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Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442

www.elsevier.com/locate/ecra

Predicting consumer intentions to shop online: An empirical test

of competing theories
Hsiu-Fen Lin
Department of Shipping and Transportation Management, National Taiwan Ocean University, No. 2, Beining Road, Keelung 202-24, Taiwan, ROC

Received 5 July 2005; received in revised form 2 February 2007; accepted 8 February 2007
Available online 14 February 2007

Abstract

The proliferation of commercial Web sites providing consumers with a new medium to purchase products and services has increased
the importance of understanding the determinants of consumer intentions to shop online. This study compared the technology accep-
tance model and two variations of the theory of planned behavior to examine which model best helps to predict consumer intentions
to shop online. Data were gathered from 297 Taiwanese customers of online bookstores, and structural equation modeling was used
to compare the three models in terms of overall model fit, explanatory power and path significance. Decomposing the belief structures
in the theory of planned behavior moderately increased explanatory power for behavioral intention. The results also indicate that the
decomposed theory of planned behavior provides an improved method of predicting consumer intentions to shop online. Finally, the
implications of this study are discussed.
Ó 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Consumer intentions; Online shopping; Technology acceptance model; Theory of planned behavior; Decomposed theory of planned behavior

1. Introduction issues can be identified, online retailers can consider them

Business-to-consumer electronic commerce (B2C e-com-
merce) provides an effective method for online retailers and
their consumers to perform online transactions through
commercial Web sites [1]. Although consumers have real-
ized the benefits of online shopping, such as saving time
and energy, convenience, competitive pricing, broader
selection, and greater access to information [2], consumers
are sometimes unwilling to shop online because the limited
Web interface hampers their judgment of retailer honesty
compared to face-to-face interaction [3]. Moreover, in
order to develop an effective Web site to facilitate online
transactions and services, it is important to understand
consumer decisions regarding the use of online shopping.
The issues that influence this decision are likely to vary
with the Web sites, the individual, and the context. If these
E-mail address: hflin@mail.ntou.edu.tw
during Web site implementation.
Recent research has provided more insight into user
acceptance of Internet services [4]. For example, inten-
tion-based models, including the technology acceptance
model (TAM) [5,6], the theory of planned behavior (TPB)
[7,8], and the decomposed TPB model [9], have used to
understand the determinants of consumer intentions to
use Internet services [10–15]. Three intention-based models
are compared in two respects. First, the TAM is based on
the Fishbein and Ajzen’s [16] theory of reasoned action
(TRA), which indicates that social behaviors are motivated
by individual attitudes, and are specifically designed to pre-
dict information system (IS) use [5,6]. TPB extended the
TRA to explain behavioral conditions not entirely under
volitional control [7,8]. The decomposed TPB model decon-
structs belief structure of TPB into several factors [9]. Sec-
ond, the antecedents of user acceptance, perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use are presented by funda-
mental salient beliefs comprising the TAM [5]. TPB stresses

1567-4223/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2007.02.002
434 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442
the influence of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioral control beliefs on behavioral intention and
actual usage [7,8]. The decomposed TPB model focuses on
identifying various belief factors that influence three deter-
minants of intention (such as attitude, subjective norms,
and perceived behavioral control). Taylor and Todd [9] con-
tended that decomposition of beliefs sets more completely
identify understanding and managerially relevant factors.
The theory of comparison approach provides a helpful
method of predicting information technology (IT) usage
behavior and intention, while the individual theoretical
models have their own distinct advantages. For example,
Chau and Hu [17] found that TAM to be superior to TPB
in its ability to examine physician acceptance of telemedicine
technology. Analysis of buyer behavioral intentions in the
context of electronic procurement provides another exam-
ple. Moreover, Gentry and Calantone [18] recommended
TAM as superior to the TRA and TPB models in its ability
to predict buyer behavioral intentions. Another example
has demonstrated that the three models (TAM, TPB, and
decomposed TPB model) are roughly equivalent in terms
of their ability to explain and predict user acceptance of
new technology [19,20]. Furthermore, online shopping is
similar to general Internet-based IS that have a significant
impact on individual decision-making behaviors and Inter-
net marketing strategies [21,22]. Hence, this study suggests
that simultaneously testing the three competing models
(TAM, TPB, and decomposed TPB model) can help under-
stand consumer intentions to shop online. However, very
limited empirical research has been performed to examine
and compare the validity and explanatory utility of prevalent
intention-based theories in the context of online shopping.
The main purpose of this study is to examine and com-
pare which intention-based model is best for predicting con-
sumer intentions to shop online. Specially, this study
examines two variations of the TPB, namely pure TPB
and decomposed TPB, and compares them to the TAM.
The decomposed TPB model draws on constructs from
the literature on innovation characteristics [23], and further
explores the dimensions of subjective norms (such as inter-
personal and external influence) and perceived behavioral
control by decomposing them into specific dimensions. Data
were gathered from 297 Taiwanese customers of online
bookstores, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was
used to compare the three models (TAM, TPB, and decom-
posed TPB model) in terms of overall model fit, explanatory
power and path significance. Moreover, the three models are
compared in terms of the extent to which each can predict
consumer intentions to shop online. The theoretical and
managerial relevance of the models is then discussed.
2. Theoretical models
2.1. Technology acceptance model
The TAM was conceived to explain and predict individ-
ual acceptance of IT [5,6]. TAM is an adaptation of the
TRA [16], which specifies two beliefs, perceived usefulness
(PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU), as determinants of
attitude towards behavioral intentions and IT usage [6]. In
the TAM, behavioral intention (BI) to use leads to actual
IT usage (AU). Behavioral intention is determined jointly
by attitude (A) and perceived usefulness, where the latter
also influences attitude directly. Meanwhile, perceived ease
of use directly affects both attitude and perceived usefulness.
Perceived usefulness is defined as the extent to which a
person believes that using a particular system would
enhance his or her job performance [5]. Consumers prefer
to evaluate their online shopping performance in terms of
the associated benefits and costs, including maximizing
convenience and minimizing transaction time [24]. Thus,
in the context of online shopping, this study measured
the revised perceived usefulness in terms of three key items:
facilitating comparison-shopping, providing access to use-
ful information, and reducing shopping time. Perceived
ease of use represents the degree to which a Web site is per-
ceived to be easy to understand, learn or operate. As a Web
site has a well-designed user interface, consumers are likely
to believe that online shopping is free of effort.
2.2. Theory of planned behavior
The TPB [7,8] extends the TRA [16], to account for con-
ditions where individuals do not have complete control
over their behavior. The TPB postulates that actual usage
(AU) is determined by behavioral intention (BI) and per-
ceived behavioral control (PBC). Behavioral intention is
determined by three factors: attitude (A), subjective norms
(SN) and perceived behavioral control (PBC). Each factor
is in turn generated by a number of beliefs and evaluations.
In the context of online shopping, attitude refers to gen-
eral consumer feelings of favorableness or unfavorableness
towards the use of online shopping. Moreover, subjective
norms refer to consumer perceptions regarding the use of
online shopping by the opinions of the referent group (such
as friends or colleagues). Perceived behavioral control
describes consumer perceptions of the availability of
knowledge, resources, and opportunities necessary for
using online shopping.
2.3. Decomposed theory of planned behavior
To understand the relationship between belief structures
and antecedents of intention, several studies have examined
approaches to decomposing attitudinal beliefs [9,17,23,
25,26]. Moreover, Shimp and Kavas [27] suggested that
the cognitive components of belief would not be organized
into a single conceptual or cognitive unit. According to
Taylor and Todd [9], in the decomposed TPB model, atti-
tudinal, normative and control beliefs are decomposed into
multidimensional belief constructs. The decomposed TPB
model specified that, based on the diffusion of innovation
theory [23], the attitudinal belief has three innovation
characteristics that influence behavioral intentions are rela-
 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442 435

tive advantage, complexity and compatibility. Online including three important resources: Internet equipment,
shopping is a new form of home shopping that can be con- time, and money.
sidered a service innovation [2]. This study thus hypothe-
sizes that the decomposed TPB model provides a more
3. Research methodology
satisfactory explanation of behavioral intentions to shop
online.
3.1. Subjects and procedure
Relative advantage refers to the degree to which an
innovation providers benefits which supersede those of its
A total of 305 questionnaires were distributed to senior
precursor and may incorporate factors such as economic
year undergraduate students taking the course on Elec-
benefits, image enhancement, convenience and satisfaction
tronic Commerce at a large university located in the north
[21]. The relative advantage is often considered to be the
Taiwan. The student subjects were selected in this study for
‘‘perceived usefulness’’ in TAM [5]. The complexity con-
three reasons. First, according to the 2004 Taiwan Internet
struct is extremely similar (although in an opposite direc-
users’ survey report (http://survey.yam.com/survey/2004/
tion) to ‘‘perceived ease of use’’ concept in TAM [5].
index.htm), about 40% of Internet users in Taiwan are col-
Compatibility is the degree to which the innovation fits
lege students. Moreover, college students are greatest pro-
with the potential adopter’s existing values, previous expe-
portion of Internet users. Second, online consumers
riences and current needs [23]. Since Verhoef and Langerak
generally are younger and better educated than conven-
[2] indicated that consumers who consider online shopping
tional consumers, meaning that the student subjects closely
to be compatible with their value, needs and lifestyle,
resemble the online consumer population [32]. Finally, the
express high willingness to shop online. Accordingly, in
use of students as subjects in this study can decrease the
the context of online shopping, this study proposes decom-
effect of variance in web-based literacy.
posing attitude into three components: perceived useful-
The study was conducted in the following stages. First,
ness, perceived ease of use, and compatibility.
the subjects were instructed to navigate online bookstores
Previous studies generally took personal influence
(such as www.amazon.com, www.books.com.tw, and
(normative influence) and external environmental influ-
www.silkbook.com.tw) and search for books related to
ence (informational influence) as determinants of subjec-
Electronic Commerce course they were taking. Next, the
tive norms [9,28]. For example, Bhattacherjee [28]
subjects were asked to select a textbook or reference book
viewed subjective norms as including two influences:
related for the course that they would like to buy from an
interpersonal influence and external influence. Interper-
online bookstore, and fulfillment time cannot be over 30
sonal influence indicates word-of-mouth influence by
days. The subjects were given two tasks representing the
friends, colleagues, and superiors, while external influence
online transaction process. The first task was to register
indicates mass media reports, expert opinions, and other
with an online bookstore, search for the book selected by
non-personal information considered by individuals when
the participants and place it in the shopping cart. The sec-
performing a behavior. In the context of B2C e-com-
ond task involved filling out certain payment and delivery
merce, individual intentions regarding service acceptance
data. After completing these two tasks, all the 305 students
for e-commerce are shaped not only by interpersonal
completed the task successfully and the questionnaires were
influence (from friends, family, and colleagues/peers),
distributed in class. The response rate was 100%, but since
but also by the opinions of industry experts, as dissemi-
eight questionnaires later were discarded because of miss-
nated by the popular press [28]. Accordingly, in online
ing data, the effective response rate was approximately
shopping acceptance contexts, measures of subjective
97%. Table 1 lists descriptive statistics about the sample.
norms should consider both interpersonal as well as
external influences.
Ajzen [8] extended TPB using the decomposition PBC 3.2. Measurement
component into two dimensions: self-efficacy and facilitat-
ing conditions. The first dimension, self-efficacy (SE), is This study adapted the measures used to operationalize
defined as individual judgment of individual capabilities the constructs included in the investigated model from rel-
to use IT [29,30]. In the context of online shopping, self- evant previous studies, making minor wording changes to
efficacy refers to consumer self-assessments of his/her capa- tailor these measures to the context of online sopping.
bilities to shop online. Meanwhile, the second dimension is The measures of actual usage, behavioral intention, per-
facilitating conditions (FC), which reflects the availability ceived usefulness and perceived ease of use adapted from
of resources needed to perform particular behaviors Davis [5]. The belief items for measuring compatibility,
[9,31]. In fact, with the growing availability of supporting attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral con-
Internet equipments (technology facilitating conditions) trol were revised from Taylor and Todd [9]. Items for inter-
and resource factors such as time and money (resource personal influence and external influence were adapted
facilitating conditions), online shopping will also become from Bhattacherjee [28], while items for measuring self-effi-
increasingly accessible. Accordingly, this study focused cacy and facilitating conditions were adapted from Taylor
on assessing the facilitating conditions for online shopping, and Todd [9]. All items were measured using a seven-point
436 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442

Table 1 Table 2
Sample characteristics (n = 297) Results of CFA for measurement model
Demographic characteristics Frequency Percent (%) Cumulative (%) Construct Item Internal Convergent validity
reliability
Gender
Cronbach Factor Composite Average
Male 159 53.5 53.5
alpha loading reliabilitya variance
Female 138 46.5 100
extractedb
Age
Actual usage AU1 0.85 0.78 0.78 0.64
<25 203 68.4 68.4
AU2 0.82
25–35 80 26.9 95.3
Behavioral BI1 0.88 0.86 0.82 0.60
>35 14 4.7 100
intention BI2 0.77
Computer skills BI3 0.69
Poor 28 9.4 9.4 Perceived PU1 0.87 0.70 0.81 0.60
Fair 72 24.3 33.7 usefulness PU2 0.79
Good 111 37.4 71.1 PU3 0.82
Very good 86 28.9 100 Perceived PEU1 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.71
ease of use PEU2 0.83
Internet experience (years)
Compatibility C1 0.86 0.88 0.82 0.70
<1 year 7 2.4 2.4
C2 0.79
1–3 38 12.8 15.2
Attitude A1 0.83 0.81 0.85 0.65
4–7 175 58.9 74.1
A2 0.84
>6 year 77 25.9 100
A3 0.76
Frequency of online buying Subjective SN1 0.78 0.71 0.70 0.53
1–5 195 65.7 65.7 norm SN2 0.75
6–9 68 22.9 88.6 Perceived PBC1 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.65
10–20 29 9.8 98.4 behavioral PBC2 0.81
More than 20 5 1.6 100 control
Interpersonal II1 0.86 0.87 0.86 0.67
influence II2 0.79
Likert-type scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to II3 0.80
External EI1 0.79 0.82 0.85 0.66
7 = strongly agree). influence EI2 0.84
With the establishment of content validity, the question- EI3 0.77
naire was refined through rigorous pre-testing. The pre- Self-efficacy SE1 0.83 0.71 0.75 0.60
testing focused on instrument clarity, question wording SE2 0.83
and validity. During the pre-testing, 15 experienced online Facilitating FC1 0.80 0.85 0.82 0.65
conditions FC2 0.82
shoppers were taken as subjects and invited to comment on FC3 0.74
the questions and wordings. The comments of these 15
Notes. All t-value are significant at p < 0.001.
individuals then provided a basis for revisions to the con- a
Composite reliability = (square of the summation of the factor load-
struct measures. Several items were removed from the ings)/{(square of the summation of the factor loadings) + (summation of
instrument based on the feedback from the pre-testing sub- error variances)}.
b
jects. The appendix lists all of the survey items. Average variance extracted = (summation of the square of the factor
loadings)/{summation of the square of the factor loadings} + (summation
of error variances)}.
3.3. Statistical analysis

The hypothesized models are empirically tested using
the structural equation modeling (SEM) approach, sup-
ported by LISREL 8.3 software with maximum likelihood
estimation [33]. Following the two-stage model-building
process for applying SEM [33,34]. The measurement model
was estimated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to
test reliability and validity of the measurement model, and
the structural model also was analyzed to examine the
model fit results of the proposed theoretical models
(TAM, TPB, and the decomposed TPB model).
4. Results
4.1. Measure reliability and validity
The research instrument used confirmatory factor anal-
ysis (CFA) to examine the reliability and validity. Table 2
summarized the results of internal reliability and conver-
gent validity for constructs. Internal consistency reliability
to test unidimensionality was assessed by Cronbach’s
alpha. The resulting alpha values ranged from 0.78 to
0.90, which were above the acceptable threshold 0.70 sug-
gested by Nunnally and Bernstein [35].
Convergent validity is the degree to which multiple
attempts to measure the same concept in agreement. Con-
vergent validity was assed based on factor loading, com-
posite reliabilities, and variances extracted [34]. The
results of the convergent validity are shown in Table 2.
The factor loading for all items exceeds the recommended
level of 0.6 [36]. Composite reliability values, which depict
the degree to which the construct indicators indicate the
latent construct, range from 0.70 to 0.86. The composite
reliability of all latent constructs exceeded recommended
level of 0.7 [34]. The average variances extracted, which
 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442 437

Table 3
Discriminant validity of constructs
Constructs (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
(1) Actual usage 0.64
(2) Behavioral intention 0.33 0.60
(3) Perceived usefulness 0.18 0.41 0.60
(4) Perceived ease of use 0.16 0.32 0.22 0.71
(5) Compatibility 0.22 0.21 0.31 0.25 0.70
(6) Attitude 0.27 0.17 0.14 0.26 0.30 0.65
(7) Subjective norms 0.36 0.21 0.23 0.33 0.25 0.18 0.53
(8) Perceived behavioral control 0.09 0.15 0.11 0.08 0.22 0.20 0.24 0.65
(9) Interpersonal influence 0.25 0.11 0.27 0.14 0.12 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.67
(10) External influence 0.20 0.12 0.21 0.24 0.13 0.17 0.16 0.23 0.13 0.66
(11) Self-efficacy 0.12 0.26 0.18 0.15 0.27 0.26 0.22 0.16 0.31 0.24 0.60
(12) Facilitation conditions 0.19 0.16 0.20 0.13 0.21 0.19 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.19 0.13 0.65
Notes. Diagonals represent the average variance extracted, while the other matrix entries represent the square correlations.

that the square correlations for each construct is less than

Table 4
Fit indices and explanatory power of the structural models
the average variance extracted by the indicators measuring
that construct, as shown in Table 3, indicating the measure
TAM TPB Decomposed Recommended
TPB criteria
has adequately discriminant validity. In summary, the mea-
surement model demonstrated adequate reliability, conver-
Fit index
df 152 203 248
gent validity, and discriminant validity.
v2 303.92 436.44 551.13 The following measured indices was assessed the overall
v2/df 1.99 2.15 2.22 63.00 model fit. The observed normed v2 for measurement model
AGFI 0.87 0.86 0.83 P0.80 was 2.08 (v2 = 457.62, df = 219) which is smaller than 3
CFI 0.95 0.93 0.91 P0.90 recommended by Bagozzi and Yi [38]. Other fit indexes
NNFI 0.94 0.91 0.90 P0.90
RMSEA 0.041 0.054 0.062 60.10
also show good fit for the measurement model. The
adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) is 0.82, which
Explanatory power (R2)
exceeds the recommended cut-off level of 0.8 [39]. The
R2AU 0.30 0.31 0.33
R2BI 0.41 0.46 0.57 non-normed fit index (NNFI) is 0.91 and comparative fit
R2A 0.58 – 0.63 index (CFI) is 0.94, greater than the 0.9 recommended
R2SN – – 0.43 [38]. The root mean square error of approximation
R2PBC – – 0.52 (RMSEA) is 0.059, exceeding the recommended cut-off
level of 0.08 recommended by Browne and Cudeck [40].
reflect the overall amount of variance in the indicators The combination of these results suggests that the demon-
accounted for by the latent construct, were in the range strated measurement model fits the data well.
between 0.53 and 0.71. The average variances extracted
of all latent constructs exceeded recommended level of 4.2. Structural model results
0.5 [34]. Moreover, discriminant validity is the degree to
which the measures of different concepts are distinct. Dis- Table 4 showed the fit statistics for each structural
criminant validity can be examined by comparing the model. Overall, the three structural models displayed a
squared correlations between constructs and variance good fit with the data, compared with the suggested fit
extracted for a construct [37]. The analysis results showed criteria [38–40]. Additionally, Table 4 summarizes the

0.33*
Perceived
Usefulness

0.44*
Behavioral Actual
Attitude 0.42* 0.36* Usage
0.36* Intention
R A2 =0.58 2
2
R AU =0.30
R BI =0.41
0.32*
Perceived
Ease of
Use

Note * p<0.01

Fig. 1. Results of TAM model.

438 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442

Attitude
0.34*

Behavioral Actual
Subjective 0.35*
Intention Usage
Norms 0.13 2 2
R BI =0.46 R AU =0.31

0.23* 0.21*
Perceived
Behavioral
Control

Note * p<0.01

Fig. 2. Results of TPB model.

variance explained (R2 value) of each dependent construct
to demonstrate its explanatory power.
Fig. 1 displayed all of the structural relationships among
the studied constructs in TAM. Path coefficients and their
significance, R2 for each dependent construct are also pre-
sented in this figure. While Fig. 2 showed information for
TPB. Fig. 3 displayed information for the decomposed
TPB model.
4.2.1. Technology acceptance model
As indicated in Fig. 1, the paths from perceived ease of
use to perceived usefulness and attitude are significant, as
are the paths from perceived usefulness to attitude and
behavioral intention. The path from attitude to intention
is also significant. A further significant determinant of
actual usage is behavioral intention. Additionally, in terms
of predictive power, the model accounts for 30% of the

Perceived
Usefulness

Perceived 0.46*
Ease of
Use 0.21*

Attitude
Compat-
R A2 =0.63
ibility 0.35*

0.33*

Interpersonal
influence 0.33*

Subjective Behavioral Actual

0.11 0.35*
norms Intention Usage
0.25* 2 2
R BI =0.57 2
R AU =0.33
External RSN =0.43
influence

0.27*
Self- 0.31* 0.22*
Perceived
Efficacy
Behavioral
Control
2
0.09 RPBC =0.52
Facilitating
Conditions

Note * p<0.01

Fig. 3. Results of decomposed TPB model.

 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442
variance in actual usage, 41% of the variance in behavioral
intention and 58% of the variance in attitude.
4.2.2. Theory of planned behavior
As noted in Fig. 2, attitude and PBC are significantly
related to behavioral intention, but subjective norms are
not. Further significant determinants of actual usage are
PBC and behavioral intention.
In addition, the predictive power of the TPB model is
comparable to the TAM. Attitude, subjective norms and
perceived behavioral control added only slightly to the
explanatory power of behavioral intention and actual
usage ðR2BI ¼ 0:46 and R2AU ¼ 0:31 for TPB, compared with
0.41 and 0.30 for TAM).
4.2.3. Decomposed theory of planned behavior
Fig. 3 showed that the paths from perceived usefulness,
perceived ease of use and compatibility to attitude are sig-
nificant. Although self-efficacy is a significant determinant
of the PBC, facilitating conditions is not. Attitude and
PBC are significantly related to behavioral intention.
Moreover, interpersonal and external influences were sig-
nificant predictors of subjective norms. However, like the
pure TPB models, subjective norms are not significantly
related to behavioral intention. Finally, PBC and behav-
ioral intention are significant determinants of actual usage.
Additionally, the decomposed TPB provides somewhat
better predictive power relative to the TAM and TPB mod-
els ðR2AU ¼ 0:33, R2BI ¼ 0:57, R2A ¼ 0:63, R2SN ¼ 0:43,
R2PBC ¼ 0:52Þ. In particular, note that there is a slight
increase in R2 for behavioral intention relative to both
TAM and pure TPB models.
5. Discussion and conclusions
5.1. Discussion of findings
This study compares three competing theoretical models
(TAM, TPB, and decomposed TPB model) to explain con-
sumer online shopping intentions. Based on the theory of
comparison approach [9,17–20], this study adopted reason-
able fit and explanatory power to evaluate three competing
models and identify the best. As shown in Table 4, all three
models achieve comparable fit to the data. Consequently, it
is reasonable to examine the models in terms of their path
significance and explanatory power. Moreover, comparison
of the models reveals some important findings as following:
1. In all three models, behavioral intention is the primary
direct determinant of actual usage. The TPB and decom-
posed TPB model add perceived behavioral control as
an additional direct determinant of behavior. Addition-
ally, regarding the ability of the three models to explain
actual usage, the TAM model and two TPB models are
roughly equivalent (TAM explains 30%, explains 31%
and decomposed TPB 33% of the variance in actual
usage).
439
2. Regarding the explanatory power of behavioral inten-
tion among three models, TAM explains 41% of the var-
iance in behavioral intention, TPB explains 46% and
decomposed TPB 57% of the variance in behavioral
intention. This result indicates that the decomposition
of beliefs provide some additional insight into behav-
ioral intention.
3. Regarding ability to explain attitude, the decomposed
TPB model predicted attitude towards online shopping
better than TAM (R2A ¼ 0:63 for decomposed TPB
model and R2A ¼ 0:58 for TAM). There is good evidence
that innovation characteristics (such as consumer per-
ceptions of usefulness, ease of use and compatibility of
online shopping) provide a more efficient approach for
assessing consumer attitudes towards online shopping
[25].
4. The findings of this study showed that consumer inten-
tions to shop online could be explained by attitude in
all three models. Meanwhile, the decomposed TPB
model identified perceived usefulness, ease of use and
compatibility as significant predictors of attitude
towards online shopping. The results reveal that con-
sumers who perceived online shopping to be superior
to traditional shopping, compatible with shopping needs
and easy to operate, express high willingness to shop
online. Hence, this study suggests that to attract and
keep consumers, it is not enough to make a Web site
easy to use. Instead, it is crucial to develop a Web site
with valuable functions, such as designing simple order-
ing and fulfillment procedures and providing customiz-
able personal websites, convenience consumers,
improve consumer perceptions of Web site usefulness
and match their shopping needs.
5. Regarding the subjective norms associated with online
shopping, two TPB models found the influence of sub-
jective norms on behavioral intentions to be insignifi-
cant. This result might be caused by the fact that all
sample respondents had online shopping experience,
thus reducing the reliance of potential customers on
their friends, family, or colleagues for information
regarding online shopping. This result might also be
explained by the fact that consumers perceived shopping
at both bricks-and-motor and online retailers as a pri-
vate behavior [13]. Consequently, this study may not
infer that those who are important to consumers can
influence their online shopping intentions.
6. Compared to the two TPB models, the PBC significantly
influences consumer online shopping intentions. More-
over, self-efficacy and facilitating conditions compo-
nents are encompassed in the decomposed TPB model.
The results showed that only self-efficacy is positively
associated with perceived behavioral control. This result
is consistent with previous research on B2C e-commerce
[11,41], which reported that consumers who are confi-
dent about engaging in online purchasing are more will-
ing to shop online. Additionally, in this study, more
than 80% of sample respondents had at least three years
440 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442
of experience of using the Internet. These respondents
were familiar with the Internet and thus had easy access
to network resources. Consequently, the facilitating con-
ditions for online shopping did not significantly influ-
ence perceptions of behavioral control.
5.2. Comparison and selection of models
In a setting in which all three models exhibit a reason-
able fit to the data and explain similar amounts of the tar-
get behavior, other criteria must be examined to identify
the best model [9]. Bagozzi [42] argued that given equiva-
lent fit statistics and explanatory power, the best model is
the most parsimonious. However, other studies suggested
that some parsimony might need to be sacrificed to obtain
the most complete understanding of a phenomenon. In this
study, while all three models are relatively parsimonious,
the 5-variable TAM is more parsimonious than the 12-var-
iable decomposed TPB. Indeed, the decomposed TPB with
10 determinants of behavioral intention and actual usage
can be considered an order of magnitude more complex
than TAM, which has only three determinants of behav-
ioral intention and actual usage.
By comparing the two TPB models, this study examines
the trade-off between parsimony and understanding associ-
ated with decomposition. The decomposed TPB is more
complex than the pure TPB owing to including additional
constructs. However, decomposing the belief structures of
TPB increases the explanatory power of the model for
behavioral intention. More importantly, owing to its unidi-
mensional belief constructs, the decomposed TPB provides
better understanding of behavioral antecedents. The
decomposed TPB thus is preferable to the pure form model.
Both TAM and the decomposed TPB models include
specific constructs, which enable detailed understanding
of behavioral intention and actual usage. The decomposed
TPB model has a good fit to data and moderate predictive
power, particularly in relation to behavioral intention, and
it is not clear whether this offsets the increased complexity
of the model relative to TAM. Seven more constructs must
be included in the decomposed TPB model to increase the
predictive power of actual usage by 3% relative to TAM.
Additionally, the decomposed TPB model helps improve
understanding of perceived behavioral control as a determi-
nant of behavioral intention. That is, if the key objective is
to predict actual usage, TAM can be considered preferable.
However, the decomposed TPB model provides a fuller
understanding of the determinants of behavioral intentions.
5.3. Implication for research and practice
The decomposed TPB model has seldom been applied in
the literature to discuss consumer intentions to shop online
and provide a comparison with the well-known TAM
model. This study examined the TAM and two versions
of the TPB models, and assessed the quality of explana-
tions of consumer intentions to shop online provided by
each model. In conclusion, the findings of this study pro-
vide some guidelines for model selection. Each model has
clear strengths. If the sole objective is predicting actual
online shopping use, then TAM may be preferable. How-
ever, the decomposed TPB model more fully explains
behavioral intention. Hence, the results generally indicated
that the decomposed TPB model provides an improved
method of predicting consumer intentions to shop online.
Additionally, from a managerial perspective, this study
indicates that using innovation characteristics (such as con-
sumer perceptions of usefulness, ease of use and compati-
bility of online shopping) for decomposition provides
useful, actionable information which online retailer manag-
ers can use to plan appropriate online shopping services.
5.4. Limitations and further research
There are several limitations to this study, requiring fur-
ther examination and additional research. First, this study
has focused on respondents with experience of online shop-
ping. The IS literature (e.g. Karahanna et al. [43]) suggests
that determinants of intended behavioral change are based
on user level of experience. Therefore, further research is
needed to verify the research model using multiple respon-
dents that include both high- and low-experience consum-
ers. Second, since this study only considered online
bookstores, it is unclear whether the analytical results can
be generalized to other online marketplaces. Further
research can apply the three models (TAM, TPB, and
decomposed TPB models) to examine other types of online
retailers, because consumer attitudes, subjective norms, and
perceived behavioral control to shop online are context-
dependent and may be related to specific products and ser-
vices. Finally, since the sample was collected in Taiwan,
generalizability to other countries might be limited due to
cultural differences in online consumer behaviors. Hence,
the three competing models should be tested further using
samples from other countries, and further testing would
provide a more robust test of the three competing models.
Appendix A. Questionnaire items
Actual usage
AU1: I prefer online shopping for buying books.
AU2: I frequently use online shopping.
Behavioral intention
BI1: I plan to use online shopping again.
BI2: I intend to shop online within the next 30 days.
BI3: I will strongly recommend online shopping to others.
Perceived usefulness
PU1: Using online shopping would facilitate comparison
shopping.
PU2: Using online shopping would provide access to use-
ful shopping information.
 H.-F. Lin / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 6 (2007) 433–442
PU3: Using online shopping would save me time when
buying books.
Perceived ease of use
PEU1: Learning to operate online shopping would not be
easy for me. (Reverse coded)
PEU2: It would be easy for me to become skilled at using
online shopping.
Compatibility
C1: Using online shopping fits well with my lifestyle.
C2: Using online shopping fits well with my shopping
needs.
Attitude
A1: I feel using online shopping is a good idea.
A2: I feel using online shopping is a wise idea.
A3: I like to use online shopping.
Subjective norms
SN1: People who influence my behavior would encourage
me to use online shopping.
SN2: People who are important to me would encourage
me to use online shopping.
Perceived behavioral control
PBC1: I would be able to shop online.
PBC2: I can control my use of online shopping.
Interpersonal influence
II1: My family thinks that I should shop online.
II2: My friends think that I should shop online.
II3: People I knew think that using online shopping is a
good idea.
External influence
EI1: I have read/seen news reports which say that online
shopping provides a good way of buying books.
EI2: The popular press adopts a positive view towards
using online shopping.
EI3: Mass media reports have influenced me to try online
shopping to buy books.
Self-efficacy
SE1: I feel comfortable using online shopping on my own.
SE2: I can use online shopping even if no one is around to
help me.
Facilitating conditions
FC1: I have the Internet equipment (modems, ADSL, etc.)
required to use online shopping.
FC2: I have the time to use online shopping.
FC3: I have enough money to use online shopping.
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