ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

BY ,
.‫محمد سالم عياد‬
 Table of content.
1-Alka,i-aggregate reaction……………….………………………………………..5
2-Freeze-Thaw Cycle In Concrete…………………………………………………..12
3- Sulfate attack………………………………………………………………………15

Introduction.

T his paper will discuss about the concrete technology where three main subject will

be highlighted, Alka,i-aggregate reaction , Freeze-Thaw Cycle In Concrete & Sulfate

attack . the primary aim of this paper is to find a suitable treatment for these cases for
concrete repairing.
Alka,i-aggregate reaction in concrete:

Abstract: This paper presents theoretical and applied state-of-the-art information in

the field of alkali-aggregate reac- tivity (AAR) in concrete. The aspects discussed
include basic concepts of the reaction and expansion mechanisms, con- ditions
conducive to the development and the sustainability of AAR in concrete, field and
laboratory investigation programs for evaluating the potential alkali-reactivity of
concrete aggregates, selection of preventive measures against AAR, and the
management of structures affected by AAR. The management section includes the
diagnosis of AAR in existing concrete structures, evaluation of the potential for future
distress due to AAR, and mitigation and repair ap- proaches used· on such structures.
This is an introductory paper and sets the stage for a special review of the current AAR
situation in the various regions of Canada that is presented in seven papers as part
of this issue.
Key words: alkali-aggregate reaction, alkali-silica reaction, alkali-carbonate reaction,
petrography, testing of concrete aggregates, performance of concrete, survey, remedial
measures.

Introduction:
Alkali-aggregate reactions (AAR) are chemical reactions in concrete that can
induce the premature distress and loss in serviceability of concrete structures affected.
The AAR- related problems were first identified in the early 1940s in California
(U.S.A.). Since then, AAR have been recognized in more than 50 countries around
the world; it is likely that the problems associated with AAR exist in a larger number
of countries, but concrete distress in several instances may have been attributed to
other causes.
Bxtensiv:e research has been carried out on AAR over the past six decades. Main areas
of research in Canada and worldwide addressed (1) better understanding of the mecha-
nisms involved in the deleterious process of AAR in con- crete, (2) identifying the rock
types or specific petrographic facies at risk and developing quick and reliable test methods
to assess the potential alkali-reactivity of concrete aggre- gates, (3) developing
specifications for preventing AAR in new concrete structures, and (4) developing
management ac- tions for existing concrete structures affected by AAR (i.e., diagnosisfor of
the cause of distress, risk future distress and actual structural integrity, and repair
methods). This paper presents state-of-the-art information about these various a - pects of
the AAR.
Basic concepts of alkali-aggregate reactivity and expansion
mechanisms:
Definition
The micropores in the matrix of hardened concrete are filled with a highly
basic (i.e., pH ;::; 12.5) fluid that consists mainly of dissolved alkali
hydroxides (K+, Na+-oH-) with minor amounts of other elements (e.g., c a+2,
s o -4 2) (Dia- mond 1989). Some mineral phases within the coarse and (or)
 fine aggregates in concrete are chemically unstable and react deleteriously in such
high pH environment, sometimes in- ducing the premature distress (i.e., internal
expansion, crack- ing, loss in serviceability) of the affected element. This
phenomenon is known as alkali-aggregate reactions (AAR).
Two types of AAR are generally recognized: (1) alkali- carbonate reaction (ACR),
and (2) alkali-silica reaction (ASR); they differ in the type of mineral phases and
mecha- nisms involved.

Alkali-carbonate reaction:
The first case of ACR was reported in the late 1950s in
· Ontario, Canada (Swenson 1957). Typically, argillaceous dolomitic limestones
susceptible to ACR petrographically consist of rhombic crystals of dolomite, 20 to
50 µm in size, disseminated in a matrix of microcrystalline calcite (typi- cally 2 to
6 µmin size) and clay minerals (<2 µmin size) (Fig. 1). Under the attack by the
alkali hydroxides of the concrete pore fluid, the dolomite crystals undergo a
dedolomitization process [1], thus opening channels through which ions from the
pore fluid can penetrate deeper in the reacting particles.
[1] CaMg(CO3)i + 2(Na,K)OH Mg(OHh dolomite .alkali
hydroxides brucite
+ CaCO3 + (Na,KhCO,
calcite alkali carbonates
Expansion and crackiQ.g of concrete undergoing ACR ba- sically originates from
the expansion of individual reacting coarse limestone aggregate particles, possibly
through one or a combination of the following processes (Swenson and Gillott 1964;
Tang et al. 1987): (1) hydraulic pressures caused by the migration of water
molecules and alkali ions into the restricted spaces of the calcite/clay matrix around
the dolomite rhombs, (2) adsorption of alkali ions and water molecules on the
surfaces of the "active" clay minerals scat- tered around the dolomite grains, and (3)
growth and rear- rangement of the products of dedolomitization (i.e., brucite and
calcite). The alkali carbonates react eventually with the portlandite in the concrete
matrix thus regenerating alkali hydroxides in the pore solution [2]:
[2] (Na,K)i CO3 + Ca(OHh CaCO3 alkali carbonates
portlandite calcite
+ 2(Na,K)OH
alkali hydroxides .
This suggests that ACR could proceed almost indefinitely. Aggregates susceptible
to ACR in Canada were generally found to induce rapid and extensive expansion in
the con- crete prism test and deleterious expansion and cracking within three years
in the field when other conditions essen- tial for ACR are pres nt (Rogers et al.
2000); fortunately, occurrences of concrete structures affected by ACR are lim- ited
in Canada and worldwide.
2.1 Alkali-Silica Reaction :

This is the most common form of alkali aggregate reaction and results from the presence
of certain siliceous aggregates in the concrete found in some granites, gneisses, volcanic
rocks, greywackes, argillites, phyllites, hornfels, tuffs, and siliceous limestones. In ASR,
aggregates containing certain forms of silica will react with alkali hydroxide in concrete
to form a gel that swells as it adsorbs water from the surrounding cement paste or the
environment. These gels can swell and induce enough expansive pressure to damage
concrete. The product of the alkali-silica reaction is a gel that absorbs water and increases
in volume. Pressure generated by the swelling gel ruptures the aggregate particles and
causes cracks to extend into the surrounding concrete. Typically, alkali-silica reaction
results in the formation of map-pattern cracking of the concrete.

2.1.1. Alkali Reaction with Amorphous Silica

Amorphous silica is a form of loose arrangement of tetrahedra around a silicon atom

bonded to oxygen ions and OHions. When placed in a soda solution, there is first an acid-
base reaction between the silanol groups (Si - OH) and the OHions from the alkaline
solution, followed by neutralisation of the resultant negative charge by a Na+ ion.
(reported by Dent-Glasser and Kataoka) The next reaction is an attack on the siloxane
bridges by the OHions. This leads to disintegration of the structure and the silica enters
into solution in the form of protonated ions (H2SiO4). Both reactions take place
simultaneously and show the importance of the OHions. They eventually lead to the
formation of expansive sodium silicate gels.

2.1.2. Alkali reaction with silicates caused by reactions in polyphase

siliceous aggregates (shale, granite, sandstone).

Deterioration of polyphase siliceous aggregate appears under the microscope as a dark

zone between the aggregate and cement paste and by a white deposit on the aggregate and
in cleavage planes. The dark zone is due to an alkaline silicate gel. The white deposit
consists of flaky crystals containing Si, K, and Ca. Between the white deposit and the dark
zone, there is often an area with an intermediate texture. There thus seems to a tendency
for the gel to develop a more.

2.2 Alkali-Carbonate Reaction:

With the alkali-carbonate reaction, certain dolomitic limestone aggregates react with the
hydroxyl ions in the cement (or other sources such as de-icing salts) and cause swelling.
The swelling of the limestone particles causes the concrete to expand and crack.
Dedolomitisation from reaction of the calcium and magnesium carbonate with an alkaline
solution involves the formation of Brucite [Mg (OH)2 ] and regeneration of the alkaline
hydroxide. The brucite may be isolated from the interface between aggregate and cement
paste or in the middle of the aggregate. It can also react with the silica around the aggregate
and form magnesium silicate. The porous zone created around the aggregate by extraction
of the Mg+ + ions weakens the cement-aggregate bond. Cracks appear, although some
may heal through precipitation of Ca (OH)2. Dedolomitisation does not produce an
expansive gel. The expansion sometimes observed has been associated with the presence
of clays either as inter granular material or as inclusions in the carbonate crystals. These
clays cause the concrete to deteriorate by absorbing the
 OHions. The deterioration caused by ACR is similar to that caused by ASR; however,
ACR is relatively rare because aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon are less
common and are usually unsuitable for use in concrete for other reasons. Aggregates
susceptible to ACR tend to have a characteristic texture that can be identified by
petrographers.

2.3 Mechanism of ASR.

The alkali-silica reaction forms a gel that swells as it draws water from the surrounding
cement paste. Reaction products from ASR have a great affinity for moisture. In absorbing
water, these gels can induce pressure, expansion, and cracking of the aggregate and
surrounding paste (Fig. 3). The reaction can be visualized as a two-step process:
 Alkali hydroxide + reactive silica gel
→ reaction product (alkali-silica gel)
 Gel reaction product + moisture → expansion.

The amount of gel formed in the concrete depends on the amount and type of silica and
alkali hydroxide concentration. The presence of gel does not always coincide with
distress, and thus, gel presence does not necessarily indicate destructive ASR.

3.0 EFFECTS OF ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTION:

Typical indicators of ASR might be any of the following: a network of cracks; closed or
spalled joints; relative displacements of different parts of a structure; or fragments
breaking out of the surface of the concrete (pop outs) (Fig. 4 & 5). Because ASR
deterioration is slow, the risk of catastrophic failure is low. However, ASR can cause
serviceability problems and can exacerbate other deterioration mechanisms such as those
that occur in frost, deicer, or sulphate exposures.

3.1 Typical Cracking due to Alkali- Aggregate.

Reaction Relatively equi-dimensional pattern cracking is characteristic of non-reinforced
or lightly reinforced concrete affected by alkali- aggregate reaction (Fig. 6 & 7). But when
there is a significant amount of reinforcing steel, cracking tends to be more prominent in
the direction parallel to the reinforcement (Fig. 8). However, map-cracking can also result
from other causes such as drying shrinkage (sometimes referred to as plastic cracking),
particularly in slabs on grade that were placed in hot windy weather without proper curing.
This type of cracking appears within hours, or days after casting the concrete. In contrast,
cracking due to alkaliaggregate reaction usually becomes evident only after 5 to 10 years.

3.2 Swelling of the Concrete due to Alkali-Aggregate Reaction.

Both alkali-silica and alkali- carbonate reactions result in swelling of the concrete. The
amount of swelling or expansion depends on the reactivity of the aggregates, the alkalinity
of the cement solution, and the ambient moisture conditions of the structure. Expansions
of over 0.1% are not uncommon. An expansion of 0.1% would result in an increase in
length of 1 cm for every 10 m length of an unreinforced structure. In many
 structures this amount of expansion may not cause problems, but in long sidewalks or
median barriers, for example, the expansion may cause compression and heaving.
Expansion in large structures like dams, powerhouses and locks can interfere with the
operation of the flow gates or turbines.
4.0 FACTORS AFFECTING ALKALI-AGGREGATE
REACTION
Concrete deterioration from alkali-aggregate reaction is due to the simultaneous effect of
several factors. They may be subdivided in to three groups: * Material properties:
Aggregate and Cement * External influences: Humidity, Temperature and Compressive
Stresses.

4.1 Material Properties

4.1.1 Aggregates

Aggregates used for concrete may come from rock that is used under conditions that are
different from those obtaining in its natural state. The rock will have evolved slowly from
the time it was first formed,
slowly undergoing chemical alteration and weathering until it has reached equilibrium.

When it is suddenly put into an environment with an average pH of 12.6 (rising locally
to 13.6) which occurs in the pore water within concrete, the constituent minerals will
once again start to evolve in an attempt to find a new equilibrium. This new stage of
alteration leads to the appearance of a partial solution which tends to form what might
become an expansive gel. When it does so, it is known as reactivity.

Factors connected with the constituent minerals:

* type
* tectonic and weathering history
Factors connected with the rock:
* structure, grain size, porosity, permeability, specific surface
* composition.

4.1.2 Cements.

Very high alkali content in the pore water phase is usually due to presence of the alkalis
in the cement and other cementitious materials. Alkalis can also come from certain
aggregates (feldspars) or admixtures. However the presence of free Ca (OH)2 is
prerequisite for expansion to occur. Limiting permissible alkali content in portland
cement is considered a sufficient control measure. However, today there is beginning to
emerge general agreement that the swelling risk with reactive aggregates is proportional
to the total alkali content of the concrete. Control measures should recognize this fact as
in British practice. With reactive aggregates, the use of alkali-rich Portland cements can
cause problems after only a few years.

4.1.3 Mixing Water and Admixtures

Alkalies can also come into concrete from mixing water and chemical admixtures in
concrete. In many of the projects, ground water or boring water and runoff river water is
used in concrete. The ground water may contain dissolve alkalies from the surrounding
soil/ rocks and river water may also contain industrial and agricultural effluent which
may be the source of alkalies.

4.2 External Influences.

4.2.1. Environmental Humidity.

The alkali-aggregate reaction is greatly promoted by a relative humidity of 80 % or more.
 4.2.2 Temperature.
Like all chemical reactions, AAR is affected by temperature. In general the rate of
reaction and formation of gel will increase as the temperature rises. At the same time,
gel at high temperatures will be less viscous and more able to escape into cracks and
voids within the concrete. Temperature of concrete is governed by ambient conditions
once the heat of hydration has subsided.

4.2.3. Compressive Stresses

The expansion and damage due to AAR are greatly influenced by the presence of restraints
and stresses applied to the concrete. In fact well distributed compressive stresses can
reduce the concrete expansion in the direction of compression and prevent cracks to open,
limiting in this way the water circulation. From this point of view there is a difference
between primary cracking directly due to irregular local concrete expansion (typical map
cracking pattern) and secondary, or structural, cracking which is produced by any
structural restraint opposing the expansion. From some observations it appears that the
expansion at the bottom section of dams, where stresses are high, is likely to be less
important than at higher elevations. As such stresses, also called backpressures, are
produced by the expansion itself, they may likely be one of the causes which in some
cases slow down the expansion and eventually stop it.

4.3 Time
a appear after variable lengths of time. Concrete swelling may be gradual or may occur
suddenly at a later time. Swelling may eventually stop when all the reactive fractions of
polyphase aggregate have been exhausted. The structures where this was studied were
never in any danger of immediate failure.

5.0 PREVENTION OF AAR.

5.1. Environment.

Prevention of AAR depends upon many considerations, all of which must be made
before the concrete is placed. The first consideration is the environment in which the
concrete structure will function, i.e. the effects of the environment on the completed
structure.
 5.1.1. Moisture.

A supply of moisture is required for alkali-silica reaction to occur, which in turn causes
gel to form with attendant damage due to its swelling. It is considered that damage will
not happen, or its progress will cease, at a relative humidity less than about 80 % providing
the air is the only source of moisture. Ambient moisture level need not be continuous; the
reaction will proceed every time the humidity rises above the 80 percent level. Some
authorities believe that cycles of wetting and drying can cause a higher rate of damage
than continuous exposure to saturated or near saturated conditions and there is some
evidence to support this. All exposed concrete, even mixtures containing only small
amounts of deleterious materials, should be considered susceptible to AAR. Concrete may
only be considered non-susceptible if it can dry so the internal humidity drops below 80
percent, and thereafter is permanently protected from the weather and other sources of
moisture, including heavy condensation, capillary moisture, and seepage water.

5.1.2. External Sources of Alkalis

There are a number of sources of alkalis which might potentially raise the alkalinity of
the pore solution within the concrete matrix. They attack the external faces of the
concrete and reinforcement which is particularly vulnerable to these contaminants.

It is doubtful that alkalis are absorbed from external sources and cause damage from
AAR. However, it is important to recognize the effect of the contaminants so as not to
confuse them with AAR.

a) Sea water which contains mainly sodium salts but also very small amounts of
potassium salts.

b) De-icing salt (sodium chloride), used on roads, footpaths, and other surfaces
during freezing conditions. The main problem created by de-icing salts is the
corrosion of reinforcement and other embedded metal caused by the chloride ion
content, but the sodium salt in solution can be absorbed by the concrete with
detrimental effects.

It is not only the surfaces directly treated with de-icing salts which are at risk. Salt
laden water can be sprayed onto other surfaces by passing traffic or can drip into
concrete through joints and drainage holes.

c) Sodium and potassium compounds from industrial and agricultural effluent of

run-off go into rivers and reservoirs and come into contact with concrete.

5.1.3. Precautions against Environmental Effects.

It is highly unlikely that damage due to AAR would occur if external sources of water
could be prevented from coming into contact with the concrete. However, it is difficult,
and in most cases impracticable to prevent this. Even where waterproof membranes or
coatings are a practical consideration; it is doubtful whether they could be relied upon to
give complete and permanent protection over the life of the structure. Waterproofing

should not be used as a substitute for good concrete materials and mixtures and
construction practices which, in themselves, minimize the risk of damage due to AAR
It has been observed that damage due to AAR is often greatest where structures are wet,
such as at leaking joints; therefore, care in detailing of the structure can help to reduce
deterioration. If reactive or potentially reactive aggregates have to be used in areas with
high ambient temperatures, it would be wise to reduce the alkali levels in cement and
concrete below those necessary in more temperate climates. There is however,
insufficient information available to quantify such reductions.

5.2. Aggregates.

A major consideration for avoiding AAR is in the selection of aggregates.

5.2.1. Reactive Constituents

A number of forms of silica have been implicated in cases of AAR throughout the
world. Notably these are microcrystalline and crypto crystalline silica, often found in
flint and chert. Strained quartz found in some quartzites has also been implicated.
Opaline silica is perhaps the most reactive form. Reactive forms of silica are also found
in more complex rock forms such as siliceous limestones, granites, etc. Table 1 presents
a list of reactive constituents of aggregates to be avoided.

In addition to the dangers of aggregates containing reactive silica, there have been cases
of aggregates containing alkalis which can leach into the pore water and increase its
alkalinity to a level where damage can be caused. Such cases have been reported in
France and elsewhere. Leaching tests have been performed in the United States. There
are thus very few parts of the world where the possibility of AAR can be completely
discounted.

5.2.2. Effect of Aggregate Size.

Damage has been reported due to reaction occurring in both coarse and fine aggregates,
but in many cases, particularly with opaline sands, damage has been the result of reaction
in the coarser particles of fine aggregate, i.e. particles in the 2 to 5 mm size range. The
effect of the aggregate size has been reported by a number of researchers.

TABLE 1-1

Minerals, rocks and other substances which are potentially deleteriously reactive with
alkalis in cement.
Freeze-Thaw Cycle In Concrete

This study aims to determine the effect of change of temperature (freezing-thawing cy-
cles) on the behavior of the mortar and the concrete. Also, the evaluation of the effect of
air entering for improving the durability of the mortar and concrete was discussed. 23
mixes were cast to evaluate the purpose of this study. Cement types (Portland ce-ment
and limestone cement), aggregate types (dolomite and gravel), dosages of air en-tering
0.01, 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2% of cement weight and freezing thawing cycles (50, 100, 150,
200, 300 and 400 cycles) were considered. Relative dynamic modules of elasticity which
is illustrated the internal cracks growth, durability factor and losses of weight were
evaluated. Empirical correlations were formulated. The results showed that; 0.15% air
entrained of cement weight improve the durability in term of freezing-thaw-ing; where
the durability factor for the mixes was ≥ 85% that exposed to freezing-thaw-ing cycles
in range 0-200. Up to 200 cycles of freezing-thawing cycles did not effect on the
compressive strength of the mixes and the durability of the mortar and the concrete. It is
recommended that more than 300 freezing-thawing cycles must be avoided.

Durability of concrete is defined as its ability to with-stand the deterioration such as

aggressive media, freezing thawing cycles, fire and abrasion. The durable con-crete can
be kept in its quality and serviceability due to the surroundings. In cold weather,
concrete structures located losses its quality and property due to freeze-thaw (F-T)
cycles during their life cycle (ACI 216.1-17). Most civil engineering durability problems
cover water inside porous media like stones and cementitious mate-rials. In case of
freezing and thawing, the in-pore ice/wa-ter phase change behavior plays a key role
through the coupling of the unfrozen water content, the pore pres-sure, the liquid
water in the porous network, and the therm mechanical behavior of each porous
material con-stituent (Coussy and Fen-Chong, 2005; Coussy, 2005; Fen-Chong and
Azouni, 2005). ACI 2016 reported the most important factors causes deterioration in
concrete and how to prevent the damage in it. The methods to enhance the concrete
durability are illustrated, also [ACI 224-08; ACI 201.2R-01; ACI 216.1-17). When the
moist concrete exposed to F-T cycles are a dangers test for con-crete to stay without
deterioration. Using air entrained concrete in addition to the stages of manufactures
of good concrete and design the mix resisted the freezing-thawing cycles for many years
(Portland cement associ-ation V. 19-98). Some researchers investigated the im-portant
role of the air entrainment on the durability of concrete, (Powers and Helmuth, 1953;
Setzer, 2001). In North America, the concrete structures exposed to dan-gerous
environment; so the repeated cycles of F-T cycles causes the deterioration of concrete in
form of cracking and scaling (Portland cement association V. 19-98; Kejin et al. 2009).
Fen-Chong and Aza (2005) investigated a method to study the effect of cycles of
freezing and thaw-ing on the cohesive porous materials. The variation in the
temperature was supercoiling, freezing, and melting. Zeng et al. (2011) investigated the
freezing behavior of cementitious materials through poromechanical ap-proached after
the Biot–Coussy theory. The results show that the poromechanical model can reasonably
capture the freezing behaviors from pores pressure accumula-tion, pore pressure
relaxation as well as the thermal.
Concrete is durable, but there’s one substance that can wreak havoc on it if you aren’t
careful: water. Water can cause freeze-thaw damage, making it a necessary
consideration in masonry work. It can come in contact with concrete structures in a
variety of ways — from rain to snow to dew to humidity.

Also called freeze-thaw weathering, this process has the potential to damage concrete or
hardscaping elements. Luckily, there are several precautions you can take to keep your
fixtures looking as good as new in the presence of cement freezing. This guide will help
you understand freeze-thaw, what type of damage it causes and how you can prevent
future freeze-thaw damage to your projects.

What Is Freeze-Thaw?

he freeze-thaw process is based on one unique characteristic of water — it expands by

nine percent when it freezes. The cycle occurs readily in nature and is common where
temperatures reach below freezing at night and rise in the daytime. However, freeze-
thaw generally doesn’t happen in environments that don’t freeze at all, like the tropics,
or stay frozen most of the time, like the arctic.

In a more moderate climate, water seeps into cracks and openings in rock during the day
and freezes overnight. As the water freezes, it expands, stressing and opening the rock
further and creating a wider gap. Generally, the most destructive kind of freeze-thaw
action occurs in highly saturated conditions where more water is present.

You can freeze water in something like an ice cube tray, which allows the ice room to
expand upward — but if water is stuck inside a non-flexible material, it will stress and
eventually break it. When the ice melts as the temperature rises, it leaves a larger crack
than before.

Freeze-Thaw Cycles
Once the crack has expanded, and the ice has melted, more water can fill up the gap in
the rock. Since the crack is bigger, it can hold more water this time around. Once the
temperature drops again, the new water freezes and the crack gets nine percent larger
than before. Each time this cycle occurs, the crack gets bigger and bigger.

This process, also known as frost wedging, eventually causes the rock to break off into
smaller pieces and separate from the larger stone, eroding it little by little. This erosion
frequently occurs in nature in mountains and canyons. Scree slopes, which are made of
fallen rock pieces, often develop at the bases of cliffs and mountains due to freeze-thaw
cycles. Freeze-thaw can also affect many human-made items in a variety of climates
across regions and seasons.

A freeze-thaw cycle is a form of mechanical weathering, which means it doesn’t need to

change the mineral makeup or molecular structure of the rock to wear away at it. Rust or
oxidization, on the other hand, does cause a chemical change when they affect rock.
With water, a rock is chemically identical both before and after freeze-thaw occurs. This
physical weathering of concrete depends on the structure and integrity of a rock, not
necessarily its chemical makeup.
Freeze-thaw cycles can occur daily in many climates where the temperature drops below
freezing at night and rises above freezing during the day. If you’re thinking of adding
concrete installations to your home or business, you’ll need to consider the possibility of
freeze-thaw, as low-quality or ill-prepared concrete can be prone to more damage from
freezing and thawing. Luckily, there are steps you or a contractor can take to minimize
the effects of this cycle and keep the concrete in good condition.

Effects of Freeze-Thaw on Outdoor Hardscape Products

Hardscaping products can be an attractive addition to any landscaping project. They are
the non-living elements of a landscape, such as concrete, stone and brick. Hardscaping
pieces are often functional, as they typically provide seating, standing space and
containers for plants. Hardscaping elements can include:

Pathways
Benches
Driveways
Patios
Walls
Planters
Fences
Often, these elements are made of concrete or stone, both of which are subject to freeze-
thaw and the damage that comes with it. Concrete functions similarly to rocks found in
nature. It has pores running through it that hold water. Every time the water freezes, the
pressure within the pores increases.

If that pressure becomes greater than the tensile strength of the concrete, it ruptures the
cavity, breaking apart the pore and reducing the integrity of the concrete. As this
accumulates over more and more pores, it causes deterioration, including expansion,
scaling and cracking.

One significant type of freeze-thaw damage occurs from D-cracking. D-cracking refers
to durability cracking, which occurs when numerous freeze-thaw cycles affect the coarse
aggregate present in concrete. As water accumulates within the aggregate and in
between the layers, the freeze-thaw expansion reduces the durability of the concrete. It
begins cracking from inside the concrete, so it is often difficult to detect it until the
cracks reach the surface.

Certain types of aggregate, like some sedimentary rocks, are more susceptible than
others. However, unweathered igneous rocks are typically not susceptible to D-cracking.
Usually, aggregates with several pores and small pore sizes are likely to experience D-
cracking. Concrete at ground level can also be more vulnerable to this type of wear, as
the surface is a prime location for water to collect.

The aggregate becomes saturated with water as it accumulates, often at the bottom of the
concrete slab or fixture, and the cracking moves upward. D-cracking is different from
other types of freeze-thaw damage because of its internal behavior.
Other types of water damage, like spalling or scaling, both occur because of built-up
water on the surface. However, these usually only occur on the surface of the concrete.
Typically, pieces will fall off as this occurs. Repeated spalling can still cause structural
damage over time, but it is also much easier to identify — whereas, D-cracking is
difficult to identify until it has already caused significant damage.

Besides D-cracking, you may find that freeze-thaw conditions can cause scaling in
concrete. Scaling is the “flaking” texture that occurs when the top layer of concrete peels
up. It can start as small patches that later grow. Scaling can differ in severity, from light
scaling that doesn’t expose the aggregate to severe scaling that clearly shows the
aggregate, peeling off significant amounts of surface mortar. Some causes of scaling
include:

-Using concrete that is not air-entrained or air-entrained properly.

-Applying too much deicing salt on low-quality concrete, including that which was not
mixed, air-entrained or cured adequately.
-Finishing concrete when bleed water is still present on the surface.
Hardscaping Elements.

Hardscaping stands in a unique position. Many pieces are made with varying climates in
mind, but the wrong blocks can fall away or crumble in no time in freeze-thaw
environments, so contractors and builders must still make informed choices. Pavers, a
substantial component of hardscaping efforts, are usually made of interlocking pieces
that offer more resistance to the effects of the freeze-thaw cycle. They are typically
denser and provide low permeability, which creates less room for water to enter. Freeze-
thaw damage in pavers is less common because:

They are less prone to cracks.

They have spaces between them that allow rainwater to filter through.
They have individual pieces that are easily replaceable.
They provide more traction in icy conditions from the grooves between pieces.
Another helpful feature present in many hardscaping elements is the use of entrained air.
Entrained air can help improve concrete’s freeze-thaw resistance. Air entrainment adds
air voids to concrete. Empty chambers are intentionally left in the paste so water can
move into them as it freezes and gains volume, accommodating this change by reducing
the stress on the concrete. The chambers lessen the pressure buildup in the pores and can
help keep damage at bay. They also help to lower the permeability.

It’s important to note that entrained air and entrapped air are not the same:

_Entrained air: Entrained air is the intentional addition of air pockets that are spread out
uniformly and evenly throughout the concrete on a microscopic level. It is well-
controlled, due to the impact it can have on concrete’s compressive strength. Specific
standards are in place to keep the entrained air at appropriate levels.
_Entrapped air: This kind of air is usually a mistake. It occurs during improper mixing
or pouring and consists of irregularly sized, large bubbles within the cement. Due to
their shape and structure, they are ineffective against damage from the freeze-thaw
cycle. These can negatively affect strength and durability, but vibration techniques can
help keep them at bay.
Stones and bricks are other common components used in hardscaping that also get
damaged from freeze-thaw cycles. They similarly will see more damage if they get more
moisture. For example, if one side of a wall gets hit with wind and rain more frequently
than another, it will probably see the most freeze-thaw damage. As sunlight exposure
changes, it can also affect the temperature of the water and its phase changes.

Prevent Freeze-Thaw Damage

Figure 3.1. Influence of saturation of concrete on its resistance to frost expressed by an arbitrary code.

According to (properties of concrete - Adam Neville (1)) While the resistance of

concrete to freezing and thawing depends on its various properties (e.g. strength of the
hardened cement paste, extensibility, and creep), the main factors are the degree of
saturation and the pore system of the hardened cement paste. The general influence of
saturation of concrete is shown in below some critical value of saturation, concrete is
highly resistant to frost, and dry concrete is totally unaffected. In other words, if
concrete is never going to be saturated, there is no danger of damage from freezing and
thawing. It may be noted that, even in a water-cured specimen, not all residual space is
water-filled, and indeed this is why such a specimen does not fail on first freezing. A
large proportion of concrete in service dries partially, at least at some time in its life and,
on rewetting, such concrete will not re-absorb as much water as it has lost. It is
desirable, therefore, to allow concrete to dry out before exposure to winter conditions,
and failure to do so will increase the severity of frost damage”. An example of the
influence of age at which first freezing takes place upon damage to concrete is shown in
Fig. 3.1

Fortunately, there are ways to prevent or reduce the damage from freeze-thaw cycles.
The damage isn’t something you can readily fix. It usually requires completely replacing
the damaged piece or brick, so preventing the damage instead is the ideal approach.
Some common methods for preventing freeze-thaw are:

1. Using Deicing Chemicals

One of the simplest ways to prevent concrete freeze-thaw damage is with deicing
chemicals. These chemicals typically use a mixture of certain compounds to reduce the
freezing point of the precipitation significantly. If the freezing point lowers, the water
remains in its liquid state and can pass through the concrete easily. It takes much colder
temperatures than usual for it to freeze.
Sodium chloride is the most common mixture for ice-melting salt. It doesn’t have a
significant chemical effect on concrete, but it can damage lawns and shrubbery and
corrode metal. Most other chemical mixes have similar results, like calcium chloride,
which may be harder to store — magnesium chloride, which releases less chloride into
the atmosphere — and potassium chloride, which causes less damage to vegetation.

Some applications have specific requirements about the chemicals that can be present in
a deicer. Most mixes with chloride promote the corrosion of metals, so places like
airports need to use non-chloride deicers to prevent damage to an aircraft. Their options
may include urea, a nitrogen product, or more organic potassium acetate, ethylene
glycols or propylene glycols. Potassium acetate may be mixed with a corrosion inhibitor,
as it is still slightly corrosive. It is also biodegradable and environmentally friendly.

2. Reviewing Concrete Structure and Environment

High-quality concrete can also help to prevent deterioration. Many blocks are made with
features designed to reduce the effects of freeze-thaw or prevent it altogether. For
example:

Purchasing blocks with entrained air can help you ensure even dispersion of air and
water, so the freezing doesn’t put as much pressure on the concrete.
Low-permeability mixes help keep water from penetrating the surface as easily and keep
it outside the blocks.
High-strength concrete helps blocks resist structural damage from freeze-thaw
processes.
Smaller aggregates are known to perform better in freeze-thaw conditions.
A well-made piece of concrete can help keep freeze-thaw damage at bay, especially in
the use of pavers. The environment, of course, can also influence freeze-thaw effects on
concrete. Providing sufficient drainage underneath the concrete may help keep water
from pooling at the base of and seeping into the rocks.

3. Applying a Sealer

Another way to prevent freeze-thaw in concrete is with a penetrative sealer. Since the saturation of
the concrete is what causes water to build up, a concrete sealer can help make it more freeze-thaw
resistant with a hydrophobic coating. It is fairly simple to install and can keep water from collecting
within the pores of the cement.

However, this process needs to be done correctly, or you may end up with a cloudy, discolored layer,
as water breaks through the sealant barrier. You should only install sealer after the concrete is fully
cured, before deicing chemicals are applied, during dry conditions and before any freeze-thaw cycles
can occur. Sealers are typically acrylic, epoxy or polyurethane-based, each with their advantages and
disadvantages. They typically require warmer temperatures to set properly, so doing them before fall
is usually best.

When selecting materials for hardscaping products, you’ll have to have a keen awareness of the
freeze-thaw conditions to which they will be exposed. Select products that possess features to
minimize problems with deterioration and freeze-thaw. Attending to freeze-thaw issues
preventatively can save you from the destruction they cause later on.

3-Sulfate Attack.
Solid salts do not attack concrete but, when present in solution, they can react with hydrated
cement paste. Particularly common are sulfates of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium
which occur in soil or in groundwater. Because the solubility of calcium sulfate is low, ground

waters with a high sulfate content contain the other sulfates as well as calcium sulfate. The
significance of this lies in the fact that those other sulfates react with the various products of
hydration of cement and not only with Ca (OH)2. Sulfates in groundwater are usually of natural
origin but can also come from fertilizers or from industrial effluents. These sometimes contain
ammonium sulfate, which attacks hydrated cement paste by producing gypsum. Soil in some
disused industrial sites, particularly gas works, may contain sulfates and often also other
aggressive substances. Sulfides can oxidize to sulfates under some conditions, e.g. under
compressed air used in excavation.
The reactions of the various sulfates with hardened cement paste are as follows. Sodium sulfate
attacks Ca (OH)2: Ca(OH)2 + Na2SO4.10H2O → CaSO4.2H2O + 2NaOH + 8H2O.

This is an acid-type attack. In flowing water, Ca (OH)2 can be completely leached out but if
NaOH accumulates, equilibrium is reached, only a part of the SO3 being deposited as gypsum.
The reaction with calcium aluminate hydrate can be formulated as follows:10.7
2(3CaO.Al2O3.12H2O) + 3(Na2SO4.10H2O) → 3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O + 2Al (OH)3 +
6NaOH + 17H2O.
Calcium sulfate attacks only calcium aluminate hydrate, forming calcium sulfoaluminate
(3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O), known as ettringite. The number of molecules of water may be
32 or 31, depending upon the ambient vapor pressure.10.74 On the other hand, magnesium
sulfate attacks calcium silicate hydrates as well as Ca (OH)2 and calcium aluminate hydrate. The
pattern of reaction is: 3CaO.2SiO2.aq + 3MgSO4.7H2O → 3CaSO4.2H2O + 3Mg (OH)2 +
2SiO2.aq. + xH2O.

Because of the very low solubility of Mg (OH)2, this reaction proceeds to completion so that,
under certain conditions, the attack by magnesium sulfate is more severe than by other sulfates.
A further reaction between Mg (OH)2 and silica gel is possible and may also cause deterioration.
The critical consequence of the attack by magnesium sulfate is the destruction of C-S-H.

Thaumasite form of sulfate attack

This type of attack occurs in concrete buried in the ground. Thomasite problems have been
encountered in a number of bridges supports in the UK but they are not very common. At
temperature below about 15 °C (59 °F) in the presence of sulfate, carbonate and water, C-S-H
can convert to Thomasite, which is a non-binder, with a com position of
CaSiO3.CaCO3.CaSO4.15H2O.10.139 The carbonate may be present in the aggregate
(limestone or dolomite) or as bicarbonate in the groundwater. Mixes containing gabs resist
Thomasite attack.

Delayed ettringite formation

This phenomenon (known as DEF) came into prominence in the 1990s and it attracted much
academic research; the interest has abated somewhat since then. The formation of ettringite in
the expansive cement Type K was discussed on This is an early-age controlled expansion.
However, the formation of ettringite in mature concrete tends to be disruptive and harmful, and
is a form of sulfate attack, resulting in the compound

3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O. High temperature during hydration can be the result of applied

heat or be due to heat generation in a large pour when natural loss of heat is inadequate. If the
temperature in the interior of concrete reaches 70° to 80 °C, a slow formation of ettringite can
lead to expansion and cracking. For the harmful effects to take place after return to room
temperature, the concrete must be wet or moist either permanently or intermittently. These
harmful effects are a loss of strength, a decrease in the modulus of elasticity, and sometime
cracking. Occasionally, there is a problem of distain gushing DEF from alkali-silica reaction.
This was the issue in a court case concerning prestressed steam-cured railway sleepers (ties).
One reason for confusion is that ettringite may be so fine as to look like alkali-silica gel.DEF is
often avoidable by a selection of appropriate blended cement that does not lead to an excessive
temperature rise.

References

Gordana A. (2016, January 1). Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete [PDF]. Toplicic-

Curcic. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301259783_Alkali-

Aggregate_Reactions_in_Concrete

Neville, A. M. (2011). Properties of concrete (5th ed.). Prentice Hall.

Tomáš Vymazal. (2018, April 6). Effect of freezing-thawing on concrete behavior [PDF]. Tamer I.

Ahmaed

. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324201881_Effect_of_freezing-

thawing_on_concrete_behavior

Torgal, F. P., & Jalali, S. (2011). Eco-efficient construction and building materials (4th ed.).

Springer Science & Business Media.