Basic Electrical Engineering

Unit-V
Tariff: The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.

Types of Tariff

There are several types of tariff. However, the following are the commonly used types of tariff :

Simple Tariff:
Definition: When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is known as simple tariff
(Uniform Rate Tariff).
 This is the most simplest of all tariff.
 In this type, the price charged per unit is constant.
 It means, the price will not vary with increase or decrease in number of units used.
Disadvantages:
 The cost per unit delivered is high.
 There is no discrimination among various types of consumers.

Flat Rate Tariff:

Definition: When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates, it
is said to be Flat rate Tariff.
 In this type, the consumers are grouped into different classes.
 Each class is charged at different uniform rate.
 the different classes of consumers may be taken into account of their diversity and load
factors.
 Since this type of tariff varies according to the way of supply used, separate meters are
required for lighting load, power load etc.

Block rate tariff:

When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding blocks of energy
are charged at progressively reduced rates is called as block rate tariff.
 In this type, the energy consumption is divided into many blocks and price per unit is fixed
in each block.
 This type of tariff is being used for majority of residential and small commercial consumers.

Two Part tariff:

When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of the consumer
and the units consumed it is called two-part tariff.
 In this type, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components.
 ie, fixed charges and running charges.
 The fixed charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the customer. Thus the
consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of maximum demand + a certain amount
per kWh of energy consumed.
 Total charges = Rs (X x kW + Y x kWh)
 It is easily understood by the consumer.
 It recovers fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer
independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages
 Consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed or
not the electrical energy.
 There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.

This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand.

Maximum demand tariff:

It is similar to two-part tariff. The only difference is the maximum demand of the consumer is
calculated by installing a maximum demand meter at his premises. This type of tariff is mostly
applied to the bulk consumers.

Step rate tariff:

the tariff in which the kilowatt-hour rate applicable to all the kilowatt-hours consumed varies
according to the level of consumption during the period specified in the tariff.

Power Factor
The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an a.c. circuit is known as power factor.

In an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase difference φbetween voltage and current. The term
cos φis called the power factor of the circuit.

If the circuit is inductive, the current lags behind the voltage and the power factor is referred to
as lagging. However, in a capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage and power factor is said to
be leading.

Disadvantages of low Power factor

The power factor plays an importance role in a.c. circuits since power consumed depends upon
this factor.
It is clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load current is inversely proportional
to the power factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa. A power
factor less than unity results in the following disadvantages :

(i) Large kVA rating of equipment. The electrical machinery (e.g., alternators, transformers,
switchgear) is always rated in *kVA.

It is clear that kVA rating of the equipment is inversely proportional to power factor. The smaller
the power factor, the larger is the kVA rating. Therefore, at low power factor, the kVA rating of
the equipment has to be made more, making the equipment larger and expensive.

(ii) Greater conductor size. To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at constant
voltage, the conductor will have to carry more current at low power factor. This necessitates
large conductor size.

(iii) Large copper losses. The large current at low power factor causes more I2R losses in all the
elements of the supply system. This results in poor efficiency.

(iv) Poor voltage regulation. The large current at low lagging power factor causes greater
voltage drops in alternators, transformers, transmission lines and distributors. This results in the
decreased voltage available at the supply end, thus impairing the performance of utilisation
devices. In order to keep the receiving end voltage within permissible limits, extra equipment
(i.e., voltage regulators) is required.

(v) Reduced handling capacity of system. The lagging power factor reduces the handling
capacity of all the elements of the system. It is because the reactive component of current
prevents the full utilisation of installed capacity.

Causes of Low Power Factor

Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view. Normally, the power factor of the
whole load on the supply system in lower than 0·8. The following are the causes of low power
factor:

(i) Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type (1 φand 3 φinduction motors) which have low
lagging power factor. These motors work at a power factor which is extremely small on light
load (0·2 to 0·3) and rises to 0·8 or 0·9 at full load.

(ii) Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low lagging
power factor.
(iii) The load on the power system is varying ; being high during morning and evening and low
at other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases the
magnetisation current. This results in the decreased power factor.

Power Factor Improvement by Static capacitor

The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the equipment
operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally known as static capacitor) draws a
leading current and partly or completely neutralises the lagging reactive component of load
current. This raises the power factor of the load. For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be
connected in delta or star as shown in Fig. 6.4. Static capacitors are invariably used for power
factor improvement in factories.

Advantages
(i) They have low losses.
(ii) They require little maintenance as there are no rotating parts.
(iii) They can be easily installed as they are light and require no foundation.
(iv) They can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.

Disadvantages
(i) They have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years.
(ii) They are easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value.
(iii) Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical.
 Electrical Safety Measures

Earthing and its importance

The system of connecting the metal casing of an electrical appliance to a copper plate
buried deep inside the earth is called as earthling. Many appliances such as an electric heater, a
toaster, an oven, a refrigerator etc. have a metallic body (casing). If with use the insulation of a
wire breaks or melts, the live wire may touch the metal casing. If we happen to touch the casing
carrying a current, we may receive a severe shock which may cause death.

Safety practices

To avoid this, metal casings of all electrical appliances are earthed. One end of a thick copper
wire is connected to the metal casing of the appliance and the other end is connected to a copper
plate buried deep inside the earth. The current through the metal casing then flows to the earth
and the person touching the casing is saved.

Basic needs of earthing:

 To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances from
leakage current.
 To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
 To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
 To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
 To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.
Fuse: A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows
through it for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected. Under normal
operating conditions, the fuse element it at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it
carries the normal load current without overheating. However, when a short circuit or overload
occurs, the current through the fuse element increases beyond its rated capacity. This raises the
temperature and the fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the circuit protected by it.
In this way, a fuse protects the machines and equipment from damage due to excessive currents.
It is worthwhile to note that a fuse performs both detection and interruption functions.

Circuit Breaker:
A circuit breaker is equipment which can open or close a circuit under all conditions viz. no load,
full load and fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote
control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions. For the latter
operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker. Fig. 16.1 (i) shows the parts of a typical
oil circuit breaker whereas Fig. 16.1 (ii) shows its control by a relay circuit. The circuit breaker
essentially consists of moving and fixed contacts enclosed in strong metal tank and immersed in
oil, known as transformer oil.

Under normal operating conditions, the contacts remain closed and the circuit breaker carries the
full-load current continuously. In this condition, the e.m.f. in the secondary winding of current
transformer (C.T.) is insufficient to operate the trip coil of the breaker but the contacts can be
opened (and hence the circuit can be opened) by manual or remote control. When a fault occurs,
the resulting overcurrent in the C.T. primary winding increases the secondary e.m.f. This
energises the trip coil of the breaker and moving contacts are pulled down, thus opening the
contacts and hence the circuit. The arc produced during the opening operation is quenched by the
oil. It is interesting to note that relay performs the function of detecting a fault whereas the
circuit breaker does the actual circuit interruption.
Relays
A relay is a device which detects the fault and supplies information to the breaker for circuit
interruption. Fig. 16.1 (ii) shows a typical relay circuit. It can be divided into three parts viz.

(i) The primary winding of a *current transformer (C.T.) which is connected in series with the
circuit to be protected. The primary winding often consists of the main conductor itself.

(ii) The second circuit is the secondary winding of C.T. connected to the relay operating coil.

(iii) The third circuit is the tripping circuit which consists of a source of supply, trip coil of
circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

Under normal load conditions, the e.m.f. of the secondary winding of C.T. is small and the
current flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient to close the relay contacts. This keeps
the trip coil of the circuit breaker unenergised. Consequently, the contacts of the circuit breaker
remain closed and it carries the normal load current. When a fault occurs, a large current flows
through the primary of C.T. This increases the secondary e.m.f. and hence the current through
the relay operating coil. The relay contacts are closed and the trip coil of the circuit breaker is
energised to open the contacts of the circuit breaker.