DESIGN APPROACH FOR

DURABILITY
Durability of Concrete

Durability of concrete can be defined to

mean ‘its resistance to deteriorating
influences, which may reside inside the
concrete itself, or which are present
in the environment to which the concrete
is exposed’.

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 Nature of the Problem

  Deteriorating Agencies

Chemical –
Sulphates,
Chlorides,
CO2,
Natural waters,
Mechanical –
Abrasion, Erosion, Cavitation,
Impact,
Temperature.
 
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 Effects of Chemical Agencies

• Effects on Cement Paste - Sulphate attack,

Carbonation,
Chloride attack,
Decomposition by ‘hungry’ water.
 
• Effects on Reinforcement - Corrosion of steel

• Effects on Aggregates - Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR).

• Effects on Concrete - Expansion, Leaching, Cracking

Loss of strength,

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 Structures likely to be affected
• Mechanical –
Abrasion - Pavements, factory floors, spillways.
Temperature gradient - Mass concrete
• Chemical –
Corrosion of steel,
carbonation – RCC, Prestressed concrete,
Sulphate attack – Foundations, marine
constructions,
ASR – Hydraulic structures, bridges

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 Factors influencing the durability

 Environment, freezing and thawing, exposure to

aggressive chemicals
 Cover to embedded steel
 Type and quality of constituent materials,
 Cement content and water-cement ratio.
 Workmanship to obtain full compaction and
efficient curing, and
 Shape and size of member.
 Damage to concrete
due of lack of Durability

 Fine to wide cracks developed in concrete.

 Scaling of concrete can take place.
 Spalling of concrete can happen.
 Disintegration of concrete takes place.
 Deposits of salts can take place, which is called
efflorescence of concrete.
 Complete structure failure can occur.
Cracks in
concrete
Cracks in concrete
Scaling of concrete
Delamination of concrete
Efflorescence in
concrete
Corrosion of steel
 Mechanisms of attack

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 Sources of Sulphate Attack

• Most soils contain sulphate in the form of calcium,

sodium, potassium and magnesium.They occur in
soils or ground water.
• Ammonium sulphate is frequently present in
agricultural soil and water from use of fertilizers or
from sewage and industrial effluents.
• Decay of organic matters in marshy lands,
shallow lakes often leads to formation of H2S
which can be transformed into sulphuric acid
by bacterial action.

• Therefore sulphate attack is common

occurrence in natural and industrial situations
 Reaction of Sulphate
Sulphates + Ca(OH)2 Gypsum

Sulphates + Hydrated C3A Ettringite

( Calcium Sulphoaluminate)

• Both products occupying a greater volume

than the compounds which they replace
• So that expansion and disruption of hardened
concrete take place.
• A characteristic whitish appearance is the
indication of sulphate attack.

• The extent of sulphate attack depends upon

its concentration and on the permeability of
concrete.
 CARBONATION
• Carbonation of concrete is a process by which CO2
from the air penetrates into concrete and in the
presence of moisture, reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form
CaCO3.

In the presence of moisture and CO2 reacts as

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

( Dil. Carbonic acid )
H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + 2H2O ( reduces alkalinity)
 H2CO3 attacks concrete

Carbonation of Ca(OH)2 takes place

This reduce alkalinity of concrete

When pH < 8.3

Passive Layer Destroyed and Corrosion occur

 Factors affecting rate of Carbonation

• Relative humidity- saturated concrete and dry

concrete are not susceptible to carbonation as
in first case diffusion of CO2 is very slow in
water and second case CO2 remains in gaseous
form. highest rate of carbonation occurs
between 50 to 70%.
• Depth of cover to reinforcement – more depth
of cover longer time it take to reach upto
reinforcement level.
 Chloride Attack
• Chloride attack is one of the most important
aspects while dealing with durability of
concrete.

• It primarily causes corrosion of reinforcement.

• Statistics have indicated that over 40% of

failure of structures is due to corrosion of
steel.
 When concrete is permeable

Soluble chlorides penetrate

right up to the reinforcement

In the presence of water and oxygen

The corrosion of steel will take place

 Sources of Chloride Ions
Chloride enters the concrete from

• Cement, water, aggregate

• Admixtures

If concrete is permeable, then from

• Diffusion from environment

• From sea-water
• From de-icing salts.
 ROLE OF CHLORIDE IONS
• The risk of corrosion increases as the chloride
content of concrete increases.
• When the chloride content at the surface of
the steel exceeds a certain limit, called the
threshold value, corrosion will occur if water
and oxygen are also available.
• The Bureau of Indian Standard had specified
the maximum chloride content in cement as
0.1%.
 Corrosion and Passive Layer

Steel’s natural tendency

Undergo corrosion reactions

The strongly alkaline nature of

Ca(OH)2 (pH of about 13) prevents
the corrosion of the steel
• The formation of a thin protective film of iron
oxide on the metal surface prevent the
corrosion of steel.
• This protection is known as PASSIVITY and
layer is known as passive layer or protective
layer.
Corrosion can occur when the passive layer is destroyed.

Destruction of the passive layer occurs, When

The alkalinity of The chloride concentration

the concrete in concrete is increased
is reduced due to carbonation to a certain level.
 Mechanism of corrosion of steel in concrete
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 Corrosion of Reinforcement

• Corrosion of steel in concrete is a electro-chemical process

involving the flow of charges .
• When there is a difference in electric potential along the steel
reinforcement in concrete, an electro-chemical cell is set up.

•For corrosion to occur, these elements must be present:

There must be at least two metals (or two locations on a

single metal) at different energy levels
an electrolyte
a metallic connection
Heterogeneities in the surface of the steel, such
as differences in grain structure and
composition, and local differences in the
electrolyte, due to the heterogeneous nature of
concrete, cause

• One region of the bar to act as an anode

• Another region to act as a cathode.
• Connected by electrolyte in the form of pore
water in the hardened cement paste.
In reinforced concrete, the reinforced bar may have
many separate areas at different energy levels.
Concrete acts as the electrolyte, and the metallic
connection is provided by wire ties, chair supports,
or the reinforced bar itself.
Anodic reactions
 On anodic sites, iron atoms lose electrons and
move into the surrounding concrete as ferrous
ions (anodic oxidation: Fe++).
Fe  Fe++ + 2 e -
Cathodic reaction
 The electrons flow through the bar to cathodic
sites.
 At cathode, they are absorbed by the
constituents of the electrolyte
 And combine with water and oxygen in the
concrete to form hydroxyl ions (OH)-.
 4 e- + 2H2O + O2  4 (OH) –
These hydroxyl ions (OH)- travel through the
electrolyte
And combine with the ferrous ions to form ferric
hydroxide which is converted by further
oxidation to rust.
Fe++ + 2 (OH)–  Fe(OH)2
( Ferrous hydroxide )
4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3
( Ferric hydroxide )
( Rust )
 Chloride induced Corrosion

• Chloride ions present in the cement paste

surrounding the reinforcement react at anodic
sites to form HCl.
• This destroys the passive protective film on
the steel. ( around pH of 11)

Fe++ + 2 Cl–  FeCl2

( Ferrous chloride )
FeCl2 + 2H2O 4Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
 This activated locally surface of the steel
forming the ANODE

 The passive surface forming the CATHODE.

• The corrosion is in the form of localized

pitting.
• Because of the acidic environment in the pit,
the pit remains active and increase in depth.
4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3
( Ferric hydroxide )
( Rust )
Vol. of products of corrosion = 6 x original
volume of steel

This exert thrust on cover concrete

Resulting in cracks

Then spalling or delamination of concrete.

 Effect of Relative Humidity
on Corrosion

No corrosion takes place if the concrete is

Dry or Relative humidity < 60%

Reason - Enough water is not there to promote

corrosion.
 If concrete is fully submersed into water

Corrosion does not take place

Reason - Diffusion of oxygen does not take

place into the concrete.

Optimum relative humidity for corrosion

70 to 80%.
Rapid Chloride Penetration
Test ( RCPT) Setup
RCPT RATINGS
 Action of Frost
Freezing point of Pure water in the open = 0oC.

In the concrete

The water is a solution of various salts

So its freezing point is lower i.e. below 0oC.

Freezing point is lower for smaller size of pores

 Pores range from very large to very small

So there is no single freezing point.

The gel pores are too small to permit the

formation of ice

So the greater part of freezing takes place in the

capillary cavities or pores.
 In porous and saturated concrete

All voids are filled with water

When water freezes

The ice forms

Result - increase in volume by approx. 9%

 As the temperature of concrete drops

Freezing occurs gradually

Still unfrozen water in the capillary pores is

subjected to hydraulic pressure by the expanding
volume of ice.

No space for pressure relief

Result is internal tensile stresses of sufficient

magnitude to cause local failure of the concrete
 On subsequent thawing

The expansion caused by ice is maintained

So that there is more space for additional water

On re-freezing

Further expansion occurs.

 Repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing have a cumulative effect

It is repeated freezing and thawing

that causes damage to concrete
Damage due to Repeated Freezing & Thawing
 Role of Air voids and Empty Capillaries

The presence of air voids and empty capillaries

allows a relief of hydraulic pressure
( caused by formation of ice) by the
flow of water into these spaces

This is the basis of air entrainment

which is used to increase the resistance
of concrete for freezing and thawing
Factors influencing resistance of concrete to
freezing and Thawing
 Degree of Saturation

Below critical value of degree of saturation

( 80 to 90 % )

Concrete is highly resistant to frost

Dry concrete is totally unaffected

Pore structure of cement paste
Pore volume and pore size should be small

This is achieved by using low W/C mix

It is essential that substantial hydration

takes place before exposure to freezing

Such concrete of low permeability

imbibes less water
 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

• Chemical reactions between aggregate

containing certain reactive constituents and
alkalis (sodium and potassium salts) and
hydroxyl ions released by the hydration of
cement can have deleterious effects on concrete.

• Granite, granite gneiss and schist, quartzite

and sandstone, containing strained quartz are
among the reactive rocks found in India.

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 Alkali-silica reaction in concrete
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Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)
• Visual Symptoms
(cont.)
– Fragments breaking out of the
surface (popouts)
 Alkali silica reaction (ASR)
Mechanism
• The reaction can be visualized as a two-step
process:
– Alkali hydroxide + reactive silica gel → alkali-silica
gel
– Alkali-silica gel + moisture → expansion
Creation of alkali-silica gel

Siliceous aggregate in solution

Creation of alkali-silica gel

Surface of aggregate is attacked by OH-

H20 + Si-O-Si Si-OH…OH-Si

 Creation of alkali-silica gel

4. Released SiO- molecules attract alkali cations

in pore solution, forming an alkali-silica gel
around the aggregate.

Si-OH + Na+ + OH- Si-O-Na + H20

 Creation of alkali-silica gel

5. Alkali-silica gel takes in water, expanding and

exerting an osmotic pressure against the
surrounding paste or aggregate.
 Creation of alkali-silica gel

6. When the expansionary pressure exceeds

the tensile strength of the concrete, the
concrete cracks.
Images of ASR damage
8. Once ASR damage has begun:

Expansion and cracking of concrete

Increased permeability

More water and external alkalis penetrate concrete

Increased ASR damage

 Factors Promoting ASR

– Reactive type of aggregate which contain reactive silica in particular proportion

and in particular fineness.
– high-alkali content in cement
– Availability of moisture
– Optimum temperature condition

Note : Aggregates are found reactive when it contain silica in a particular proportion
and particular fineness.

If one of these conditions is absent ― ASR cannot occur.

 Temperature Effects
Thermal effects due to heat rise inside concrete
following the hydration of cement can become
prominent in thick sections.
Hydration of cement causes exothermic rise in
temperature of the concrete. In concrete members of
relatively large sizes, the rise in temperature can be of
the order of 40 to 50 degrees Celsius above the
placing temperature.
Significant tensile stress may develop due to
variation of temperature within the concrete.
Such temperature-induced cracking can be
experienced in mass concrete members like dams,
thick foundations, etc.Dr. A K Mullick
Saturday, May 14, 2022 70
Effects of the Temperature Differential –

 Temperature differential or thermal gradient inside and across the mass,

causes cracking.

 With the generation of heat of hydration of cement, temperature of

concrete rises. Because concrete has low thermal conductivity, the heat
generated within the mass can be dissipated rather slowly. While the
outside surface cools down rapidly, the inside temperature takes time to
come to equilibrium with the ambient. This sets up the thermal gradient.

 Thermal expansion of inside mass of concrete at higher temperature is

prevented by the outside mass, which is at lower temperature. This gives
rise to tensile forces and lead to cracking.

 Heat escapes from a mass of concrete inversely as the squire of its least
lateral dimension. Hence, the importance of the size or dimension of the
structure becomes obvious.

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 Steps to Reduce Thermal Cracking

The main emphasis is on temperature control.

This is achieved by a number of measures as enumerated
below;
• Selection of low-heat-generating cement systems,
•    Use of low cement content and large size aggregates,
•    Pre-cooling of mix water and aggregates to lower the
temperature of fresh concrete, Post-cooling of hardened
concrete,
•    Appropriate block dimensions for placement, lift heights
and placing schedules, and
• Desirable concrete properties
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‘The compressive strength of concrete is the
principal factor controlling the resistance to
abrasion. The minimum strength required depends
on the severity of abrasion expected. Very high
strength concretes exhibit a high resistance to
abrasion: for example, increasing the compressive
strength from 50 MPa to 100 MPa increases the
abrasion resistance by 50 percent’ .

- A. M. Neville, 2000

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 Remedial Measures
A logical approach to prevent deterioration comprises;
 Make concrete as dense and impermeable as possible, by
adopting low water-cement ratio and thorough compaction.
Use of right type of cement,
Adequate cement content to retain passivity of steel and allow
proper workability of concrete; use of chemical admixtures and
superplasticisers,
S Steps to alleviate thermal cracking in massive sections.
S Strong concrete for abrasion resistance

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 Summary
·  Most of the deteriorating chemical actions are expansion- producing,
which causes cracking.

•  Presence of moisture is necessary for the chemical reactions to take

place and proceed.

·  In addition, there could be cracking caused by thermal effects.

Abrasion is critical for wearing surfaces.

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