Seis-Interp - ALxUNIV - PPTX (Repaired)

SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Dr. ALI BAKR
ALI BAKR
Contents
1. Basic background
2. Structural Interpretation
3. Seismic attributes
4. AVO implications
5. Seismic Inversion
6. Seismic stratigraphy
7. 4D seismic (Time Laps)
ALI BAKR
1-BASIC BACKGROUND
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Seismic acquisition
• Seismic processing
• Understanding the data
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Seismic interpretation and subsurface mapping are key skills that

are used commonly in the oil industry
• This teaching resource introduces the basic principles of seismic

interpretation and then, if time permits, they can be applied in a
practical exercise
• The resource dovetails with the A level Geology specifications
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
.
Seismic acquisition offshore
• An air gun towed behind the survey

ship transmits sound waves through the
water column and into the subsurface
• Changes in rock type or fluid content
reflect the sound waves towards the
surface
• Receivers towed behind the vessel
record how long it takes for the sound
waves to return to the surface
• Sound waves reflected by different
boundaries arrive at different times.
• The same principles apply to onshore
acquisition
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Seismic acquisition onshore
• Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a
“thumper” truck. Geophones arrayed in a line behind the
truck record the returning seismic signal.
Geophones Vibrator
(receivers) (source)
Sub-horizontal beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Seismic acquisition onshore
• Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the subsurface
geology to be interpreted.
Lithology change
Angular unconformity
Lithology change
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Seismic Processing
• Wiggle trace to CDP gather

• Normal move out correction
• Stacking
• What is a reflector?
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Wiggle trace to CDP gather Seismic Processing
Wiggle traces CDP gather
Graphs of intensity of sound as received by Graphs of intensity for one location collected
the recorders into groups and shown in a sequence.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Normal move out correction Seismic Processing
CMP
Sound sources Sound receivers
S1 S2 S3 R3 R2 R1
1 2
Change in lithology from mud to sand so sound

is reflected back to surface
CDP
Data for one point from different signals to different receivers

1. More time needed to reach distant receivers so the data look like
a curve. Original CDP corrected for
gather … normal move out
2. Correcting for normal move out restores the curve to a near
horizontal display.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Stacking Seismic Processing
First, gather sound data for one Next, take all the sound traces for Finally, place stacks for
location and correct for delayed that one place adjacent locations side by
arrival (normal move out) and stack them on top of each side to produce a seismic
other line
ALI BAKR
12
1-Basic Background
What is a reflector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary between
beds with different properties. There may There are many reflectors on a
be a change of lithology or fluid fill from seismic section. Major changes
Bed 1 to Bed 2. These property changes in properties usually produce
cause some sound waves to be reflected strong, continuous reflectors as
towards the surface. shown by the arrow.
energy source signal receiver
Bed 1
lower velocity
higher velocity
Bed 2
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Understanding the data
• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

• Floating datum
• Two way time (TWT)
• Time versus depth
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Common Depth Points Common midpoint above CDP
Sound sources Sound receivers

CDPs are defined as S1 S2 S3 R3 R2 R1
‘the common reflecting
point at depth on a
reflector or the halfway
point when a wave
travels from a source to
a reflector to a Change in lithology =
reflecting horizon
receiver’.
Common reflecting point or
common depth point (CDP)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Floating datum
The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording surface and the zero
line (generally sea level). This travel time depends on rock type, how weathered the rock is,
and other factors.
The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface along which the
seismic data were acquired.
ALI BAKR
16
1-Basic Background
Two way time (TWT) TWT

indicates the time required surface
for the seismic wave to 0
travel from a source to
some point below the 0.25 seconds
surface and back up to a 0.25 seconds
receiver.
0.5
In this example the TWT is
0.5 seconds.
seconds
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Time versus depth
• Two way time (TWT) does

not equate directly to depth
• Depth of a specific reflector
can be determined using
boreholes
• For example, 926 m depth = 288
0.58 sec. TWT
0.58 sec 926 926 m
1865
m
ALI BAKR
1-BASIC BACKGROUND
• Check line scale and orientation.
• Work from the top of the section, where clarity is usually best,
towards the bottom.
• Distinguish the major reflectors and geometries of seismic

sequences.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Some energy will be reflected, some will be

transmitted where there is a change in AI
1V1
2V2 - 1V1
2V2 + V1
1
2V2
• Amount reflected (amplitude of reflection)
will depend on the relative difference in
physical properties across the interface
1V1
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
– Define reflection
1V1 coefficient (RC)
2V2 - 1V1
2V2 + V1 RC = AI2 – AI1
1
AI2 + AI1
2V2
– If AI2 > AI1 – positive RC
– If AI2 < AI1 – negative RC
1V1
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Polarity Conventions
Blue (90%)
Slow, Less Peak
Dense (60%) Red (10%)
+ve
R.C.
Trough Blue (10%)
Fast, more (40%)
Dense
Red (90%)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Not all changes in lithology associated with

change in AI. Changes in fluid content in a
single lithology can give rise to reflections
• Different combinations of layers lithologies can

have the same RC Seismic “non-unique”
• Seismic data image interfaces – we observe

changes in AI across an interface, not properties
of layers themselves
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Convolutional Theorem
Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

series of reflection coefficients
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

series of reflection coefficients
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Each RC gives rise to a separate reflection event, the amplitude of

which is proportional to the change in AI across the interface
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• The final image we will record for that location consists of the
algebraic sum of all the individual reflections
• Mathematically we “convolve” the wavelet with the series of
reflection coefficients
ALI BAKR
1- Basic Background
Data required for synthetic calculation
• Seismic Data
• Well Curves (Sonic and Density)
• Well Position relative to Seismic
• Check Shot / T-D relationship
• Well Deviation Survey
• Seismic Acquisition and Processing Info
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Top & Base Top & Base

Resolved Unresolved
Impedance High Frequency Low Frequency
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Seismic ability to define top

and bottom of a rock layer
In general, reflections are composites of thin layer effects.
ALI BAKR
30
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Resolution depends on:
Frequency content in seismic data.
The interval velocity at the objective level
V
Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave = 
f
Where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and
f is the dominant frequency in Hz

~
Rv 
Vint
4fdom
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
• Most of the energy in a seismic wavelet is contained in a band of

frequencies centered about the dominant frequency. The dominant
period can be defined as the time between two major crests. The
dominant frequency is the reciprocal of the dominant period. The
equation for wavelength, , is:
= velocity/frequency
Calculate wavelengths for the following cases:

Shallow rocks: V=2000 m/s, f=50 Hz;
Deep rocks: V=6000 m/s, f=25 Hz.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Conventional HFITM
Vertical Resolution – Example (‘HFI’ Processing from Geotrace)

ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
• Example 1:
V = 7,000 m/s
F = 50 Hz
V
 = 7,000/50 [(m/s)/(cycles/s)]
f
= 140 m
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
• Example 2:
V = 3,000 m/s
F = 50 Hz
l = V/F
= 3,000/50 [(m/s)/(cycles/s)]
= 60 m
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution (Summery)
• Vertical Resolution is the ability to detect and map thin events

such as reservoir sand bodies
• It is determined by the average frequency and bandwidth of the

seismic data
• We can typically resolve down to ¼ wavelength
• Wavelength is determined by frequency and velocity:

λ=V/f so resolution ~ V/(4*f)
• Resolution deteriorates with depth
ALI BAKR
Shot Receiver Seismic Record
- +
Trough Peak
0
Travel Time (2 way) in msec

Layer 1
Layer 1
Impedance
Layer 2 Increase
Layer 2
Layer 2 Impedance
Layer 3 Decrease
Layer 3
Layer 3 Impedance
Layer 4 Increase
Layer 4
Impedance = Velocity * Density

Peak over Trough is an
Increase in Impedance
F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

Courtesy of ExxonMobil
‘04
The Ideal Seismic Response
Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick
1 meter
Increase in Impedance Decrease in Impedance

‘04
Scale for Seismic Data
Lamina
Although seismic data can
Lamina Sets
not image small-scale
Beds stratal units, it can image
Bed Sets mid- to large-scale units
Parasequences
Parasequence Sets The big advantage of

Sequences seismic data is areal
Sequence Sets
coverage

‘04
Seismic - Units 10s of Meters Thick
Predominantly
Shale
Predominantly
Sand
Predominantly
Shale
10 m

‘04
Wave Equation Lingo
Rarefaction Compression
A A = Amplitude
λ
λ = Wavelength
length, ft or m
P = Period
time
Dp = Pulse
Period = Time for the waveform Duration
to travel 1 wavelength time

‘04
Basic Equations
1. P = 1 / f
2. λ=V*P = V/f
3. d = V * T / 2
where
P = Period V = Velocity
f = Frequency d = distance (depth)
λ = Wavelength T = time

‘04
Back to Basics
Seismic energy travels down and
is reflected off acoustic boundaries
Shot Receiver Seismic
Record
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Increase in 0.6
impedance 0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
Increase in
1.4
impedance

‘04
Acoustic Structure of the Earth
Shot Receiver
Imped Reflection Pulse Seismic
Low High Coefficients Trace
C
I1 = 1 * V1 O
N
I2 =  2 * V2 V
O
L
I3 =  3 * V3 U
T
I
I4 =  4 * V4 O
N

‘04
That ‘Pesky’ Pulse
If the frequency content (Bandwidth) Typically the frequency
is very large, then the pulse content is limited to about
approaches a spike and we can 10 to 50 Hz (BW = 40),
resolve fine-scale stratigraphy which limits our resolution
Reflection Ideal Seismic Typical Seismic

Coefficients Pulse Trace Pulse Trace

‘04
Types of Pulses
Reflection Minimum Phase
Coefficients
• Causal (real – no motion
before wave arrives)
• Front loaded
• Peak arrival time is
frequency dependant
• RC is at the first
displacement; maximum
displacement (peak or
trough) is delayed by ¼ λ

‘04
Types of Pulses
Reflection Zero Phase
Coefficients
• Not Causal (not real, since

there is motion before the
wave arrives)
• Symmetric about RC
• Peak arrival time is not
frequency dependant
• Maximum peak-to-side
lobe ratio
• RC is at the maximum
displacement (peak or
trough)
‘04
Polarity – Minimum Phase
Reflection
Coefficients SEG Normal Convention
- + A compression is:
• Negative # on the tape
• Displayed as a Trough
SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

‘04
Polarity – Zero Phase
Reflection
Coefficients SEG Normal Convention
- + A compression is:
• Positive # on the tape
• Displayed as a Peak
SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

‘04
What Causes Reflections?
• Any interface between

Shot
bodies with different Receiver
acoustic properties
• Acoustic properties define
Impedance (I) , in which Layer 1
I = velocity * density Layer 2

Boundary
 Small change in impedance – small reflection

 Large change in impedance – large reflection

‘04
Time for Two Short Exercises
6a. Calculating Some

Reflection Coefficients
6b. Calculating Frequency

& Wavelength
‘04
Seismic Interface
Velocity = 2000 m/s

Shale Density = 1.7 gm/cc
Velocity = 2400 m/s

Sand Density = 1.8 gm/cc
Reflection I below – I above

Coefficient
= = =
I below + I above

‘04
Seismic Interface
Velocity = 2000 m/s

I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400
Velocity = 2400 m/s

Sand Density = 1.8 gm/cc
I = 2400 * 1.8 = 4320
Reflection I below – I above 4320 - 3400

Coefficient
= = = 0.119
I below + I above 4300 + 3400
Of the incident energy, 12% is reflected, 88% is transmitted

‘04
Seismic Interface
Velocity = 2000 m/s

Velocity = 2600 m/s

Carbonate Density = 2.1 gm/cc
Reflection I below – I above

Coefficient
= = =
I below + I above

‘04
Seismic Interface
Velocity = 2000 m/s

I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400
Velocity = 2600 m/s

Carbonate Density = 2.1 gm/cc
I = 2600 * 2.1 = 5460
Reflection I below – I above 5460 - 3400

Coefficient
= = = 0.232
I below + I above 5460 + 3400
Of the incident energy, 23% is reflected, 77% is transmitted

‘04
Exercise 6b: Frequency & Wavelength
Fapparent = # cycle / time interval
Fdominant = (2* Fapparent)/ 
λ = Velocity / Fdominant

‘04
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
- 0. 5
• The seismic signal contains a range of frequencies (left)

• The broader the bandwidth, the sharper the pulse (smaller
side lobes)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Fourier analysis may be used to see the bandwidth

of the seismic data in a given portion of the data.
• Amplitude spectrum on left shows a broad bandwidth,

rich in high frequencies
• Spectrum on right is irregular and abruptly truncated at
about 45 Hz. Data were filtered post-stack as a noise
reduction exercise.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
What is the dominant frequency of the seismic data in the interval

between 1500 and 1600 ms? If the velocity is 5000 m/s, what is the
tuning thickness? If it is possible to detect a bed down to 1/16 of
the wavelength, what would that be?
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Dominant frequency:
about 4 ½ cycles in 100 ms
= 45 cycles/second = 45 Hz
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Tuning thickness:
Frequency = 45 Hz, Velocity = 5000 m/s
Wavelength = 5000/45 = 111 m
Tuning thickness = ¼ x 111 = 28 m
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Horizontal Resolution
• Horizontal Resolution is the ability to map lateral changes in reservoir –

edges and internal structures.
• Seismic energy is reflected from a patch rather than a point. Migration

collapses this patch and improves resolution.
• Prior to migration horizontal resolution is poor
• Horizontal resolution can approach vertical resolution if ‘aperture’ is

adequate
• The wider the aperture the closer the horizontal resolution approaches
the vertical resolution
• Other seismic processes can also reduce lateral resolution
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Horizontal Resolution Fresnel Zone
Seismic Energy Reflects from a Patch, not a Point
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Lateral resolution described by Fresnel Zone

Seismic data image (“illuminate”) an area, rather than a single point
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Fresnel zone diameter (F) depends upon:

• Average velocity (v)
• Two-way travel time (t) F = v (t/f)1/2
• Dominant frequency (f)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Migration collapses diffractions and gives us horizontal resolution

To do this properly we need to record the whole diffraction
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Fresnel Zone example:

v = 2440 m/s
f = 25 Hz
t=2s
F = v (t/f)1/2
= 2440*(1/25) 1/2
= 488 m
ALI BAKR
2- SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
ALI BAKR
Interpretation Workflow
Regional
Study
Structural mapping
Review-QC Borehole to Surface
Data Seismic Match Seismic reservoir
property mapping Geomodelling
Seismic Horizon and
Fault interpretation DHI/Seis. Attributes
/Inversion Analysis
Velocity Modelling Time/Depth/Attribute/
Reservoir Property Properties integration
Mapping
Time to Depth
Peer Review
Conversion Volumetric / Spatial
Distribution Analysis
Report
ALI BAKR
Basic Structural Geology Background
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
270
Fault Classes090
DIP-SLIP OBLIQUE-SLIP STRIKE-SLIP

Pitch = 90 Pitch = 45”E”
Pitch = 0
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Basic fault terminology
FW - Footwall Fault strike

HW – Hanging wall
FW HW Dip
direction
Fault Throw
Fault dip
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Listirc Planners
ALI BAKR
BASIN ANALYSIS
Contine
nt
Rifting
Passive Margin
Active Margin
Island arc
Collision
ALI BAKR
Plate Tectonic conceptual model of basin evolution
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
L DL
T A
t A
L’
T = 30 KM (CONTINENTAL)
L’ > L
T > t  CRUSTAL THINING
β=L’ /L= T/ t (streching factor)
ALI BAKR
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
LISTRIC FAULT MODEL
BASIN
LISTRIC FAULT
ALI BAKR
SHEARING STRESS
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
PLANAR FAULT MODEL
ALI BAKR
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE BLOCK ROTATION

MODEL
BASIN RANGE
PLANAR FAULT
BLOCK ROTATION
ALI BAKR
SHEARING STRESS
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Only on gravitational structures…not tectonics?

ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Planner or Listric
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
listric
or
planar
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Footwall uplift
Picking faults
on seismic
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Fault-scarp degradation
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Eroded crest
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Talus at foot
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Then banked in with sediment
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
False fault pick
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Vertical Separation vs. Fault Throw
Heave • Vertical separation is defined as the

measured vertical distance between a
Throw bed projected from one fault block
across the fault to a point where the
projection is vertically over or under the
Vertical
Separation same bed in the opposite block.
• The missing or repeated section

observed in a wellbore as the result of a
fault is vertical separation and not
throw.
• Throw only equals vertical separation

Heave
when the beds are horizontal, or the
fault is vertical.
Throw = Vertical Separation

Vertical Separation vs. Fault Throw
Heave • Vertical separation is defined as the

measured vertical distance between a
Throw bed projected from one fault block
across the fault to a point where the
projection is vertically over or under the
Vertical
Separation same bed in the opposite block.
• The missing or repeated section

observed in a wellbore as the result of a
fault is vertical separation and not
throw.
• Throw only equals vertical separation

Heave
when the beds are horizontal, or the
fault is vertical.
Throw = Vertical Separation

Fault Displacement Variations
 Fault displacement and throw are NOT

constant. Otherwise faults in Holland would
reoccur in New Zealand !
 Rocks are compressible. Fault displacement

varies from some maximum near center of the
fault surface to zero at the fault tipline
fault tip increasing

(zero displacement) displacement (along-strike)
fault striae
3D Fault Components
TL Tip line
T Throw
FWc H Heave
HWc
DS Dip-slip component
FW
TL FWc
FW Footwall
HW
HWc FWc Footwall cut off
FW
HW Hangingwall
HW
HW Hangingwall cut off
F Fault surface
• Hangingwall and footwall cut-off lines from

multiple horizons can be projected onto vertical
sections called fault surface diagrams.
• Throw can be contoured on the fault surface
diagram.
• The line of zero throw is referred to as the fault tip
FW line.
• The fault tip line separates the faulted rock
Structure map
HW
of lower horizon
volume from the unfaulted volume.
• Horizon geometries can be projected and
depicted as structure maps.
Simple Single Fault Throw Profile
 Separation diagram is defined by the HW & FW cut lines on a fault throw diagram
 Fault throw profile is a 2D diagram representing the fault throw along strike
• The throw profile for a single,

isolated fault, for a single
horizon is typically regular and
semi-elliptical in shape.
• Throw decreases fairly

smoothly from a maximum near
the center of the fault and
approaches zero toward the
fault tips.
Fault Shape & Slip Distributions
strike
dip
Walsh and Watterson (1991)
• Single normal faults tend to be elliptical to tabular in shape.

• The throw maximum is usually located near the center of the fault surface, near the
point of nucleation.
• Throw decreases toward the tip line both up- and down-section (along-dip), and
laterally (along-strike) away from the maximum.
• The lower tip line is rarely resolved if the fault throw is large.
Faults follow geometrical rules
Fault can be approximated as ellipses (Length is greater than
height)
Length/Maximum Throw (L/T) varies from 20 to 150
L/T of 60 is a good approximation
Syn-sedimentary and strike slip faults have greater L/T ratios
Faults are segmented (Horizontally and vertically )
Individual segments link-up with increasing deformation
Segment organisation help resolving kinematics
Faults are organised in structural styles which help predicting
stress orientation
fault geometries
sub-seismic structures
Strike-slip faults
En-echelon faults are best kinematics indicators
Faults in 3D static models have to be simplified
It is essential to keep the reality in mind
Sandbox analogues support kinematic and fault interpretation
General
Basic fault terminology, fault types
Stress and faults, Mohr Circle
Structural styles
Fault growth
Normal fault initiation, growth and coalescence
How normal fault accumulate throw
Importance of throw minima
Fault characteristics
Length to displacement and throw ratio
Displacement to fault thickness ratio
Sub-seismic fault prediction
Relay ramp geometries
Fault throw resolution
Fault throw gradient
Fault throw and seismic resolution
Kinematic indicators
Strike-slip related en-echelon faults are best kinematics
indicators
Summary – Key learnings
Various Folds
ALI BAKR
Various Folds (cont'd)
ALI BAKR
ALI BAKR
Axis
ALI BAKR Axial plane near axis should be close to horizontal

Fault Movement Indicators
Cross section analysis
Example 1: Onlap
Active faulting and uplift

during deposition
Syn-faulting strata
ALI BAKR
Example 2: Offset beds of

equal thickness
Faulting post deposition
Pre-faulting strata
ALI BAKR
SW NE
ALI BAKR
0.5 mile
100 ms
Offset onlap:
1. 3R>1R
2. 3R>BRR
ALI BAKR
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
MYA4-A
Wilhelm
Calitroleum
500 ms BRR
McDonald
1 mile
Isochore: line drawn through points of equal

ALI BAKR
vertical (apparent) thickness of a unit
Two Signatures:
1. Close contours
A’ a) fault cut
A’ a) interval
at time
(syn tectonic)
A
2. Thin beds Structural high

A’
b) b) fault below
interval
(syn tectonic)
c) c) filled in
paleo high
(post tectonic)
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
Fault Free
Fault Related
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
Trap Pool
Over flowing point or spill point Closure oil/gas column

height oil/gas area
Closure area oil-water/gas-oil contact
Note: All measurements are in 3D space. All pools are in traps, but not
all traps could be pools.
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
 Spill point: the lowest point at which hydrocarbon may be contained in the trap. A trap may or may
not be full to the spill plane.
 Closure: the vertical distance from crest (the highest point of the trap, or culmination) to spill plane.
 Oil-water contact (OWC): the deepest level of producible oil.
 Gas-oil contact (GOC) or gas-water contact (GWC): the lower limit of producible gas.
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
pool
Height of gas
gas
Cap rock
oil Height of oil
Height of closure
trap
Reservoir rock Spill point
ALI BAKR
ALI BAKR
Major types of oil traps in percentages of world’s
petroleum occurrence
ALI BAKR
Basic Inversion Terminology
Modified from William 1996
ALI BAKR
Horst -Graben Inversion -Southern North Sea
South Hewett Fault
ALI BAKR
Horst -Graben Inversion -Southern North Sea
South Hewett Fault
ALI BAKR
Seismic Interpretation
To Interpret:
Structure
Stratigraphy
Lithology
Fractures
Pressure
Pore Fluid
3D Seismic
Cube
Predict and Characterize Subsurface Reservoirs
ALI BAKR
Automated Structural Interpretation
Horizons Ant-track
Faults
ALI BAKR
Automated Structural Interpretation
Guidance for accurate fault

interpretation
Combined visualisation of Dip-

Azimuth and Fault Enhancement
attributes.
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Wells are proven
not to be in
communication.
ALI BAKR
Initial Check List
• Seismic data vintage (acquisition year)?

– Acquisition report
• Processing sequence, type (PSTM, PSDM, etc.)?
– Processing report
• Source of data (tape, project backup) and format?
– 8-, 16-, 32-bit data? Have any AGC, Time gain filters, been
applied? Amplitude fidelity?
• Overall data quality:
– Good for structural interpretation?
– Good for stratigraphic interpretation?
– Good for reservoir characterization?
• Can we see fluid effects, lithology, both?
• Which phase and polarity?
• Dominant frequency at reservoir level and expected resolution?
• Well tie analysis?
• Existing seismic picks and interpretation review (time and depth)
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Migration Type?
Time Migration Depth Migration
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Digitization of Geophysical Data
• Dynamic range:
If digital sampling ranges from 1 to 256 units of amplitude:

20log10 (256)  48 dB
The number of bits in each word determines the data dynamic

range:
8-bit = 28 = 256
16-bit = 216 = 65536 20log10 (65536)  96 dB
32-bit = 232 = 4,…109  192 dB
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Filtering
Smoothing filter, improves signal to noise ratio for interpretation

purpose, but removes discontinuities, potential faults…
Amplitude Dip guided Gaussian Filter

ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
AGC effect on data: good for interpretation and bad for attributes and
reservoir characterization
Original Amplitude
ALI BAKR
Time Gain AGC filter
3D Data Load QC
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Footprints
Acquisition/Processing
Acquisition/Processing
footprints
fooprints
Reefs
Shallow Area Reef
Buildups
0 ms
ALI BAKR
Shallow time slice on Variance cube
Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Footprints
RMS Amplitude
Strong processing artifacts indicating poor
amplitude fidelity
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Structural and Stratigraphic Interpretation: Good
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
A3D Data Comparison
2000 Processed 1984-Processing Seismic Results
Shift between the 1984 and the 2000 Surveys

ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Polarity and Phase
Using this convention, in a seismic section displayed with SEG normal polarity
we would expect:
• A reflecting boundary to appear as a trough in the seismic trace if Z2 > Zl
• A reflecting boundary to appear as a peak in the seismic trace if Z2 < Zl
(a) minimum- and

(b) zero-phase
wavelets at an
acoustic-impedance
boundary with a
positive reflection
coefficient
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Ideal Vertical Resolution
V(m/sec) F(Hz) /2to/4(m)

2000 50 20-10
3000 40 38-19
4000 30 66-33
5000 20 125-62.5
V
Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave =  
f
Where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and
f is the dominant frequency in Hz
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Vertical Resolution and Tuning Thickness
Zero phase
wavelets
Tuning separation
in time = 1/2 of the wavelet period
in depth = DT X interval velocity

DT 2
Example:
If DT = .020 Sec
and Vint = 6000’/Sec
the tuning thickness is 60 feet
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Borehole to seismic tie
•Quality of check
shot data?
•Phase?
•Match with surface
seismic?
•Any stretch and
squeeze?
•Position of markers
versus seismic
picks?
Time DT RHOB AI RC Wavelet

ALI BAKR
Review of Well Tie
Synthetics in time domain
ALI BAKR
Review of Well Tie
Synthetics in time domain
New Time-Depth
Updated well tie

ALI BAKR
Review of Well Tie
Borehole to 3D seismic
ALI BAKR
Review of Well Tie
Checkshot Data
Outlier well
Horizon 2 outlier maker
ALI BAKR
Do’s and Don’ts
Borehole to seismic tie
ALI BAKR
Review of Seismic Interpretation
Picks in time/depth domain
• Consistency between inlines

and cross-lines picks?
• Signal consistency (peak,

trough, zero-crossing)
• Auto-tracking or manual, or
combination of both?
• Geological consistency
(isochrone, isochore)?
ALI BAKR
Picks in time/depth domain
Vertical exag. 7.5x
Examples of inconsistencies between inlines and cross-lines

picks and impact on time grid
ALI BAKR
Structural consistency
• Starting from key/strong

horizons, here coal level.
• Is the interpretation
structurally
meaningful/flawless?
•Look at the fault throws and

their vertical evolution along
fault planes
• Understand the big picture

first
ALI BAKR
Review of Velocity Modelling
and Depth Conversion
Well velocity (checkshots)
Original stacking velocity
Evaluate the need for calibration of stacking velocity

ALI BAKR
Review of Velocity Modeling
and Depth Conversion
Marker Depth Old Model Residual (m)
Well
T -2612.46 -2512.62 -99.8408
U -2727.96 -2631.32 -96.6397
V -2838.46 -2743.55 -94.9091
W -2884.56 -2791.08 -93.4754
AA-1 X -2922.96 -2838.74 -84.2182
•Review depth
Y -3015.8 -2930.85 -84.9545
residuals before well
correction is applied
Z -3073.45 -2994.24 -79.2136
ZZ -3144.13 -3065.24 -78.8872
• It provides a direct
T -2623.88 -2506.14 -117.745
indication of the
U -2736.98 -2622.13 -114.85
velocity model quality
V -2843.4 -2733.7 -109.695
W -2890.87 -2783.39 -107.485
AB-1
X -2928.84 -2830.8 -98.0448
Y -3017.93 -2914.42 -103.508
Z -3076.67 -2980.04 -96.6268
ZZ -3148.31 -3053.87 -94.4429
ALI BAKR
Data Review Completed
• Highlighted where to focus interpretation efforts and attention

(minimize valuable mouse clicks)
• What data is ok to use for either further:
– Depth conversion
– Geomodeling
• Identified data that revision/update or interpretation from scratch
– Go back to essentials (geology, well correlation panels,
geological environment, regional structural style, etc..
– Geology is not limited to well markers!
ALI BAKR
Geologic Correlations
Understand well correlation first at big

picture level guided by key/strong
horizons
ALI BAKR
Horizon Selection
•Start with obvious and

most continuous seismic
reflections detected
during panning
•More difficult horizons

are addressed later or
phantomed from key
horizons
•Get the framework first
ALI BAKR
Structural Interpretation
Traditional Fault picking
2D on optimal section = perpendicular to fault strike
ALI BAKR
Data Conditioning
Data conditioning for structural interpretation
input filtered
ALI BAKR
Noise Removal
Edge preserving filtering – Structurally Oriented
Original - Filtered = Difference

ALI BAKR
Structural Framework
Screening and Panning of Amplitude data
Inlines, Xlines and Time slices

ALI BAKR
Screening and Panning of Amplitude data
Random sections orthogonal to fault planes

ALI BAKR
Screening of Amplitude data
Volume rendering with transparency

ALI BAKR
Screening of Amplitude data
Volume rendering with transparency

ALI BAKR
Screening of Dip and Azimuth Volumes
Time slice on Azimuth

ALI BAKR
Screening of Dip and Azimuth Volumes
Time slice on Dip

ALI BAKR
Screening of Edge Enhancement Attributes
Time slice on Variance

ALI BAKR
Interpretation- Structural Mapping
Fault markers
Fault sticks
ALI BAKR
Fault markers
Fault sticks
ALI BAKR
Modeled Fault plane
ALI BAKR
Screening of Structural Framework
Auto-tracking time structural map
•Transfer low level,

repetitive tasks to the
workstation such as
auto-tracking
•Maximise the value

of a mouse click!!!!
3D Auto-tracking will reveal data quality and

ALIinterpretation
BAKR issues to be addressed eventually
QC Your Horizon Picks
In 2D and 3D Views
1X vertical exaggeration 10X vertical exaggeration
Looking for mispicks in 3D views using vertical exaggeration

ALI BAKR
In 2D and 3D Views
Looking for bulls eyes and slope

anomalies on contoured maps
ALI BAKR
In 2D and 3D Views
Pick quality and signal

consistency on instantaneous
amplitude
Pick quality and signal

consistency check on
instantaneous phase
ALI BAKR
Velocity Modeling and
Depth conversion
•Check all available data:

Check shots
VSP
Synthetics
Stacking velocities
Geologic tops correlation
•Select, use and integrate as needed:

Simple TDR from wells
Average interval velocity
Full velocity modelling: wells + calibrated stacking
Etc..
ALI BAKR
Interpretation
Seismic Geomorphology
Crevasse splay
100 m 100 m
channels
TIME SLICE Y ATRIBUTOS
ALI BAKR
Stratal Slice of Amplitud Maps
Reference horizon 1
Time slice
Horizon slice
TWT
Proportional slice
Reference horizon 2
ALI BAKR
Interpretation Summary
• QC existing data and interpretation

– Data type, phase, resolution, amplitude, well ties, picks, etc..
• Beware of noise level, noise removal to support interpretation
• Use the full 3D data and auto-tracker as much as possible
• Use 3D attributes (Dip, Azimuth, Edge Enhancement) and 3D
rendering techniques (geobodies mapping, transparency) for data
screening
• Minimize manual picks and clicks and maximize the use of the
workstation for repetitive low level tasks
• Ensure signal consistent horizon interpretation and geological
consistency before embarking on geofantasy!
• Ensure good tie with wells in time
• Use and integrated all available data
ALI BAKR
3- SEISMIC ATTRIBUTES
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Seismic attributes are all the

information obtained from
seismic data, either by direct
measurements or by logic or
experienced-based reasoning.
• The main objective of the
attributes is to provide detailed
and accurate information to the
interpreter on structural,
stratigraphic and lithological
parameters of the seismic
prospect.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Pre stack:
– Input data is CDP or image gathers
– Have directional (azimuth) and offset related information
– Lots of information that may not be practical in initial or basic
studies
– Contain considerable amounts of data that can be directly
related to fluid content and fracture orientation.
– AVO, velocities, azimuthal are the most prominent of this
class.
• Post stack
– After data is stacked, these are computed on the trace.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
General Classification
From A.R. Brown

ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Some Important Post stack Attributes
Seismic attributes are specific measures of geometric, kinematic, dynamic, or

statistical features derived from seismic data. ‘General’ attributes include:
1) Reflector amplitude,
2) Reflector time
3) Reflector dip and azimuth
4) Complex amplitude and frequency These have a physical
as well as statistical
5) Generalized Hilbert attributes basis!
6) Illumination
7) Edge detection/coherence
8) Spectral decomposition
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Why Seismic Attributes
•Envelope presence of gas (bright spots), thin-bed tuning effects,

lithology changes.
•Phase lateral continuity of reflectors, bedding configurations.
•Frequency bed thickness, presence of hydrocarbons, fracture zones.
•Spectral Decomposition bed thickness.
•Coherence faults, fractures, lateral stratigraphic

discontinuities
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• By their computational characteristics:

– Instantaneous Attributes: Computed sample by sample. Trace
envelope, its derivatives, frequency and phase,…
– Wavelet Attributes: Computed at peak of trace envelope and
have a direct relation to the Fourier Transform. Instantaneous
Frequency
– Physical Attributes: Relate to physical qualities. Frequencies
relate to bed thickness, magnitude of trace envelope relates to
impedance contrast.
– Geometrical Attributes: Describe spatial and temporal
relationship of all other attributes. Lateral continuity measured
by semblance is a good indicator of a discontinuity. Assist in the
recognition of depositional patterns and related lithology.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• By their origin in the wave phenomena, we can also sub-

divide the attributes into two categories:
– Reflective Attributes:
• Attributes corresponding to the characteristics of
interfaces.
• All instantaneous and wavelet attributes can be
included under this category.
• Pre-stack attributes such as AVO are also reflective
attributes,
– Transmissive Attributes
• Relate to the characteristics of a bed between two
interfaces (all physical attributes)
• Interval, RMS and average velocities, Q, absorption
and dispersion come under this category.
ALI BAKR
Attributes Interpretation
Objectives:
– Recognize an hydrocarbon anomaly or lithology
– Validate anomalies, revealing the relation rock-seismic
Methodology:
• Assume a model
• Compute or evaluate the response to the model at known locations
• Compare response of model to actual data
• Verification in new areas or intervals
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Seismic attributes:
– Properties of the seismic trace when thought of as an analytic
(complex) trace with both real and imaginary parts
Quadrature:
imaginary part
seismic trace from
Hilbert transform
Real:
conventional
seismic trace
Hilbert transform complex trace from the Real seismic trace

ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Instantaneous seismic attributes are derived from the actual seismic

data
• Quality of attributes is dependent on signal consistent interpretation
(grid based)
• Used as both seismic display (seismic sections), as maps (grids) and
volumes
ALI BAKR
Why do we generate Seismic Attributes ?
• Enhance structural and stratigraphic features for the interpreter on

seismic sections
• Enhance structural and stratigraphic features on maps
• Locate misinterpretation
• Get information on lithology, facies or fluid content
• Correlate with other properties
reservoir characterisation
ALI BAKR
Display and use of Seismic Attributes
• Seismic Amplitude:
– Trace’s amplitude value at the horizon time/depth
– Identify bright spots/dim spots
ALI BAKR
• Reflection Strength/Envelope:
– Total envelope of energy at any instant along the trace
– High reflection strength is often associated with major change in
acoustic impedance due to lithology, fluid content (gas), or
stratigraphy.
Seismic trace
Envelope
ALI BAKR
• Quadrature Amplitude:
– Imaginary part of the complex seismic trace
– Used in conjunction with other attributes to identify
bright spots
Seismic trace
Quadrature trace
ALI BAKR
• The Trace Envelope is a physical attribute and it can be used as an

effective discriminator for the following characteristics:
– Reflectivity, since mainly represents the acoustic impedance contrast
– Bright spots, possible gas accumulation,
– Sequence boundaries,
– Thin-bed tuning effects
– Major changes in depositional environment,
– Spatial correlation to porosity and other lithologic variations,
– Indicates the group, rather than phase component of the seismic wave
propagation.
ALI BAKR
• Instantaneous Phase
– Description of the phase angle at any instant along a trace
– Independent of amplitude
Expresses the degree of

lateral continuity or
discontinuity of seismic
reflections, pinchouts,
angular unconformities,
thickening and thinning
zones, offlap, onlap, and
makes weak coherent
reflection clearer.
ALI BAKR
• Cosine of Phase:
– Cosine function applied to the instantaneous phase (+/-1)
May enhance definition of

structural delineation
ALI BAKR
• Instantaneous Frequency:
– Time derivative of the phase
– Low: 0 to 1/2 of the Nyquist Frequency
Helps in correlating
reflection along
seismic section and
highlights low
frequency anomalies
below HC
accumulations
ALI BAKR
• Apparent Polarity:
– Sign of the seismic trace where reflection strength has a
local maximum value (+1 or -1)
May help distinguish

different kinds of bright
spots (due to gas,
limestone..)
ALI BAKR
• Response Phase:
– Calculates the instantaneous phase when the reflection
strength has its maximum
Alternate way of displaying

instantaneous attributes, less
subject to noise since
computed where seismic trace
has maximum energy
ALI BAKR
• Sweetness:
– Sweetness is the Envelope
(Reflection Strength) divided
by the square root of the
Instantaneous Frequency.
Variance
It can sometimes help in

delineating subtle discontinuities
Sweetness
ALI BAKR
• Bump mapping:
– Uses illumination and shading to add another dimension to the
normal rendering of the data
This display allows

enhancing of very subtle
structural features, like
small fault patterns
ALI BAKR
Too many attributes…highly correlated
Common amplitude
attributes computed
in a 100ms window
Barnes, 2006
ALI BAKR
• Derivatives:
– First derivative calculates the slope of the tangent of the
selected seismic amplitude (QC interpretation on zero
crossing)
– Second derivative measures the variation in the tangents of the
selected seismic amplitude, directly above and below the
reflection. High values indicate rapid shift from peak to
trough (short wavelength)
amplitude 1st derivative 2nd derivative

ALI BAKR
• Application of Amplitude first and second
derivatives:
Second derivative can be

Original amplitude
used to help guiding the
pick by providing continuity
in areas of where reflections
are poorly resolved on the
raw amplitude.
Second derivative
ALI BAKR
• Band pass filtering:
Original amplitude
High pass > 25 Hz
High pass > 35 Hz
ALI BAKR
Display of Attributes
AGC effect on data: good for interpretation and bad for attributes and
reservoir characterization
Original Amplitude Time Gain AGC filter

ALI BAKR
• Heterogeneity:
• Curve length of the function within an interval for the given attribute
• Shows the heterogeneic nature of any internal reflector in a given
volume
Low heterogeneity High heterogeneity
ALI BAKR
Local Attributes
Upper Loop Upper Loop

Duration Area
Lower Loop Lower Loop

Duration Area
ALI BAKR
Local Attributes
Seismic section crossing

high Upper Loop Area
values
ALI BAKR
Local Attributes
Upper Loop Area
Seismic Amplitude
ALI BAKR
• Surface based attribute maps:

– Extracted along or close to an interpreted surface
Extracted along or
ALI BAKR
close to a surface
• Volume based attribute maps:

– Calculated in a time/depth
window:
– Between two interpreted
surfaces
– Below/above/around an
interpreted surface
Extracted in between two

surfaces or within a constant
time window
ALI BAKR
• Grid based attribute

maps:
– Derived directly
from seismic
interpretation,
independent of
seismic amplitude
data
– Dip, Azimuth,
Curvature,
Illumination, Edge,
etc…
Courtesy of Norsk Hydro
Dip map Carbonate Buildups, Barents Sea

ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes and Reservoir Characterisation
• Combining attributes:
-cross-plotting of attributes against reservoir property of interest
using well data
-selection of the ones that correlate best
-statistics helps defining attribute contribution to the variance
-resultant attributes used in geostatistical kriging to interpolate
the reservoir property between wells (RAVE, LPM).
ALI BAKR
Geometric Attributes, Looking for Similarity
in Seismic Data
• Geometric attributes - Stratigraphic attributes – Multi-trace
attributes
• 4 families of multi-trace attributes:

– Dip/azimuth – measures reflector shape
– Texture attributes
– Discontinuity – measures waveform similarity
– Amplitude – measure lateral changes in impedance contrast
ALI BAKR
Geometric Attributes
– Dip/azimuth – measures reflector shape

• Components of vector dip
• Gradient
• Curvature
• Rotation
– Texture attributes
• Chaos
• Flatness
• Divergence
• Dip Histogram
• Gabor Filter bank
• Volume reflection Spectral (VRS) decomposition
– Discontinuity – measures waveform similarity
• Cross correlation coherence
• Semblance and variance
• Principal component coherence
• Principal projected gradient
– Amplitude – measure lateral changes in impedance contrast
• Amplitude gradients
• Cohereny energy gradients
ALI BAKR
Pre- and Post-Conditioning:

Gaussian low-pass smoothing filter
Gaussian dip-guided filter / Layer-Parallel Smoothing
ALI BAKR
• Pre- and Post-Conditioning:

– Gaussian dip-guided filter / Layer-Parallel Smoothing
Amplitude Dip guided Gaussian Filter

ALI BAKR
• Dip and Azimuth:
 Calculate local  Estimate the covariance  Perform principal

gradient matrix of the gradient component analysis:
vectors Dominating orientation
PCA is a time expensive dip computation, other methods exist such as Event dip and Gradient dip
ALI BAKR
• Dip and Azimuth:
Dip from instantaneous

Dip from estimated event local gradient vector Dip from PCA (0 to 90)
(0 to 90) (-90 to 90)
ALI BAKR
Looking for Similarity
ALI BAKR
Coherence Attributes
Example Results
Coherency
as it is most
commonly
displayed;
as time-slices
C1
C1 – correlation
C2 – semblance
C3 – eigenstruct.
C2 C3
ALI BAKR
Example Results
C1 C1 – correlation
Coherency as it is less commonly displayed; as vertical slices
ALI BAKR
Example Results
C2 C2 – semblance
We clearly see the effect of the vertical window…
ALI BAKR
Example Results
C3 C3 – eigenstruct.

ALI BAKR
Example Results
ALI BAKR
3D Automated Fault Mapping
Ant Tracking: Results
Seismic Variance Chaos Ant track

ALI BAKR
Ant Tracking
Biology lesson
Nest Food
ALI BAKR
Ant Tracking
Biology lesson: swarm intelligence
Nest Food
ALI BAKR
Ant Tracking
Biology lesson: swarm intelligence
Nest Food
Conclusion:“Dumb” ants do smart things!
ALI BAKR
Automated Fault Mapping
Ant Tracking
Ant Track Cube

Fault Attribute
Seismic
Fault System Analysis Ant Track Faults
ALI BAKR
Fault Attribute vs. Ant Tracking
Time slice
Variance Ant track
ALI BAKR
• Dip/azimuth – measure reflector orientation

• Partial derivatives of Dip enable to compute curvature (change of
dip as a function of azimuth)
• 2D Curvature:
Curvature calculated along picked horizons
1. pick horizon
2. smooth horizon
3. calculate curvature on tight grid for short wavelength estimates
4. smooth horizon some more
5. calculate curvature on coarse grid for long wavelength estimates
ALI BAKR
Curvature Attributes
 Definition of curvature
 Second-order derivative of
curve
 Curvature describes how

bent a curve is at a particular
point on the curve
Courtesy of Bruce Hart, McGill Univ.

( Roberts, 2001 )
ALI BAKR
2D Curvature Attributes
Basement faults Drainage system on

basement
N-S trend of
distinctive scarp
and dip slopes
geomorphology
Sinkhole
Deep Canyons related to

drainage system
Courtesy of Bruce Hart, McGill Univ.
CurvZ: Negative Curvature (Concave up)

(short length filter)
ALI BAKR
Variance
ALI BAKR
Time slice at 680ms
3D Mean Curvature
ALI BAKR
Time slice at 680ms
3D Maximum Curvature
ALI BAKR
Time slice at 680ms
3D Minimum Curvature
ALI BAKR
Time slice at 680ms
Seismic Attributes
Some Important Post stack Attributes (Volume Attributes)

• Post-stacked attributes ( i.e. not AVO or Velocity) can be calculated as a volume, as a
slice, in a time window, or along a horizon .
– The volume can be displayed and interpreted like any other cube of data…
however most interpretation packages include the ability to transform the data by
slice
– The window can be a constant flat time interval, hung from a structurally
interpreted horizon or between two horizons
– Horizon attributes are normally calculated and extracted from a data volume
following automatic spatial tracking or snapping.
• Time derived attributes are very helpful for checking your interpretation. If you use
auto-tracking a lot then this step is especially important.
• While most horizon attributes are from near the structural top of the reservoir do not
forget that attributes from below the reservoir can also give you valuable information -
i.e. the gas shadow zone
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Attributes
• When considered as an analytical signal a seismic trace can be expressed as a
complex function such as u(t)=x(t)+iy(t) where x(t) is the recorded trace itself
and y(t) is its quadrature (a 90 degree phase-shifted version of the recorded
trace).
• There are 3 instantaneous attributes
– Amplitude which is proportional to the square root of the of the total
energy of the signal at an instant in time and is used to identify bright
and dim spots.
– Phase which is a measure of continuity and is used to delineate features

such as pinchouts, onlaps, and prograding reflectors.
– Frequency which is the time rate of change of instantaneous phase and

can help identify condensate and gas reservoirs, which tend to attenuate
high frequencies
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Input Trace with envelope
Quadrature trace with envelope
Instantaneous Phase
Instantaneous Frequency
Envelope attribute also called

instantaneous amplitude or
reflection strength Frequency
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Four “principal” volume

Post Stack attributes.
• Reflection strength,
instantaneous phase and
instantaneous frequency are
“complex-trace” attributes
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Amplitude
• Amplitude provides information on :
– Sediments and their fluids by virtue of their velocity density contrst.
– Amplitude change suggest changes in the nature of rocks and fluids (oil,gas
and water).
– Commonly used amplitude based indicators, in hydrocarbon industry
industry , are Bright spots, Dim spots, and Flat spots.
Not all hydrocarbon accumulations produce detectable amplitude changes.
Not all changes in seismic amplitude are associated with changes in fluid saturation.
Changes in lithology, bed thickness, porosity and other factors can cause changes in
seismic amplitude.
It only takes a small amount of gas to generate an impressive looking bright spot;
not all are associated with commercial accumulations of hydrocarbon. Conformity
between structure contours and the limits of a high-amplitude area is often
considered to be an indication that the amplitudes are related to the presence of
hydrocarbons (a bright spot).
However, this correspondence will only be observed if:
the sand is continuous (not compartmentalized by stratigraphic or structural
features),
there are no hydrodynamic factors that tilt the fluid contact.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Amplitude provides information on :
– Sediments and their fluids by virtue of their velocity density contrst.
– Amplitude change suggest changes in the nature of rocks and fluids (oil,gas
and water).
– Commonly used amplitude based indicators, in hydrocarbon industry
industry , are Bright spots, Dim spots, and Flat spots.
• Not all hydrocarbon accumulations produce detectable amplitude changes.

Not all changes in seismic amplitude are associated with changes in fluid
saturation. Changes in lithology, bed thickness, porosity and other factors
can cause changes in seismic amplitude.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Bright spot : It is associated with strong amplitude contrast

across lithologies and their fluid (oil, gas and water) content.
• Dim spot: It is associated with weak amplitude contrast across

lithologies and their fluid (oil, gas and water) content.
• Flat spot: Associated with fluid contact.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Phase
• It is phase independent of
amplitude, and its values
are in degrees and range
from +180 to -180. Because
instantaneous phase
contains no amplitude
information, it is
commonly used to examine
reflection (i.e.,
stratigraphic) continuity;
changes in amplitude along
a reflection can sometimes
give the impression of
lateral discontinuity.
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Instantaneous frequency is the

rate of change of phase. Its
values are in cycles/second
(Hertz).
• Instantaneous frequency is
useful for detecting tuning
effects (although peak frequency
occurs at a different thickness
than for tuning of seismic
amplitude), fractures, gas (see
next slide) and other features.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Can be used to detect gas however is not really reliable because it

tends to be noisy
• Arc Length
– total length of the seismic trace over a time window

– increase in amplitude gives more trace length as well as
oscillation caused by increased frequency hence is really a
composite of amplitude and frequency
– can be used to map depositional facies
ALI BAKR
OGCI - SER - Attributes 263
Intro thru Horizon ... -
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Bright Spot
Gas SS
Bright Spot
The Sag
Not all Bright Spot prospects are as obvious as this simple model,
but the idea is the same, and most are as subtle as a migraine.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Dim Spot
Frequently, an increase
V (high )
in porosity, D > 0,
V (low )
perhaps accompanied by
a pore fluid change to
hydrocarbons, leads to a
decrease in the
impedance of an
otherwise high
impedance rock – such
as a carbonate or older
SS.
Note the high amplitude Dim Spot
exit event - with a time
sag caused by the lower
velocity in the porous
zone
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Dim Spot
Generalized curves showing how the
acoustic impedances of gas sand, water
sand and shales increase with depth.
Bright spot occurs above depth A, where is
large contrast in and gas-sand impedances
but a modest difference between shale and
water –sand impedances.
Polarity reversals occur between depths A
and B, where water –sand impedance is
greater than shale impedance but gas-sand
impedance is less than shale impedance.
Dim spot occur below depth B, where the
three impedance curves converge and there
are only samll impedance contrasts
between shale and either type of sand,
brine-filled or gas –filled.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
Z
Old and venerable, the Gas
Water
flat spot, resulting
from gas-water contact Salt
reflections, is still
widely used in
T
exploration and
development.
Note that the flat spot is

tilted on the time section.
Why?
Z The flat spot has regained it
flaticity when converted to depth.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
ALI BAKR
3-Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
Modified from Brown, 1996
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Data specification needed for Attributes
• For 8-bit data, amplitudes theoretically range from ±128,

16-bit data theoretically range from ± 32,768 and 32-bit
data range from ± 4,294,967,296. 32- and 16-bit data have
more dynamic range than 8-bit data, but take up
correspondingly more amounts of storage space.
• You should work with 16- or 32-bit data when doing

quantitative attribute analyses.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Attributes Combination
• Attributes may be combined with each other

– E.g., amplitude-weighted phase
• This helps to combine their effects
• Although simple linear correlations between a physical property

and an attribute are sometimes found, relationships are more
often non-linear (e.g., Hart and Chen, 2004) and more than one
attribute is needed predict the physical property of interest
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Attributes Combination
Amplitude Coherency
Multiplying coherency
(semblance) by amplitude makes
structural and stratigraphic
features more distinctive - in this
case fault arrays and meandering
turbidities channels Amplitude Coherency
[Shiehallion].
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
1. Identify horizon of interest
2. Pick horizon on a selected grid of lines
3. Pick all intermediate traces using an automatic picking
algorithm
4. Extract horizon attributes:
• Time
• Amplitude
• Dip
• Azimuth
• Combined dip/azimuth
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Dip & Azimuth
• Dip/azimuth cubes only show relative changes in dip and azimuth, since
we do not in general have an accurate time to depth conversion
• Dip/azimuth estimated using a vertical window in general provide more

robust estimates than those based on picked horizons
• Dip/azimuth volumes form the basis for volumetric curvature, coherence,

and structurally-oriented filtering
• Dip/azimuth will be one of the key components for future computer-

aided 3-D seismic stratigraphy
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
(Rijks and Jauffred, 1991)
Dip& Azimuth
Time Dip Azimuth

ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Horizon Amplitude Extraction (Rijks and Jauffred, 1991)
0.8
0.9
top
t (s)
2 km base
1.0
1 km
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Amplitude Keyed to a Horizon or Sequence
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Attributes Extractions
• Understand the polarity of your data. If necessary, convert it to zero phase.
• Tie expected reservoir response from logs to seismic.
• Pick top and bottom of reservoir using autotracking of peaks and troughs.
• Picking the top of a stratigraphic unit is usually more indicative of the sequence than the bottom.
• Composite amplitude partially compensates for adjacent acoustic impedances adjacent to the top
and bottom of the reservoir by ‘stacking’ the absolute value of the reflectivity at the top
and bottom.
• Be sure to annotate your amplitude extractions!

• Polarity
• Offset above or below picked horizon
• Measure (e.g. composite, top, bottom, average absolute value, etc)
• Window length (if any)
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
A measure of trace to trace similarity of the seismic wavform
within a samll analysis window.
inline inline
Coherence compares the waveforms of neighboring traces

ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Why we use Coherency
• Excellent tool for delineating geological boundaries (faults,l

ateral stratigraphic contacts, etc).
• Allows accelerated evaluation of larg data sets.
• Provided quantitative estimate of fault /fracture presence.
• Often enhance stratigraphic information
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Coherency data volume
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Seismic Time Slice
Coherence Time Slice
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attributes
Seismic Time Slice
Coherence Time Slice
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Slice
Advantages Disadvantages
• Focuses on reservoir or other • Analysis limited to only a few
zone of interest
discreet horizons, which are
• Illuminates depositional time consuming to pick
environment at a fixed geologic
time • Analysis limited to the extent
• Avoids low coherence “structural of the interpreted horizon
leakage” due to steep dip • Picking errors can bias the
• Steers coherence calculation result or create artifacts
along an interpreter-defined • Some geological surfaces
dip/azimuth, resulting in simply cannot be characterized
generally sharper contact images by peaks, troughs, or zero
crossings
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Time Slice
Advantages Disadvantages
• Focuses on reservoir or other • Analysis limited to only a few
zone of interest
discreet horizons, which are
• Illuminates depositional time consuming to pick
environment at a fixed geologic
time • Analysis limited to the extent
• Avoids low coherence “structural of the interpreted horizon
leakage” due to steep dip • Picking errors can bias the
• Steers coherence calculation result or create artifacts
along an interpreter-defined • Some geological surfaces
dip/azimuth, resulting in simply cannot be characterized
generally sharper contact images by peaks, troughs, or zero
crossings
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Coherence volumes
Coherence on a time slice Coherence along structure
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
y
x
Spectral Decomposition z
3-D Seismic Volume
Uses the discrete Fourier transform to: Interpret

• quantify thin-bed interference, y
x
and Interpreted z
3-D Seismic Volume
• detect subtle discontinuities.
Subset
y
x
Zone-of-Interest z
Subvolume
Compute
y
Zone-of-Interest x
freq
Tuning Cube
(cross-section view) Animate
y
Frequency Slices x
freq
through Tuning Cube
(plan view)
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
y
x
Spectral Decomposition z
3-D Seismic Volume
Interpret
y
x
Interpreted z
3-D Seismic Volume
Subset
Tuning Cube
y
y x
x
freq
Zone-of-Interest z
Subvolume
Compute
y
Zone-of-Interest x
y y y
freq
Multiply Add Tuning Cube
x x x
(cross-section view)
freq freq
+ freq
Animate
Thin Bed Interference Seismic Wavelet Noise y
Frequency Slices x
freq
through Tuning Cube
(plan view)
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Spectral Decomposition
y
x
freq Tuning Cube
Split Spectral Tuning Cube

into Discrete Frequencies
Frequency Slices Frequency 1 Frequency 2 Frequency 3 Frequency 4 Frequency n

through Tuning Cube y y y y y
(plan view) x x x x x
Independently Normalize
Each Frequency Map
Spectrally Balanced Frequency 1 Frequency 2 Frequency 3 Frequency 4 Frequency n

Frequency Slices
through Tuning Cube y y y y y
x x x x x
(plan view)
Gather Discrete Frequencies

into Tuning Cube
y
x Spectrally Balanced
freq Tuning Cube
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Real Data Example
Offshore Africa
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
spectral decomposition
80ms analysis window
centred 80ms above

a picked horizon
Red = 60hz amplitude

Green = 50hz amplitude
Blue = 40hz amplitude
hrz - 120ms
hrz - 040ms
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Courtesy of Lantz, Aluvihare and Partyka
80ms analysis window
centred 40ms above

a picked horizon
Red = 60hz amplitude

Green = 50hz amplitude
Blue = 40hz amplitude
hrz - 080ms
hrz - 000ms
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
60hz amplitude
analysis window = 80ms
Centred:
80ms above the picked hrz
youngest oldest
higher lower
Red
Green
hrz Blue
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Real Data Example
Gulf of Mexico , Pleistocene age equivalent
Of modern day Mississippi River Delta
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Channel “A”
Fault-Controlled Channel
Amplitude
Point Bar 1
Channel “B” N
Gulf of Mexico Example 10,000 ft analysis window length = 100ms
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Channel “A”
Fault-Controlled Channel
Amplitude
Point Bar 1
Channel “B” N
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Channel “A”
North-South Extent Fault-Controlled Channel

of Channel “A” Delineation
Amplitude
Point Bar 1
Channel “B” N
ALI BAKR
4- AVO
ALI BAKR
Factors Affecting Amplitudes
Instrument Balance
Superimpose Geophone
d Noise Sensitivity &
Coupling
Source
Strength, Interference of Array Directivity
Coupling and different Events
Directivity
Peg-Leg multiples
from thin reflectors Scattering
Spherical
divergence
Absorption
Reflector Curvature
Reflection Variation of and rugosity
coefficient Reflection
Coefficient with
Incident Angle
ALI BAKR
AVO
AVO definition
The variation in the amplitude of a seismic reflection with
source-geophone distance. Depends on the velocity, density
and Poisson ratio contrast. Used as a hydrocarbon
indicator for gas because a large change in Poisson’s ratio
(as may occur when the pore fluid is a gas) tends to produce
an increase in amplitude with offset.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO
AVO Assumptions
•AVO Assumption •Seismic Processing
•No seismic attenuation •Q compensation
•No transmission loss •Gain function
•No wavelet interference (tuning) •Broad amplitude spectrum
•Remove wavelet
•Zero-phase data
•Amplitude vs angle() •Pre-stack migration
•Map offset to angle, 
•Large angles •Avoid offset mute
•Pre-stack events flattened •Accurate (high-order) NMO
correction
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO definition
• Amplitude Versus Offset is a
change of reflectivity with
Offset across a CMP gather.
• It is determined by the P-wave,
S-wave and density contrast at
the interface
• For clastic rocks, these
parameters are dictated by
physical properties such as
porosity, fluid and lithology.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
• Seismic waves are reflected
at a boundary between Layer 1
different rocks
incident reflected
• At normal incidence,
Z2  Z1
1 R
the reflected wave
has an amplitude R : R
Z2  Z1 Layer 2
transmitted
Zi  i  Vi T
  density   wavespeed 
• R = 0.1 is a BIG reflection !
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
At every reflection in land section - P-

waves that are not exactly at right-angles
to a reflector partially convert into S-
waves which continue on down the
section reflecting and refracting.
AVO: is due to partitioning of

the sound energy at interface
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
• The AVO technique for DHI is based on two principles:
1. When Gas replaces brine in reservoir rocks, Poisson’s

Ratio (Vp/Vs) Decreases.
2. When Poisson’s ratio decreases, Rc and amplitude
becomes more negative with increasing angle.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO /AVA principles
• Change in Incident Angle ->
Change in Amplitude
• Different Offsets, Same Time ->
Different Incident Angles ->
Different Amplitudes
• Same Offset, Different Times ->
Different Incident Angles ->
Different Amplitudes
• Amplitude changes with Offset

AND Time
• Temporal & Spatial change in
velocity complicates the
proceedings!
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO /AVA principles
Angle of incidence decreases with depth for constant

offset trace
Angle of incidence constant for all depths on a constant
angle trace.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
P-wave & S-Wave
G E CO L O N G VA
O S L O
Water
Vp = 1500m/s reflected
Vs = 0m/s P wave
incident
P wave
 
Hard Sea-bed
Vp = 2500m/s
Vs = 1200m/s
transmitted
P wave
transmitted
S wave
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Parameters
• P-Wave Velocity - Measured :

– Well logs
– Seismic Velocity Analysis
• Density - Measured :
– Well logs
– Empirically from P-Wave Velocity
• S-Wave Velocity - Difficult to Measure
– P-Wave velocity/S-Wave velocity Ratio
– Poisson's Ratio (Rock Property)
– Multi-component data analysis
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
 Bulk modulus – measure of
Modulus = Stiffness
compressibility of rocks and fluids
(Stress/Strain Ratio)
 Change in volume, not in shape
Bulk Modulus κ (incompressibility)

Response to Compressive Stress
Change in Pressure
Relative Change in Volume
 Shear modulus – measure

reluctance to change shape
Shear Modulus μ (rigidity)
 Change in shape, not in volume
Response to Shear Stress
Change in Shear Force per unit area
Relative Displacement
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
  4 / 3 
VP  VS 
 
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
• At any point in the sub-surface, there are only three independent
acoustic rock properties responsible for seismic reflection :
– Vp,
– Vs,
– density
• All attributes we compute will depend on the the spatial distribution

of the above three properties.
• From these attributes we would like to infer:
– Rock Properties
– Fluid type
– Porosity/Permeability
– Pressure
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio is simply a measure of how much the

cross-section of a rod changes when it is stretched. In a
fluid, doubling the length halves the width (the volume
is retained) which yields a Poisson's ratio of 0.5. A rod
which never got any thinner, regardless of the amount of
stretching applied, would have a Poisson's ratio of
zero. There is a simple relationship between the P-wave
velocity, the S-wave velocity and Poisson's ratio...
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles Poisson’ ratio
DW
DL
σ= Relative Change in Width
Relative Change in Length
Poisson`s Ratio σ
0.5  VS / VP 
2

1  VS / VP 
2
Poisson’s ratio is related to VP/VS ratio:
1
VP / VS 
0.5  
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications

Poisson’s Ratio varies :
 may be thought of as a measure of Incompressibility
0.5 0.0
 = .4  = .3  = .1
Wet Sand Oil Sand Gas Sand

ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
• The shear modulus of a rock does not change when

the fluid is changed.
• However, the bulk modulus changes significantly
when the fluid changes.
• As such, the p-wave velocity of a rock will change as
hydrocarbon saturation changes whereas the s-wave
velocity will change relatively little (there is a slight
density effect).
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
In basins where the geologic section is relatively young and unconsolidated-

water, oil, and/or gas response may be seen in amplitude studies-DHI’s.
• Gas or light oil can significantly decrease the Acoustic Impedance of

a porous zone versus a brine fill.
• The anomalous amplitude should conform to a trap configuration.
• The hydrocarbon-water contact may occur as a flat reflection.
• Area and thickness of a seismic hydrocarbon anomaly may be used

for pre-drill volumetric estimates
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes
I II III IV
Top of
Reservo
ir
Offsets Far Near FN FN FN
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes Class 1 events are
encountered in
high impedance reservoirs.
The
Class 1
High Impedance Reservoirs AVO behavior is a peak

Dimming that dims.
Class 2 events are encountered in
Class 2 near zero impedance reservoirs.
Coefficient
The AVO behavior is a weak peak

Reflection
or trough that brightens to a

Brightening stronger trough at far offsets or
Class 3
incident angles.
Brightening
Class 3 events are encountered
Low Impedance Reservoirs
in low impedance reservoirs.
The AVO behavior is a trough
Incidence that brightens at far offsets or
Angle (offset) incident angles.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
If we measure the amplitude of each reflection amplitude as a function of

offset, and plot them on a graph as a function of the sine of angle of incidence
squared, we
observe a straight line. For any line, the intercept and gradient can be
measured. By linearzing the complicated mathematics behind the AVO
technique, Richards and Frasier (1976) and Wiggins et al (1986) gave us the
following physical interpretation of the intercept and gradient:
Intercept A = the P-wave reflection amplitude.
Gradient B = the P-wave reflection amplitude minus twice the S-

wave reflection amplitude.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
When you plot the amplitude of the signal
for a reflector (i.e., horizon) against the offset
of the trace (or the calculated angle that the
corresponding sound wave would make
when it met the reflector), the plot yields the
"Intercept", where the trend of the amplitude
measurements meets the zero-offset line (so
it would be equivalent to a geophone directly
next to the source, and a 90° angle to the
reflector). It also yields the "Gradient", which
is the slope of the curve made by the plot
points. The sums or differences of these
gradients and intercept values can then be B
used for mapping AVO anomalies. A
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Common Angle of
incidence calculated
from smoothed
stacking velocities
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Angle
R()  P + G sin2 
Observed
Linear Fit
slope = G
P
intercept
sin2 
Intercept Gradient
trace trace
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Using the values for VP, VS, and density ρ shown in last
Figure , we can now work out the values for the AVO
intercept and gradient for the wet and gas sands. For the wet
sand, the VP/VS ratio in both the sand and shale layer is
equal to 2. As shown in this leads to the simplification that B
= −A for both the top and base of the layer.
Using the parameters shown in the figure gives: ATOP_WET
= BBASE_WET = +0.1 and ABASE_WET =B TOP_WET = -0.1.
For the gas sand, the VP/VS ratio is equal to 1.65, and the
intercept does not simplify as it did the wet sand.
However, the calculation is still straightforward, and leads to
ATOP_GAS = BTOP_GAS = -0.1 and ABASE_GAS =
BBASE_GAS = +0.1. Note that, for the gas case, A=B for both
the top and base of the layer.
The AVO curves for the wet and gas cases are shown in figure
4, for an angular aperture of 0º to 30º. It is observed that the
absolute values of the gas sand curves show an increase in
amplitude, whereas the absolute values of the wet sand
curves show a decrease in amplitude. These values do fall
within a reasonable petrophysical range for class 3 anomalies.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
After scaling each of the values of A and B by a factor of 10 (to give values of +1 and -1) they
have been put on an A-B cross plot, as shown in Figure 5. In our example, the wet points
(shown as solid blue circles) establish the wet sand-shale trend, and the top and base gas
(shown as solid red circles) plot in the other two quadrants of the A-B crossplot. This is a
typical class 3 AVO anomaly (Rutherford and Williams, 1989), caused by gas saturation
reducing the sand impedance and the Vp/Vs ratio of the sand encased in the shale.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
•When we introduce gas into a sandstone, VP decreases whereas VS increases slightly
•We will see that this decrease in VP/VS ratio causes a change in relative amplitude that
will vary with angle of incidence.
•By analyzing this variation in amplitude we will try to extract some lithological
information from the data
•Poisson’s Ratio is a useful number to know as it may be a direct hydrocarbon indicator

(DHI)
•S-Waves do not travel in water – they are converted back to P-Waves at the water
boundary
•S-waves are less affected by gas than P-waves
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Seismic Gather
t Amplitude B
A
Offset
sin2q
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Compressional Impedance Reflectivity
Full Stack
Amplitude
AVO Gradient Section
B (Slope)
A(Y Intercept)
AVO Gradient Section
ALI BAKR sin2q
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Near offset Stack
Full Stack
Amplitude
Far Offset Stack
B(Slope)
A (Y Intercept)
Far Offset Stack
sin2q
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Near offset Stack
Full Stack
Far Offset Stack
Amplitud
B (Slope)
e
A (Y Intercept)
Far Offset Stack
sin2q
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Misconceptions
Myth Reality
• AVO does not work • AVO does work under the right
• Gas-sand amplitude increases circumstances
with offset • Gas-sand reflection coefficients
• AVO can not be used to detect oil generally become more negative
sands with increasing of offset.
• AVO does not work in • High GOR light oil-saturated
carbonates rocks may exibit significant AVO
• Land AVO is more difficult than anomalies
marine AVO • There are some applications
• Vp/Vs is 1.6 for brine sands, 1.8 • The marine short-period
for dolomites, 1.9 for limestones, multiples are still a problem
and 2 for shales • Vp/Vs varies significantly
• Rp and Rs are readily extracted • Rp and Rs can be extracted from
from R(0) R(0) and G if Vp/Vs is kbown
ALI BAKR
5. SEISMIC INVERSION
ALI BAKR
Inversion vs Modeling
Logs Synthetic
Wavelet
Impedance Seismic
Wavelet
ALI BAKR
Post-Stack Inversion
Low impedance zone is interpreted as higher porosity
Gtn
ICI Horizontal Georgetown Field
ALI BAKR
Patch Reefs in the Edwards?
ALI BAKR
Interpreting an acoustic impedance inversion for

lithology, porosity and fluids is simular to
interpreting a sonic log without the use of any
other logs. Why do it if there is more information?
ALI BAKR
Glen Rose Reef
ALI BAKR
Terminology and Background
Acoustic Impedance = Velocity X Density

Vp = Velocity of Compressional wave
Vs = Velocity of Shear wave
Vp/Vs ~ Poisson’s ratio
-Acoustic Impedance Inversion is a technique for measuring the

Impedance of the Earth’s sub-surface layers from seismic data
-Using Shear and Compressional Velocities, we can estimate

Physical rock properties from seismic data
ALI BAKR
Benefits of 3D Inversion
• Lithology and Fluid Discrimination
• Used for Reservoir Property Prediction
• Best Tool for Reservoir Characterization
• Best Method for Optimized Field Development
• Increased Reflectivity in Shear Volume
• Calibration to Well Data and Rock Properties
• Increased Signal Bandwidth
• Easier to Interpret
ALI BAKR
Rock Property Calibration
Top Reservoir
Laminated Pay
GWC
ALI BAKR
Rock Property Summary
• From well calibrations, seismic derived attributes can be used to

discriminate between the following rock/fluid classes:
• Clean Gas Sands Low Pwave Impedance, Low Vp/Vs

Ratio
• Clean Water Sands High Pwave Impedance, Intermediate
Vp/Vs Ratio
• Laminated Gas Sands Reduced Pwave Impedance and
Vp/Vs Ratio
• Shales Increased Pwave Impedance,
Intermediate to higher Vp/Vs Ratio
ALI BAKR
Deliverables
• Acoustic Impedance Volume (Product of Velocity and Density)

– Porosity, Geometry and Lithology
• Shear Impedance Volume
– Lithology, Fluid
• Density Volume
– Fluid type and ‘fizz water’ discriminator
• Vp/Vs Volume or
• Poisson’s Ratio Volume
– Lithology, Fluid type, Net/Gross ratio’s
• Porosity Volume
• N/G and Sw Estimations
ALI BAKR
Avo Analysis – Obtaining Shear Velocity estimates
ALI BAKR
Rock Property Calibration
Shear Velocity
Pwave Velocity
ALI BAKR
Easier to Interpret
ALI BAKR
Inversion Workflow
Rock Physics AVO Analysis and Vp/Vs Pre-Stack Full

Analysis and Processing Waveform
Model Inversion
Modeling
P, S, Density Reflectivity Volumes
IRD
Integrated Low
Reservoir Frequency
Description Models
P,S, Absolute Impedance & Density

Volumes
Petro-Acoustic Calibration
ALI BAKR
Quality Control of Inversion Process
• Well logs should be examined for suitable relationships between

measured impedance logs (calculated by dividing the density by
the the sonic log) and properties such as porosity and fluid type
• Well Logs should be converted to time and edited for borehole
effects, balanced, and classified based upon quality
• Synthetics should be generated for all wells. Logs that do not tie
should be investigated for problems in log, wavelet, or seismic
• It is generally preferable to run a loosely constrained trace based
inversion first (possibly augmented by non seismic data such as
trend data from velocities or wells) to use for interpretation of a
more tightly constrained model for later use in a model based
inversion
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
After R. B. Latimer
• The main test of inversion accuracy is how well it ties to the input
data
• Volumes that rely heavily on log derived models should match
the logs at the well locations
• More model based volumes should match the seismic and the
synthetic created after inversion
• To make a valid comparison between log data and inverted
impedance the log data should be filtered t o the range of the
seismic frequencies
• In all cases a universal check is to compare the model to well data
that was not included in the processing - a “blind” accuracy test
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKRAfter R. B. Latimer
If results of the inversion do not tie and you have correctly processed
logs then check the wavelet
• an inversion should be done over a time target with a wavelet
extracted from that interval
• if a wavelet from deeper is used it may have too low of frequency
and can result in “ringing”
• if a higher frequency wavelet from a shallower interval is used
deeper than results will appear smeared
• wavelets with an incorrect phase or amplitude spectrum can result
in erroneous time shifts that contain extra side lobes an create
false geological features
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
After R. B. Latimer
• Lack of low frequency can also be a problem. Sources other than

logs include pre-stack time or depth migration velocities
• The final AI product should also be checked against a relative
impedance result (low frequencies have been filtered out). While
this model is limited structurally and stratigraphically … any
feature that is only seen on the broadband volume but not
apparent on the band-limited target should be carefully examined.
It could be the result of a poorly implemented low frequency
model.
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
After R. B. Latimer
A Question of Scale
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Question of Heterogeneous Reservoirs
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Establishing a Relationship Between AI and Lithology
ALI BAKR
DrFrom
ALI BAKR et al
C. Torres-Verdin
6-SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
ALI BAKR
Seismic Stratigraphy
Why doing Seismic straigraphy?
• Geological age correlations

• Thickness estimates
• Environment of deposition
• Paleobathymetry
• Burial history
• Relief
• Topography on unconformities
• Lithology
• Porosity/permeability
• Fluid content
• Insight into source and seal
ALI BAKR
Scale of Study
There are three scales for seismic straigraphy studies:
• Regional Scale Seismic Strat-Interpretation – Large-scale

stratigraphic interpretation of data “seismic stratigraphy”.
• Prospect Scale Seismic Strat-interpretation. Localized

interpretation to define a prospect. May include use of
reflection configurations, wave shape, amplitude, etc.
• Reservoir scale Seismic Strat-interpretation. Quantitatively

characterize reservoir (net sand, phi-H, etc.) to permit reserve
determination, reservoir simulation ,etc…
ALI BAKR
• Why doing seismic stratigraphy?
• Scale of seismic stratigraphy study
• Assumptions
• Categories
ALI BAKR
Assumptions for Reflection Character Analysis
• Reflections are boundaries of impedance contrast.
• Reflections have areas in excess of the first Fresnel zone or .
• Reflections are from bedding surfaces.
• Reflections parallel time/age lines.
ALI BAKR
2-Seismic Stratigraphy
• Definitions
• Why doing seismic stratigraphy?
• Scale of seismic stratigraphy study
• Assumptions
• Categories
ALI BAKR
Categories
Seismic stratigraphy is divided into two main categories:
• Reflection- character analysis
• Seismic facies analysis
ALI BAKR
Categories- Reflection Character Analysis
Reflection character analysis
Analyse the lateral variation of an individual reflection

unit or units in order to localise where stratigraphic
changes are found and identify their nature.
ALI BAKR
Reflector terminations defining the upper and lower boundary

of a sequences
23
24 6 22
23 21
23 5
22 4 8
21 21 22 3
6 2 7
5 4 3 2 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
Concordant above Onlap above Concordant above
Erosional: angular, structural Erosional: angular, nonstructural Toplap below
21 22 23 24 25 26 21 22 23 24 25 26 22 23 24 25 26
6 21
9 5
8 4
3 3
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 21
1
Downlap above Downlap above Downlap above
Erosional: angular, structural Erosional: angular, nonstructural Concordant below
24 24 23
23 23 22
9 22 22 21
4
8 21 21 32
7 6 5 4 4
3 2 1 1 2 3 1
Onlap above Onlap above Concordant above
Erosional: angular, structural Tilting or original depositional Concordant below
attitude
ALI BAKR
Reflector terminations defining the upper and lower boundary

of seismic sequences
ALI BAKR
Toplap (Upper Boundaries)

It is a termination of strata, or seismic marker, against an overlying surface
mainly resulting of non-deposition (sedimentary bypassing) with perhaps
only minor erosion. Each unit of strata laps out in a landward direction at
the top of the unit, and each successive termination lies progressively
seaward.
ALI BAKR
Toplap
1- Coastal toplap
2- Marine toplap
3- Non-marine toplap
ALI BAKR
Reflection Character Analysis
Toplap
1- Coastal toplap
ALI BAKR
Toplap
2- Marine toplap
ALI BAKR
Toplap
3- Non-marine toplap
ALI BAKR
Mark Toplap (Upper Boundaries)
ALI BAKR
Erosional truncation (Upper Boundaries)

Where inclined strata terminate against an erosional surface.
An unconformity is an erosional surface that separates younger strata from older rocks and
represents a significant hiatus (at least a correlatable part of a geochronologic unit is not
represented by strata). In very particular cases, an unconformity can corresponds to an non-
depositional surface. Periods of erosion and non deposition occur at each global fall of sea level
producing interregional unconformities. Although in some areas of continuous deposition, the
hiatus may be too small to be detected paleontologically or seismically, and the surface is defined
as a conformity.
ALI BAKR
Erosional truncation (Upper Boundaries)

.
ALI BAKR
Mark Erosional truncation (Upper Boundaries)
ALI BAKR
Onlap (Lower Boundaries)

If a period of deposition dominated by bedload transport ( sand
sized materials) ceases and is followed by a period of deposition
from suspended load, then filling the latter ususally produces an
onlapping sequence.
ALI BAKR
Onlap 1-Proximal onlap
2-Distal onlap
3-Coastal onlap
4-Marine onlap
5-Apparent onlap
6-Nonmarine onlap
7-True onlap
8-Tilted onlap (Apparent downlap)
ALI BAKR
Onlap
1- Proximal onlap : is onlap in the direction of the source of

clastic supply.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
2-Distal onlap onlap in the direction away from the source of

clastic supply.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
3-Coastal onlap is the progressive landward onlap of the coastal

deposits in a given stratigraphic unit.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
4- Marine onlap is the onlap of marine strata, primarily deep

marine (deposited seaward of the shelf break) in nature.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
5- Apparent onlap is the onlap observed in any randomly oriented

vertical section, which may or may not be oriented parallel to
depositional dip.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
6- Non-marine onlap is the onlap observed in non-marine

environments, that is to say, landward of the depositional
coastal break.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
7- True onlap : when two apparent onlaps are observed on two

sections intersecting at right angles, the true onlap is likely to be
observed on the section parallel to the depositional dip.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
8- Tilted onlap is an apparent geometrical relationship, that looks

like a downlap. Generally, it is induced by tilting, compensatory
subsidence and salt or shale flowage.
ALI BAKR
Mark Onlap (Lower Boundaries)
ALI BAKR
Mark Onlap
ALI BAKR
Onlap
Faulted units beneath the NW continental margin of Australia, blanketed by a post-tectonic sedimentary
cover of late Mesozoic and younger age. The faults are shown here as showing normal throws. However,
there may be partial inversion of these structures to create the antiformal structure on the NW side of the
section. The post kinematic section lies on an erosional unconformity and onlaps significant relief across
the section. Author: Rob Butler
ALI BAKR
Mark Onlap
Profile across part of the Central Basin, Iran, NE of the city of Qom. Image from Morley et al.
(in press, 2009) Structural development of a major Late Cenozoic basin and transpressional
belt in Central Iran: the Central Basin in the Qom-Saveh area. Author: Chris Morley
ALI BAKR
Onlap
ALI BAKR
Mark
1-Onlap
2- Erosional Truncation
A dipline (see the associated regional project for location) with a well location marked. Note the
angular truncation and erosion of the carbonates below the major unconformity associated with
the karstification of the carbonates. This erosion formaed a distinct penenplain, that is readily
traced across basement rocks (right) into the karsted carbonates at the well location.
ALI BAKR
Mark Onlap
ALI BAKR
Onlap
An interpretation of the
fault geometry and basin
fill in part of the Inner
Moray Firth. This
interpretation was done
using 2D seismic data
alone (see related
regional line) and
without reference to
external data or models.
The arrows denote stratal
terminations (onlap).
ALI BAKR
Mark
1-Onlap
ALI BAKR
Mark
1-Onlap
ALI BAKR
Downlap (Lower Boundaries)

Seismic reflection of inclined strata terminate downdip
against an inclined or horizontal surface
Surfaces are present at the base of prograding packages. They are commonly associated with
maximum flooding surfaces produced by a rise in relative sea level
ALI BAKR
Downlap
1- Distal downlap
2- False downlap
3- Shelf downlap
4- Basin downlap
5- Opposite (local) downlap
6- Apparent downlap
ALI BAKR
Downlap
1- Distal downlap is a downlap in the direction away from the source of clastic
supply. The majority of downlaps are distal downlaps.
ALI BAKR
Downlap
2- False downlap is a downdip tangential stratal termination. Strata flatten

and continue as units, which, often, are so thin that they fall below the
seismic resolution.
ALI BAKR
Downlap
3- Shelf downlap is a downlap recognized in a shelf. Often, it underlies the

slope of a depositional coastal break. The water depth is less than 200
meters (prodelta).
ALI BAKR
Downlap
4- Slope downlap is a downlap associated with a continental slope.

The water depth is higher than 200 meters.
ALI BAKR
Downlap
5- Opposite downlaps are characteristics of overbank deposits,

whether associated with fluvial or turbiditic levees
ALI BAKR
Downlap
6- (Apparent downlaps) : original onlap terminations when deformed

by tectonics or halokinesis (salt tectonics) can become apparent
downlaps.
ALI BAKR
Mark Downlap (Lower Boundaries)
ALI BAKR
Categories
Seismic stratigraphy is divided into two main categories:
• Reflection- character analysis
• Seismic facies analysis
ALI BAKR
Categories- Seismic Facies Analysis
Why Seismic facies analysis
• Estimating deposition environment using the

character of the seismic reflections.
• Understand depositional history.

•Locate and predict potential hydrocarbon reservoir
and stratigraphic traps.
ALI BAKR
Categories-Seismic Facies Analysis
Seismic facies
It is the group of reflections bounded by top and base boundaries.
Seismic parameters used for facies detection are
1)-Reflection configuration
2)-Reflection amplitude
3)-Frequency
4)-Continuity
5)-Interval velocity
ALI BAKR
Facies Parameters Geologic Interpretation
1- Reflection Configuration •Bedding patterns
a) Internal config forms •Depositional processes
b) External config forms
•Fluid contacts
2- Reflection Continuity •Bedding continuity
•Depositional processes
3- Reflection Amplitude •AI contrast

•Bed thickness (tuning)
•Fluid content
4- Reflection Frequency •Bed thickness

•Fluid content
5- Interval Velocity •Lithology •estimation

•Porosity estimation
•Fluid content
•Pressure
ALI BAKR
1- Reflection Configuration
Internal & External Forms Configurations
The overall geometry of a stratigraphic, or seismic unit, consists of the internal form
and the external reflection configuration of the unit. Both must be described to
understand the geometric interrelation and depositional setting of the units.
•Internal Forms of Reflection Configuration (Filling pattern)

1-Onlap
2-Prograding
3-Mounded onlap
4-Divergent
5-Complex
6-Chaotic
ALI BAKR
Internal Reflection Configuration (Filling Pattern)
Onlap Prograding Mounded onlap
Higher-energy fill
Low-energy filling of erosional Low-energy filling of
in at least two stages.
channel erosional channel
Divergent Complex Chaotic
Compactable (shale-prone) Sediment transport over the edge of the Very high-energy fill,
low-energy sediments channel or along channel at a bend. possibly sand-prone.
ALI BAKR
Onlap Divergent
Mounded onlap
Chaotic
Prograding
Complex
ALI BAKR
Mounded onlap
Apparent Dip
relation to the
channel
ALI BAKR
Internal & External Forms Configurations
The overall geometry of a stratigraphic, or seismic unit, consists of the internal
form and the external reflection configuration of the unit. Both must be described
to understand the geometric interrelation and depositional setting of the units.
•Internal Forms of Reflection Configuration (Filling pattern)

1-Onlap
2-Prograding
3-Mounded onlap
4-Divergent
5-Complex
6-Chaotic
ALI BAKR
Prograding Pattern types
Oblique Oblique
Sigmoid
Tangential Parallel
Hummocky Clinoforms
Complex Sigmoid-Oblique
Shingled
ALI BAKR
External Reflection Configuration
sheet drape wedge bank lens
mound front slope fill channel fill

fan
Trough fill
Basin fill
ALI BAKR
External forms of reflection configuration
Mound
ALI BAKR
Trough Fill
Seismic example illustrating

the complicated stratigraphy
of a submarine slope valley
fill with adjacent levee
deposits. Image taken from
Mayall et al., 2006.
ALI BAKR
Front Slop Fill
ALI BAKR
Basin Fill
This 2D seismic line (BGS1993_02_C) is aligned NW-SE across the Hatton Basin. Buried volcanic
escarpments are imaged on both margins of the basin. Each has a relief of c. 1 second TWT. The escarpments
are buried beneath the Tertiary sedimentary fill of the Hatton Basin, which thins towards the basin
margins, onlapping the flanks.
ALI BAKR
Fan
ALI BAKR
Channel fill
2.1
2.2
---684m--
W E
ALI BAKR
A: Braided (low sinuosity, multi-channel stream)

B: Meandering (high sinuosity, single channel stream)
C: Straight (low sinuosity, single channel stream)
ALI BAKR
Channel fill
ALI BAKR
Incised Valley System
ALI BAKR
Seismic Facies Analysis
Submarine Channel
S SW NE NE
W
2.5
SW
2.75 0 2.5 km
Deposition occurs on inner
bends (point bars) and
erosion on outer bends.
Cross-over reaches between
bends are largely area of
sediment transfer
High
Low
Pliocene submarine channel-Nile Delta
ALI BAKR
Incised Valley System
5 km
Incised Canyons sourcing sediment down slope Off shore Mediterranean

ALI BAKR
Mark Incised Valley System
ALI BAKR
Lens
ALI BAKR
Bank
ALI BAKR
Drape
ALI BAKR
2- Reflection continuity:
• Bedding continuity
• Depositional processes
High Continuity
(continuous strata deposited in
widespread and uniform
environment, (marine
conditions)
Difference in
continuity du to
different shooting
parameters
Low Continuity
(sediments deposited with
variable energy (by fluvial-
Alluvial currents)
ALI BAKR
3- Amplitude
Amplitude is the height of
reflection peak and it dependent
on the reflection coefficient.
High amplitude
•Vertical change in amplitude can Low amplitude
be used to locate unconformities.
•Lateral change can be used to help

distinguish seismic facies.
•Lateral changes in amplitude can

help delineate the edges of bright
spots
ALI BAKR
4- Frequency (Spacing) High frequency-small spacing
It describes the number of reflections

per unit time .
• It is a function of both frequency of

seismic signal and interference effects.
•Vertical change in spacing can be used

to locate boundaries between
depositional sequences.
•Lateral change can be used to infer

facie
Low frequency-long spacing

ALI BAKR
5- Interval velocity:
Push down
Estimation of lithology
Estimation of porosity
Fluid content
V1
V2 V2
Velocity Anomaly - pull down

V2 V1
V1 < V2
V2 Velocity: V=(/c)4 Push down (velocity sag) due
to gas accumulation
ALI BAKR
Fluid content
ALI BAKR
Fluid content
ALI BAKR
Fluid content
ALI BAKR
5- Interval velocity: Push down Gas Chimney

Sea
Floor
Plio-
Pleistocene
Sea floor turbidities
~ 100 ms
Top Reservoir
(= Top A)
ALI BAKR
Gas chimney emanating from sinkhole;

amplitude reduction and structural / gas sag
5-Interval velocity:
Fluid content
Pull up & Pull down
V2 V1
V2
On this seismic line from offshore Angola, the pull-down of
the yellow marker (bottom of the evaporitic interval) is
Velocity Anomaly - pull down induced by the lateral change of the interval-velocity created
V1 < V2 by the normal fault which limits a Upper Tertiary depocenter.
Indeed, such a fault put limestones (upthrown block) and
Velocity: V=(/c)4 shales (downthrown block in juxtaposition.
ALI BAKR
V1
V2 V2
Velocity Anomaly - pull up

V1 < V2
Velocity: V=(/c)4
On this reef geological model, above a planar limestone sole (light blue), a reef with a compressional wave
velocity of 5490 m/s, is laterally bounded by shaly sediments (yellow) with a much lower velocity (3660 m/s),
which are overlain by even slower sediments (brown interval, 3050 m/s). The seismic answer of such a model is
roughly depicted on the right. The horizon associated with the bottom of the reef shows a significant pull-up.
ALI BAKR
V1
V2 V2
Velocity Anomaly - pull up
Palaeozoic carbonate reef build-ups (Barents Sea)
ALI BAKR
PSDM Migration No pull up Time Migration- pull up anomaly from reef
ALI BAKR
sheet
prograding
parallel, even,
high amplitude wedge
parallel, discontinuous,
sheet low amplitude
subparallel
front
slope
fill
chaotic
prograding
mound
ALI BAKR
7- 4D
ALI BAKR
What is 4D Seismic?
• Is the analysis of differences found in seismic surveys repeated in

an area where substantial changes in the subsurface have
occurred, due to production processes
– Qualitative
– Quantitative
• Provides information with lateral continuity that provides a

VISION of actual changes in the reservoir
– Fluid substitution
– Temperature
– …
ALI BAKR
4D Seismic - the Concept
• Also known as Seismic Reservoir Monitoring or Time-Lapse

Seismic
• Consists of 3D seismic surveys, repeated after intervals of
substantial production
• Successive surveys analysed for differences
• Observes fluid changes in the reservoir
• Available between & beyond the wells
ALI BAKR
Classification of Gullfaks data
1985 1995 Difference
SHCindicator No change Large change

0 1
34 well locations selected; additional 600 million bbl producible reserves
found as result of 4D
ALI BAKR
Continual Improvement
Foinaven Data, Norwegian Sea
W E
1993
93 reprocessed 95
ALI BAKR Flat Spot 95 towed

Pioneer Examples: Duri Field
•Seismic image of DURI field, where

effects of steam injection are easily
visualized in the seismic data
•D. Lumley, 1995
ALI BAKR
4D Interpretation Workflows
• Fluid substitution modelling

• Seismic repeatability assessment
• Seismic interpretation
• Seismic attribute extraction
• Classification (Inversion)
• Reservoir optimisation
ALI BAKR
4D Workflow
Fluid
substitution,
AVO Inversion-
modelling Interpretation
Classification
Seismic Seismic attribute

repeatability extraction
assessment,
Reservoir
wavelet, etc..
optimisation
ALI BAKR
Fluid Substitution
Synthetic Response to Change in Rock Physics
•• Change
Change ofof physical
parameters
physical
parameters
•• TTdependence
dependence
•• Fluid
Fluid factor
factorisis very
very
important
important
TEMPERATURA 25A 7A 1A 3A 4A 8A 10A

24,00
3,10 2,92 2,65 2,67 3,01 2,81 2,84 2,81
40,00 2,74 2,54 2,56 2,87 2,68 2,64 2,68
60,00
80,00
2,90
V 2,52
2,36
2,38
2,22
2,40
2,20
2,70
2,60
LS-2203
2,44
2,31
2,46
2,27
2,53
2,42
Serie1
100,00 2,27 2,08 2,11 2,50 2,17 2,15 2,32
125,00 2,17 1,99 2,02 2,41 2,06 2,05 2,19 Serie2
2,70
150,00 2,08 1,91 1,95 2,30 1,98 1,97 2,11 Serie3
Serie4
Serie5
2,50
Serie6
Serie7
2,30 Serie8
Serie9
Serie10
2,10 Serie11
ALI BAKR
© NExT all rights reserved
1,90
1,70
24,00
23
28 % 40,00 60,00 80,00 100,00
T
125,00 150,00
Serie12
Serie13
4D (Time-Lapse) Seismic
Gullfaks Field, North Sea
Mapping fluid movements and identifying unswept hydrocarbons
1989 1996 D
No change Large change

0 SHC indicator 1
ALI BAKR
Time Lapse Seismic
Sleipner CO2 Storage
1994 1999 2001

ALI BAKR Monitoring of C02 injection in aquifer
Data courtesy of Statoil
Time Lapse Seismic
Sleipner CO2 Storage
Seismic 1999 Seismic 2002
Amplitude difference and vertical time shift due to cumulated gas effect
conduct to erroneous 4D effect if not compensated
ALI BAKR
Data courtesy of Statoil
4D Summary
• 4D seismic provide important information for decision making analysis

in reservoir management
• Tailor made interpretation tools and workflows for 4D analysis
• Demonstrated the use of qualitative or semi-quantitative 4D analysis
for updating reservoir models
• Seismic to Simulation and Simulation to Seismic (S2S) are established
workflows
• Beyond qualitative interpretation, the link between reservoir
engineering and geophysics via rock physics enables quantitative 4D
analysis for reservoir management
ALI BAKR
What is a Neural Network?
Neural Networks:
• recognize ill-defined patterns without an explicit set of rules
• may adaptively infer heuristic knowledge from sample data
• unlike statistical estimators, they estimate a function without a
mathematical model of how outputs depend upon inputs
• they are model free estimators, they “learn from experience” with
numerical and , sometimes, linguistic sample data
• like brains, they recognize patterns we can not define, or what is
called recognition without definition
ALI BAKR
OGCI - SER - Neural 460
Networks and Seismic Facies -
Stratigraphic Interpretation
Seismic Facies Analysis using NNT: What Is It ?
Seismic Facies: The description and geologic interpretation of seismic

reflection patterns including configurations, (continuous, sigmoidal, etc.),
frequency, amplitude, and continuity.
Neural Network Technology (NNT): The ability to analyze and classify

trace shapes using a discriminating process.
Seismic Facies Map: This is a similarity map of actual traces to a set

of model traces that represents the diversity of various trace shapes
present in an interval.
ALI BAKR
Example for using NNT- Texas Ranch 3D
Well A
• 3D Survey - DeWitt Co., Texas (~0.1
MMCFD)
Well B
360 inlines - 382 crosslines (~1
MMCFD)
82.5’x82.5’ bin spacing (34 sq.miles)
4 seconds of data @ 4 msec
• Well Data W E
1
mil
S e
Well B 1
Two wells drilled in main channel SW mil NE
e
Well A - 15ft wet sand (“fizzy” water)
Well B - 30ft gas sand
ALI BAKR
The Play: Frio Channel Sandstones
“Gas production comes from Oligocene Frio sandstones

described as fluvial channel fills, point bars, and splay deposits
deposited in a plain mudstone”.
Well A Well B
Random Line
Reference
Horizon
Frio
Channel
ALI BAKR
Mixed map: Time (in color) and amplitude (in B&W)
• Horizon Attributes
Time Horizon Map combined A

with seismic amplitude at
reference horizon.
B
Note Channel systems.
Stratigraphic play with

several braided fluvial
systems with bright spots.
… structure-independent.
ALI BAKR
• Time Slice
Taken at 824 msec. A
Main Channel clearly

identified by bright spots. B
Is there a break in the

channel?
Why are the wells different?
ALI BAKR
A
• Horizon Slice
Parallel to Reference
Horizon - 92 msec below. B
Continuous channel now

clearly seen.
Still cannot adequately

explain differences at
wells.
ALI BAKR
Seismic Facies Analysis using NNT: What Is It ?
Seismic Facies: The description and geologic interpretation of seismic

reflection patterns including configurations, (continuous, sigmoidal, etc.),
frequency, amplitude, and continuity.
Neural Network Technology (NNT): The ability to analyze and classify

trace shapes using a discriminating process.
Seismic Facies Map: This is a similarity map of actual traces to a set

of model traces that represents the diversity of various trace shapes
present in an interval.
ALI BAKR
Stratigraphic Interpretation Part I
A
• Unsupervised
Regional Seismic
B
Facies Analysis
Horizon slices indicate vertical

channel extent of approx. 40 msec.
Seismic Facies map of entire area

over the 40-msec interval and 15
model traces.
Channel system characterized by

model traces 1,2, and 3.
ALI BAKR
• Conventional Amplitude
B
Vs. Seismic Facies Approach
The seismic facies map is very…

colorful, but we still cannot
differentiate between the two
wells.
A
Why use seismic facies technology B

if it provides the same results as an
amplitude-based approach ?
ALI BAKR
• Unsupervised
Channel Seismic
Facies Analysis
A
Seismic facies map over the

B
channel system shows a trace
shape difference between the A
and B wells
What is the meaning of this

trace shape variation ?
Lithology ?
Porosity ?
Fluid content ?
ALI BAKR
Petro-Acoustic Modeling
• Modeling at Well A Well A Well B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Input is well logs, seismic

facies model trace, and
seismic traces.
Synthetic Seismogram
generated and calibrated to
seismic traces.
Model now modified with

properties observed at Well
B (30-ft sand). Trace shape
change replicates variation
between A and B.
Red=Sonic
Blue=Density
ALI BAKR
Stratigraphic Interpretation Part II
• 3D Model-Based
Propagation of the A
Main Channel
Time map of channel

horizon generated using
seismic character at wells
A and B.
Note: Well A structurally

higher than well B in the B
time domain.
ALI BAKR
A
• Supervised Seismic
Facies Analysis
“Focused” interpretation, based on

petro-Acoustic modeling results and
areal isolation of channel system. B
Model indicates that interval affected

by sand property changes is wider -
B A
increase to 72 msec (12 model classes).
Note difference in trace shape at wells.
ALI BAKR
Random line through A B

wells.
BEFORE shows
unsupervised seismic
facies (similar at
wells).
BEFORE
AFTER shows
supervised seismic AFTER
facies (different at
wells).
ALI BAKR
Final Seismic Facies Map of

channel system (in color), mixed A
with average amplitude (in B&W)
over same interval.
B
Note channel to south of Well B.
ALI BAKR
Neural Networks Consist of:
• numerous, simple processing units or “neurons” that we can

globally program for computation.
• They can be programmed or trained to store, recognize, and
associatively retrieve patterns or database entries to solve
combinatorial optimization problems, to filter noise from
measurement data, to control ill-defined problems - to
estimate sampled functions when we do not know the form of
the functions
• artificial neural systems may contain millions of nonlinear
neurons and interconnecting synapses and future systems
may contain billions of real or virtual model neurons
ALI BAKR
476
Natural Fracture Classification
(A Genetic Classification)
• Tectonic Fractures
– Fold-related, Fault-related
• Regional Fractures
– Joints, Cleat
• Contractional Fractures
– Chickenwire, Diagenesis-related, Columnar Joints
• Surface-related & Induced
– Unloading, Spall, Weathering
ALI BAKR
ALI BAKR
Fractures Surrounding a Normal
Fault in Miocene Ss
East West
Western Sinai,
Hangingwall Egypt
S1
S3
S3
10 ft
Footwall
ALI BAKR
Fractures Around a Normal Fault
Clastics, Brunei
1 ft
ALI BAKR
Variations in Fracture Intensity Associated with
Faults are Due To:
1. Pre-Slip Effects
• Fracture zone preparing the rock mass for fault slip (halo zone).
• Precedes propagating fault.
• Interactions between propagating fault tips and halos.
2. Effects Occurring During Slip
• More fracturing as “hanging wall” moves over an irregular fault
surface.
• Intense deformation occurs at the slip surface leading to a
“damage zone”.
3. Post-Slip Effects
• The presence of faults can warp today’s reservoir stress state
giving local changes in fracture permeability.
• More fractures could be created if the faults are reactivated &/or
inversion takes place (local fracture overprinting).
ALI BAKR
R.A. Nelson 9/02

Process zone fracturing surrounding a Normal Fault
kmax
? Volume of rock
fractured prior to
through-going fault
slip
kmin
Damage zone is usually

low in permeability.
Background Effective process zone is
fractures related Damage Zone (c. a few the zone that is
fractures due to feet) significantly greater than
normalNot to scale
stress state. Effective Process Zone (a few hundred feet) matrix flow.
ALI BAKR
Pre-Slip Fracturing Forming the Process Zone
Fracture Swarm
Background
Fracturing
ALI BAKR
Onset of Fault Slip: Propagating Slip Through
Process Zone
Extending
Process Zone
Process
Zone
Propagating Slip
Surface
ALI BAKR
Fault Propagation Interaction in 3-D Creating
New Fractures
Interacting Faults
ALI BAKR
Slip-Related Effects:
Fracturing Related to Fault Slip
• Additional fractures are generated as the hanging wall displaces

over topography of the fault surface.
• Once generated at the asperity these fracture zones are translated

down the slip direction along the fault.
• If fault slip is small, little slip-related fracturing will take place.
• Curvature maps of the fault surface can be used as a guide for

this prediction.
• Accurate fault plane mapping is critical in predicting these zones

of kinematic fracturing.
ALI BAKR
R.A. Nelson 9/02

Slip-Related Fracturing in Map View
Outside bend Inside bend
High extensional strain High compressional strain
ALI BAKR
Local Stress Variations at Fault Steps & Bends
Displacement
transfer
Left-Stepping
Left-Lateral
Right-
Stepping
ALI BAKR
Schematic Map View of an Inversion Fault
with Changes in Fault Strike
Zone of maximum local

compressional strain
Inversion-related
compression direction
ALI BAKR
Schematic Map View of an Inversion Fault with
Changes in Fault Strike
Zone of maximum
local extensional
strain
ALI BAKR
Schematic View of Fracture Systems Associated with Secondary
Faults Along Inversion Faults with and without Strike-slip
Major Inversion Major Inversion

Fault Fault
Secondary
Antithetic Faults Secondary Faults in a
strike-slip scenario
No Strike-slip With Strike-slip
ALI BAKR
Kinematic Fracture Zones Associated with
Fault Topography in Cross Section View
Normal Fault With Dip

Changes in Cross Section
Extension Zone
Fracturing
Compression Zone
Fracturing
ALI BAKR
Schematic Cross Section of an Inversion Fault
with Changes on Fault Dip
Zone of local
compressional strain
Zone of local
extensional strain
Only reverse
fault fracture
Post-rift sets
Overprinted normal Syn-rift

& reverse fault
fracture sets?
Basement
ALI BAKR
Local Fracturing Due to Slip on an Irregular fault
Surface
Compression Zone
Fracturing
Extension Zone
Fracturing
ALI BAKR
Slip-Related Effects:
Deformation at the Slip Surface
•Once through-going fault slip occurs, the zone immediately

surrounding the slip surface can experience intense
deformation. (“Damage Zone”)
•This deformation is quite variable and can range from purely
ductile to purely brittle.
•There is a relationship between the properties of this zone
and amount of slip.
•The width of these zones can be variable between faults and
along faults but range generally between 1 to 10 m.
•The width and properties of these zones are difficult to
predict or image in the subsurface. Observational data based
on cores leads to the best predictions.
ALI BAKR
R.A. Nelson 9/02
Fracture Process Zone Surrounding a Planar
Normal Fault
ALI BAKR
Normal Fault Reactivated as a Reverse Fault
Overprinting
ALI BAKR
Mapping Fault Zone Properties
Geometry, Width and Intensity
1. Gather exploration & show history
2. Compile mechanical, petrophysical & production characteristics of
section
3. Acquire and map surface & subsurface fracture distributions
4. Determine fracture origin and make mechanical predictions of
orientation & intensity
5. Determine in situ reservoir stress directions and magnitudes
6. Constrain subsurface fracture intensity, width, & zone widths and
lengths from image logs, core, and geophysical Attributes
7. Predict fracture distribution “sweet spots” from the above
8. Model reservoir volumes of the fracture system
9. High-grade and prioritize potential locations via checklist
10. Select well paths to optimize fracture intercept rate and choose
optimum completion technique
ALI BAKR
Fold-Related Fractures
Phosphoria Ls, Black Canyon Anti., WY
ALI BAKR
Fold-Related Fractures
Paleozoic Carbonate, W. Wyoming Thrust Belt

ALI BAKR

Seis-Interp - ALxUNIV - PPTX (Repaired)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Seis-Interp - ALxUNIV - PPTX (Repaired)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SEISMIC INTERPRETATION

Dr. ALI BAKR

7. 4D seismic (Time Laps)

• Seismic interpretation and subsurface mapping are key skills that

• This teaching resource introduces the basic principles of seismic

• The resource dovetails with the A level Geology specifications

Seismic acquisition offshore

• An air gun towed behind the survey

• Wiggle trace to CDP gather

Change in lithology from mud to sand so sound

Data for one point from different signals to different receivers

energy source signal receiver

Understanding the data

• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

Common Depth Points Common midpoint above CDP

Sound sources Sound receivers

Two way time (TWT) TWT

Time versus depth

• Two way time (TWT) does

0.58 sec. TWT

0.58 sec 926 926 m

• Check line scale and orientation.

• Distinguish the major reflectors and geometries of seismic

• Some energy will be reflected, some will be

• Not all changes in lithology associated with

• Different combinations of layers lithologies can

• Seismic data image interfaces – we observe

Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

Each RC gives rise to a separate reflection event, the amplitude of

Top & Base Top & Base

Impedance High Frequency Low Frequency

Seismic ability to define top

In general, reflections are composites of thin layer effects.

Resolution depends on:

Frequency content in seismic data.

The interval velocity at the objective level

f is the dominant frequency in Hz

• Most of the energy in a seismic wavelet is contained in a band of

Calculate wavelengths for the following cases:

Vertical Resolution – Example (‘HFI’ Processing from Geotrace)

• Vertical Resolution is the ability to detect and map thin events

• It is determined by the average frequency and bandwidth of the

• We can typically resolve down to ¼ wavelength

• Wavelength is determined by frequency and velocity:

Travel Time (2 way) in msec

Impedance = Velocity * Density

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick

Increase in Impedance Decrease in Impedance

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

Parasequence Sets The big advantage of

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

Reflection Ideal Seismic Typical Seismic

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

F W Schroeder L 6 – Seismic Reflections

• Not Causal (not real, since

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics