SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 28-Mar. 03, 2010, Phoenix, AZ

Preprint 10-048

A GEOLOGIC STUDY OF GRAVELS OF THE AGUA FRIA RIVER, PHOENIX, AZ

W.H. Langer, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO

E. DeWitt, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO
D. T. Adams, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO
T. O’Brien, Consulting Geologist, Los Angeles, CA

ABSTRACT River south of the lake (fig. 1). The southern portion of the watershed,
south of Lake Pleasant, opens out southward into a broad valley where
Quaternary alluvial deposits in the modern stream channel of the the river flows through urban and agricultural lands to its confluence
Agua Fria River west of Phoenix, Arizona, is mined and processed to with the Gila River, a tributary of the Colorado River.
provide aggregate to the greater Phoenix area. The alluvium occurs as
three distinct, stratigraphic layers. Samples from each of the three
layers were examined for gravel clast lithology, grain size distribution,
and engineering tests, which revealed noteworthy differences in
properties. The engineering properties of the gravels are dependent on
a combination of factors including gravel clast lithology, the distance
the gravel clasts have been transported from their source areas, the
age of the deposits, and the degree of weathering. Knowledge of these
characteristics may affect the methods that aggregate operators
employ to extract and process gravel from the Agua Fria River.
INTRODUCTION
Pits along the Agua Fria River west of Phoenix, Arizona, have a
long history of aggregate production. The annual consumption of sand
and gravel in 2006 in the Phoenix metropolitan area, which includes
Phoenix, Mesa, and Scottsdale, was about 84 million tons (USGS,
2009), or about 20 tons per capita.
Purpose and scope of report
Quaternary alluvial deposits in the modern stream channels,
including the channel deposits of the Agua Fria River west of Phoenix,
Arizona, are mined and processed to provide large amounts of sand
and gravel aggregate to the greater Phoenix area. Construction grade
alluvial sand and gravel aggregate exploited from the Aqua Fria River
channel consist of three stratigraphic layers or potential resource
zones; these are referred to in this paper as the upper, middle, and
lower alluvial deposits. Some of the middle and lower alluvial deposits
contain weathered clasts of volcanic rocks, which are commonly
removed during aggregate processing. An understanding of the
occurrence of these weathered clasts can help producers estimate
production costs and the value of their reserves. Figure 1. Index map of the Agua Fria River drainage basin showing
locations of six major sand and gravel operations (yellow dots) along
Most of the sand and gravel operations along the Agua Fria River lower part of the Agua Fria River.
south of Lake Pleasant are situated in the modern channel of the Agua
Fria River. The source of gravel in the modern channel of the Agua Major tributaries to the Agua Fria River are for the most part
Fria River is reworked gravels that form older terrace deposits that intermittent streams and flow only for brief periods in the spring and
originated in the northern part of the Agua Fria drainage basin (fig. 1). following summer rain storms. There is perennial flow along a few
stretches of some streams in the northern part of the drainage basin
Physical setting where near-surface bedrock keeps groundwater near the surface.
The Agua Fria drainage basin is within two major physiographic
provinces in Arizona; the Central Highlands physiographic province in General stratigraphy of the Agua Fria River gravel deposits
the north, and the Basin and Range physiographic province in the An exposed fine grained overburden layer overlies most of the
south. The Central Highlands province is an area of high elevations upper alluvial deposit (fig. 2). Overburden consists of fine grained silty
and steep stream gradients characterized by rugged mountains. The sand to sandy silt with trace amounts of fine gravel. The deposit just
Basin and Range province is characterized by broad alluvial filled below the overburden is the upper alluvial deposit (fig. 2). It generally
basins separated by elongated, northwest-southeast trending fault- consists of an even mix of sand and gravel with varying amounts of silt
block mountain ranges. and clay.
The Agua Fria River, which is the basin’s main drainage, flows The middle alluvial deposit underlies the upper alluvial deposit
south from Prescott, Arizona, and west of Phoenix to the Gila River. (fig. 2). It is slightly coarser with larger sized gravel than the upper
The Waddel Dam (originally named the Carl Pleasant Dam), alluvial deposit, and has slightly more clay, silt, and coarse sand.
constructed in the 1920s and replaced by a larger dam in the 1990s,
impounds Lake Pleasant and greatly limits the flow of the Agua Fria

1 Copyright © 2010 by SME


Figure 2. Photograph showing overburden, upper and middle alluvial
deposits of Agua Fria River gravels. Geologist on right for scale.
Figure 3. Photograph showing lower alluvial deposit.
The lower alluvial deposit (fig. 3) is the lowest unit that could
theoretically be extracted without extensive inter-burden removal. It
has significantly more fines than the upper and middle alluvial
deposits. The lower alluvial deposit lies on a fairly pervasive clay unit
below.
Figure 4 shows a section of the southern part of the Agua Fria
River. Huckleberry (1995) defines one Holocene and six Pleistocene
terraces formed along the modern channel of the Agua Fria River by
flood-plain aggradation followed by subsequent incision. The upper
alluvial deposit correlates with Huckleberry’s unit Y2 – the modern
stream channel of the Agua Fria River. The middle alluvial deposit is
tentatively correlated to deposits associated with Huckleberry’s unit Y1
– Holocene alluvium located outside the modern stream channel of the
Agua Fria River (<10k years old). The lower alluvial deposit is
tentatively correlated to the deposits associated with Huckleberry’s unit
M2d – the lowest and youngest Pleistocene stream terrace along the
Agua Fria River (10-200k years old).
DISCUSSION
Fourteen samples from Agua Fria River alluvium ranging in size
from 75 to 125 pounds were collected for geologic examination: three
samples from the upper alluvial deposit, seven from the middle alluvial
deposit, and four from the lower alluvial deposit. Samples were sieved
in the field to determine gradation. The -1½ inch +3/4 inch gravel clasts
were reserved for further geologic examination. The reserved clasts
were classified into eight groups based on the lithology of the clasts.
2 Copyright © 2010 by SME
SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 03, 2010, Phoenix, AZ
Gravel clasts were traced back to their bedrock source in the upstream
portion of the Agua Fria drainage basin. The roundness of clasts in
each lithologic group was measured. The eight lithologic groups were
combined into three groups based on origin: igneous, metamorphic,
and volcanic rocks.
Figure 4. Quaternary deposits described in this report, located in the
southern part of the Agua Fria River basin. Compiled from
Huckleberry, (1995).
Samples from these three groups were analyzed for specific
gravity, porosity, and Micro-Deval abrasion tests. Weathering was
measured at 13 of the sample localities using in-situ measurements of
individual clasts. Selected weathered samples were also examined at
the U.S. Geological Survey laboratory in Denver, Colorado with a
JEOL-5800LV scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an
energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer (EDS) in order to determine
characteristics of weathered gravel.
Grain size distribution (gradation)
Fourteen samples were sieved in the field to determine gradation
using a stack of sieves with progressively smaller openings. Sieve
sizes (fig. 5), from top to bottom, were: 1½ inches, 3/4 inch, 3/8 inch,
and M4 (4.75 mm). Clasts over 3 inches were culled from the sample
by hand. The fines were collected in a pan at the bottom of the stack
of sieves. The stack of sieves was shaken by hand. As the samples
cleared the larger size sieves, the larger sieves and retained samples
were removed to facilitate shaking of the smaller size sieves.
The samples were weighed in the field using a spring scale.
Some samples were sufficiently large that sieving and weighing were
conducted in two or three separate processes. All sieved sizes were
discarded in the field except for the -1½ inch +3/4 inch clasts, which
were retained for geologic analyses and engineering tests.
The grain size distribution curves of the upper alluvial deposit and
middle alluvial deposit overlap and are essentially the same (fig. 6).
The lower alluvial deposit has about 10 percent more fines than the
upper and middle alluvial deposits. Many clasts from the lower alluvial
deposit broke apart during sieving and collected on the M4 (4.75 mm)
 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 03, 2010, Phoenix, AZ

sieve. These clast fragments probably would have broken down even
more with more vigorous, mechanical screening and probably would
have passed through to the pan, thus increasing the percentage of
fines in the lower alluvial deposit even more.
Crazy Basin granitic and Crazy Basin pegmatites into a single class,
and when considering all Tertiary rocks as one class (table 1). This
leads to the conclusion that the gravel clasts of all three deposits all
share the same general source areas. This observation also holds true
when combining the clasts into three groups: Precambrian and
Cretaceous plutonic rocks, Precambrian metamorphic rocks, and
Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks.

Figure 5. Sieves used for field measurements of gradation. Clasts > 3

in (at top of photo) were removed by hand.

Figure 7. Generalized distribution of rocks in the Agua Fria River

basin. Compiled from DeWitt and others (2008); Korroch and others
(1997); Richard and others (2007); and unpublished mapping by
DeWitt (U.S. Geological Survey).
Table 1. Distribution of clast lithology in each alluvial deposit. Total
number of clasts - 2,356. Values do not add to 100 percent due to
rounding.
Upper Middle Lower
Lithologic Unit alluvial alluvial alluvial
deposit deposit deposit
Precambrian and Cretaceous
plutonic rocks
Crazy Basin granite and
25% 25% 27%
pegmatites (combined)
New River aplite 3% 4% 7%
Gabbro 4% 5% 3%
Total igneous rocks 32% 34% 37%
Precambrian metamorphic rocks
New River metarhyolite 9% 9% 10%
Other metamorphic rocks 24% 22% 23%
Total metamorphic rocks 33% 31% 33%
Tertiary volcanic and
sedimentary rocks
Figure 6. Grain-size distribution by sample site and by alluvial deposit. Basalt 2% 3% 6%
Total weight of samples 1404 pounds. Tertiary felsic volcanic and
31% 33% 24%
sedimentary rocks
Gravel clast lithology Total Tertiary rocks 33% 36% 30%
Each of the -1½ inch +3/4 inch gravel clasts were visually
classified into one of the eight following lithologic groups (table 1): Gravel clast roundness and shape
Crazy Basin granite, Crazy Basin pegmatite, New River aplite, gabbro, Each lithologic class of pebbles was measured for roundness and
New River rhyolite, other metamorphic rocks, Tertiary basalt, and angularity to assess distance that pebbles were transported and their
Tertiary felsic volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Many of these clasts relative durability. Clast roundness is the degree to which pebbles lack
can be traced back to their source areas in the bedrock of the central angular corners. Roundness was estimated visually using a modified
highlands (fig. 7). Most of the clasts have been transported 25 miles or method of Pettijohn (1975, fig. 3-24). In this method, clasts are
greater, but potential source areas for Tertiary volcanic and assigned to one of two classes: well rounded to subrounded, and
sedimentary rocks are within 10 miles of some of the Agua Fria River subangular to angular.
gravel operations.
Overall, 74 percent of the rock clasts show a preference for
There is very little difference in the distribution of rock types roundness, ranging from 70 percent to 79 percent well rounded to
among the three alluvial deposits (table 1), especially when grouping subrounded clasts (table 2). Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rock
3 Copyright © 2010 by SME
 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 03, 2010, Phoenix, AZ

clasts showed the highest degree of rounding, reflecting the soft, easily Tertiary volcanic rocks. Each class of rocks was tested to determine
abraded nature of the rock. Plutonic and metamorphic rock clasts were specific gravity, absorption, and resistance to abrasion (table 4).
nearly equally rounded.
Table 4. Specific gravity, absorption, and Micro-Deval abrasion values
Table 2. Distribution of clast lithology in each alluvial deposit. Total for -1½ inch +3/4 inch clasts of three major rock classifications.
number of clasts - 2,356. Values do not add to 100 percent due to Micro-Deval
rounding. Specific Absorption
Abrasion
Sample Location Gravity (ASTM C
Upper Middle Lower Combined Grading B
Roundness (ASTM C 127) 127)
alluvial alluvial alluvial alluvial (ASTM D 6928)
classification
unit unit unit units Igneous rocks
Precambrian Well rounded Upper alluvial
and to 70% 80% 70% 74% 2.67 0.80% 12%
deposit
Cretaceous subrounded Middle alluvial
plutonic Subangular 2.62 1.40% 13%
30% 20% 30% 26% deposit
clasts to angular Lower alluvial
Well rounded 2.61 1.00% 16%
deposit
Precambrian to 75% 73% 64% 70% Metamorphic rocks
metamorphic subrounded Upper alluvial
clasts Subangular 2.81 0.50% 12%
25% 27% 36% 30% deposit
to angular Middle alluvial
Tertiary Well rounded 2.79 1.00% 12%
deposit
volcanic and to 77% 82% 75% 79% Lower alluvial
sedimentary subrounded 2.70 1.20% 16%
deposit
clasts Subangular Tertiary rocks
23% 18% 25% 21%
to angular Upper alluvial
Well rounded 2.62 2.50% 24%
deposit
All clast rock to 74% 78% 70% 74% Middle alluvial
types subrounded 2.59 3.90% 30%
deposit
Subangular Lower alluvial
26% 22% 30% 26% 2.51 4.00% 35%
to angular deposit

Clast shape is defined by the relative dimensions of the long, The results of the engineering tests provide insights into the state
intermediate, and short axes of the particle. Shapes were visually of weathering of the gravels in the three alluvial deposits. The specific
estimated and were classified as either spherical, bladed (flat and gravity of all rock types decreased with increasing depth (and age) of
elongated shape rather like a knife blade), or rod-shaped forms (table alluvial deposit. Conversely, absorption increased with increasing
3). depth (and age) of alluvial deposit. One exception is igneous rocks of
Table 3. – Distribution of clast shape in each alluvial deposit. Total the lower alluvial deposit, which appears to have an anomalously low
number of clasts - 2,356. absorption, especially when compared to specific gravity or the
equivalent metamorphic rocks. Loss due to abrasion (Micro-Deval)
Shape Upper Middle Lower Combine
increased with increasing depth (and age) of the alluvial deposits.
classificati alluvial alluvial alluvial d alluvial
Decreasing specific gravity, increasing absorption, and increasing loss
on unit unit unit units
due to abrasion with increasing depth and age of sediments are all
Precambrian Spherical 95% 94% 92% 95% indications that weathering of the deposits increases with depth and
& Cretaceous Bladed 4% 5% 4% 4% age. The anomalous absorption result for igneous rocks may be
plutonic because during sieving, the strongly weathered pegmatites from the
Rod 4% 5% 4% 1%
clasts lower alluvial deposit broke apart. Pegmatites that commonly have a
Precambrian Spherical 83% 81% 85% 83% high absorption value may have preferentially been removed from the
metamorphic Bladed 12% 14% 8% 12% samples.
clasts Rod 5% 5% 7% 5%
Tertiary Spherical 85% 79% 82% 85% Gravel clast weathering
volcanic and Weathering was measured in-situ at 13 of the 14 localities.
Bladed 11% 17% 13% 11%
sedimentary Weathering was not measured at one locality for safety considerations.
Rod 4% 3% 4% 4% A reference line was established approximately horizontally along the
clasts
pit face (fig. 8). The state of weathering was measured for clasts one
inch in diameter or greater in a zone extending four inches above and
Within one rock type, clast shape (table 3) does not significantly
below the reference line. Each clast was scratched with a sharp-
differ among the three alluvial units. Overall, plutonic rocks show a
pointed steel awl. Clasts were classified as unweathered, slightly
strong preference for sphericity (95 percent) with only four percent
weathered, weathered, or decomposed. Unweathered clasts showed
bladed clasts and one percent rod shaped clasts. Metamorphic rocks
no affect from scratching. The surface was slightly scratched on
were 83 percent spherical, 12 percent bladed and 5 percent rod-
slightly weathered clasts. Weathered clasts were deeply scratched but
shaped, reflecting the layering common in metamorphosed rocks.
remained intact. Decomposed clasts broke apart upon being
Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rock clasts were 85 percent
scratched.
spherical, 11 percent bladed and 4 percent rod-shaped, reflecting the
variability of properties of rock types within that group. In all three alluvial deposits, over 99 percent of the plutonic rock
clasts and the metamorphic rock clasts are unweathered. This reflects
The Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks show a preference
the resistant nature of the minerals to weathering. In contrast, the
for well rounded clasts, indicating soft lithology (easily abraded) or long
Tertiary volcanic clasts demonstrated significant weathering (table 5).
transport, or a combination of both.
The upper alluvial deposit was least weathered and contained less
Engineering properties of rock types than one percent decomposed clasts. In the middle alluvial deposit,
After the -1½ inch +3/4 inch clasts were classified for lithology, seven percent of the clasts were decomposed. Weathering was most
roundness, and shape, the individual clast types were combined by severe in the lower alluvial deposit, which contained 14 percent
alluvial deposit into three classes: igneous, metamorphic rocks, and decomposed clasts.
4 Copyright © 2010 by SME
 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 03, 2010, Phoenix, AZ

soft volcanic rocks, weathering is typically a function of the high

porosity and permeability of the rock that allows for varying degrees of
oxygen and water diffusion from an exposed surface (Oyama and
Chigira, 1999). Oxygen and water diffusion into the rock, combined
with the rock chemistry, lead to the breakdown of glass and metastable
minerals of the original ash into softer minerals such as clays and
zeolites (Steindlberger, 2004). These soft alteration products
themselves can lead to mechanical weathering, particularly when
shrink/swell clay minerals such as smectite are present.
Weathered tuffaceous rock clasts can easily be cut by excavating
equipment, with part of the clast remaining in the pit face (fig. 9). Effort
required to pluck rock from pit face is greater than the effort to cut it
into pieces, indicating a significant degree of weathering even before
the rocks are directly exposed to the atmosphere.
Basaltic rock clasts are also susceptible to chemical weathering.
However, they are less porous and less permeable material than tuff.
Therefore, it is much more difficult for solutions to infiltrate basaltic
rocks, thus limiting the opportunity for alteration solutions to react with
the rock, which increases the weathering time.
Figure 8. Tape for in-situ measurement of weathering. Weathered basaltic rock cobbles were observed on the pit floors
Table 5. Percentage of weathered Tertiary volcanic clasts in each near the pit faces of the middle and lower alluvial deposit (fig. 10).
alluvial deposit by degree of weathering. Values do not add to 100 These cobbles obviously were dislodged from the pit face and
percent due to rounding. remained intact after tumbling or falling to the pit floor. It is
Weathering of Tertiary Volcanic Clasts hypothesized that the cobbles were fractured during the fall, creating
Slightly pathways for fluid transport and subsequent mechanical weathering
Unweathered Weathered Decomposed through multiple wetting/drying and freezing/thawing cycles. The
weathered
Upper alluvial weathered cobbles were observed in areas where the pit had not been
75% 23% 2% <1% worked for five years, giving a maximum time for weathering.
deposit
Middle alluvial
37% 45% 12% 7%
deposit
Lower alluvial
26% 42% 18% 14%
deposit

The amount of weathered clasts in each alluvial deposit roughly

correlates with observations of manganese dioxide staining in the three
alluvial deposits, with the upper alluvial deposit having practically no
manganese staining, and the lower alluvial deposit having the most
staining. Weathered clasts tend to be concentrated around zones of
manganese staining (fig. 9).

Figure 10. Spalling of surface of basaltic rock cobble on pit floor.

Figure 9. Manganese staining in lower two thirds of photo. Tuffaceous
cobble decomposed in-situ and cut by loader.
Weathering also correlates with the age of the deposits. The
older, lower alluvial deposit, has significantly more weathered and
decomposed clasts than the younger upper and middle alluvial
deposits.
The clasts in the Agua Fria River gravels that are most
susceptible to weathering are the tuffaceous clasts. In tuffs and other
5 Copyright © 2010 by SME
Samples from weathered tuffaceous and basaltic rock clasts were
examined with a JEOL-5800LV scanning electron microscope (SEM)
equipped with an energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer (EDS). The
EDS is capable of creating x-ray maps of the surface of the samples
viewed by the SEM. Figures 11 and 12 are x-ray maps (in color) and
associated SEM micrographs (black and white) of the weathered
tuffaceous material and weathered basaltic material, respectively.
These two figures illustrate the contrasting weathering patterns
between tuffaceous and basaltic rocks. In general, the high porosity
and permeability, and high glass content of tuffaceous rocks allows
uniform weatheringy through the clasts. The interlocking crystals and
lack of glass in basaltic rock restricts water flow to preferential zones,
making them more resistant to weathering. This weathering pattern
that occurs at the micro scale can also be observed in hand-sized
specimen.
 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 03, 2010, Phoenix, AZ

Sampled gravel clasts were classified into eight groups of rock

types based on bedrock outcrops occurring in the northern part of the
Agua Fria River drainage basin. Most of the Precambrian and
Cretaceous plutonic rock clasts as well as the Precambrian
metamorphic rock clasts have been transported 25 to 50 miles or
greater. Potential source areas for Tertiary volcanic rock clasts occur
within 10 miles of some of the Agua Fria River gravel operations.

X-ray map

X-ray map

SEM micrograph
Figure 11. X-ray map and SEM micrograph of weathered tuffaceous
rock. The x-ray map shows that much of the material in this particular
field of view is clay (green) with very little original glass remaining
(red). In the SEM micrograph, most of the unaltered glass appears as
flat, smooth surfaces. The bright irregular shaped area is barite, a
product of weathering.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS SEM micrograph
Figure 12. X-ray map and SEM micrograph of weathered basaltic rock.
The annual consumption of sand and gravel in the Phoenix
Much of the material in x-ray map is remaining original minerals such
metropolitan area in 2006 was about 84 million tons. Quaternary
as plagioclase, pyroxene, amphiboles, and ferromagnesium minerals
alluvial deposits in the modern stream channel of the Agua Fria River,
(red). Areas where plagioclase or glass has been altered to clay
west of Phoenix, Arizona, are mined and processed to provide some of
(green) are restricted to a few zones. In the SEM micrograph, the
this aggregate. Alluvial sand and gravel exploited for construction
white spots are barite, a product of weathering.
grade aggregate on the Aqua Fria River generally consist of three
deposits referred to as upper, middle, and lower alluvial deposits. The The original eight classes of clasts were combined into three
middle and lower deposits contain tuffaceous and basaltic clasts that larger classifications: Precambrian and Cretaceous plutonic rocks,
are moderately or severely weathered or completely decomposed. Precambrian metamorphic rocks, and Tertiary volcanic and
These weathered clasts commonly are removed during aggregate sedimentary rock clasts. Plutonic rock clasts generally show a strong
excavation and processing. preference for spherical shapes with subangular rounding suggesting a
significant transport distance and a tendency to chip during transport.
A fine grained overburden layer commonly overlies the upper
Metamorphic rock clasts are mostly bladed and rod-shaped reflecting
alluvial deposit. The middle alluvial deposit has slightly more clay and
the foliation common to metamorphosed rocks. The Tertiary felsic
coarser gravel-sized clasts than the overlying alluvial deposit. The
volcanic rock clasts show a pronounced preference for well rounded
lower alluvial deposit is more weathered and has more clay than the
clasts, indicating soft lithology.
middle alluvial deposit, and overlies a fairly pervasive clay unit, which
makes it the lowest gravel unit that could theoretically be extracted The specific gravity of plutonic, metamorphic, and Tertiary
without extensive inter-burden removal. volcanic rock types decrease with increasing depth and age of the

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 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 03, 2010, Phoenix, AZ

alluvial deposit. Conversely, absorption and loss due to abrasion

generally increase with increasing depth, age, and weathering of the
alluvial deposits.
Weathered clasts in the Agua Fria River alluvial gravels
commonly are removed from saleable products during aggregate
processing. The clasts that are most susceptible to weathering are the
highly porous and permeable tuffaceous clasts of the Tertiary volcanic
and sedimentary rocks. They can easily be infiltrated by oxygen and
water, they are composed largely of reactive glass, and there is large
surface area inside the rock, all which can greatly decrease the time
needed to form the alteration products. Basaltic rock clasts are also
susceptible to weathering, but are less porous and less permeable
than the tuff and, consequently, weather more slowly. Tuffaceous rock
clasts can weather in-situ before being exposed by excavation,
whereas basaltic rocks generally weather after being exposed to the
atmosphere.
REFERENCES
1. DeWitt, Ed, Langenheim, Victoria, Force, Eric, Vance, R.K.,
Lindberg, P.A., and Driscoll, R.L., 2008, Geologic map of the
Prescott National Forest and the headwaters of the Verde River,
Yavapai and Coconino Counties, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey
Scientific Investigations Map 2996, scale 1:100,000, 100-p.
pamphlet.
2. Huckleberry, Gary, 1995, Surficial geology of the lower Agua Fria
River, Lake Pleasant to Sun City, Maricopa County, Arizona:
Arizona Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-5, 32p., 2 plates,
scale 1:20,000.
3. Korroch, K.M., Richard, S.M., and Clark, R.J., 1997, Digital
representation of the Phoenix South 30’ x 60’ Quadrangle, Central
Arizona: Arizona Geological Survey Digital Information Series DI-
05 v.2.
4. Oyama, T., and Chigira, M., 1999, Weathering rate of mudstone
and tuff on old unlined tunnel walls. Engineering Geology, v. 55,
pp. 15-27.
5. Pettijohn, F.J., 1975, Sedimentary rocks (3rd ed.): New York,
Harper and Row, 628 p.
6. Richard, S.M., Thieme, J.P., and Clark, R.J., 2007, Geologic data
for the Phoenix North 30’ x 60’ quadrangle: Arizona Geological
Survey Digital Information Series DI-04, v.2.
7. Steindlberger, E., 2004, Volcanic tuffs from Hesse (Germany) and
their weathering behavior: Environmental Geology, v. 46, p. 378-
390.
8. USGS, 2009, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey 2006 Minerals
Yearbook, p. 5.1-5.7.

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