Running Head: Chapter One, Two, and Three

Running Head: CHAPTER ONE, TWO, AND THREE
To Investigate the Effects of Variations in Orders in Government Constructions Projects in
Oman
[Name of the Writer]
[Name of the Institution]

Chapter One, Two, And Three 1
Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER # 1: Introduction ..........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Background of the Study ............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Problem Statement .....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Research Objectives ...................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Research Questions ....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Scope of the Study ......................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Significance of the Research ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ethical Considerations ...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Structure of the Research ...........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter # 2:Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 11
Introduction ................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Definition of Variation ...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Pervasiveness of Variation Orders on Construction Projects ...Error! Bookmark not defined.
Nature and Types of Variation Orders.......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Nature of Variation Orders ....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Types of Variation Orders ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Contractual Provisions Relative to Variation Orders................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Origin of Variation Orders ........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Origin Agents ..........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Variation Orders and Project Delivery Systems ........................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Design-Build (DB) ..................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) ..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Management of Variation Orders ..............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Causes and Effects of Variation Orders.................................................................................... 26
Recommended Strategies to Minimize Variation Orders ...........Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER # 1: Research Methodology ....................................................................................... 32
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 32
Research Approach ................................................................................................................... 32
Population and Sampling .......................................................................................................... 33
Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 34
Desk Study ............................................................................................................................. 34
Interviews .............................................................................................................................. 34
Questionnaire ......................................................................................................................... 34
Qualitative Methodology........................................................................................................... 35
Qualitative Data ..................................................................................................................... 36
Inductive Examination of the Qualitative Data ..................................................................... 36
Necessity of Meaning in Qualitative Data ............................................................................. 36

Quantitative Methodology......................................................................................................... 37
Comparison of Both Methods ................................................................................................... 38
Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................................. 39
Validity .................................................................................................................................. 39
Reliability .............................................................................................................................. 40
Tools Utilized for Data Collection and Communication .......................................................... 40
Research Design Summary ....................................................................................................... 41
References ..................................................................................................................................... 42
Abstract
Variations in orders are one of the main issues in most projects related with construction. The
basic aim of this study is to research in-depth the adverse causes and effects of variation in
orders on government construction projects in Oman. Objectives of the study are the following:
(1) what causes variation in orders to occur in construction projects of Oman; (2) what are the
adverse impacts of variation in orders on construction projects; and (3) lastly to provide
recommendations to help mitigate and effectively eliminate the issue of variation in orders.
Extensive reviews will be done of previous literature focused on the same specific research area.
Interviews and questionnaires will be the techniques used to collect data both in the quantitative
and qualitative form. Interpretations will be made through statistical analysis of the collected
data which will help in providing a conclusion to all stakeholders of Omani construction firms as
to why variation in orders occur and what are the ways to prevent it.
CHAPTER # 1: Introduction
Study Background
The construction contract is a legal agreement which can be altered or subjected to
variability. There are clauses in contracts included by parties allowing them to make changes and
giving them the freedom of initiating variation in orders without changing the terms of the
contract (Gokulkarthi and Gowrishankar 2015). The scope of the contract is likely to change
even if it is planned carefully as the construction industry can be very volatile (Assbeihat and
Sweis 2015).
It is a common sight to see variations and conflicts between parties in during the course
of a construction project. Whether they decrease or increase the venture’s schedule or cost, any
deletion, addition or any other revision to the terms of the project is known as variation in orders
(Assbeihat and Sweis 2015). Alteration of building works, project programs, project aspects
caused by modifications of preexisting assumptions, requirements, conditions and design are all
known as changes or variations in orders with regards to a construction project (Gokulkarthi and
Gowrishankar 2015).
It has been revealed by several studies that variation in orders is one of the main reasons
for cost overruns in projects. A research focused on the adverse effects caused by variation in
orders revealed that every time variation in orders occurred in a construction project the project
had the issue of cost overrun as well. The studies also revealed that the variation of orders in
project almost always increased the cost and time period of the project (Kikwasi 2013).
Developing countries such as Oman need to effectively eliminate this issue from the construction
sector as the country cannot afford delays and cost overruns in the governmental projects with
any value being added to the project. Oman’s construction sector is considered as an integral
sector with regards to Oman’s economy. Although, this sector has faced great issues since its
establishment such as variation in orders which have not allowed it to reach its full potential
(Sunday 2010).Countless construction projects are currently in progress in Muscat, Oman.
Overall costs and the management aspects were mainly focused on in the previous studies related
to variation in orders. Two principles underlying the theory of waste reduction were revealed
through a study conducted by (Islam, Trigunarsyah, Hassanain, and Assaf 2015). Time
compression and reduction of variability were the two principals involved which led to
minimizing waste. Variation in orders is referred to when using variability when on the issue of
the construction sector. The counterpart of waste reduction can be identified as variation in
orders. Increasing of waste is imminent when variation in orders occurs as the variation will take
more time of the project as well as contribute to heavier cost and damages which could also lead
to cost overrun (Larsen, Shen, Lindhard, and Brunoe 2015). The fact that variation in orders is
common in construction project has been identified by researchers and investigators; however,
the adverse effects it has on construction projects have been completely ignored and overlooked.
However, many projects have been subjected to variation in orders and have been put on
hold due to reasons such as increase in resource cost, construction material shortage, lack of
skilled manpower and shortage of modern construction equipment, all of which are a great
problem to Oman’s construction sector. Hence, the primary goal of this thesis will be to study the
adverse impacts and causes of these undesired variations in orders and also provide
recommendations on how to effectively eliminate this plague from the construction industry of
Oman.
Problem Statement
According to Han, Love, and Peña-Mora (2013), Variations are unavoidable in projects
related to construction. There are several factors like changes to the market conditions might
alter the requirements and needs of the client related to the projects, it can happen wither during
designing phase or construction phase. Also, novel technologies have an effect and transform the
project’s development. Above mentioned factors might cause an effect on the architectural
designs which will consequently root modifications to the engineering design that result in
variations. Moreover, mistakes in design caused by engineers and all through construction are
going to oblige changes to the construction projects. In addition, the price of the contract is
increased if there are variations found in the document of the contract and drawings. The
contractual disputes possibilities are further increased because of variations (Almahmoud, Doloi,
and Panuwatwanich 2012). On the whole, problems are caused by variations for everybody who
is concerned with the project. There could be several factors causing the variation relevant to the
building projects. The process of the construction could be affected by exceedingly altering
variables and random factors that can come from diverse sources. These sources containing those
factors include the construction parties’ performance, resources availability, and participation of
other parties, contractual relations, and ecological conditions. The result of these sources is that
the project’s construction might come across variations that can cause hindrance in the
completion time of the project (Marzouk and El-Rasas 2014).
Variation in orders has now become too common in the construction sector of Oman
which is adversely affecting the sector and the economy of the country. Changes made to
construction projects to alter or modify the scope of the construction project are known as
variation in orders. Variation in orders of construction projects can cause countless problems
such as disputes, delays and conflicts between parties involved in the project. However, no
technique or method has been developed yet to prevent the issue of variation in orders from
negatively impacting construction projects of Oman. Although, studying the causes that directly
contribute to the occurring of variation in orders of construction projects, will help in developing
effective techniques to eliminate the problem. The variation in orders of a governmental project
can hinder the success of that project and identifying the causes of these variations can help in
effectively eliminating the problem while simultaneously improving the performance of the
construction project.
Research Objectives
The key objectives of this research are:
 To find out variation orders’ causes;
 To discover variation orders’ impact; and
 To suggest strategies that can help in reducing variation orders.
Research Questions
Considering the study objectives, designing and answering the research questions
mentioned below will identify the general purpose:
 What are the causes of variation orders?
 What are the effects of variation orders?
 What can be done to reduce variation orders?

Scope of the Study
Oman currently has many different projects that are currently underway in the country.
The scope would be too extensive to handle considering the area to cover and the number of
projects to review. Hence, Muscat which is the capital of Oman will be focused on by this study
as the city has a number of public buildings currently under construction. Due to limitation of
schedule and budget for the study, this scope limitation arises. Those projects which have been
initiated since July 2017 and the structure being built is G+2, will be considered and reviewed
for data for this study.
Significance of the Research
Since the factor of variation in orders has many adverse effects that can endanger a
project in the construction industry, its causes and what influences variation in orders is vital
information which needs to be identified, as well as how construction companies can minimize
the risk of variation in orders. The study will try to determine remedial processes that can
effectively eliminate the problem of variation in orders while supporting the governmental sector
of construction of Oman. This study aims to be a guideline and aims to be helpful to the Omani
government in assessing the damages of variation in orders as well as the causes which cause this
major issue in the construction industry.
Ethical Considerations
Anonymity will be provided to all construction firms and participants of the study so that the
information provided by them does not have any effects on their personal lives as well as
encouraging honesty among participants. There will be no compensation or benefits given to the
participants so that an uninfluenced and unbiased opinion can be obtained. The following aspects
will be enforced to ensure quality of the study:
 Data capturing done through accurate and precise means, for good quality of data.
 Calculations done through precise and accurate means.
 All concerned questions are relevant to the topic of the study.
 Completeness and accuracy of questionnaire, especially if open-ended.
Structure of the Research
Chapter # 1: Introduction – First chapter of this research will comprise the research background,
statement of the problem, research objectives, and research questions, scope of the study,
significance of the research, ethical consideration, and structure of the research.
Chapter # 2: Literature Review – The second chapter of this research explores earlier studies
concerning the effects of variation orders. In this chapter, the definition, origin, causes and effect
of variation orders on construction projects are discussed.
Chapter # 3: Research Methodology, Results and Findings – The third chapter will elaborate the
methods and tools to be used for the collection of data, and their results and findings.
Chapter # 4: Analysis - This chapter will analyse the results and findings of the gathered data.
Chapter # 5: Recommendation and Conclusion – Recommendations and conclusions are going to
be made upon the analysis of the data, relating them to the statement of the problem, and
research objectives.
A mission undertaken to create a unique service, facility or product in the specified time, cost,
quality and resources, is known as construction project. However, most construction projects can
face countless issues such as delays, cost overruns and conflicts due to the issue of variation in
orders.
An inevitable issue in construction projects is the variation of the scope which may occur even
before the phase of the contract. The issue of variation is undeniable in construction projects
(Ndihokubwayo 2009). The possibility of variation in a construction project is always high due
to the large number of factors that can positively or negatively influence a project. Variation may
still inevitably occur despite the best efforts of administration, planning and implementation of
the contract, by all personnel participating in the project. If all participants don’t recognize the
immense problem of variation, the project may subsequently fail (Sweis et al. 2014). Variations
due to unexpected conditions faced in the construction field or variation due to change of scope
of work are the major variations that usually occur in all projects. Factors such as subsurface
conditions, terrain and existing utilities can cause two buildings with similar design and building
structure to be different in other factors. The contract administration process however, still
allows for the variation of orders.
Predictions towards the human behavior of all participants involved in the project,
towards the contract can also not be made. Changes in the mind or heart of participants involved
in contracts are another major cause of variation in construction projects. The clients or
contractors are usually the people that initiate the variation in orders (Ijaola and Iyagba 2012).
There were four main root causes of variation in orders revealed by a study focused on
construction projects (Alzahrani and Emsley 2013). Contractors, consultants, unspecified
“others” and clients were the four main root agents that caused variation in orders in construction
projects.
Chapter # 2: Literature Review
Introduction
Creating a unique and desired structure in the allocated funds, time and area is known as
a construction project. However, in reality due to poor workmanship or poor use of funds and
other incidents cause projects to have cost overruns and also influence variation in the plan of the
project as well as other aspects (Alinaitwe, Apolot, and Tindiwensi 2013).
It is a fact that variation in orders will undoubtedly occur in projects sometimes even
before the contract is signed. Variations are an inevitable reality for all construction projects
(Almahmoud et al 2012). During the course of a construction project, the only constant aspect is
that of variations. Variation will almost certainly occur, despite all the best efforts of the
concerned personnel involved in implementation, administration and planning of the project as
well as the contract. If not considered and monitored by all personnel collectively, the variation
and variation in orders can greatly affect a project (Hanif et al 2016). Variations in the scope of
the project caused due to the unexpected conditions of the field of the project are the most
common type of variations in a construction project. Factors such as surface area, existing
utilities and terrain are very important as they can be the difference between two completely
same structures. In simpler terms the construction industry has accepted the major problem of
variation in orders as a process of the contract administration phase (Alzahrani and Emsley
2013).
Definition of variation order; contractual provisions relative to variation orders; type and
nature of variation orders; will all be included in this section as the literature review will contain
all the past literature available on variation in orders

Definition of Variation
Variation cannot be defined by one single definition. The definition of variation is more
or less similar even though it differs in the various literatures on the issue. A definition of a
variation in terms of specific activities and actions will usually be included in any standard form
of building contract. Additions, omissions or alterations in materials, working hours, work space,
work etc. are known as variations, as defined by the building contract dictionary.
An instruction given by the engineer, who will result in variation of the work, is known
as ‘variation’, as defined by PPA (2006).
Any change in work which is approved or instructed is known as variation, as defined by
FIDIC (1998).
Assbeihat and Sweis (2015) described that variation in a construction project simple
meant any alterations or changes to the project that were not agreed upon or discussed in the
original contract. Variations not only change the type or effectiveness of work but also bring
about change to the conditions and clauses of the original contract.
Variation can be any one of these or all of the following as defined by (Larsen et al 2015):
 The modification or alteration of the quantity, design or quality of the works, as referred
to or described in the contract bills and shown upon the contract drawings, and includes
the omission, substitution and addition of any work, the modification of the products,
utilities and materials to be used for the building of the project, are all included as
variation in construction projects.

 Modifications of instructions related with the work’s nature are also particularly named
as variation in construction contracts.
 Alteration to the contract or one of its clauses with the consent and agreement of both
parties after signing of the original contract, are also known as variation in orders in
terms of construction projects
 The contract sum adjusted to accommodate all labours and utilities will also be included
in a variation in price clause in the original contract.
Every change in the quantity or quality of the project from the originally spelled or
mentioned in a contract document are known as variations, as defined by (Sweis et al 2014).
Every sort of divergence such as addition, omission or modification, other than mentioned in
contract concerning the contract specifications, drawings or bills of quantities are called
variations (Sunday 2010). According to the researchers the modification or alteration of the
quality of works, design, as mentioned in the contract drawings, specifications and/or are known
as variations (Koushki, Al‐Rashid and Kartam 2005).
When the initial scope of the work will be altered due to change in any clauses of the
contract, it is defined as a variation in contract as defined by (Kikwasi 2013). The authority to
approve a variation order is only in the hands of the owner while the variation is implemented by
the contractor. It is explained by Koushki, Al‐Rashid and Kartam (2005) that the owner has the
authority to influence a variation in the contract by only subtracting and adding specific features
that are within the scope of the project. A supplementary agreement is required for variations
which are outside the scope of the project.

The modification, alteration, amendment, change or revision to the original purpose of
the contract, its works and its clauses are generally referred to when discussing variation in terms
of construction projects. For modification of the original contractual agreement, a variation order
is issued which is collectively complied with all the documents of the project (Ijaola and Iyagba
2012). Only with the agreement and consent of the owner will a variation order be issued to the
contractor.
Pervasiveness of Variation Orders on Construction Projects
Unfortunately, variation orders occur in construction projects as they include complex
actions and utilities of which the results cannot be predicted. It is argued that variation in orders
is inevitable in construction projects and cannot be avoided (Kikwasi 2013). Jawad et al (2009)
explained that the inclusion of variation clauses in modern construction contracts prove that no
construction project can be completed without variation. As the work progresses, no matter how
much planning has gone into the project there may be minor changes that will result in
substantial variations. The researchers also revealed that due to the limitations of time and
money for planning and the uniqueness of each project, variation occurs. The commonness of
variation orders in construction projects is argued by many investigators, researchers and authors
(Kikwasi 2013; Oladapo 2007).
Rao and Joseph Camron (2014) explained that due to the complexity of construction
activities, it is almost impossible to complete a construction project without changes to the
construction process or the plans itself. Reasons ranging from aesthetic, geological, weather
conditions to feasibility of construction, statutory changes, and discrepancies between contract

documents, product improvement, finance and design are all responsible for variation in orders
(Kikwasi 2013). Additionally, the behavior of the humans towards the contract and with honesty
can also not be predicted which can be another cause of variation. Change of heart or minds of
the parties involved may also result in a change of contract or even in extreme cases the
dissolution of the project. Contractors and clients both have the power to initiate variation in a
project (Assbeihat and Sweis 2015).
Given the volatile nature of the construction industry and its complex natures, it is
necessary to now include variation clauses in contracts. Since the prediction and visualization of
the end-product is very tough in this field, accommodations should be made for changes and
variations Measures for variations should be included in contracts for unseen conditions that may
arise with the gradual progression of the project (González, González, Molenaar, and Orozco
2013). Although, there are also disadvantages of these variation clauses as the architects may
keep a much lazier hand in finalizing the plans for the projects as they know that through
utilizing these variation clauses they can finalize the plans at any time of the project.
However, according to Alzahrani and Emsley (2013) this is considered as an advantage
as the engineers and architects are much more free in their approach as they can leave critical
decisions until the last possible moment of the project. However, critics argue of another
disadvantage of variation clauses which make clients much more confused about the project and
embark prematurely only to find themselves backing out utilizing these clauses and wasting
much resources and time (Enshassi et al 2010.). Durability, optimality and functionality are
traditionally the three major requirements of a client from a project. Advice on optimum design
and use of resources to achieve these objectives, clients hire consultant and advisory teams.
Contractors on the other hand focus mainly on managing and effectively reducing the cost of a
specific project. Agents and clients may be sources of higher construction costs which is
completely overseen and ignored. Using multiple variation orders can result in great cost
overruns in a project which can sometimes be forgotten by clients and their agents/consultants.
An example of this would be if the client wants the project to be completed at a specific date,
they may initiate the construction phase before the design phase is properly completed which
may result in design flaws and other discrepancies for the project in terms of the long run. As a
result, some works are put on hold and others are subject to abortion or demolition.
Aborted works are usually classified as wastage of resources which are typically billed to
the client. This is a major contributing factor to cost overruns.
A study by Skoyles and Skoyles (1987) revealed that lack of awareness is one of the
major reasons for costs of a project to increase. The fact that reduction of variation in orders can
reduce construction costs is not understood or believed by the construction industry. Ibbs (1997)
also proved this fact through a study which stated that changes will have many adverse effects on
the cost and productivity of a project.
Nature and Types of Variation Orders
Nature of Variation Orders
A research by Doloi et al (2012) revealed that “emergent variation” and “anticipated
variations” are the two types of variations. Emergent variation arises spontaneously and are not
originally intended or anticipated. On the other hand, anticipated variations are planned in
advance and occur as intended. Necessity is another basis on which variation can be reviewed
and studied. “Required variations “and “elective variations” can be the two types of variation
according to this basis. A study by Ming et al. (2004) revealed that a required variation is where
there is no option but to make the variation; while an elective variation is where one may choose
whether or not to implement. There will be variations in a project before completion, no matter
how much planning goes into it. According to Ndihokubwayo (2009) both the reasons for their
effect and subsequent occurrences can be used as a basis to determine the types of variation that
occur in a construction project. (Arain & Pheng, 2005) classified variation orders into two,
namely: beneficial and detrimental variation orders.
Beneficial Variation Orders
Hanif et al (2016) described in their study that, an order issued to reduce cost, schedule,
and degree of difficulty in a project or improve the quality standard is known as a beneficial
variation order. As a result, this type of order will reduce the cost of the project; while also
eliminating unnecessary costs, which can better help the client. Value analysis is the main
purpose of initiating beneficial variation orders, to realize a balance between the functionality,
durability and cost aspects of a project for the satisfaction of the clients. An organized approach
used to identify and eliminate unnecessary costs which are costs that provide neither life, nor
quality, nor customer features, nor appearance, nor use, is known as value analysis (Sunday
2010).
Detrimental Variation Orders
The study by Ndihokubwayo (2009) also gave us the definition of detrimental variation
orders, which are orders that negatively impact the project’s performance and the client’s value.
An example of a detrimental variation order is that if a project has gone into cost overruns and
the client is low on investment he will make a variation in utilities from high standards to lower
cheaper ones which will inevitably and adversely impact the project and its value. The client’s
value system is also adversely impacted by these detrimental orders.
Types of Variation Orders
Many considerable and adverse impacts may be had on projects due to variation in orders
which can occur due to a number of reasons, at any stage of the project and are very common in
construction projects in not only Oman but worldwide. Re-estimation of work statement, extra
demands of materials, labor, overtime, equipment and consecutive delays in project schedule
may all be caused due to critical variations in the project. Chances of a Project failing are very
high when variation occurs during the construction phase or contract signing phase as these
differences and variations can not only affect the schedule and cost of projects but also change
the perspective or the parties and clients involved. Marzouk and El-Rasas (2014) summarized
variations as Table below:
Table: Variation types (Marzouk and El-Rasas 2014)

Contractual Provisions Relative to Variation Orders
The employer is enabled to issue the contractor orders of variation in the project or the
contract through specific clauses included in the contract. The variations clause usually provides
the introduction of different materials, revised timing and sequence, and a change in shape of the
scheme. Usually a provision for altering and accommodating the completion date is provided
while a mechanism to evaluate the potential effects and damages of variation is also included. A
variation in the works of the project will be made quite difficult for an employer without these
specific clauses. Some difficulties in variations without these clauses may be contractor
problems in refusing to carry out the work or insisting for an advance payment. Payment in
excess of contract rates may be required for the extra work required to implement any type of
variation in a project.
The usual bases upon which contracts are drafted in the Omani construction industry are
taken from the Ministry of Urban Development and Construction (MUDC), Public Procurement
(PPA) and Federation Internationale Des Ingenieurs Conseils (FIDIC). The guidelines for
contract administration, they consequentially alter variation of construction works unless and
otherwise they are replaced or deleted by other words or sentences in the specific conditions of
contract for a project and the duties and responsibilities of the parties involved in the contract are
all clearly and explicitly mentioned in the conditions of these contracts.
Origin of Variation Orders
Origin Agents
Client
From completion way back to the inception phase, the most critical and important
participant related to the project is the owner as the initiator of the project. Therefore, the
chances and possibility of a variation occurring in a construction project is highly influenced by
the owner’s decisions. The projects scope establishment, predicting future needs and
requirements of the project and ensuring top quality of work as well as material is all done by the
client/owner. There are various reasons due to which variation orders are initiated in a project by
the owner or clients. Rao and Joseph Camron (2014) revealed that a change in requirements was
the primary reason due to which clients were influenced to initiate variation in a project, for
example, the client may have a change of heart about the purpose of the structure being built.
There are two categories of clients which are those with little to no construction experience or
those who know the field and industry well. The design team can also be aided through a more
professional and direct idea of the design with an owner who has experience in the construction
industry. Continuous change during the critical phase of construction can be avoided through this
experienced approach. Since the clients have knowledge about the workings of the construction
industry they will be enabled to have a more elaborate and personal hand in the design process
which will minimize chances of confusion and changes later on (Han, Love, and Peña-Mora
2013).
Consultant
Architects who would overlook the site of the project and would have a pivotal role in the
design of the structure were initially heavily relied on by inexperienced clients. In the modern
construction industry, rather than a single entity representing the needs of the client, there is a
greater need of a much more elaborate consultant team which can handle the design, construction
and workings of the project, exactly according to the clients need to minimize the chances of
variation in a project. Architects, designers, specialist engineers, project managers and cost
consultants are all included in this elaborate consultant team. Upon consent with the client and
on their behalf, the consultant team has full right to initiate variation orders in the construction
projects.
It is the duty of the consultant team to come up with effective and remedial solutions in
case of a conflict in any phase of the contract may it be construction, inception or even
contractual. The consultant is to be notified immediately if the contractor uncovers any
discrepancies in the drawings or the paperwork of the project. If an ambiguous situation develops
during the project the contractor is not permitted to continue operations. Resources may be
wasted due to idle plant or labor due to the ambiguity of the consultant in implementing the
variation order. Han et al (2013) revealed that understanding of the overall goals and scope of the
project, offering specific suggestions when it makes sense and understanding the deliverables is
an important job for the consultant. Without a negative effect on the productivity of the project
all these processes need to be carried out swiftly and without delay by the contractor. However,
the critical requests of a contractor may be ignored by the consultant due to a false sense of pride
through being in a superior situation.
Contractor
The origin of variation orders is usually through the contractors. González et al (2013)
advised in their study that all problems should be closely monitored by all participants of a
project. The accuracy of the information provided by the consultant should not be relied on by
any party involved with the project. Whenever a technical issue or problem occurs during the
project, it is the job of the contractor to convey the problem and influence a variation in the
project through the consultant. A study by Ndihokubwayo (2009) revealed that obvious
omissions, errors, conflicts or discrepancies in the contract document may be discovered by
contractors after which they would communicate with the architect in fixing the problem, while
also agreeing on a price for the additional cost required to effect the change in the project and the
finally initiating the variation order. Whenever a technology is deemed unfit by a contractor to
complete the required efficiency in the project, he is permitted to implement other methods or
techniques based on his experience. The Omani industry has experienced discrepancies in
projects due to the design team which resulted in roof leakage in a school in which case the
contractor is required to be adaptive and experienced to handle such problems and discrepancies
by other parties involved in the project (Doloi et al 2012).

Variation Orders and Project Delivery Systems
Throughout the whole duration of the project from inception to occupancy, project
delivery systems are deployed to successfully achieve the purpose of the construction project
efficiently. Various contracting formats may be employed by these project delivery systems to
successfully deliver up to the standards of the target. An important decision which determines
how the construction project is to be built and designed has to be made at a very initial stage of
the project by the owner (Odabasi et al., 2003). Particular systems designed for the delivery of
the projects have been developed to cover specific requirements of owners according to the
changing and modernizing construction industry as well as the fluctuating prices of the market.
The advanced Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) and Design-Build (DB) are some of the modern
project delivery systems used in the current construction market. Due to the objective of the
study to provide a clear understanding of the concept, the Integrated Project Delivery (IPD)
system is mentioned in the study even though it has been used quite rarely in projects.
Design-Build (DB)
Regarded as an alternative project delivery method, the method of Design-Build (DB) is
the oldest approach. An influential figure known as the master builder was instilled with the
entire responsibility of the project from design to construction in ancient times. This tradition
was followed up till recently in the late 19th century when science discovered the architect and
engineer to be two different professions enabling more productivity in a project (Alinaitwe,
Apolot, and Tindiwensi 2013). In this type of delivery method, the contractor is usually assigned
with the job to hire suitable designers and constructers to effectively and successfully deliver the
project.
Hanif et al (2016) revealed in a study that, a DB team is contracted by the owner, that
could be an enterprise of a designer as a sub-consultant with a contractor, a contractor as a
subcontracted entity with a team led by a designer, a single firm capable of performing both
construction and design, or a designer and a contractor. Usually the lead members of such teams
are contractors as they have the ability to sacrifice on corporate capital in completing projects.
The process when a proprietor employs a developer, that brings its own contractor and
designer partners, is also a slightly different variant of the same DB team structure formula
which is known as fee-paid developer. No matter in which way the team is designed, the
complete designing of the project usually based on a preliminary scope of design provided by the
owner, will be conducted by the DB team. A prescribed process will be used by the DB team
during a specific stage of the project in which they will determine their fee for the designing of
the project. All coordination between construction and design as well as the whole responsibility
of the construction of the project will be on the DB team once the project is initiated.
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD)
Not many projects have been contracted using this method as this method is relatively
new to the construction industry of Oman. A multiparty agreement among the prime players
which includes at least the designer, builder and owner and can go to the extent of the important
sub-contractors of the project, in the construction and design process is required by this
contractual process known as IPD (Ijaola and Iyagba 2012).

Variation Orders Management
The processes to realize the completion of a construction project as well as its nature are
both very complex things. Hence, construction projects are commonplace for variations to take
place. Contract instructions are usually used to issue variation order. After the work is carried out
according to a variation in the working of a project, the dues used in this work to implement the
change need to be reimbursed to the contractor by the employer.
Oldapo (2007) reveals that how variation orders can be initiated through contractual
clauses. Every case involves oral instruction being transcribed into physical writing or physical
writing instructions in implementing variation orders in a project (Oldapo 2007; Sunday 2010;
Kikwasi 2013). Since oral instructions are not required to be followed by the contractor, hence
each and every oral instruction is needed to be confirmed in black and white by the contractor
or/and the consultant. The document must be confirmed by the consultant through a signature if
the document is drafted by the contractor. The works and operations will proceed as planned if
the plan is agreed upon by the contractor.
Causes and Effects of Variation Orders (Journal by Journal)
Alnuaimi et al. (2010) studied about the variations in the construction projects of Oman,
the study also investigated the variation causes, broke down their effect on the projects,
recognized helpful destinations and offered devices to relieve related issues. Concerning comes
about on the effect of the change arrange, it was presumed that the most vital impact of the
change was the "finish of undertaking delay" in the two cases, that is, include or dispense with.
The postponement on account of the total is very self-evident, and on account of an oversight,
this is because of the customer's aim to utilize the sum put something aside for the extra work,
which at times should be finished. This impact will be added to the cases and question, which
will show up in second place.
The principle factors that reason delays in ventures in Oman, poor administration and
supervision of contractual workers, issues of subcontractors, lack of foresight undertakings and
programming temporary workers illustrations fumble contract based workers postpone the
conveyance of materials and the absence of an Effective correspondence between venture
members Ruqaishi et al. (2015). The reason for this examination is to explore the reasons for
delays in development ventures at oil and gas refineries in Oman. Audit of the writing and of a
study led among the invested individuals of the oil and gas industry, it has been demonstrated
that the postponements in the undertaking were caused by the bureaucratic arrangement of the
administration and the span of the venture endorsement process, the poor outline group task of
ineptitude, insufficient offering rehearses and delays in execution. inner proprietor endorsement
strategies.
The surveys comprised of 44 conceivable purposes behind the postponement, which
ought to be shown by the significance of each of them, utilizing the Likert size of 5 focuses.
Variables that reason delays in oil and gas operations are referenced in the demand: reasons
related with the customer, for reasons identified with contractual workers reasons identified with
the advisor, reasons related with the materials, causes and contract reasons identified with
business related gear, and outside causes. The polls were sent to 210 undertaking directors, a
specialist and a temporary worker in a few associations. The aggregate number of respondents
was around 59, which is 28%. In this examination, Cronbach's alpha used to confirm the
legitimacy of the poll, Kruskai-Wallis used to test the invalid theory and the middle was utilized
to order the gathered information.
As indicated by Al Khalil and Al-Ghafly (1999), the most imperative tasks that are
deferred from the temporary worker's perspective are those that have a place with the proprietor
of the organization, which are not willing to collaborate with the contractual worker, which
makes contract administration, moderate proprietor of basic leadership, postpones
Implementation. the liquidation of temporary worker guarantees by the proprietor and the
inordinate administration in the administration of the proprietors. The reason for this
examination was to distinguish the fundamental driver of postponements out in the open
administration extends in Saudi Arabia, and particularly in the water supply and sanitation
extends that were completed in the Eastern Province and in the Province of Riyadh. KSA In this
investigation it was discovered that the three gatherings (customer, experts and contractual
workers) concur that the most vital reason is the absence of budgetary liquidity and the money
related challenges of the temporary worker, the troubles in getting licenses and the prerequisite
to pick the best part without prequalification.
Another investigation led by El-Razek et al. (2008) means to recognize the primary driver
of deferrals in development extends in Egypt. Its goal is to distinguish the reality of the
explanations behind the deferrals in the tasks from the point of view of the expert, the customer
and the temporary worker, and also to analyze the union of these gatherings as far as the
significance of these reasons. The most critical reason was the financing of the contractual
worker amid development. This was exhibited as an understanding between all gatherings to the
venture this is the most critical explanation behind the deferral in Egypt. The following three
were caused by the client as far as installments and configuration changes.

The principle purpose behind the deferral in lodging ventures in Jordan is the money
related troubles looked by the temporary worker, as on account of studies directed by Sweis et al.
(2008) The second most imperative purpose behind the deferral in this investigation is that there
are an excessive number of changes in the proprietor's request. Studies have additionally
demonstrated that atmosphere and changes in government directions are of minor significance.
The conclusion of the research had was that all the parties agreed on the importance of
the main delay causes. The owners rated cash flow problems during the construction as a very
important cause of delay and schedule of subcontractors, whereas the contractors rated more
importance to the contractual relationship. The A/E firms agreed on the reasons related to project
management and shop drawings as the most important causes of delay.
Strategies Recommended to Reduce Variations
If effective strategies are used to counter the effect of variation orders, the adverse
impacts of this issue can be effectively decreased. It was suggested by Sweis et al (2014) that
effective planning during the design stage can substantially reduce chances of variation in a
project. For the ultimate benefit of the owner and successful completion of the project, effective
control systems should be employed by projects to control the impacts of variations. It was
concluded by Gokulkarthi and Gowrishankar (2015) that if all parties are involved and in
knowledge of all preliminary work of the project, the chances of variation can be effectively
minimized to almost zero. If designers address their workload before scoring new projects,
through effective designing the plague of addition and omissions can also be reduced but cannot
be completely eliminated (Doloi et al 2012). In Hence, in simpler words the designers should
take a reasonable amount of workload which they can easily handle so that they can provide a
sound and effective design plan which does not require changes or alterations in the long run
which lead to variations. Recommendations to reduce variation orders were given by (Enshassi,
Arain and Al‐Raee 2010). Other researchers including Jawad et al (2009) also provided input to
these strategies which can effectively minimize the chances of variation orders occurring in
construction projects.
Several researchers have proposed different strategies to minimize variation orders, some
of them are mentioned below (Jawad et al 2009.; Doloi et al 2012; Islam et al 2015; Hanif et al
2016).
 Before work is started on site, adequate awareness and planninng is required by all
parties involved in the project;
 A concluding, sound and decisive design and contract should be provided by the
consultant;
 At the tender stage of the project all drawings should be completed;
 The pre-tender planning phase should be given adequate time to develop;
 A clear breif of the scope of work should be provided by clients to the contractor;
 Unpredictable and uncommon situations should also be prepared for by all parties;
 During the design stage closer coordination is required with the consultant;
 All parties involved should be proactive at all times with enhanced communications;
 A dedicated and experienced supervisor should overlook all operations on-site;

 Budget should be planned carefully to accommodate all plans and scope of work;
 Detail site investigation such as soil testing etc. should be done at an initial stage of the
project;
 Underground route cables should be confirmed with all local authorities;
 Land purchase c=should be completed before the offer of any sort of contract;
 No changes to the specification should be made once the tender has been awarded; and
 Knowledgeable and experienced architects and engineers employed for effective and
successful completion of the project with least amount of variations and effective levels
of productivity.
CHAPTER # 1: Research Methodology
Introduction
The different methods, tools and techniques used in conducting this study and collecting
data for it is identified by this methodology section, in the study. the organization of all of the
tasks of the study in a practical way is done by this methodology (Creswell and Clark 2007). A
plan of action for what techniques will be used for collecting information, how this information
will be applied to formulate effective rectifications and the different actions that can be taken to
solve the problems highlighted by the study are known as the methodology. Throughout the
duration of a research certain procedures and steps are followed.
For the identification of the method utilized to analyze the data and the type of data
required by the study will be easily done after a problem statement is formulated for the research
(Leahey 2007). The discrepancies and adverse impacts on the Omani construction industry due
to variation in orders is the main problem statement of this study. The identification of the causes
of these variations is vital in order to eliminate this plague from the construction industry of
Oman and especially in order to better the quality of construction projects in Oman.
Research Approach
All the factors of a research ranging from conclusions, values, validity to analysesare
greatly influenced by the techniques and methods used to collect the data for the study.
Understanding people's perceptions of the world and gaining insights is the main objective of the
qualitative approach, as viewed from a theoretical context. Both quantitative and qualitative
methods can be employed in the case of this research. The perception on variation orders, of the
stake holders in construction projects in Oman, influence the qualitative factor in this study.
Specific public building projects in Muscat, Oman were chosen for the desk studies. Project
participants' opinion, the exploration of the physical works and the observation of site documents
were all included in the desk study phase of the research.
Measurementsof the variables (such as: seldom and often, different and similar, low and
high) also make this study quantitative, as these measurements are key to understanding variation
orders and also for answering the formulated questions of the study.
For surveys, literature and desk study the triangulation technique was employed, in order
to improve the reliability and effectiveness of the findings of the study. The quantitative and
qualitative methods combined and strengthened with the literature review are the main function
of this technique.
Population and Sampling
A non-probability sampling technique was used due to the large extent of the study as
well as the nature of the data to be collected. The population of this study was selected by a
purposive sampling technique.
The projects which were G+3 and may or may not include a basement, which have
commenced since July 2017 and have been approximately 60 percent completed, were selected
in the area of Muscat, Oman, with the number of projects selected as the population for the study
totaling to thirty-two projects. The study will use data from all of the thirty-two projects.
Questionnaires were distributed to the other population of the study which involved high
officials in the Omani government, related to the construction sector such as project managers
and executives, clients and consumers and stakeholders. The amount of exposure to any of these
thirty-two projects was the criteria for selection of this population.

Data Collection
Several different techniques such as the desk study, interviews and questionnaire were
used for the collection of data for the research.
Desk Study
Monthly performance reports and project payments were used for the extraction of useful
data for the purposes of the problem statement presented by the study. Differences between
actual practices performed in construction projects and theories is made much easier to
differentiate through this. There was a worthy amount of data discovered for the study through
the method of desk study.
Interviews
Selected participants were interviewed by the investigator in a one-on-one and face-to-
face manner. Collection of data which may not be achievable through the process of a
questionnaire can be achieved through the much more intimate and personal technique of an
interview. Information on the impacts and causes of variation orders were obtained for the study
through interviews conducted with Senior Project Managers, Senior Executive Managers and
other executive personnel involved in the selected construction projects in the Muscat region of
Oman.
Questionnaire
An easy method used in the cases of gaining information from large number of
respondents is known as the questionnaire (Creswell and Clark 2007). The main purpose of the
questionnaire was to gain information on the current projects in the city of Muscat through
formulating questions based on the variables involved in all of these projects and then
distributing this questionnaire throughout all high executives involved in the construction
industry of Oman. At the end of each section there was also space provided for the respondents
to provide their own opinions on the matter.
There were four parts involved in the questionnaire:
Part A: Four questions were involved in this section which were related to the role of the
respondent in the organization and the category or department the respondent was part of while
working with the organization.
Part B: This section included opinion of the respondents towards the causes that influenced
variation orders in the public building projects of Muscat Oman. A total of thirty-eight responses
were required of the participants in this section of the questionnaire.
Part C: The purpose of this section was to get the opinion of the respondents on the adverse
impacts that variation orders may have on a construction project. A total of fifteen questions
were included in this section, for the participant to answer.
Part D: This section was for the participants to provide their opinions on some effective methods
which can be used to minimize the variation orders and what the participants think can be done
to effectively eliminate this plague. This final section also included a total of fifteen questions.
Qualitative Methodology
Understanding people's perceptions of 'the world' and gaining insights is the main
objective of the qualitative approach of data collection.Investigations involving the
understanding, opinions, views and beliefs of people are the main functions involved in the
qualitative approach (Östlund et al 2011). The perception on the impact of variation orders on
construction projects of Oman, of the major stakeholders in the construction industry of Oman is
a major objective the study hoped to accomplish through the qualitative method of research.
Specific projects were closely monitored and observed.
Qualitative Data
Instead of the outcome or the product, the process is the main focus in the qualitative
approach of research. Through interaction with influential site personnel the research aimed to
understand and identify the influences and elements of every case in every particular project,
under scrutiny by the research.
Inductive Examination of the Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is collected at a first basis and is then grouped rather than being collected
to argue or disapprove an already existing hypothesis and hence is always analyzed in an
inductive way (Creswell and Clark 2007). The opinion of stakeholders on the influential topics
of cost, time, consultants, contractors and project managers was achieved through open-ended
questions formulated in the questionnaire.
Necessity of Meaning in Qualitative Data
The qualitative approach has an influential factor which is vital to its existence, which is
known as meaning. Meaning is necessary for a qualitative research.The aim of the research
would be to understand the personal experience of all the participants in the different cases of the
construction projects of Muscat.

Quantitative Methodology
Amounts and measurements (smaller and larger, seldom and often, different and similar,
less and more) of the events that the researcher studies and the characteristics displayed by the
people, is the main focus of the qualitative technique of researching. The following is included in
Quantitative data:
 Variation order categorization
 Closed-ended questions; and
Quantitative methodology is a technique utilized to test theories by exploring the
correlation amongst the dependent and independent variables. A quantitative research, as
suggested by the name, is concerned with the data that could either be quantified or counted, and
typically utilises the information and data collected from experiments and surveys to study its
objective (Creswell and Clark 2007).
Quantitative approach in a research is generally taken to classify the factors which have
an influence on the outcome, or in order to test a explanation or a theory. The issue is typically
intensively covered by other scholars, and the objective is to establish researcher’s own theory
regarding a specific subject (Leahey 2007).
One of the advantages of quantitative research is its efficiency in information gathering
particularly when the participants or the respondents are in huge numbers. The researcher who is
carrying out the study can send questionnaires or data sheets in huge numbers to be filled by
different parties, in this case mostly consultants, contractors, clients, and project managers.
Moreover, the researcher does not need to keep an eye on the completion of the survey or
questionnaire because of the huge quantity of surveys or questionnaire sent out, the surveys or
the questionnaire which are filled and completed would generally be sufficient enough sample
(which precisely reflects the sample population) for the study purpose. Though, because of the
limitations of the data sheets or survey questions, this research approach doesn’t offer depth into
the given answers (Leahey 2007).
For instance, respondents in this research are asked to specify the causes and effects of
variation orders utilizing a scale which show important (5) to unimportant (1). The quantitative
data will be collected through the questionnaire which will able to calculate how many
respondents gave all the answers, but knowing how many established a cause unimportant
doesn’t provide the grounds for its importance.
Comparison of Both Methods
The following table summarises the disadvantages and advantages of the two above
mentioned research approaches.
Table: Quantiitave and Qualitative Method: Disadvantages and Advantages
The required data for this research should meet the requirements mentioned below:
 With the aim to establish causes of variation orders and its effects on the government
construction projects, it is going to be of huge importance to collect samples in big
numbers.
 The data required must be quantifiable so as to make statistical conclusions.
Reliability and Validity
Validity
The credibility or correctness of a conclusion, description, interpretation, explanation or
other type of version is referred to as validity (Leahey 2007). Concerning the procedures of
measurement, validity is known as the capability of a tool to measure what it is designed to
measure (Creswell and Clark 2007). Indeed, this research study is investigating a hypothesised
connection amongst dependent and independent variables. If this sort of a relationship is
established, inferences are made regarding the sample population and, possibly, a range of
conditions in which the established relationship might be applied further than those of thespecific
study carried out (Creswell and Clark 2007).
Thus, validity is hypothesized on the postulation that issue under study could be captured
or measured, and seeks out to verify the accuracy and truth of the captured and measured data,
and also the accuracy and truth of conclusions or findings established from the collected data
(Leahey 2007).
Reliability
Reliability is usually supposed on the view that there is some sort of standardization or
uniformity in the data that is being measured, and that the selected research method must
constantly capture the topic that is being explored (Leahey 2007). A research instrument is
verified as reliable only if it gives the similar results on recurring trials. A tool is considered as
reliable only if it is stable and consistent, and, therefore, accurate and predictable.
Tools Utilized for Data Collection and Communication
Phone discussions: making phone calls were critical ways for communication as they authorized
the analyst to influence arrangements to meet to the focused on interviewees.
Short Message Service: the upside of utilizing the SMS was that a specialist could send messages
to the respondents' cell phones in the event that their calls were unanswered or inaccessible.
Messages: this sort of correspondence turned out to be productive as the analyst could make
arrangement preceding meet interviewees.
Online Questionnaire: After designing the questionnaire on Google Docs, link was sent tot he
participants of research to complete the questionnaire. This method saved a lot of time and
travelling.
Research Design Summary
The required data is collected regarding a variety of construction projects, which is going
to be analysed after this chapter with the intention of satisfying the objectives of this research.
The methodology of this research is structured as follows:
 Previous literature was reviewed in order to find relationship amongst causes and effects
of variation orders.
 Several research methodologies were considered and a then a research approach was
selected, as motivated above.
 A sample size of 100 was collected with the applicable information to justify the research
questions.
 The characteristics and trends of the data will be identified.
 The result of the data analysed will be compared with the findings of the previous
literature.
 Deductions will be made from the information gathered.

References
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Harthi, M.Sc., 2010. Causes, Effects, Benefit, and Remedies of Change Orders on Public
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To Investigate the Effects of Variations in Orders in Government Constructions Projects in

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

CHAPTER # 1: Introduction ..........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Background of the Study ............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Problem Statement .....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Research Objectives ...................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Research Questions ....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Scope of the Study ......................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Significance of the Research ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Ethical Considerations ...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Structure of the Research ...........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Chapter # 2:Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 11

Introduction ................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Definition of Variation ...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Pervasiveness of Variation Orders on Construction Projects ...Error! Bookmark not defined.

Nature and Types of Variation Orders.......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Nature of Variation Orders ....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Types of Variation Orders ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Contractual Provisions Relative to Variation Orders................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Origin of Variation Orders ........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Origin Agents ..........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Design-Build (DB) ..................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) ..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Management of Variation Orders ..............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Causes and Effects of Variation Orders.................................................................................... 26

Recommended Strategies to Minimize Variation Orders ...........Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER # 1: Research Methodology ....................................................................................... 32

Research Approach ................................................................................................................... 32

Population and Sampling .......................................................................................................... 33

Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 34

Desk Study ............................................................................................................................. 34

Qualitative Data ..................................................................................................................... 36

Inductive Examination of the Qualitative Data ..................................................................... 36

Necessity of Meaning in Qualitative Data ............................................................................. 36

Comparison of Both Methods ................................................................................................... 38

Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................................. 39

Tools Utilized for Data Collection and Communication .......................................................... 40

Research Design Summary ....................................................................................................... 41

The construction contract is a legal agreement which can be altered or subjected to

(Sunday 2010).Countless construction projects are currently in progress in Muscat, Oman.

completion time of the project (Marzouk and El-Rasas 2014).

The key objectives of this research are:

 To find out variation orders’ causes;

 To discover variation orders’ impact; and

 To suggest strategies that can help in reducing variation orders.

mentioned below will identify the general purpose:

 What are the causes of variation orders?

 What are the effects of variation orders?

 What can be done to reduce variation orders?

Scope of the Study

for data for this study.

Significance of the Research

major issue in the construction industry.

will be enforced to ensure quality of the study:

 Calculations done through precise and accurate means.

 All concerned questions are relevant to the topic of the study.

 Completeness and accuracy of questionnaire, especially if open-ended.

Structure of the Research

significance of the research, ethical consideration, and structure of the research.

of variation orders on construction projects are discussed.

Chapter # 5: Recommendation and Conclusion – Recommendations and conclusions are going to