BASICS OF SEISMIC PROPECTING

TECHNIQUES
 Seismic Energy
Depending upon wavelength / frequency, the
seismic spectrum is divided into three ranges :
 Infrasonic
 Audible
 Ultrasonic

Infrasonic range is further classified into:

• Earth oscillation
• Earthquake
• Nuclear explosion
• Crustal refraction studies
 Seismic Energy
Audible range :

• Conventional reflection & refraction seismic

• High resolution seismic
• Sparker profiling

Ultrasonic range :
• Sonic logging
 Wave Propagation
The velocity of the wave depends on the
elastic modulus and density of the medium

V= (E/ρ)1/2
where,
V = Velocity of the wave
E = Elastic modulus of the medium
ρ = Density of the medium
VP = velocity of P wave

VP = {(k+4 /3) /}1/2 VS = velocity of S wave

k = bulk modulus
VS = {/} 1/2
 = rigidity modulus
VP/ VS={(1-) / (0.5-)} ½  = Poisson’s ratio
 = density
 Seismic waves

• Compressional Waves
• Shear waves
• Rayleigh waves
• Love waves
 Compressional Waves
The particle motion is along the
direction of wave propagation

Vp = [(λ+2μ) /] 1/2 = [(K+(4/3)μ) / ρ]1/2

Where,
λ = Lame’s coefficient of the medium
μ = Rigidity Modulus of the medium
ρ = Density of the medium
 Shear waves
The particle motion is perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation
velocity,

Vs = (μ / ρ) ½

where,
μ = Rigidity Modulus of the medium
ρ = density of the medium
 Rayleigh Waves
• Travel along the free surface of a solid medium

• Particle motion in a vertical plane and retrograde

with respect to the direction of propagation

• Amplitude decreases exponentially with depth

• These waves constitute the principal component of

ground roll (Low
( velocity-Low frequency surface
waves)
 Love Waves
• These waves travel along the free surface of
a solid material

• The particle motion is horizontal and

transverse

• Since their motion is restricted to horizontal

motion, they are not recorded in P wave
prospecting
 Wave Speed
 Depends on the observation point, the material
is heterogeneous.

 Depends on the direction of travel, the medium

is anisotropic.

 anisotropy is common in sedimentary rocks due

to fine layering, fracturing.
 Wave Speed
• wave speed depends on wavelength, the medium is
dispersive, - Seismic surface wave (Rayleigh wave)

• wave speed depends on the amplitude of the wave, the

medium is non-linear.
• measurable effects at Sonic frequencies

Wave front, Rays and Principles

• The locus of all particles
of the medium which at
any instant are vibrating
in the same plane is
called the wave front
(A) in constant velocity media &
(B) when velocity varies
 Principles

• Huygen’s Principle

• Fermat ’s Principle

• Snell’s Law
 Huygen’s Principle

• A geometric construction to
determine the new position
of a wave front at any
instant

• The principle gives a

method
• to know-how the wave
propagates in the medium
Primary & secondary wavefront
 Fermat’s Principle

The actual path between two points taken by a

beam of light is the one which is traversed in the
least time.

Principle of least time

 Snell’s Law

The Law defines the geometry of the ray path in a

medium defined by

Sin i / Sin r = V1/ V2

 Phenomena associated with
Propagation of seismic waves

• Generation
• Transmission
• Absorption
• Attenuation
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Diffraction
Generation

(A)

(B)

(C)
Sound wave generation
 Transmission
Geometric Spreading

• Energy per unit area varies inversely as the

square of the distance from the source

• Hence, A  (1/r)
where, A is the amplitude of the signal
r is distance traveled

• This effect is termed as spherical spreading or

spherical divergence
Attenuation
• Attenuation is the process in which seismic wave
amplitude weakens with distance or time travelled

• Attenuation of the signal may be due to;

– Geometric spreading
– Absorption
– Scattering
– Mode conversion
– Short period multiple
 Absorption
• Loss of amplitude due to frictional dissipation of the energy
into heat and this loss is exponential with distance

• For a wave of frequency (f) that has been propagating (t)

seconds in an absorbing medium, the amplitude A (t) is
described by:

• A (t) = Ao* e - f t / Q = Ao e-at, where a =  f / Q

where, Ao is the amplitude at zero time,

Q is the seismic quality factor and is dimensionless
A is the damping factor in units of dB/s
 Reflection & Refraction
When a plane P wave strikes a boundary between two different
media, reflected and refracted waves are generated

V1

V2

R = Ar / Ai = (ρ2 V2 – ρ1 V1) / (ρ2 V2 + ρ1 V1)

where,
R = Reflection co-efficient
Ar = Amplitude of reflected wave
Ai = Amplitude of incident wave
ρ1, ρ2 are the respective densities of the medium
V1, V2 are the respective velocities of P waves in
two media
 Refraction
Snell’s Law :

Sin i/Sin r = V1/ V2

When r = 90º ,

Sin i = V1/ V2 ; i is called the critical angle and denoted by ic.

In this case refracted wave does not penetrate the medium but
travels along the interface

ic= Sin -1 (V1/ V2 )

Diffraction
• Whenever a wave encounters a
feature whose radius of curvature
is comparable to or smaller than
the wavelength, the energy is
diffracted rather than reflected or
refracted

• Seismic wavelengths are large

compared with geologic
dimensions, diffraction is an
process
 Application of Seismic Waves in Oil
Exploration

• Seismic exploration consists of generating

seismic waves and measuring the travel times
from the sources to a series of geophones

• travel times and velocity the paths of seismic

waves may be reconstructed
 CDP method
In Common Depth Point (CDP) technique, each subsurface
depth point is covered with different source to receiver
distances

COS- Common Off-Set

Reflection points for

Different gathers for horizontal interface Dipping Reflector
 Stages of Exploration

• Gravity + magnetic exploration methods are

useful to delineate the basin with a sub surface
profile

• 2D seismic reflection method is useful-To find

structures within the basins which are favorable
for hydrocarbon exploration.

• High resolution 2D seismic reflection method is

being used to map the structures
 Stages of Exploration

• 3D reflection methods - to delineate strati-structural features

and to understand reservoir characterization.

• 4D seismic - for identification of bypassed oil as well as

thermal front movement

• Multi-Component seismic exploration is effective

to detect the gas clouds, to identify the facies variation within

reservoir sequence and to understand fractures

 Seismic Events
Travel time curves helps in understanding and
discrimination of seismic events
Different kinds of events may be recognized by their travel
time characteristics, amplitude variations, and relationship
to related events
– Direct wave
– Head wave
– Surface wave
– Air wave
– Diffraction
– Reflection
– Ghost
– Multiples
 Reflection geometry and travel time curve for a horizontal
interface ΔT = T – T = √ (T + x / v )
x 0 0
2 2 2
- T0

A horizontal bed in the subsurface ΔT = Difference in travel time

appears on a seismic record as a
Hyperbolic Curve because of normal
move-out
between zero offset and far offset
trace
To = travel time at zero offset
x = Offset distance
v = the velocity of the medium

S X R

To

Reflection Geometry Travel time for horizontal reflector

 What do Seismic Reflections represent?

 Reflections are generated where there is a change in acoustic

impedance
• A change in velocity and/or density
• Changes in lithology or fluid type

• Lithology changes occur

• Across strata surfaces: from unconformities to bed
boundaries
• Laterally with changes in depositional environments / facies

• Seismic resolution is on the order of tens of meters

We will only resolve medium- to large-scale strata units
 Principles of reflection seismic method

On land surveying:- basic principles

seismic waves are refracted or reflected at
discontinuity surface as they travel downwards below
the surface

Elastic or seismic wave travel at known velocities as

Shale- 3.6Km/S
Sandstone- 4.2Km/S
Limestone- 5.0Km/S
 Geologic section & seismic section

• A geological section is drawn to scale on the basis of

depths measured down from the surface.

• Seismic sections are scaled in a vertical direction on

the basis of travel time of seismic waves.
 Parameters used in
seismic stratigraphic interpretation

1.Reflection configuration
2.Reflection continuity
3.Amplitude
4.Frequency
5.Interval velocity
6.External form
7.Association of seismic facies
 Seismic stratigraphic interpretation

Seismic facies parameters Geologic interpretation

Bedding patterns
Depositional processes
Reflection configuration
Erosion and paleo topography
Fluid contacts
Bedding continuity
Reflection continuity
Depositional processes
Velocity-density contrast
Reflection amplitude Bed spacing
Fluid content
Bed thickness
Reflection frequency
Fluid content
Estimation of lithology
Interval velocity Estimation of porosity
Fluid content
Gross depositional environment
External form and area: association of
Sediment source
seismic facies units
Geologic setting
 Reflection configuration
Refers to gross stratigraphic patterns identified on seismic
records
Four basic types:
1.Parallel patterns
2.Divergent patterns
3.Prograding patterns- Clinoform
4.Chaotic patterns

Difference in configuration depends upon

(a) Sediment supply
(b) Rate of subsidence
(c) Change in sea level, water energy
(d) Water depth
 Reflection Patterns
Stratified

Un-stratified
Simple Progradation
Complex
• Parallel
• Sub parallel • Sigmoid
• Oblique • Mounded
• Divergent
• Combination • Hummocky
• Shingled • Deformed

• Chaotic
• Reflection Free
Down cutting erosional truncation- where horizontal
strata terminate against an erosional surface.
Downcutting erosional truncation
Erosional truncation- where inclined strata terminate
against an erosional surface.
Down-cutting erosional truncation toplap
Onlap initial horizontal strata terminate
against an initially inclined surface
 Downlap- seismic reflection of inclined strata
terminate downdip against an inclined or horizontal
surface
 Reflection continuity

• Depends upon the continuity of density-velocity contrast

along bedding surfaces or unconformities

• Provides information about depositional process and environment.

Types-

1. On lap- base lap in which horizontal laps out against inclined

2.Toplap –layout at upper boundary of a depositional Sequence

3. Down lap -base lap in which inclined strata laps out down dip against an
inclined surface
 Interval (seismic wave) velocity
• Interval velocity refers to average velocity of seismic waves
b/w reflectors.

Affected by
Porosity –velocity increases with porosity decreases and
is calculated from signal travel time and reflection
amplitude.

Density

Pore fluid pressures

to predict lithology velocity. Information must be combined with other

seismic data to allow interpretation of depositional process
 Seismic sequence analysis

• Sequences are defined as stratigraphy units

separated by unconformities.

• In seismic stratigraphy analysis two kinds of

discontinuities are recognized:
– Erosion unconformity
– Down lap surfaces
 Patterns of reflection terminations along the
discontinuity surfaces:
• On lap and down lap occur above discontinuities
• Truncation, top lap, and apparent truncation occur
below discontinuities
 Seismic facies analysis
• A seismic facies unit is a mappable, aerially definable
Three-dimension Unit composed of seismic reflections
Whose characteristic reflection elements differ from
those of adjacent units.

• Procedure of interpreting seismic analysis

• Geometry of reflection and reflection terminations.

• Reflection Configuration (Parallel, sigmoid, divergent)

• 3-D form
Seismic facies patterns
The seismic section showing the extension of outcrop exposures of Albian-
Maastrichtian sections of Ariyalur – Pondicherry sub-basins of Cauvery
Basin. R. Venkatraman, 1989, ONGC Bulletin, v.24.no.1, pp.53-66)

)
 SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
&
SEISMOTECTONICS

Applications in Petroleum Exploration

• Seismic stratigraphy & seismo-tectonics approaches are
powerful interpretation tools for hydrocarbon exploration,
especially in initial stages.

• Both techniques analyzed together, provides insight to

evaluate likely petroleum systems of a basin in general, &
appraisal of prospect / plays for hydrocarbon, in specific.

– Basin evaluation
– Prospect appraisal
• Basin evaluation deals with identification of Petroleum
System’(s) in the basin.
•
• Petroleum system, a comprehensive term used for defining
geologic elements & processes responsible for hydrocarbon
accumulation.

– Source & generation potentials (Type & Maturity).

– Reservoir facies availability.
– Migration & Entrapment (Accumulation)
 1. Source & Generation Potentials

• Sediment thickness and burial

• Organic matter; type & quality (Kerogen)

• Geothermal conditions for maturity

Source & Generation Potentials

a. Sedimentary thickness & burial

– Thick fine grained organic rich sediments found on

continental shelves & slopes.
– High rate of sedimentation may dilute organic matter.
– Sub-aerial sediments may have organic matters
destroyed due to oxidation.
– Rapid burials generate anaerobic conditions.

•Seismic stratigraphy studies identify facies & depositional

environments, (e.g. low energy shale, rate of sedimentation &
subsidence).
Source & generation potentials

b. Organic Matters (Mostly Kerogen)

– Type I: From algal / organic matter enriched lipids.

– Type II: Related to marine organic matter in reducing
environment (an aerobic).
– Type III: Derived from terrestrial higher plants.
– Type I & II: For oil & gas & Type III for gas generation
only.
•Seismic stratigraphy analysis helps recognizing shore line
& slope & identifies non-marine, Paralic & neritic
depositional environments.
SOURCE & GENERATION POTENTIALS

c. Maturity
– During burial, heat & pressure breaks down kerogen:
• Diagenesis – source rock considered immature.
• Catagenesis–Oil & then gas formed with
increasing temp.
• Metagenesis–Dry gas generated (at greater
depths).

•Seismic stratigraphy & seismo-tectonic analysis helps

providing clues to burial history (Rate & time of
subsidence).
 Reservoir Facies

High energy reservoir facies with primary porosity found in

• Continental & delta environments
• Reefs & ‘y’ zone carbonates (grain stones) on platform
– slope transition.

Reservoirs with secondary porosities, such as, leaching,

channeling, vugs & fractures etc. Often associated with
paleo highs, unconformities & faults.

• Seismic sequence & facies analysis, complemented by

seismotectonic studies help evaluate reservoir facies.
Migration & Entrapment

– Primary migration: Transport of hydrocarbon through

capillaries & pores of source rock.
– Secondary migration: Movement of oil & gas through
carriers & reservoir rocks.
– Buoyancy, the driving force for secondary migration
under hydrostatic conditions.
– Unconformities & fault planes may be good carriers.
– Migration towards up-dip at time of expulsion (paleo-
dip).
Migration & Entrapment

Entrapment
– Needs an effective ‘Seal’ (Up dip, lateral & top).
– Seals generally impervious rocks & fault planes.
– Entrapment mechanism is about sealing of reservoirs to
from traps:

• Structural
• Stratigraphic
• Strati structural
 Migration & Entrapment

• Depositional history, the essential key to recognition of

environments likely to yield stratigraphic & strati-structural
traps.

• Seismo-tectonics & seismic stratigraphy studies help

evaluating migration, seals & entrapment (accumulation)
potential.
• Seismotectonics integrated with seismic Stratigraphy
key to basin evaluation for hydrocarbon potential.

• Understanding of tectonic architecture can lead to

similar known basins in the world for achieving better
evaluation by analogy
Prospect Appraisal

• Detailed geological analysis of critical parameters for

hydrocarbon accumulation.

• Techno economics & risk analysis for management

decisions to firm up drilling.