SEMESTER – 7

COMMUNITIES BUILDING ECONOMIC AND

SOCIOLOGY
MODULE -2
MODULE 2

• Communities: Origin, growth and nature of settlements and communities.

• Their characteristics and spatial patterns. Urban and Rural Communities:
• Definitions of the terms “urban” and “rural”.
• The social, economic and spatial characteristics associated with urban and rural settlements Cities and
Society:
• Urbanization – definition; causes. Effects of urbanization on rural areas.
• Impact of growing urbanization on urban life, viz. health, housing, transportation.
• The origin and characteristics of slums in Indian cities.
• Governmental and non-governmental approaches to engaging with issues regarding slums in Indian cities
ORIGIN AND GROWTH
We can define community as a larger group of individuals living together for a long time in a locality having
common interest, goals, ways of life and norms etc. and meeting out most of their needs from local social
institutions.
Human settlement is a place where people live. It refers to the totality of the human community with all the social,
material, organizational, spiritual, and cultural elements that sustain it.
Origin of settlements can be traced back to the caves where people gathered for protection against the natural
forces or for defense against rival tribes.
● About 14,000 years ago, the first settlements built with stone began to appear, in modern day Israel and
Jordan. The inhabitants, sedentary hunter-gatherers called Natufians, buried their dead in or under their houses,
just as Neolithic peoples did after them.
● Sometime about 10,000 years ago, the earliest farmers put down their roots literally and figuratively.
Agriculture opened the door to (theoretically) stable food supplies, and it let hunter-gatherers build permanent
dwellings that eventually morphed into complex societies in many parts of the world.
● Hasankeyf, on the banks of the Tigris River in southeastern Turkey, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited
settlements on earth.
• People settle down in different
geographical conditions and adopt
themselves to the conditions in the
region. Patterns of human settlements
evolve in accordance with the natural
conditions. Using the resources from the
surroundings man constructed houses
and started living in them.
• In the modern era of science and
technology , people have made a
remarkable progress in the construction
of shelter. Settlements have provided
man with stability.
A number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed.

Location-based Communities:

Range from the local neighborhood, suburb, village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole. These
are also called communities of place.

Identity-based Communities:

Range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilization, or
the global community cultures of today. They may be included as communities of need or identity, such as disabled
persons, or frail aged people.

Organizationally-based Communities:

Range from communities organized informally around family or network-based guilds and associations to more
formal incorporated associations, political decision making structures, economic enterprises, or professional
associations at a small, national or international scale.
 Spatial Pattern Definition
• Communities that form the
dominant matrix of an area
(occurrences are generally 80-
• Matrix
400,000 hectares or 200-
1,000,000 acres).

• Communities that occur as large • Dispersed

patches covering generally 8- Dispersed settlements have buildings which
• Large patch
400 hectares or 20-1000 acres. are spread out, e.g. farmhouse in the middle
of fields or a few houses in a mountainous
• Communities that typically occur area. They are dispersed because farmers
as very small patches covering need a lot of land for grazing and growing
• Small patch generally 0.4-20 hectares or 1- crops.
50 acres. • Nucleated
Nucleated settlements have buildings which
• Communities that typically occur are close together. They often grew around a
in long, linear spatial patterns, road junction or a river crossing.
for example those that follow • Linear
• Linear water courses; riparian Linear settlements have a long and narrow
scrublands and deciduous forest shape. They often follow roadways,
types are examples of linear riverbanks, canals or narrow valleys where
communities there is little room to grow outwards.
Categories settlements according to their size and shape. The result is a settlement hierarchy. A settlement hierarchy is found
by putting settlements in a region or country into a rank order either by population or type and range of services.
URBAN AND RURAL COMMUNITIES
Communities are commonly divided into two general types: rural and urban. Often locality is regarded as rural or
urban by reference to its population. density of population, legal limits and legal status that is whether the locality
has been given the status of rural or urban. Some other writers have used occupations and social organizations,
that is the type of social and economic institutions, relationships, folkways as criterion.

“Social life in a country side moves and develops in a rural setting just as social life in an urban setting moves and
develops in an urban setting, their respective setting considerably determines rural & Urban social life”.
Prof. A.R Desai

Major distinction is in the physical & Social setting. (Social

deals with the people inhabiting an area and the people
one is associated with ). Distinctions in ethos of life,
cultural patterns, Socio-cultural groupings, modes of
earning & livelihood.
 URBAN
An urban area is the region surrounding a city. Most inhabitants
of urban areas have non agricultural jobs. Urban areas are very
developed, meaning there is a density of human structures such
as houses, commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and railways.
"Urban area" can refer to towns, cities, and suburbs

RURAL
In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that
is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is
considered rural." Typical rural areas have a low population
density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are commonly
rural, as are other types of areas such as forest.
Criteria to classify as Rural & Urban
Population size & Density
Availability of services- Physical & Social Infrastructure

• From 1961 Census onwards- Towns classified as Statutory towns (Which are accorded civic status by
State Government as Corporation Municipality or Cantonment) & Census Towns.

Urban area definition/ Definition of Census Town

 A minimum population of 5000
 At least 75% of working population engaged in non agricultural pursuits.
 A population density of at least 400 per Sq. Km

India lives in Villages…………………….India dies in Villages

CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL COMMUNITY/
SETTLMENTS

1. Size of the community

2. Density of Population

3. Agriculture is the main occupation

4. Close contact with nature

5. Homogeneity of population

6. Social Stratification

7. Social interaction

8. Social mobility

9. Social Solidarity

10. Joint family system

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN COMMUNITY/ SETTLMENTS

1. Size of the community

2. Density of Population
3. Nuclear Family
4. Marriage
5. Occupation
6. Class extremes
7. Social heterogeneity
8. Social Distance- Urban Anonymity
9. System of interactions- complex- predominance of secondary contacts,
impersonal, casual and short-lived relations.
10. Materialism- Status symbols in the form of financial assets, salaries etc
11. Individualism- Their own wealth & Happiness
12. Rationality
13. Anonymity
14. Norm & Social role conflict-Absence of uniform code
15. Rapid social & cultural change
16. Voluntary Associations- for emotional warmth & security
17. Formal social control
18. Secularism
 Ruralism Urbanism

1. Signifies the rural mode 1. Signifies the Urban mode of

of living living
2. Predominance of 2. Predominance of impersonal
traditions, customs, folk relationships, individualism,
culture, joint family secondary associations.

3. Agrarian Society 3. Industrial Society (driven by use

4. Small & Medium of technology, mass production,
enterprises supporting a large population &
5. Natural resources high capacity for division of
labor.
4. Resources- Capital (financial &
Physical)
5. Advanced education & Skills
Moreover rural and urban areas are mutually dependent. Analysis must focus on the linkage between the two
rather than the dichotomy.
(a) Rural depending on Urban
(b) Urban depending on Rural

(a) Rural Depending on Urban:

(i) Urban areas as business centers for purchase of consumables such as kerosene, matchbox, pump set and
fertilizers etc.
(ii) Urban areas are centers of recreation and education.
(iii) Compensation, rehabilitation and employment opportunities in case of acquisition of village land for
industrialization. Demand for house increases giving financial boost to the villages.

(b) Urban Depending on Rural:

(i) For vegetables and agricultural products.
(ii) Industries depend on raw materials like sugarcane, jute, wheat and cotton etc.
(iii) For labor, skilled mansions etc.
(iv) Caste based occupation specific services like dhobi, sweeper, barber and goldsmith etc.
Thus towns and villages formed parts of civilization process with structural continuities and organizational
differences between the two. Again this is not at the utter de reorganization of the positive effects of
Urbanization.
CITIES AND SOCIETY
A city is an area in which a large number of people live fairly close together. Cities usually have their own
separate governments and systems for maintaining and providing utilities and transportation. Relatively
permanent and highly organized centre of population.

URBANIZATION
Urbanization refers to the population
shift from rural areas to urban areas
the gradual increase in the
proportion of people living in urban
areas, and the ways in which each
society adapts to this change The
process of making an area more
Urban.
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi
permanent residence, usually across a political boundary
Migration is the demographic process that links rural to urban areas, generating or spurring the growth of
cities. It is a process of population redistribution. Growing cities are often seen as the agents of environmental
degradation.
CAUSES

Push Factors: Not enough jobs/ Few opportunities/ Famine or

Drought/ Political fear or persecution/ Slavery or forced labor/
poor medical care/ Loss of wealth/ Natural disasters/ Death
threats/ Desire for more political or religious freedom/ pollution/
poor housing/ Landlord or tenant issues/ Bullying/ Discrimination/
war/ etc.

Pull Factors: job opportunities/ better living conditions/ Education/

recreational facilities/ better medical care/ Attractive climate/
Security/ Industry/ better chances of marriage/ etc.
URBANIZATION CAUSES
Urbanization has become a common feature of Indian society. Growth of Industries has contributed to the growth
of cities. As a result of industrialization people have started moving towards the industrial areas in search of
employment. This has resulted in the growth of towns and cities. Various reasons have led to the growth of cities.

Industrialization: Industrialization is a trend representing a shift from the old agricultural economics to novel non-
agricultural economy, which creates a modernized society. Through industrial revolution, more people have been
attracted to move from rural to urban areas on the account of improved employment opportunities.
Industrialization has increased employment opportunities by giving people the chance to work in modern sectors in
job categories that aids to stir economic developments.

Commercialization: Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization. The distribution of goods and
services and commercial transactions in the modern era has developed modern marketing institutions and
exchange methods that have tremendously given rise to the growth of towns and cities. Commercialization and
trade comes with the general perception that the towns and cities offer better commercial opportunities and
returns compared to the rural areas.
Social benefits and services: There are numerous social benefits attributed to life in the cities and towns. Examples
include better educational facilities, better living standards, and better sanitation and housing, better health care,
better recreation facilities, and better social life in general. On this account, more and more people are prompted
to migrate into cities and towns to obtain the wide variety of social benefits and services which are unavailable in
the rural areas.

Employment opportunities: In cities and towns, there are ample job opportunities that continually draw people
from the rural areas to seek better livelihood. Therefore, the majority of people frequently migrate into urban
areas to access well paying jobs as urban areas have countless employment opportunities in all developmental
sectors such as public health, education, transport, sports and recreation, industries, and business enterprises.
Services and industries generate and increase higher value-added jobs, and this leads to more employment
opportunities.

Modernization and changes in the mode of living: Modernization plays a very important role in the process of
urbanization. As urban areas become more technology savvy together with highly sophisticated communication,
infrastructure, medical facilities, dressing code, enlightenment, liberalization, and other social amenities
availability, people believe they can lead a happy life in cities. In urban areas, people also embrace changes in
the modes of living namely residential habits, attitudes, dressing, food, and beliefs. As a result, people migrate
to cities and the cities grow by absorbing the growing number of people day after day.
Population growth: Population growth is one of the main causes of urbanization. Population may increase in two
ways.
• Migration
Migration is the main reason for rapid growth of mega-cities. Migration is a form of geographical or spatial
motion between one geographical unit and another. Internal migration consists of rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-
urban and urban-rural migration. The time of migration also varies; it can be periodic, seasonal, or long term
migration. When considering urbanization rural-urban and urban-rural and rural-rural migrations are very
important.
• Natural increase in population
Natural increase provides a base for urban population growth rates, and rural-urban migration and
reclassification, of areas previously defined as rural supplement this growth. In urban areas natural increase in
population is not high when compared with rural regions. This is because Fertility rates are largely dependent on
economic considerations. As economic wellbeing increases, the fertility level decreases .

Rural urban transformation: As localities become more fruitful and prosperous due to the discovery of
minerals, resource exploitation, or agricultural activities, cities start emerging as the rural areas transform to
urbanism. The increase in productivity leads to economic growth and higher value-added employment
opportunities. This brings about the need to develop better infrastructure, better education institutions, better
health facilities, better transportation networks, establishment of banking institutions, better governance, and
better housing.
 TRENDS OF URBAN PROCESS IN INDIA
❖ Urbanization is an integral part of economic development, as
the economy develops; there is an increase in the per capita
income and also the demand for non farm goods in the economy.

❖ These goods are not heavily land dependent and use more
of the other factors of production especially labor and capital.
They are cheaper if produced in the urban sector of the
economy, since urban settlements enjoy economies of
agglomeration in manufacturing services and provision of
infrastructure. Economic growth influences the rate of
urbanization, while urbanization in term, affects the rate at
which the economy grows. As the country urbanizes, the share of
national income that originates in the urban sector also increases.

❖ Urbanization brings in its wake a number of challenges such

as rapid population growth in urban settlements, which is cited as
the biggest challenges in most literature on this subject. This is
consequences of births exceeding deaths, migration of rural
population to urban centers and also the classification of rural
settlements as towns.
EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION ON RURAL AREAS
Urban area has increased and spread towards rural areas, causing agricultural land and grassland to shrink. Data
from the studied villages show the same pattern. Agricultural land has decreased by 40%, mainly the villages lying
in close proximity to the city.

Urbanization has both positive and negative impacts
on rural livelihoods. On the one hand, well-planned
and managed urban growth and development can
serve as a positive factor for rural livelihoods such as
• High demand on agricultural products,
• Access to developed extension services
• Educational and medicinal facilities
• Opportunities for non-farm employment
On the other, unplanned urbanization negatively affects rural
livelihoods as a result of
• Changing land use and cropping patterns
• Decreasing arable land
• Increasing unemployment in farming sector
• Causing high price of food commodities
• Poor quality and scarcity of water
• Rural–urban migration and increasing competition between
agricultural and residential uses of natural resources
IMPACT OF GROWING URBANIZATION ON URBAN LIFE
Urbanization is widely accepted as a process with several consequences, such as social, economic or environmental.
This complex process has a strong global dimension that overcomes the spatial barriers, with a significant impact on
natural resources and on life quality.

SOCIAL IMPACTS
• Contact with the labor market: Once established in urban areas, population adjusts to match the work market,
specializing in the needs of existing brand and thus framing and adaptation, as well as winning amounts to
cover everyday needs.
• Families and the urban society: It has been often seen, a decline in the concept of the family, through the
proliferation of less traditional forms and new types of households. 3.Domestic relations: An increase in the
rate of participation of women in the labor market and in some cases even becoming decision makers.
• Fertility Rates: Changing from rural social space to urban space generates changes in the natural growth rate
of population resulting in setting up of smaller families, with a reduced number of members.
• Access to better health facilities, education and training: urban space ensures access to better health facilities
,education, personal and intellectual development there by providing new features and modes of the
evolution of the individual.
• Poverty, lack of opportunities and problems of psychological adaptation: this overlapping of issues is
identified within a part of the population.
ECONOMIC IMPACTS
• Economic impact of urbanization includes both positive and negative aspects, with direct influence on places, but
also on the areas that exceed those limits, as follows:
• The development and diversification of the commercial activities, plus the opportunity of creating new jobs.
• Bridging the gap between business and people.
• Access to new technologies and to the various areas of activity, which ensures raising incomes and the
development of individuals.
• Development of infrastructure.
• Access to facilities, to institutional and cultural environments developed.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Understanding the environmental impacts of urbanization is essential for analyzing the sustainability of urban
development processes, both planned and unplanned.
Impact on atmosphere and climate
• The creation of heat islands - Materials like concrete, asphalt, bricks etc absorb and reflect energy
differently than vegetation and soil. Cities remain warm in the night when the countryside has already
cooled.
• Pollution- Urban activities release a wide range of emissions into the environment including carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, lead, and many other pollutants resulting in poor
air quality and increase in atmospheric temperature.
• Changes in Patterns of Precipitation-Decrease in the area of forest land triggers changes in the
precipitation patterns and adversely affects the availability of water.
Impact on land resources
• Erosion and other changes in land quality as a result of
deforestation and uncontrolled development.
• Pollution due to industries and waste sites.
IMPACT ON WATER RESOURCES
• Surface runoff - Natural vegetation and undisturbed soil
are replaced with concrete, asphalt, brick, and other
impermeable surfaces. This means that, when it rains,
water is less likely to be absorbed into the ground and,
instead, flows directly into river channels. This is a
primary cause of urban flooding .
• Poor quality of water- The water quality degrade with
time due to pollution related to urbanization and
ultimately results in shortage of water.
IMPACT ON BIOSPHERE
• The modification ,destruction and creation of natural
habitats of different species, as a result of pollution and
other impacts of urbanization is a major setback for our
biosphere, sometimes resulting in the extinction of many
species of organisms.
IMPACTS OF RAPID URBANIZATION

“Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody, only because, and only when, they are created by
everybody.” ― Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities
The 20th century is related to the phenomenon of rapid urbanization. By 1900 13% of the world‟s population was
urban. By 2007 50% of the world population were living in cities. The majority of the inhabitants of the less
developed regions still live in rural areas, but in the more developed regions the population is already highly
urbanized.
IMPACT ON HEALTH
• Environmental concerns
• Housing and shelter quality: strong health determinants
• Health hazards of poor water supply and sanitation
• Violence and crime
• Mental health, loneliness and depression
• Substance abuse
• Road traffic accidents
• Climate change
• Fuel
• Health inequity
IMPACT ON HOUSING
The impact of rapid population growth on housing development in a
developing economy is usually a consequence of the push of the rural
areas and the pull of the town. As population growth and urbanization
continue, cities are faced with a number of challenges such as air
pollution, congestion, social issues and pressure on housing markets.
Unintended consequences of rising house prices, housing shortages and
unaffordability are explored followed by potential solutions.

IMPACT ON TRANSPORTATION

The city cannot afford to cater only to the private cars and two-
wheelers and there has to be a general recognition that without public
transport cities would be even less viable. Much needs to be done if
public transport is to play a significant role in the life of a city.
Measures need to be taken in the short-run to enhance the quality of
public transport service and to impose constraints on the use of private
vehicles in cities. In the long-run, there needs to be effective land use
planning and the introduction of new transit systems to keep the city
moving.
THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUMS IN INDIAN
CITIES
The 2001 Census of India reveals that the urban population of the country stood at 286 million or 27.8 per
cent of the total population. This is estimated to have increased to 350 million by 2010, which is about 30 per
cent of the total population. It is projected that the urban population of India would grow to about 470 million
in 2021 and 700 million in 2041. The level of urbanization is expected to reach 50 per cent mark in the next
3-4 decades.

UN-HABITAT defines a slum household as a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area
who lack one or more of the following:
1. Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions.
2. Sufficient living space which means not more than three people sharing the same room.
3. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price.
4. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number
of people.
5. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions
Before the 19th century, rich and poor people lived in the same districts, with the
wealthy living on the high streets, and the poor in the service streets behind
them. But in the 19th century, wealthy and upper-middle-class people began to
move out of the central part of rapidly growing cities, leaving poorer residents
behind.
Slums were common in the United States and Europe before the early 20th
century. London's East End is generally considered the locale where the term
originated in the 19th century, where massive and rapid urbanization of the
dockside and industrial areas led to intensive overcrowding in a warren of post-
medieval streetscape.

• Dharavi slum started in 1887 with industrial and segregationist policies of the British colonial era. The slum
housing, tanneries, pottery and other economy established inside and around Dharavi during the British rule of
India.
• Slums have risen dramatically since 1947. There were main two reasons for slum development. One is Partition
of India and the other is Industrial revolution after independence.
• Before 1950 slums were predominantly found around the mills, factories etc. They were mostly industrial workers
in one room tenements. Health and Services provisions to these areas rose as main issues.
• Instead of going farther, the density of the slums started growing in and around the cities. From 1950 to1968
the number of slums increased to 18%, in the 1970s they had a huge surge and by 1980 slum dwellers were
half of the entire city's population.
Registrar General of India has adopted the following definition for
the purpose of Census of India. 2001, the slum areas broadly
constitute of:
 All specified areas in a town or city notified as 'Slum' by
State/Local Government and UT Administration under any
Act including a 'Slum Act'.
 All areas recognized as 'Slum' by State/Local Government
and UT Administration. Housing and Slum Boards, which
may have not been formally notified as slum under any act
 A compact area of at least 300 populations or about 60-
70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in
unhygienic environment usually with inadequate
infrastructure and lacking in proper sanitary and drinking
water facilities.
REASONS FOR UPCOMING SLUM
Why slum proliferate in India
Urbanization
Industrialization
Shift from Agriculture sector :Higher productivity
in the secondary/tertiary sector against primary
sector makes cities and towns centres of economic
growth and jobs
Better opportunities in urban areas :Cities act as
beacons for the rural population as they represent
a higher standard of living and offer
opportunities to people not available in rural
areas. This results in large scale migration from
rural to urban areas.
Negative consequences of urban pull results in
upcoming of slums characterized by housing
shortage and critical inadequacies in public
utilities, overcrowding, unhygienic conditions, etc.
Census 2001

Total Number of Towns

reported slums– 1743

Census 2011

 Total Number of Towns

reported slums– 2613

With India becoming increasingly globalized and urban, there is also an increase in the number of poor people
living here. As per the latest NSSO survey reports there are over 80 million poor people living in the cities and towns
of India. The Slum population is also increasing and as per TCPO estimates 2001, over 61.80 million people were
living in slums.

• Urban poverty poses the problems of housing

and shelter, water, sanitation, health,
education, social security and livelihoods
along with special needs of vulnerable groups
like women, children and aged people.
• Poor people live in slums which are
overcrowded, often polluted and lack basic
civic amenities like clean drinking water,
sanitation and health facilities.
• Most of them are involved in informal sector
activities where there is constant threat of
eviction, removal, confiscation of goods and
almost non-existent social security cover
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUM POPULATION

• High rate of poverty

• High incidence of unemployment
• Huge extent of urban decay
• Breeding grounds for social problems like crime,
drug addiction, alcoholism etc.
• High rates of mental illness and suicide etc.
• Low level of economic status of its residents
• Inadequate infrastructural facilities;
• Acute problem of malnutrition
• Lack of drinking water;
• Lack of basic healthcare;
• Unsanitary and unary environment
• Low standard of living or poor quality of life.
GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL APPROACHES TO
ENGAGING WITH ISSUES REGARDING SLUMS IN INDIAN CITIES
Is used as an urban renewal approach to redevelop and transform poor and low income settlements into new
developments or housing. Millions of people live in slum dwellings across India and many migrate to live in the slums
from rural villages, often in search of work opportunities. Houses are typically built by the slum dwellers themselves
and violence has been known to occur when developers attempt to clear the land of slum dwellings.

• The initial slum development policies in India concentrated on

„slum clearance‟ as opposed to slum development.
• It was in 1972‐73 that a scheme for the Environmental
Improvement of Urban Slums was undertaken by the Central
Sector for providing services including water supply, sewage,
drainage, and street pavements in 11 cities of India.
• An Urban Poverty Alleviation Scheme, known as the Urban
Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP), was launched during this
plan. Ford Foundation and the World Bank floated planned
interventions during the 70s and 80s for slum development
Therefore, slum development demands intervention of institutions to organize dwellers and lead them through the
path of development. Slum level networks and associations for slum development may be useful for resolving
Prisoners‟ Dilemma and for the improvement of basic services. Social network enhances the self‐sufficiency of slum
dwellers in Delhi and makes them less dependent on political contacts for receiving better urban services.
SLUM ERADICATION, REHABILITATION AND IMPROVEMENT

1990 till date : A new concept was evolved.

The underlying land of the slums was treated as a resource

Incentive FSI for constructing tenements for sale in open market

Profits generated from the sale of these tenements used for cross-
subsidising the free houses to the slum dwellers

Special autonomous authority Slum Rehabilitation Authority was

established
• The housing structure in the slums improved over 2002‐2012.
• A majority of the houses3 had pucca structures4 for 48 percent
of slums in 2002, 57 percent in 2008‐09, and 60 percent in
2012 .
• Underground drainage was available in 19 percent slums and
underground sewerage was available in 29 percent slums in
2012. The number of slums with underground drainage and
sewerage has increased over 2002‐12.
• Tap water, which was the major source of drinking water for 78
percent slums in 2002 and 2008‐09, declined to 71 percent in
2012.
• The proportion of slums with pucca roads within the slum
increased from 54 percent to 68 percent between 2002 and
2008‐09 but decreased to 66 percent in 2012.
• The proportion of slums with motor able pucca approach roads
increased gradually from 64 percent in 2002 to 71 percent in
2012. Overall, basic infrastructure in slums have improved over
2002‐12.
Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY), introduced in 2001, focuses on shelter for the urban poor, with 20
percent of total allocation for community sanitation facilities under the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) program

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), launched in 1985 as sub-scheme of JRY, was made into an independent scheme in 1996. It
provides full grants to the rural poor for construction of their houses.
Accelerated Rural Water Supply Program (ARWSP) provides finance for RWS schemes on a need basis. Within
ARWSP, 20 percent of the funds are reserved under the Sector Reform Program (SRP) for those States that are willing
to adopt key sector reforms related to cost recovery and community management.

National Slum Development Program (NSDP), launched in 1996, provides funds for physical and community
infrastructure as well as shelter upgrading to. It uses the community structures developed first under UBSP, and later
under SJSRY.

Accelerated Urban Water Supply Project (AUWSP) is not strictly for the poor, but provides funding for water related
infrastructure in small towns with less than 20,000 in population. GOI started this program in 1993-94

Mythri Housing Scheme was the primary Government of Kerala housing scheme from 1996 to 2002. In this period,
the Kerala State Housing Board implemented the scheme and financed over 270,000 homes under this
scheme. Beneficiaries who qualified for the program could get Rs 9000/- in capital subsidies (cash grants) and Rs
19000/- in loans at 5.5% interest rates. The beneficiaries had to own 1.6 cents (approximately 64 square meters)
and had to make a minimum contribution of Rs 2500/- to use the program. The program does not specify the design
or construction of the house.
Bhavanashree Housing Program, a new program that is designed to be subsidy free, comes under the highly
successful Kudumbhashree program undertaken by the Kerala state government. Under this program, ten to fifteen
years loans ranging between Rs 30000/- and Rs 40000/- are allocated to needy households. For this purpose, the
Community Development Societies have negotiated bulk loans from financial institutions. The program gives the
beneficiaries a choice in the duration and the amount of the loan. The interest rates range between 7% and
7.5%. The Kerala Government calls the program a subsidy free program because of the absence of explicit subsidies
and subsidy-free interest rates (the negotiated interest rates with Housing Financial Institutions are 7% or less). The
beneficiaries are those identified to be below the poverty line and who are members of the CDS. Like the Mythri
program, the beneficiaries have to own 1.6 cents (approximately 64 square meters) of land to qualify for the
program.

Pune Municipality Sanitation Project: Over the last fifty years, the Government of India has funded various
sanitation initiatives around the country. Most of these were haphazard efforts at constructing public use toilets that
over time became dysfunctional due to poor mechanisms that oversaw maintenance and design. Nevertheless, more
recently, there have been some signs of success. In Pune, a major sanitation initiative resulted in the construction of
475 sanitation units, with each unit ranging between 10 to 60 seats. In total 10,000 toilet seats were provided. For
a city with a slum population of 600,000, this is a major initiative. What makes this initiative worth closer study is the
fact that while the capital costs of Rs 40 crores (Rs 400 million) were covered by the Pune Municipal Corporation,
community based organizations (CBOs) have agreed to be responsible for the maintenance.
Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan: A new National City Sanitation
Project under the title of “Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan” is an
integral sub component of VAMBAY. Twenty percent of the
total allocation under VAMBAY is dedicated to the
construction of community sanitation facilities. Of this 20%,
fifty percent will be in the form of a subsidy and fifty
percent as an HUDCO loan. The State Governments/Local
Bodies will be free to supplement this amount with their own
grant or subsidy as the case may be. Each toilet block will be
maintained by a group from among the slum dwellers who
will make a monthly contribution of about Rs.20 or so per
family and obtain a monthly pass or family card.

It is estimated that more than 55% of Mumbai's population

stays in slums.
To ameliorate the problems of slums dwellers the Government
of Maharashtra appointed a committee chaired by the Chief
Secretary of Maharashtra, Shri Dinesh Afzalpurkar in 1995
to devise a scheme to rehabilitate slum dwellers.

Slums in Bangalore
THANK YOU