixes
To express the very large or the very small numbers that we often run into in physics, we use the
so-called scientific notation which employs powers of 10.
As a further convenience when dealing with very large numbers or very small numbers in physics,
we often use the prefixes listed in Table 1.2. Each one of these prefixes represents a certain power
of 10. Note that the most commonly used prefixes are shown in bold face type. Some of these
prefixes, such as millimeter, centimeter and kilogram are already familiar to you.

Table 1.2 Prefixes for SI units

Thus, we can express a particular electric power output as:

1.27 × 109 watts = 1.27 gigawatts = 1.27 GW

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and a particular time interval as
2.35 × 10−9 seconds = 2.35 nanoseconds = 2.35 ns

1.7 Conversion of units

We often need to change the units in which a physical quantity is expressed, from one measurement
system to another or to convert within the system. We do that by using a method called chain-link
conversion. In this method, a conversion factor is written as a ratio that is equal to unity. Units
can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each other. Thus, 1 min and 60 s are identical
physical quantities and we can write

1
This however, does not mean that = 1 or 60 = 1 because the number and the unit must be
60
treated together.
Because multiplying any quantity by unity leaves it unchanged, we can always introduce such
conversion factors where we find it useful. We use the factors in such a way that the unwanted
units cancel out.
Suppose we wish to convert 15.0 in. to centimeters. Because 1 in. is defined as exactly 2.54 cm,
we find that

Note that we choose to put the unit of an inch in the denominator and it cancels with the unit in the
original quantity. The remaining unit is the centimeter, which is our desired result.

1.8 Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between fundamental physical quantities
which are purely mechanical in nature, i.e., mass, length and time. These quantities are represented
by the letters M, L and T respectively. The letters specify only the nature of the unit and not the
magnitude. The concept of dimensionality is important in understanding physics and in solving
physics problems.
1.8.1 Dimensional equation
A dimensional equation is the expression which indicates the units of a physical quantity in terms
of the fundamental units. The dimensional formulae of some physical quantities are listed below.

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1.8.2 Principle of homogeneity of dimensions
This principle states that we can multiply or divide physical quantities with same or different
dimensional formulae at our convenience, however, no such rule applies to addition and
subtraction, where only the like physical quantities can be added or subtracted.
In case of a relation or an equation, the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of equation must
be the same. That is, the equation must be dimensionally homogeneous.
1.8.3 Applications of dimensional analysis
➢ To find the unit of a physical quantity in a given system of units
➢ To find the dimensions of physical constant or coefficients.
➢ To check the accuracy of a given equation or relation. An equation or a relation is correct or
accurate if the dimensions of each term on either side of the equation are equal.
➢ To derive the correct relationships between physical quantities.
➢ To convert a physical quantity from one system to another system.

1.8.4 Limitations of dimensional analysis

➢ Dimension does not depend on the magnitude.
➢ The numerical constants having no dimensions cannot be deduced by method of dimensional
analysis.
➢ This method is applicable only if the relation is of product type. It fails in the case of
exponentials and trigonometric relations.

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➢ This method is not suitable if the physical quantity depends on more than three other
quantities.
➢ Quite often, it is difficult to guess the parameters on which the physical quantity depends.

Example 1.1
Use dimensional analysis to check to check the correctness of the equation

where and are the final and initial velocities respectively, is the acceleration, and is the
time interval

Example 1.2
A particle moves with a constant speed v in a circular orbit of radius r, see the figure below. Given
that the acceleration of the particle depends on the velocity v of the particle and the orbital radius
r, use dimensional analysis to derive an equation that relates , v and r.

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 Therefore, we can write the expression as follows;

1.9 Significant figures

Significant figures in the measured value of physical quantity tell the number of digits in which
we have confidence. The larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, the
greater the accuracy of a measurement. The reverse is also true.
The following rules are observed in counting the number of significant figures in a given measured
quantity.

➢ All non-zero digits are significant.

➢ A zero becomes significant if it appears between two non-zero digits.
➢ Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are significant.
Examples: 4.330 has four significant figures
343.000 has six significant figures

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➢ Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are never significant.
Examples: 0.543 has three significant figures.
0.06 has one significant figure.

1.10 Rounding off

➢ If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
Examples: x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x = 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9, to one decimal place.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Examples: x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8, to one decimal
place.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is raised
by one.
Examples: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8, to one decimal
place.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is left unchanged, if
it is even.
Examples: x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off,
to one decimal place.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one, if it
is odd.
Examples: x = 3.750 becomes 3.8 on rounding off, again x = 16.150 becomes 16.2 on rounding off,
to one decimal place.

1.11 Significant figures in calculations

In an experiment, different physical quantities may be measured. These quantities may be added,
subtracted, multiplied or divided to get the required experimental result. If all the observations
have been made with great accuracy except one observation, then the inaccuracy in the single
observation would affect the accuracy of the final result(s).
The following two rules should be followed to obtain the proper number of significant figures in
any calculation.

➢ The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having different precisions should be
reported to the same number of decimal places as are present in the number having the least
number of decimal places.
➢ The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of significant
figures as is possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation.

1.12 Density and Atomic Mass

The fundamental property of any substance is its density (Greek letter (rho)). It is defined as
mass per unit volume .

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For example, copper has a density of 8.93 g/cm3 or 8.93 x 103 kg/m3. This means that piece of
copper of volume 1 cm3 has mass 8.93 g or that a piece of copper of volume 1 m3 has mass 8.93 x
103 kg

The difference in density is due in part to the difference in atomic weights. For example, the atomic
weight of lead is 207 (density = 11.3g/cm3) and that of aluminium is 27.
All ordinary matter consists of atoms while atoms are made up of electrons and a nucleus (made
up of protons and neutrons). Practically all the mass of an atom is contained in the nucleus. The
nuclear masses are measured relative to the mass of the atom of the carbon-12 (12C) isotope (6
protons and 6 neutrons).
One mole of an element contains an Avogadro’s number NA of molecules of the substance.
Avogadro’s number NA is defined so that one mole of 12C atoms has mass of 12g, where

One mole of Al has a mass of 27g and one mole of Pb, a mass of 207g. The number of atoms in
each of these two species is the Avogadro’s number.
Therefore, the mass per atom m is

For example, the mass of Al atom is

Example 1.3
A solid cube of aluminium (density 2.7 g/cm3) has a volume of 0.2cm3. How many atoms are
contained in the cube?

Solution: Given

Number of atoms, N

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We need to find the mass of the Al cube and then the number of atoms Mass
of Al cube

Since 1 mole of Al has mass of

27g it follows that of Al
contains

1.13 Order of magnitude calculations

Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent the quantity. For
determining this power, the value of the quantity has to be rounded off. While rounding off, we
ignore the last digit which is less than 5. If the last digit is 5 or more than 5, the preceding digit is
increased by 1. For example,
1. Speed of light in vacuum (as 3 < 5)
2. Mas of an electron (as 9.1 > 5)
This calculation is useful as it gives a first orientation before a more standard calculation can be
performed. It is important that realistic assumptions are made.
Example 1.4
Estimate the number of atoms in 1cm3of a solid.

Solution
Given is a volume V = 1cm3, nature is a solid

Assumptions
1. The size of an atom diameter, d = 10-10m
2. Atoms are spherical in shape => Volume of sphere

We determine the volume of an atom as follows;

In terms of diameter, d

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Substitute for d = 10-10m

The number of atoms in 1cm3volume can now be found

This is closer to what one might expect.

A more accurate calculation requires the knowledge of the density of the solid so that mass of the
solid can be determined. In addition, knowledge of the mass of one atom would also be needed.

EXERCISES
1. The radius of an atom is 0.5 . What is the total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen
atom? 1 angstrom unit ( ) = 10-10m. [3.151 10-7m3]
2. A furlong is 220 yards, a mile is 1760 yards or 1609 meters, and a fortnight is 14 days. In 1991,
the Zambian athlete, Samuel Matete won an Olympic gold medal, in Zurich, Switzerland, when
he represented Zambia in the 400 m hurdles. His average speed was 8.5 meters per second.
Express his speed in
(a) kilometre per minute. [0.51 km/min]
(b) mile per hour. [19 mi/hr]
(c) furlong per fortnight. [51072 fur/fort]
3. The strongest hurricane wind ever measured was 345 km/hr. How fast is this in ft/s?[314 ft/s]
4. A section of the land has an area of 1 square mile and contains 640 acres. How many square
meters are there in one acre? (1mi = 5280ft; 1m2 = 10.76ft2). [4048 m2]
5. An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance of the earth from the sun, approximately
150,000,000 km. The speed of light is about 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. Express the speed of light in terms
of astronomical units per minute. [0.12 AU/min]

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6. If the unit of energy is 5 J, the unit of force is 10 N, and unit of velocity is 0.5 m/s in the new
system, what are the units of length, mass and time in this system of units? [0.5 m; 20 kg; 1 s]
7. In a submarine equipped with ‘sonar’, the time delay between generation of probe wave and
reception of its echo after reflection from enemy submarine is 77 seconds. What is the distance
of the enemy submarine? Speed of sound in water = 1450 m/s. [55.8 km]
8. A unit of area, often used in measuring land areas, is the hectare, defined as 10 m2. A new
4

open-pit copper mine in North-Western Province plans to excavate 75 hectares of land, down
to a depth of 26 m, each year. What volume of earth, in cubic kilometres, would be removed
during this time? [0.02(km)3]
9. Convert 5 × 10−6 𝐽 to the equivalent CGS system. [50g/cm2/s2]
10. Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of iron is 7.87 kg/m3, and the mass of
an iron atom is 9.27×10−26 kg. If atoms are cubical and tightly packed,
(a) What is the volume of an iron atom? [1.178 × 10−26 m3]
(b) What is the distance between the centres of two adjacent atoms? [2.28 × 10−9 m]
11. How many grams of copper are required to make a hollow spherical shell with an inner radius
of 5.70 cm and an outer radius of 5.75 cm? Density of copper =8.93 g/cm3. [184 g]
12. The volume of a liquid flowing out per second of a pipe of length and radius is written by
a student as

Where , is the pressure difference between the two ends of the pipe and is the coefficient of
viscosity of the liquid. Prove that the equation is dimensionally consistent.
13. The velocity of a particle varies with time according to the relation .
Find the dimensions of , and . [ ; ; ]
14. The displacement of a particle in an x-axis depends on the acceleration of the particle and
the time . Derive the relationship between , and . [ ]
15. A CBU engineering student, uses dimensional analysis to find the distance over which a
signal can be seen clearly in foggy conditions. The student assumes that the distance depends
on the frequency 𝑓 of the signal, the density 𝜌 of the fog, and intensity of light (power/area)
from the signal. Show that

where k, is a dimensionless constant of proportionality

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