Seismic

Interpretation
Seismic Interpretation and
Subsurface Mapping

1. Introduction
2. Basic principles
3. Eakring exercise
4. Additional information

2
1. Introduction

• Seismic interpretation and subsurface mapping

are key skills that are used commonly in the oil
industry

• This teaching resource introduces the basic

principles of seismic interpretation and then, if
time permits, they can be applied in a practical
exercise

• The resource dovetails with the A level Geology

specifications
3
2. Basic principles

• Seismic acquisition
• Seismic processing
• Understanding the data
• Seismic interpretation

4
Seismic acquisition offshore

• An air gun towed behind the

survey ship transmits sound
waves through the water
column and into the subsurface
• Changes in rock type or fluid
content reflect the sound
waves towards the surface
• Receivers towed behind the
vessel record how long it takes
for the sound waves to return
to the surface
• Sound waves reflected by
different boundaries arrive at
different times.
• The same principles apply to
onshore acquisition
5
Seismic acquisition onshore (1)
• Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a
“thumper” truck. Geophones arrayed in a line behind the truck
record the returning seismic signal.

Vibrator
Geophones (source)
(receivers)
Sub-horizontal
beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds

6
Seismic acquisition onshore (2)
• Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the
subsurface geology to be interpreted.

Lithology change
Angular
unconformity
Lithology change

7
Seismic processing

• Wiggle trace to CDP gather

• Normal move out correction
• Stacking
• What is a reflector?

8
Wiggle trace to CDP gather

Wiggle CDP
traces gather

Graphs of intensity of sound as Graphs of intensity for one

received by the recorders location collected into groups
and shown in a sequence. 9
Normal move out correction
CMP
Sound sources Sound receivers
S1 S2 S3 R3 R2 R1

1 2

Change in lithology from mud to sand

so sound is reflected back to surface
CDP

Data for one point from different

signals to different receivers
Original corrected
1. More time needed to reach distant CDP for normal
receivers so the data look like a curve. gather … move out
2. Correcting for normal move out
restores the curve to a near horizontal 10
display.
Stacking

First, gather sound data for Next, take all the sound Finally, place stacks for
one location and correct for traces for that one place adjacent locations side
delayed arrival (normal move and stack them on top of by side to produce a
out) each other seismic line 11
What is a reflector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary
between beds with different
properties. There may be a
change of lithology or fluid fill
from Bed 1 to Bed 2. These
property changes cause some
sound waves to be reflected
towards the surface.
There are many
reflectors on a seismic
section. Major changes in
properties usually produce
strong, continuous
reflectors as shown by
the arrow.

energy signal
source receiver

Bed 1
lower velocity
higher velocity

Bed 2

12
Understanding the data

• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

• Floating datum
• Two way time (TWT)
• Time versus depth

13
Common Depth Points

Common midpoint
above CDP

Sound sources Sound receivers

CDPs are defined as S1 S2 S3 R3 R2 R1
‘the common reflecting
point at depth on a
reflector or the
halfway point when a
wave travels from a
source to a reflector Change in lithology =
to a receiver’.
reflecting horizon

Common reflecting point or

common depth point (CDP)

14
Floating datum

The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording
surface and the zero line (generally sea level). This travel time depends
on rock type, how weathered the rock is, and other factors.

The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface
along which the seismic data were acquired.
15
Two way time (TWT)

Two way time (TWT) TWT

indicates the time surface
required for the seismic 0
wave to travel from a
source to some point 0.25 seconds
0.25 seconds
below the surface and
back up to a receiver.
0.5

In this example the

TWT is 0.5 seconds.
seconds

16
Time versus depth
• Two way time (TWT) does not equate directly to depth
• Depth of a specific reflector can be determined using boreholes
• For example, 926 m depth = 0.58 sec. TWT

288

0.58 sec 926 926 m

1865
17
m
Seismic interpretation

• Check line scale and orientation.

• Work from the top of the section, where

clarity is usually best, towards the bottom.

• Distinguish the major reflectors and

geometries of seismic sequences.

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Scale and orientation

• Use the scale bar to

estimate the length of
the line
• Use CDPs to check the
orientation of the line on
the accompanying map
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Top down approach
• Start at the top of the section, where definition is usually best
• Work down the section toward the zone where the signal to
noise ratio is reduced and the reflector definition is less clear

first

second

third

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Reflector character and geometry

Continuous
reflector
truncating
short ones
Next
continuous
reflector

Reflectors
onlapping
continuous
one

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3. Eakring exercise
This exercise has been developed to illustrate, in practice, how subsurface
information can be integrated and used to predict where an oilfield may
occur. It builds on the principles outlined in the PowerPoint presentation
and can be completed by individuals or small teams according to the time
available or their level of enthusiasm.

The seismic lines and base map can be obtained from Dorothy Satterfield
(d.satterfield@derby.ac.uk) in a format that is suitable for photocopying on
A3 paper. You will also receive a CD that contains a copy of the entire
PowerPoint presentation that you can customise as you wish. This is free!

The aim is to interpret the seismic data and then produce a map that shows
the subsurface structure in the region of the Eakring oil field. Oil fields
typically form in simple dome-like structures in the subsurface. The
structure must enclose porous and permeable rocks that are capable of
containing oil and in this example there are a number of potential reservoirs
developed in the Namurian and Westphalian (Carboniferous) sandstones. Oil
is prevented from leaking to the surface by overlying mudstones and coals
which are impermeable.
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Background information

Oil exploration in the East

Midlands has a long history.

Eakring and the

neighbouring Dukes Wood
oil fields were discovered
in the 1930s. Most oil wells
at Dukes Wood date from
World War II, though this
‘nodding donkey’ or oil pump
may be a little younger.

Production at Eakring and

Dukes Wood was important
to the war effort in
Britain. Oil production at
Dukes Wood stopped in
1966, but it continued in
Eakring until 2003. 23
Project data
Map showing the
location of the 5
seismic lines

The seismic data

were acquired in 1984
(hence the prefix “84”
to each line number)

Notice also the

Eakring Village well
and the location of oil
fields in the area

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Understanding the data (1)

CDPs are typically marked at intervals along the top of

seismic lines and they are regularly spaced to form a
horizontal scale. Here, 80 CDPs represent about 1
kilometre (km).

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Understanding the data (2)

Gaps in land seismic

data are due to
omissions where data
could not be acquired

For example, it is
not always possible
to transmit the
signal above pipes,
in sensitive areas
and above buildings

Signals from
farther away will
provide
information for
deeper horizons 26
Understanding the data (3)

Two way time (TWT) is

recorded on the vertical axis
of the seismic line in 0.0 seconds or
fractions of a second.
Sometimes it is more sea level
convenient to express time
as milliseconds.

0.5 seconds or
TWT is the time required
500 milliseconds
for the seismic wave to
travel from the source to
some point below the surface
and back up to the receiver.
1.0 seconds or
1000 milliseconds 27
Correlating well and seismic data

• Use the Eakring Village well, which is located near

the intersection of lines 69 and 70, to tie seismic
reflectors to known geological horizons identified in
the well:

- Base Permian at 150 milliseconds

- Blackshale Coal at 240 milliseconds
- Near Top Dinantian at 500 milliseconds

• The potential reservoirs are Namurian and

Westphalian (Upper Carboniferous) sandstones that
occur below the Blackshale Coal and above the Near
Top Dinantian (Lower Carboniferous) horizon
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Well tie to seismic
EakringVillage
Eakring Village
(projected)
(projected)

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

Base Permian 150 ms

0.1 Base Permian 150 ms

0.2

0.3

Potential
Blackshale Coal
0.4 reservoir
Blackshale
240 ms Coal
interval
240 ms
0.5
Two Way Time (TWT) in Seconds

Near Top
Dinantian
500 ms

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1.0
Correlating reflectors

Starting at the top of the section, interpret the Base Permian

unconformity away from the well on line 69 and correlate it with
intersecting lines 70 and 71.

Continue this process around the ‘loops’ formed by lines 72 and 73,
ensuring that your interpretation is consistent and geologically
reasonable.

Repeat this process for the Blackshale Coal and Near Top
Dinantian reflectors, accepting that in some areas the data quality
is quite poor and a ‘best-guess’ interpretation is necessary.

It may be helpful to annotate the lines to highlight where possible

faults disrupt the gentle dip of the Blackshale Coal.

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Correlating the Base Permian unconformity
Eakring Village (projected)

Start by interpreting the Base Permian unconformity away from the well
on line 69.
Next fold line 70 at the intersection with line 69 and match them up. Find
and interpret the Base Permian unconformity.
Finally, unfold line 70 and finish the interpretation. 31
Plotting the Base Permian data

Determine the time values (in milliseconds)

for the Base Permian at an appropriate CDP
interval and plot those values on the map.
For example, on line 69 you could start by
160 plotting values at CDP 500, 600, 700, 800
and so on.
ms

150
ms

150
ms

150
ms

Base Permian unconformity

150 150 150 160

ms ms ms ms

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Mapping the Blackshale Coal
• Because the potential reservoir interval is poorly imaged (the
reflectors are weak and discontinuous) the closest and most
prominent reflector to map is the overlying Blackshale Coal.

• Determine the time value (in milliseconds) for the Blackshale Coal at
an appropriate CDP interval and plot that value on the map. For
example, on line 69 you could start by plotting values at CDP 500,
600, 700, 800 and so on. In some areas it may be necessary to infill
with data at a finer scale.

• Contour these values to make a time map. Take particular care to

recognise where faults may complicate the interpretation.

• Normally, a time map is converted into a depth map using velocity

functions, but for the purpose of this exercise the time/depth pairings
at the top of each seismic line give an adequate representation of
the depth to a given horizon.

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Plotting data for the Blackshale Coal

In some cases it may be easier to choose

convenient time values for contouring (say,
250 ms, 300 ms, 350 ms, etc.) and plot
these against the appropriate CDPs.

250

250

250
250
280

210
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Contouring the data

Use the time values to produce

contours.

Label them in milliseconds to

create a subsurface time
structure map.
300

250

250
250

300
210

250
300

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Interpreting the map

1. What does the map show?

2. Using the time/depth pairings, what is the approximate depth in

metres to the top of the potential reservoir interval at the crest of the
mapped structure?

To answer this, plot the time/depth pairings on a graph, insert a line

of best fit and use it to derive the approximate depth of the reservoir
interval.

3. Where would you locate additional seismic data to confirm the size
and shape of the potential structural trap that you have mapped?

36
4. Additional information

• Specimen ‘answers’
• Extension activities
• Web-based resources
• Further reading
• Contact us
• Acknowledgements

37
Specimen ‘answers’
1. The Blackshale Coal dips gently towards the NE and reaches a high point
in the vicinity of the intersection of lines 69 and 70. Faults can be
extrapolated in a variety of ways in the SW part of the map to create a
potential trap.

2. The crest of the potential structure as 2500

defined by the Blackshale Coal is at 210 2000

milliseconds (at CDP 540 on line 69), but

Depth (metres)
1500
the potential reservoir unit is at about
300 milliseconds. Inspection of the
1000

time/depth pairings in the area shows 500

that 300 milliseconds corresponds to 0

about 350 metres below surface. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
TWT (seconds)

3. The potential trap would need to be better defined by extending the

seismic lines in a southerly direction. The extent of the Eakring Field is
shown on the seismic line location map (Slide 24) and it is evidently an
elongate N-S structure, of which only the northernmost culmination is
defined in this exercise. 38
Extension activities

Individuals or groups with sufficient time and interest may

want to tackle one of the following activities:

• Research the economic and social impact of the wartime extraction

of oil from the East Midlands

• Analyse the similarities and differences between onshore and

offshore oil exploration in the UK

• Assess the remaining potential of onshore oil and gas in the UK

• Account for the differences between the small oil fields in the East
Midlands and the much larger accumulation at Wytch Farm in
Dorset

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Web-based resources (1)

• This website, developed by the University of Tromsø in Norway,

contains a number of modules that summarise key geological topics
through simple animated cartoons. In particular, the ‘Oil and Gas’
module provides useful background information for teachers and
students who may not be conversant with hydrocarbon geology.

http://www.ig.uit.no/webgeology/

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Web-based resources (2)

• Oil and Gas UK provides educational information on its website

including history of the North Sea and exploration and production
techniques.

http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/education/index.cfm

• More specifically, Oil and Gas UK, with the support of the Natural
History Museum, has produced online and paper versions of Britain's
Offshore Oil and Gas , which is an excellent introduction to the history,
science and technology of the UK oil industry.
http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/education/storyofoil/index.cfm

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Web-based resources (3)

• The UK Onshore Geophysical Library manages the archive and official

release of seismic data recorded over landward areas of the UK. One
of the Library's main objectives is to provide active support for
academia, and there is limited support for provision of data to
educational institutions.
http://www.ukogl.org.uk/

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Web-based resources (4)

• This report, produced by the British Geological Survey (BGS) on

behalf of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI),
provides a general synopsis of the petroleum systems of the
UK’s onshore basins

• It is a large (6MB) file that may take some time to open and
download

http://www.og.dti.gov.uk/UKpromote/geoscientific/
Onshore_petroleum_potential_2006.pdf

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Web-based resources (5)

• This website provides information about the Dukes Wood Oil

Museum and Nature Reserve, near Eakring. It is an interesting
place to visit because it combines both natural and industrial
history. School parties are welcome and the reserve is always
open, but access to the oil museum needs to be pre-arranged

http://www.dukeswoodoilmuseum.co.uk/

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Further reading

The Sedimentary Record of Sea-Level Change, edited by Angela L.

Coe, 2003. Co-published by The Open University and Cambridge
University Press, 288 pages.

A regional assessment of the intra-Carboniferous play of Northern

England, by Fraser, A. J. et al. in Classic Petroleum Provinces,
edited by Jim Brooks, 1990. Geological Society Special Publication
No. 50, pp.417-440.

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